Requirements in Psychology of Learning

Submitted by:Pilar Jamie Licupa

Submitted to:Assoc. Prof. Orpha Vic Faraon

Theories

Questions

Effects

How learning takes place How to enhance learning

Classical Conditioning or Respondent

Conditioning (Pavlov)

Before conditioning, Conditioned Stimulus (CS) is paired with Unconditioned Stimulus (US) which results to a Response (R).

During conditioning, CS is paired by a US which results to a unconditioned response (UR).

After conditioning, every time a conditioned stimulus (CS) is shown, it gives Conditioned Response (CR).

A phenemonon that can be observed in classical conditioning is Acquisition. During acquisition the CS and US are paired in one of the ways described above. The extent of conditioning may be tracked by test trials in which the CS is presented alone and the CR is measured. A single CS-US pairing may suffice to yield a CR on test, but usually a number of pairings are necessary, during which the strength and/or frequency of the CR gradually increases. During acquisition, which is a phase of classical conditioning, there is a gradual increase in learning. It starts off slow, rapidly rises and then slowly fades away.

If you use classical conditioning to a dog, most likely that he anticipates the unconditioned stimulus (food) after doing a desired response. It goes to show that the effect of classical conditioning allows the individual to have a certain response in desire of a certain object. For example, a child can be conditioned to wait until the lunch bell rings.

Human Associative Learning (Ebbinghaus) Human memory relies mostly on

association and objects frequently seen together to become linked in our mind; when we try to retrieve information, one thing reminds us of another, which reminds us of yet another, and so on.

Measuring memory and relearning the

Immediate Serial Recall is the most commonly used method, in which a randomly ordered sequence of numbers is once read to the subject. Then, the subject is required to repeat them in the same order. Repeating the same sequence over and over improves

Constant recall of memory helps in learning information such as words, and patterns. Association can be used in connecting and contrasting groups.

series can help the psychologist investigate the basic phenomena of learning and retention.

or enhances the memory, thus enhances the subject’s learning. This can used in other topics such as science, language and social studies, where pattern and association is used for learning and recall.

Connection Theory (Thorndike)

In order for learning to take place, an activity has to have a stimulating situation which affects the individual, a response which the individual makes towards the situation, and a connection between the situation and the response. It is called S-O-R.

The theory are based on laws formulated by Thorndike. Law of Belongingness states that the strength of connection is increased if the paired stimulus is familiar, common and possess belongingness. Law of Effect states that a connection in between stimulus and response is made and is followed by a satisfier, connection is strengthened. Connection is strengthened if you repeat an activity (Law of Exercise). Law of Readiness states that if a person is prepared to respond or act, there is motivation for learning, thus learning is strengthened.

If someone wants a student to learn something, a reward must follow after. However, too many repetitions will be ineffective. It can produce fatigue, hunger, irritation and negative emotional effects.

Operant Conditioning (Skinner) Learning takes place in contexts, not in

the free range of any plausible situation.Most behavior is under stimulus control which developed when a particular response only occurs when an appropriate discriminative stimulus is present.Stimulus control, and its ability to foster stimulus discrimination and stimulus

Reinforcement is also used to enhance learning. Positive reinforcer strengthens the behavior; negative behavior whose withdrawal strengthens behavior. In both of these cases of reinforcement, the behavior or learning increases.

Using positive and negative reinforcement methods may alter a child’s behavior problems. The child will mentally make an association between good behavior with rewards, and bad behavior with punishment. The good behavior produces a wanted result; the bad behavior produces an unwanted

generalization, is effective even if the stimulus has no meaning to the respondent.

result.

There are negative effects of operant conditioning. For example, when using operant conditioning in the classroom, Skinner’s theory would allow little room for the students to work in groups, and to be actively engaged by asking questions. Operant conditioning is based on students starting at a low level of thinking, and by the process of reinforcement, eventually move up to a higher level.

Behaviorism (Watson)

According to Watson, training is the big influence in learning. Regardless of genetics, environmental stimulation in the form of conditioning could produce any behavior.

Conditioning can be used in eliminating fears. Steps of gradually “unconditioning” the individual to improve behavior are what behaviorism stands for. This also generalized to other stimuli as well. For example, eliminating phobia for rabbits can eliminate also the person’s phobia for fur, wool and feathers.

After conditioning, the individual overcome his/her fear and response becomes positive and pleasant. One can also teach fear via behaviorism, thus the individual’s response will be negative (showing fear).

Purposive or Sign Learning (Tolman) In the human situation, learning to

recognize the name of an object or a foreign word constitutes a simple instance of stimulus learning. Such an event is called sign learning, because, in knowing the sign for something, a person to some extent makes a response to the sign similar to that that he would make to the object itself.

Learning is enhanced: Because of reward

expectancy Through repetition of the

same event; the more trials have been done, the more learning is improved.

By the individual’s own without reward or food (latent learning)

In purposive learning, the individual learns more as trials are done repeatedly. Also, the individual learns with or without rewards, because we all learn naturally.

Learned behavior is directed towards an end goal (drive).

Insight Learning (Kohler)

Learning happens when one gauge more or less the immediate effects of initial acts based on past events or experiences. “Eureka” experience.

It is improved when there is an “insight”, when suddenly there is a stream of information from previous experiences. The more relevant experiences you have, the better you learn.

There is a sudden “Aha!” moment, and the information is pieced up together as a whole.

Gestalt Learning Theory (Koffka & Wertheimer)

Learning is based on the following principles:

Law of Proximity-close proximity to one another are seen as a unit

Law of Closure-closed areas form units

Any “gaps” or “disturbances” must be understood and dealt with.

The closer the learner (in proximity) to the problem, the more he is able to figure out how to solve it.

The learner figures out the solution to the problem when it is pieced together in one cluster. For example, in algebra, it is easier to first solve all in the closed parenthesis before solving them all: (4x+89x)-(8x+32x)

S-R Structure (Gagne & Bloom) Eight situations on how we learn

(Gagne): Signal learning – we learn to

make a general response to a signal

Stimulus/Response learning-individuals learn to make a more exact response to a more specific stimulus

Chaining-the learner is able to link 2 or more stimulus-response connections.

Structures improve learning. If the learner follows through the taxonomy or hierarchy, learning is enhanced.

The learner is structured to learn according to steps.

Verbal Association-learning through verbal chains

Discrimination-learning to differentiate similar stimuli

Concept learning-learning to make common responses to an entire class of stimuli

Rule learning-the learner applies a rule to a chain of two concepts.

Problem solving-combining principles into a higher order of principles; learning based on deep thought

According to Bloom, there are processes to achieve learning:

Knowledge Comprehension Application Analysis Synthesis Evaluation

Two-Factor Learning Theory (Mowrer)

The learner learns through active listening (even though the learner just sits).

Drive Reduction Theory (Hull) When the strength of drive is diminished,

responses are reinforced and learning occurs.

Through reduction of drives (outcome of an animal’s state of biological need), the learner improves because responses are expected. Drives such as hunger can be relieved, so that, for example, a student can concentrate on his work and thus

Learner can concentrate more to learning because of drive “reduction” or relieving of drive stimulus cravings.

learns more.

Contiguity Theory (Guthrie)

All learning is based on stimulus

response association, movements are small stimulus response combinations, and the combination of these movements make up an act.

There are methods to help the individual learn.

Introducing the stimulus that is weak, then gradually increasing its intensity

Performing an act until it is no longer enjoyable

The stimuli for the undesired response are presented along with the other stimuli for the undesired response are presented along with the other stimuli that produce a response incompatible with the desired response.

This theory represents that a bad habit can be broken by introducing small stimulus responses while gradually increasing it.

Social Learning Theory (Miller and Dollard)

Although we learn by our own trial and error, we also perform much learning by watching other people. It is, after all, safer to let others make the mistakes. When the behavior makes sense, we go through it in our minds then try it for ourselves. When we succeed, we become more confident (self-efficacy). As we interact with our environment, it becomes a two-way process: as we change it, it changes us (reciprocal determinism). Learning is thus a combination of watching, thinking and trying.

Learning is enhanced through modeling—one learns to discriminate between good and bad models.

One person can affect someone socially. With the social learning theory, the individual learns behavior through social means. Society and social groups are influencing an individual or other social groups as well.

Observational Learning (Bandura) Learning happens when the learner Learning is enhanced through Modelling Effects –

observes the behavior and imitates them.

reinforcement (motives). acquisition of a new response as a result of seeing a model emit that response.

Inhibitory effects – suppression of deviant behavior as a result of seeing a model being punished for engaging in such behavior

Disinhibitory effects – engaging in a deviant behavior as a result of seeing a model either punished ore rewarded for the same behavior

Eliciting effects – emission of responses do not precisely match those of the model, but are related to the model’s response and belong to the same class of behavior.