theme kinship, caste and class theme two three...

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In the previous chapter we saw that there were severalchanges in economic and political life between c. 600BCE and 600 CE. Some of these changes influenced societiesas well. For instance, the extension of agriculture intoforested areas transformed the lives of forest dwellers;craft specialists often emerged as distinct social groups;the unequal distribution of wealth sharpened socialdifferences.

Historians often use textualtraditions to understand theseprocesses. Some texts lay downnorms of social behaviour; othersdescribe and occasionally commenton a wide range of social situationsand practices. We can also catch aglimpse of some social actors frominscriptions. As we will see, eachtext (and inscription) was writtenfrom the perspective of specificsocial categories. So we need tokeep in mind who composed whatand for whom. We also need toconsider the language used, andthe ways in which the textcirculated. Used carefully, texts allow us to piece togetherattitudes and practices that shaped social histories.

In focusing on the Mahabharata, a colossal epic runningin its present form into over 100,000 verses with depictionsof a wide range of social categories and situations, we drawon one of the richest texts of the subcontinent. It wascomposed over a period of about 1,000 years (c. 500 BCE

onwards), and some of the stories it contains may havebeen in circulation even earlier. The central story is abouttwo sets of warring cousins. The text also contains sectionslaying down norms of behaviour for various social groups.Occasionally (though not always), the principal charactersseem to follow these norms. What does conformity withnorms and deviations from them signify?

THEME TWOKinship, Caste and Class

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THEME

THREE

Fig. 3.1A terracotta sculpturedepicting a scene fromthe Mahabharata(West Bengal),c. seventeenth century

THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY54

1. The Critical Edition of theMahabharata

One of the most ambitious projects of scholarshipbegan in 1919, under the leadership of a noted IndianSanskritist, V.S. Sukthankar. A team comprisingdozens of scholars initiated the task of preparing acritical edition of the Mahabharata. What exactly didthis involve? Initially, it meant collecting Sanskritmanuscripts of the text, written in a variety ofscripts, from different parts of the country.

The team worked out a method of comparingverses from each manuscript. Ultimately, theyselected the verses that appeared common to mostversions and published these in several volumes,running into over 13,000 pages. The project took 47years to complete. Two things became apparent: therewere several common elements in the Sanskritversions of the story, evident in manuscripts foundall over the subcontinent, from Kashmir and Nepalin the north to Kerala and Tamil Nadu in the south.Also evident were enormous regional variations inthe ways in which the text had been transmittedover the centuries. These variations weredocumented in footnotes and appendices to the maintext. Taken together, more than half the 13,000 pagesare devoted to these variations.

In a sense, these variations are reflective of thecomplex processes that shaped early (and later)social histories – through dialogues betweendominant traditions and resilient local ideas andpractices. These dialogues are characterised bymoments of conflict as well as consensus.

Our understanding of these processes is derivedprimarily from texts written in Sanskrit by and forBrahmanas. When issues of social history wereexplored for the first time by historians in thenineteenth and twentieth centuries, they tended totake these texts at face value – believing thateverything that was laid down in these texts wasactually practised. Subsequently, scholars beganstudying other traditions, from works in Pali, Prakritand Tamil. These studies indicated that the ideascontained in normative Sanskrit texts were on thewhole recognised as authoritative: they were alsoquestioned and occasionally even rejected. It isimportant to keep this in mind as we examine howhistorians reconstruct social histories.

Fig. 3.2A section of a page from the CriticalEditionThe section printed in large boldletters is part of the main text.The smaller print lists variationsin different manuscripts, whichwere carefully catalogued.

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2. Kinship and MarriageMany Rules and Varied Practices

2.1 Finding out about familiesWe often take family life for granted. However, youmay have noticed that not all families are identical:they vary in terms of numbers of members, theirrelationship with one another as well as the kindsof activities they share. Often people belonging tothe same family share food and other resources,and live, work and perform rituals together. Familiesare usually parts of larger networks of peopledefined as relatives, or to use a more technical term,kinfolk. While familial ties are often regarded as“natural” and based on blood, they are defined inmany different ways. For instance, some societiesregard cousins as being blood relations, whereasothers do not.

For early societies, historians can retrieveinformation about elite families fairly easily; it is,however, far more difficult to reconstruct the familialrelationships of ordinary people. Historians alsoinvestigate and analyse attitudes towards family andkinship. These are important, because they providean insight into people’s thinking; it is likely thatsome of these ideas would have shaped their actions,just as actions may have led to changes in attitudes.

2.2 The ideal of patrilinyCan we identify points when kinship relationschanged? At one level, the Mahabharata is a storyabout this. It describes a feud over land and powerbetween two groups of cousins, the Kauravas andthe Pandavas, who belonged to a single ruling family,that of the Kurus, a lineage dominating one of thejanapadas (Chapter 2, Map 1). Ultimately, theconflict ended in a battle, in which the Pandavasemerged victorious. After that, patrilineal successionwas proclaimed. While patriliny had existed prior tothe composition of the epic, the central story of theMahabharata reinforced the idea that it was valuable.Under patriliny, sons could claim the resources(including the throne in the case of kings) of theirfathers when the latter died.

Most ruling dynasties (c. sixth century BCE onwards)claimed to follow this system, although there werevariations in practice: sometimes there were no sons,

Terms for familyand kin

Sanskrit texts use the term kulato designate families and jnatifor the larger network of kinfolk.The term vamsha is used forlineage.

Patriliny means tracing descentfrom father to son, grandsonand so on.Matriliny is the term used whendescent is traced through themother.

KINSHIP, CASTE AND CLASS


in some situations brothers succeeded one another,sometimes other kinsmen claimed the throne, and,in very exceptional circumstances, women such asPrabhavati Gupta (Chapter 2) exercised power.

The concern with patriliny was not unique to rulingfamilies. It is evident in mantras in ritual texts suchas the Rigveda. It is possible that these attitudeswere shared by wealthy men and those who claimedhigh status, including Brahmanas.

Producing “fine sons”

Here is an excerpt of a mantra from the Rigveda, which was probably insertedin the text c. 1000 BCE, to be chanted by the priest while conducting the marriageritual. It is used in many Hindu weddings even today:

I free her from here, but not from there. I have bound her firmly there, sothat through the grace of Indra she will have fine sons and be fortunate inher husband’s love.

Indra was one of the principal deities, a god of valour, warfare and rain.“Here” and “there” refer to the father’s and husband’s house respectively.

In the context of the mantra, discuss the implications of marriagefrom the point of view of the bride and groom. Are the implicationsidentical, or are there differences?

Source 1

Sketch map not to scale

KURU

Indraprastha

SHURASENA

MathuraVirata

MATSYA

Ujjayini

AVANTI

Hastinapura

VATSA

Kaushambi

KOSHALA

Shravasti

Ayodhya

SarnathVaranasi

Bodh Gaya

Kushinagara

MALLA

SAKYA

Lumbini

Kapilavastu

Pava

Vaishali

Ganga

Yamuna

Map 1The Kuru Panchala region and neighbouring areas

Pataliputra

57

Why kinfolk quarrelled

This is an excerpt from the Adi Parvan (literally, the firstsection) of the Sanskrit Mahabharata, describing whyconflicts arose amongst the Kauravas and Pandavas:

The Kauravas were the … sons of Dhritarashtra, andthe Pandavas … were their cousins. Since Dhritarashtrawas blind, his younger brother Pandu ascended thethrone of Hastinapura (see Map 1) … However, afterthe premature death of Pandu, Dhritarashtra becameking, as the royal princes were still very young. As theprinces grew up together, the citizens of Hastinapurabegan to express their preference for the Pandavas,for they were more capable and virtuous than theKauravas. This made Duryodhana, the eldest of theKauravas, jealous. He approached his father and said,“You yourself did not receive the throne, although itfell to you, because of your defect. If the Pandavareceives the patrimony from Pandu, his son will surelyinherit it in turn, and so will his son, and his. Weourselves with our sons shall be excluded from the royalsuccession and become of slight regard in the eyes ofthe world, lord of the earth!”

Passages such as these may not have been literally true,but they give us an idea about what those who wrote thetext thought. Sometimes, as in this case, they containconflicting ideas.

2.3 Rules of marriageWhile sons were important for the continuity of thepatrilineage, daughters were viewed ratherdifferently within this framework. They had no claimsto the resources of the household. At the same time,marrying them into families outside the kin wasconsidered desirable. This system, called exogamy(literally, marrying outside), meant that the lives ofyoung girls and women belonging to families thatclaimed high status were often carefully regulatedto ensure that they were married at the “right” timeand to the “right” person. This gave rise to the beliefthat kanyadana or the gift of a daughter in marriagewas an important religious duty of the father.

With the emergence of new towns (Chapter 2),social life became more complex. People from near

Types of marriagesEndogamy refers to marriagewithin a unit – this could be akin group, caste, or a groupliving in the same locality.

Exogamy refers to marriageoutside the unit.

Polygyny is the practice ofa man having several wives.

Polyandry is the practice ofa woman having severalhusbands.

Source 2


Read the passage and listthe different criteria suggestedfor becoming king. Of these,how important was birth in aparticular family? Which ofthese criteria seem justified?Are there any that strike youas unjust?


Eight forms of marriage

Here are the first, fourth, fifthand sixth forms of marriagefrom the Manusmriti:

First: The gift of a daughter,after dressing her in costlyclothes and honouring herwith presents of jewels, toa man learned in theVeda whom the fatherhimself invites.

Fourth: The gift of adaughter by the father afterhe has addressed the couplewith the text, “May both ofyou perform your dutiestogether”, and has shownhonour to the bridegroom.

Fifth: When the bridegroomreceives a maiden, after havinggiven as much wealth as hecan afford to the kinsmen andto the bride herself, accordingto his own will.

Sixth: The voluntary unionof a maiden and her lover… which springs fromdesire …

and far met to buy and sell their products and shareideas in the urban milieu. This may have led to aquestioning of earlier beliefs and practices (see alsoChapter 4). Faced with this challenge, theBrahmanas responded by laying down codes of socialbehaviour in great detail. These were meant to befollowed by Brahmanas in particular and the rest ofsociety in general. From c. 500 BCE, these norms werecompiled in Sanskrit texts known as theDharmasutras and Dharmashastras. The mostimportant of such works, the Manusmriti, wascompiled between c. 200 BCE and 200 CE.

While the Brahmana authors of these textsclaimed that their point of view had universal validityand that what they prescribed had to be obeyed byeverybody, it is likely that real social relations weremore complicated. Besides, given the regionaldiversity within the subcontinent and the difficultiesof communication, the influence of Brahmanas wasby no means all-pervasive.

What is interesting is that the Dharmasutras andDharmashastras recognised as many as eight formsof marriage. Of these, the first four were consideredas “good” while the remaining were condemned. It ispossible that these were practised by those who didnot accept Brahmanical norms.

2.4 The gotra of womenOne Brahmanical practice, evident from c. 1000 BCE

onwards, was to classify people (especiallyBrahmanas) in terms of gotras. Each gotra was namedafter a Vedic seer, and all those who belonged to thesame gotra were regarded as his descendants. Tworules about gotra were particularly important:women were expected to give up their father’s gotraand adopt that of their husband on marriage andmembers of the same gotra could not marry.

One way to find out whether this was commonlyfollowed is to consider the names of men and women,which were sometimes derived from gotra names.These names are available for powerful rulinglineages such as the Satavahanas who ruled overparts of western India and the Deccan (c. secondcentury BCE-second century CE). Several of theirinscriptions have been recovered, which allowhistorians to trace family ties, including marriages.

Source 3

For each of the forms,discuss whether thedecision about themarriage was taken by(a) the bride,(b) the bridegroom,(c) the father of the bride,(d) the father of thebridegroom,(e) any other person.

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Names of Satavahana kingsfrom inscriptions

These are the names of several generations ofSatavahana rulers, recovered from inscriptions. Notethe uniform title raja. Also note the following word,which ends with the term puta, a Prakrit word meaning“son”. The term Gotami-puta means “son of Gotami”.Names like Gotami and Vasithi are feminine forms ofGotama and Vasistha, Vedic seers after whom gotraswere named.

raja Gotami-puta Siri-Satakani

raja Vasithi-puta (sami-) Siri-Pulumayi

raja Gotami-puta sami-Siri-Yana-Satakani

raja Madhari-puta svami-Sakasena

raja Vasathi-puta Chatarapana-Satakani

raja Hariti-puta Vinhukada Chutukulanamda-Satakamni

raja Gotami-puta Siri-Vijaya- Satakani

Fig. 3.3A Satavahana ruler and his wifeThis is one of the rare sculpturaldepictions of a ruler from the wallof a cave donated to Buddhistmonks. This sculpture dates toc. second century BCE.

Metronymics in theUpanishads

The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad,one of the earliest Upanishads(see also Chapter 4), contains alist of successive generations ofteachers and students, many ofwhom were designated bymetronymics.

Source 4

How many Gotami-putas andhow many Vasithi (alternativespelling Vasathi)-putas are there?



Some of the Satavahana rulers were polygynous(that is, had more than one wife). An examination ofthe names of women who married Satavahana rulersindicates that many of them had names derived fromgotras such as Gotama and Vasistha, their father’sgotras. They evidently retained these names insteadof adopting names derived from their husband’s gotraname as they were required to do according to theBrahmanical rules. What is also apparent is thatsome of these women belonged to the same gotra. Asis obvious, this ran counter to the ideal of exogamyrecommended in the Brahmanical texts. In fact, itexemplified an alternative practice, that of endogamyor marriage within the kin group, which was (andis) prevalent amongst several communities in southIndia. Such marriages amongst kinfolk (such ascousins) ensured a close-knit community.

It is likely that there were variations in other partsof the subcontinent as well, but as yet it has notbeen possible to reconstruct specific details.

2.5 Were mothers important?We have seen that Satavahana rulers were identifiedthrough metronymics (names derived from that ofthe mother). Although this may suggest that motherswere important, we need to be cautious before wearrive at any conclusion. In the case of theSatavahanas we know that succession to the thronewas generally patrilineal.

Discuss...How are children namedtoday? Are these ways ofnaming similar to or differentfrom those described in thissection?

Does this passage giveyou an idea about theway in which motherswere viewed in earlyIndian societies?

Fig. 3.4A battle sceneThis is amongst the earliest sculptural depictions of ascene from the Mahabharata, a terracotta sculpture fromthe walls of a temple in Ahichchhatra (Uttar Pradesh),c. fifth century CE.

A mother’s advice

The Mahabharata describes how,when war between the Kauravasand the Pandavas becamealmost inevitable, Gandharimade one last appeal to hereldest son Duryodhana:

By making peace you honouryour father and me, as wellas your well-wishers … it isthe wise man in control of hissenses who guards hiskingdom. Greed and angerdrag a man away from hisprofits; by defeating thesetwo enemies a king conquersthe earth … You will happilyenjoy the earth, my son,along with the wise andheroic Pandavas … There isno good in a war, no law(dharma) and profit (artha),let alone happiness; nor isthere (necessarily) victory inthe end – don’t set your mindon war …

Duryodhana did not listen tothis advice and fought and lostthe war.

Source 5

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Why do you think theBrahmanas quoted thisverse frequently?

3. Social Differences:Within and Beyond the Frameworkof Caste

You are probably familiar with the term caste, whichrefers to a set of hierarchically ordered socialcategories. The ideal order was laid down in theDharmasutras and Dharmashastras. Brahmanasclaimed that this order, in which they were rankedfirst, was divinely ordained, while placing groupsclassified as Shudras and “untouchables” at the verybottom of the social order. Positions within the orderwere supposedly determined by birth.

3.1 The “right” occupationThe Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras alsocontained rules about the ideal “occupations” of thefour categories or varnas. Brahmanas were supposedto study and teach the Vedas, perform sacrifices andget sacrifices performed, and give and receive gifts.Kshatriyas were to engage in warfare, protect peopleand administer justice, study the Vedas, getsacrifices performed, and make gifts. The last three“occupations” were also assigned to the Vaishyas,who were in addition expected to engage inagriculture, pastoralism and trade. Shudras wereassigned only one occupation – that of serving thethree “higher” varnas.

The Brahmanas evolved two or three strategiesfor enforcing these norms. One, as we have just seen,was to assert that the varna order was of divineorigin. Second, they advised kings to ensure thatthese norms were followed within their kingdoms.And third, they attempted to persuade people thattheir status was determined by birth. However, thiswas not always easy. So prescriptions were oftenreinforced by stories told in the Mahabharata andother texts.

A divine order?

To justi fy their claims,Brahmanas often cited a versefrom a hymn in the Rigvedaknown as the Purusha sukta,describing the sacrif ice ofPurusha, the primeval man. Allthe elements of the universe,including the four socialcategories, were supposed tohave emanated from his body:

The Brahmana was hismouth, of his arms was madethe Kshatriya.

His thighs became theVaishya, of his feet theShudra was born.

Source 6



What message do you thinkthis story was meant to conveyto the nishadas?What message would it conveyto Kshatriyas?Do you think that Drona, as aBrahmana, was actingaccording to the Dharmasutraswhen he was teaching archery?

Source 7

“Proper” social roles

Here is a story from the Adi Parvan of the Mahabharata:

Once Drona, a Brahmana who taught archery to theKuru princes, was approached by Ekalavya, a forest-dwelling nishada (a hunting community). When Drona,who knew the dharma, refused to have him as his pupil,Ekalavya returned to the forest, prepared an image ofDrona out of clay, and treating it as his teacher, beganto practise on his own. In due course, he acquiredgreat skill in archery. One day, the Kuru princes wenthunting and their dog, wandering in the woods, cameupon Ekalavya. When the dog smelt the dark nishadawrapped in black deer skin, his body caked with dirt,it began to bark. Annoyed, Ekalavya shot seven arrowsinto its mouth. When the dog returned to the Pandavas,they were amazed at this superb display of archery.They tracked down Ekalavya, who introduced himselfas a pupil of Drona.

Drona had once told his favourite student Arjuna,that he would be unrivalled amongst his pupils. Arjunanow reminded Drona about this. Drona approachedEkalavya, who immediately acknowledged andhonoured him as his teacher. When Drona demandedhis right thumb as his fee, Ekalavya unhesitatingly cutit off and offered it. But thereafter, when he shot withhis remaining fingers, he was no longer as fast as hehad been before. Thus, Drona kept his word: no onewas better than Arjuna.

3.2 Non-Kshatriya kingsAccording to the Shastras, only Kshatriyas could bekings. However, several important ruling lineagesprobably had different origins. The social backgroundof the Mauryas, who ruled over a large empire, hasbeen hotly debated. While later Buddhist textssuggested they were Kshatriyas, Brahmanical textsdescribed them as being of “low” origin. The Shungasand Kanvas, the immediate successors of theMauryas, were Brahmanas. In fact, political powerwas effectively open to anyone who could mustersupport and resources, and rarely depended on birthas a Kshatriya.

Other rulers, such as the Shakas who camefrom Central Asia, were regarded as mlechchhas,

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barbarians or outsiders by the Brahmanas. However,one of the earliest inscriptions in Sanskrit describeshow Rudradaman, the best-known Shaka ruler(c. second century CE), rebuilt Sudarshana lake(Chapter 2). This suggests that powerful mlechchhaswere familiar with Sanskritic traditions.

It is also interesting that the best-known ruler ofthe Satavahana dynasty, Gotami-puta Siri-Satakani,claimed to be both a unique Brahmana (ekabamhana) and a destroyer of the pride of Kshatriyas.He also claimed to have ensured that there was nointermarriage amongst members of the four varnas.At the same time, he entered into a marriage alliancewith the kin of Rudradaman.

As you can see from this example, integrationwithin the framework of caste was often acomplicated process. The Satavahanas claimed tobe Brahmanas, whereas according to theBrahmanas, kings ought to have been Kshatriyas.They claimed to uphold the fourfold varna order, butentered into marriage alliances with people who weresupposed to be excluded from the system. And, aswe have seen, they practised endogamy instead ofthe exogamous system recommended in theBrahmanical texts.

3.3 Jatis and social mobilityThese complexities are reflected in another term usedin texts to refer to social categories – jati. InBrahmanical theory, jati, like varna, was based onbirth. However, while the number of varnas was fixedat four, there was no restriction on the number ofjatis. In fact, whenever Brahmanical authoritiesencountered new groups – for instance, people livingin forests such as the nishadas – or wanted to assigna name to occupational categories such as thegoldsmith or suvarnakara, which did not easily fitinto the fourfold varna system, they classified themas a jati. Jatis which shared a common occupationor profession were sometimes organised into shrenisor guilds.

We seldom come across documents that recordthe histories of these groups. But there areexceptions. One interesting stone inscription (c. fifthcentury CE), found in Mandasor (Madhya Pradesh),records the history of a guild of silk weavers whooriginally lived in Lata (Gujarat), from where they

Fig. 3.5Silver coin depicting a Shaka ruler,c. fourth century CE



migrated to Mandasor, then known as Dashapura.It states that they undertook the difficult journeyalong with their children and kinfolk, as they hadheard about the greatness of the local king, andwanted to settle in his kingdom.

The inscription provides a fascinating glimpse ofcomplex social processes and provides insights intothe nature of guilds or shrenis. Although membershipwas based on a shared craft specialisation, somemembers adopted other occupations. It also indicatesthat the members shared more than a commonprofession – they collectively decided to invest theirwealth, earned through their craft, to construct asplendid temple in honour of the sun god.

What the silk weavers did

Here is an excerpt from the inscription, which isin Sanskrit:

Some are intensely attached to music (so) pleasing tothe ear; others, being proud of (the authorship of) ahundred excellent biographies, are conversant withwonderful tales; (others), filled with humility, areabsorbed in excellent religious discourses; … some excelin their own religious rites; likewise by others, who wereself-possessed, the science of (Vedic) astronomy wasmastered; and others, valorous in battle, even todayforcibly cause harm to the enemies.

3.4 Beyond the four varnas: IntegrationGiven the diversity of the subcontinent, there were,and always have been, populations whose socialpractices were not influenced by Brahmanical ideas.When they figure in Sanskrit texts, they are oftendescribed as odd, uncivilised, or even animal-like.In some instances, these included forest-dwellers –for whom hunting and gathering remained animportant means of subsistence. Categories suchas the nishada, to which Ekalavya is supposed tohave belonged, are examples of this.

Others who were viewed with suspicion includedpopulations such as nomadic pastoralists, who couldnot be easily accommodated within the frameworkof settled agriculturists. Sometimes those who spokenon-Sanskritic languages were labelled as

The case of themerchants

Sanskrit texts and inscriptionsused the term vanik to designatemerchants. While trade wasdefined as an occupation forVaishyas in the Shastras, amore complex situation isevident in plays such as theMrichchhakatika written byShudraka (c. fourth century CE),Here, the hero Charudatta wasdescribed as both a Brahmanaand a sarthavaha or merchantAnd a fifth-century inscriptiondescribes two brothers whomade a donation for theconstruction of a temple askshatriya-vaniks.

Source 8

Do you think the silkweavers were following theoccupation laid down for themin the Shastras?

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mlechchhas and looked down upon. There wasnonetheless also a sharing of ideas and beliefsbetween these people. The nature of relations isevident in some stories in the Mahabharata.

A tiger-like husband

This is a summary of a story from the Adi Parvan of theMahabharata:

The Pandavas had fled into the forest. They were tiredand fell asleep; only Bhima, the second Pandava,renowned for his prowess, was keeping watch. Aman-eating rakshasa caught the scent of the Pandavasand sent his sister Hidimba to capture them. She fell inlove with Bhima, transformed herself into a lovelymaiden and proposed to him. He refused. Meanwhile,the rakshasa arrived and challenged Bhima to awrestling match. Bhima accepted the challenge andkilled him. The others woke up hearing the noise.Hidimba introduced herself, and declared her love forBhima. She told Kunti: “I have forsaken my friends,my dharma and my kin; and good lady, chosen yourtiger-like son for my man … whether you think me afool, or your devoted servant, let me join you, greatlady, with your son as my husband.”

Ultimately, Yudhisthira agreed to the marriage oncondition that they would spend the day together butthat Bhima would return every night. The coupleroamed all over the world during the day. In due courseHidimba gave birth to a rakshasa boy namedGhatotkacha. Then the mother and son left thePandavas. Ghatotkacha promised to return to thePandavas whenever they needed him.

Some historians suggest that the term rakshasa is usedto describe people whose practices differed from thoselaid down in Brahmanical texts.

3.5 Beyond the four varnasSubordination and conflict

While the Brahmanas considered some people asbeing outside the system, they also developed asharper social divide by classifying certain socialcategories as “untouchable”. This rested on a notionthat certain activities, especially those connectedwith the performance of rituals, were sacred and by

Source 9

Identify the practicesdescribed in this passagewhich seem non-Brahmanical.



extension “pure”. Those who considered themselvespure avoided taking food from those they designatedas “untouchable”. In sharp contrast to the purityaspect, some activities were regarded asparticularly “polluting”. These included handlingcorpses and dead animals. Those who performedsuch tasks, designated as chandalas, were placedat the very bottom of the hierarchy. Their touchand, in some cases, even seeing them was regardedas “polluting” by those who claimed to be at the topof the social order.

The Manusmriti laid down the “duties” of thechandalas. They had to live outside the village, usediscarded utensils, and wear clothes of the dead andornaments of iron. They could not walk about in

villages and cities at night.They had to dispose of thebodies of those who had norelatives and serve asexecutioners. Much later, theChinese Buddhist monk FaXian (c. fifth century CE) wrotethat “untouchables” had tosound a clapper in the streetsso that people could avoid seeingthem. Another Chinese pilgrim,Xuan Zang (c. seventh century),observed that executioners andscavengers were forced to liveoutside the city.

By examining non-Brahmanicaltexts which depict the lives ofchandalas, historians have tried tofind out whether chandalasaccepted the life of degradationprescribed in the Shastras.Sometimes, these depictionscorrespond with those inthe Brahmanical texts. Butoccasionally, there are hints ofdifferent social realities.

Fig. 3.6Depiction of a mendicant seekingalms, stone sculpture (Gandhara)c. third century, CE

67

Discuss...Which of the sourcesmentioned in this sectionsuggest that people followedthe occupations laid down byBrahmanas? Which sourcessuggest other possibilities?

The Bodhisatta as a chandala

Did chandalas resist the attempts to push them to thebottom of the social order? Read this story, which is partof the Matanga Jataka, a Pali text, where the Bodhisatta(the Buddha in a previous birth) is identified as a chandala.

Once, the Bodhisatta was born outside the city ofBanaras as a chandala’s son and named Matanga. Oneday, when he had gone to the city on some work, heencountered Dittha Mangalika, the daughter of amerchant. When she saw him, she exclaimed “I haveseen something inauspicious” and washed her eyes.The angry hangers-on then beat him up. In protest, hewent and lay down at the door of her father’s house.On the seventh day they brought out the girl and gaveher to him. She carried the starving Matanga back tothe chandala settlement. Once he returned home, hedecided to renounce the world. After attaining spiritualpowers, he returned to Banaras and married her. Ason named Mandavya Kumara was born to them. Helearnt the three Vedas as he grew up and began toprovide food to 16,000 Brahmanas every day.

One day, Matanga, dressed in rags, with a clay almsbowl in his hand, arrived at his son’s doorstep andbegged for food. Mandavya replied that he looked likean outcaste and was unworthy of alms; the food wasmeant for the Brahmanas. Matanga said: “Those whoare proud of their birth and are ignorant do not deservegifts. On the contrary, those who are free from vicesare worthy of offerings.” Mandavya lost his temper andasked his servants to throw the man out. Matanga rosein the air and disappeared. When Dittha Mangalikalearnt about the incident, she followed Matanga andbegged his forgiveness. He asked her to take a bit ofthe leftover from his bowl and give it to Mandavyaand the Brahmanas …

Source 10

Identify elements in the story that suggest thatit was written from the perspective of Matanga.



4. Beyond BirthResources and Status

If you recall the economic relations discussedin Chapter 2, you will realise that slaves,landless agricultural labourers, hunters, fisherfolk,pastoralists, peasants, village headmen, craftspersons,merchants and kings emerged as social actors indifferent parts of the subcontinent. Their socialpositions were often shaped by their access toeconomic resources. Here we will examine thesocial implications of access to resources in certainspecific situations.

4.1 Gendered access to propertyConsider first a critical episode in the Mahabharata.During the course of the long-drawn rivalry betweenthe Kauravas and the Pandavas, Duryodhana invitedYudhisthira to a game of dice. The latter, who wasdeceived by his rival, staked his gold, elephants,chariots, slaves, army, treasury, kingdom, theproperty of his subjects, his brothers and finallyhimself and lost all. Then he staked their commonwife Draupadi and lost her too.

Issues of ownership, foregrounded in stories suchas this one (Source 11), also figure in theDharmasutras and Dharmashastras. According tothe Manusmriti, the paternal estate was to be dividedequally amongst sons after the death of the parents,with a special share for the eldest. Women could notclaim a share of these resources.

However, women were allowed to retain the giftsthey received on the occasion of their marriage asstridhana (literally, a woman’s wealth). This couldbe inherited by their children, without the husbandhaving any claim on it. At the same time, theManusmriti warned women against hoarding familyproperty, or even their own valuables, without thehusband’s permission.

You have read about wealthy women such as theVakataka queen Prabhavati Gupta (Chapter 2).However, cumulative evidence – both epigraphic andtextual – suggests that while upper-class womenmay have had access to resources, land, cattle andmoney were generally controlled by men. In otherwords, social differences between men and womenwere sharpened because of the differences in accessto resources.

Draupadi’s question

Draupadi is supposed to haveasked Yudhisthira whether hehad lost himself before stakingher. Two contrary opinions wereexpressed in response to thisquestion.

One, that even if Yudhisthirahad lost himself earlier, his wiferemained under his control, sohe could stake her.

Two, that an unfree man (asYudhisthira was when he hadlost himself) could not stakeanother person.

The matter remained unresolved;ultimately, Dhritarashtra restored tothe Pandavas and Draupadi theirpersonal freedom.

Source 11

Do you think that thisepisode suggests thatwives could be treated asthe property of theirhusbands?

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How could men and womenacquire wealth?

For men, the Manusmriti declares, there are seven meansof acquiring wealth: inheritance, finding, purchase,conquest, investment, work, and acceptance of gifts fromgood people.

For women, there are six means of acquiring wealth:what was given in front of the fire (marriage) or the bridalprocession, or as a token of affection, and what she gotfrom her brother, mother or father. She could also acquirewealth through any subsequent gift and whatever her“affectionate” husband might give her.

4.2 Varna and access to propertyAccording to the Brahmanical texts, anothercriterion (apart from gender) for regulating accessto wealth was varna. As we saw earlier, the only“occupation” prescribed for Shudras was servitude,while a variety of occupations were listed for men ofthe first three varnas. If these provisions wereactually implemented, the wealthiest men wouldhave been the Brahmanas and the Kshatriyas. Thatthis corresponded to some extent with social realitiesis evident from descriptions of priests and kings inother textual traditions. Kings are almost invariablydepicted as wealthy; priests are also generally shownto be rich, though there are occasional depictions ofthe poor Brahmana.

At another level, even as the Brahmanical view ofsociety was codified in the Dharmasutras andDharmashastras, other traditions developedcritiques of the varna order. Some of the best-knownof these were developed within early Buddhism(c. sixth century BCE onwards; see also Chapter 4).The Buddhists recognised that there were differencesin society, but did not regard these as natural orinflexible. They also rejected the idea of claims tostatus on the basis of birth.

Source 12


Compare and contrast theways in which men andwomen could acquire wealth.


The wealthy Shudra

This story, based on a Buddhist text in Pali known as theMajjhima Nikaya, is part of a dialogue between a kingnamed Avantiputta and a disciple of the Buddha namedKachchana. While it may not be literally true, it revealsBuddhist attitudes towards varna.

Avantiputta asked Kachchana what he thought aboutBrahmanas who held that they were the best casteand that all other castes were low; that Brahmanaswere a fair caste while all other castes were dark; thatonly Brahmanas were pure, not non-Brahmanas; thatBrahmanas were sons of Brahma, born of his mouth,born of Brahma, formed by Brahma, heirs to Brahma.

Kachchana replied: “What if a Shudra were wealthy… would another Shudra …or a Kshatriya or aBrahmana or a Vaishya … speak politely to him?”

Avantiputta replied that if a Shudra had wealth orcorn or gold or silver, he could have as his obedientservant another Shudra to get up earlier than he, togo to rest later, to carry out his orders, to speak politely;or he could even have a Kshatriya or a Brahmana or aVaishya as his obedient servant.

Kachchana asked: “This being so, are not these fourvarnas exactly the same?”

Avantiputta conceded that there was no differenceamongst the varnas on this count.

4.3 An alternative social scenario:Sharing wealth

So far we have been examining situations wherepeople either claimed or were assigned status onthe basis of their wealth. However, there were otherpossibilities as well; situations where men who weregenerous were respected, while those who weremiserly or simply accumulated wealth for themselveswere despised. One area where these values werecherished was ancient Tamilakam, where, as we sawearlier (Chapter 2), there were several chiefdomsaround 2,000 years ago. Amongst other things, thechiefs were patrons of bards and poets who sangtheir praise. Poems included in the Tamil Sangamanthologies often illuminate social and economic

Source 13

Read Avantiputta’s firststatement again. What are theideas in it that are derived fromBrahmanical texts/traditions?Can you identify the source ofany of these?What, according to this text,explains social difference?

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Discuss...How do social relationships operatein present-day societies? Are thereany similarities or differences withpatterns of the past?

relationships, suggesting that while there weredif ferences between rich and poor, those whocontrolled resources were also expected to sharethem.

The poor generous chief

In this composition from the Puranaruru, one of theanthologies of poems of the Tamil Sangam literature(c. first century CE), a bard describes his patron to otherpoets thus :

He (i.e. the patron) doesn’t have the wealth to lavishon others everyday

Nor does he have the pettiness to say that he hasnothing and so refuse!

…

he lives in Irantai (a place) and is generous. He is anenemy to the hunger of bards!

If you wish to cure your poverty, comealong with me, bards whose lips are soskilled!

If we request him, showing him our ribsthin with hunger, he wil l go to theblacksmith of his village

And will say to that man of powerfulhands:

“Shape me a long spear for war, one thathas a straight blade!”

Source 14

What are the strategies which thebard uses to try and persuade thechief to be generous?What is the chief expected to do toacquire wealth in order to give someto the bards?

Fig. 3.7A chief and his follower, stonesculpture, Amaravati (AndhraPradesh), c. second century CE

How has the sculptorshown the difference betweenthe chief and his follower?



5. Explaining Social Differences:A Social Contract

The Buddhists also developed an alternativeunderstanding of social inequalities, and of theinstitutions required to regulate social conflict. In amyth found in a text known as the Sutta Pitaka theysuggested that originally human beings did not havefully evolved bodily forms, nor was the world of plantsfully developed. All beings lived in an idyllic state ofpeace, taking from nature only what they needed foreach meal.

However, there was a gradual deterioration ofthis state as human beings became increasinglygreedy, vindictive and deceitful. This led them towonder: “What if we were to select a certain beingwho should be wrathful when indignation is right,who should censure that which should rightly becensured and should banish him who deserves tobe banished? We will give him in return a proportionof the rice … chosen by the whole people, he will beknown as mahasammata, the great elect.”

This suggests that the institution of kingshipwas based on human choice, with taxes as a formof payment for services rendered by the king. Atthe same time, it reveals recognition of humanagency in creating and institutionalising economicand social relations. There are other implicationsas well. For instance, if human beings wereresponsible for the creation of the system, they couldalso change it in future.

6. Handling TextsHistorians and the Mahabharata

If you look through the sources cited in this chapteronce more you will notice that historians considerseveral elements when they analyse texts. Theyexamine whether texts were written in Prakrit, Palior Tamil, languages that were probably used byordinary people, or in Sanskrit, a language meantalmost exclusively for priests and elites. They alsoconsider the kinds of text. Were these mantras, learntand chanted by ritual specialists, or stories thatpeople could have read, or heard, and then retold ifthey found them interesting? Besides, they try tofind out about the author(s) whose perspectives andideas shaped the text, as well as the intended

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audience, as, very often, authors keep the interestsof their audience in mind while composing theirwork. And they try and ascertain the possible dateof the composition or compilation of the texts as wellas the place where they may have been composed. Itis only after making these assessments that theydraw on the content of texts to arrive at anunderstanding of their historical significance. As youcan imagine, this is a particularly difficult task fora text as complex as the Mahabharata.

6.1 Language and contentLet us look at the language of the text. The versionof the Mahabharata we have been considering is inSanskrit (although there are versions in otherlanguages as well). However, the Sanskrit used inthe Mahabharata is far simpler than that of the Vedas,or of the prashastis discussed in Chapter 2. As such,it was probably widely understood.

Historians usually classify the contents of thepresent text under two broad heads – sections thatcontain stories, designated as the narrative, andsections that contain prescriptions about socialnorms, designated as didactic. This division is by nomeans watertight – the didactic sections includestories, and the narrative often contains a socialmessage. However, generally historians agree thatthe Mahabharata was meant to be a dramatic, movingstory, and that the didactic portions were probablyadded later.

Fig. 3.8Krishna advises Arjuna on thebattlefieldThis painting dates to theeighteenth century. Perhaps themost important didactic section ofthe Mahabharata is the BhagavadGita, which contains the adviceoffered by Lord Krishna to Arjuna.This scene is frequently depictedin painting and sculpture.

Didactic refers to somethingthat is meant for purposes ofinstruction.



Interestingly, the text is described as an itihasawithin early Sanskrit tradition. The literal meaningof the term is “thus it was”, which is why it isgenerally translated as “history”. Was there a realwar that was remembered in the epic? We are notsure. Some historians think that the memory of anactual conflict amongst kinfolk was preserved in thenarrative; others point out that there is no othercorroborative evidence of the battle.

6.2 Author(s) and datesWho wrote the text? This is a question to whichthere are several answers. The original story wasprobably composed by charioteer-bards known assutas who generally accompanied Kshatriya warriorsto the battlefield and composed poems celebratingtheir victories and other achievements. Thesecompositions circulated orally. Then, from the fifthcentury BCE, Brahmanas took over the story andbegan to commit it to writing. This was the timewhen chiefdoms such as those of the Kurus and

Fig. 3.9Lord Ganesha the scribeAccording to tradition, Vyasadictated the text to the deity.This illustration is from a Persiantranslation of the Mahabharata,c. 1740-50.

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Panchalas, around whom the story of the epicrevolves, were gradually becoming kingdoms. Did thenew kings want their itihasa to be recorded andpreserved more systematically? It is also possiblethat the upheavals that often accompanied theestablishment of these states, where old social valueswere often replaced by new norms, are reflected insome parts of the story.

We notice another phase in the composition ofthe text between c. 200 BCE and 200 CE. This was theperiod when the worship of Vishnu was growing inimportance, and Krishna, one of the importantfigures of the epic, was coming to be identified withVishnu. Subsequently, between c. 200 and 400 CE,large didactic sections resembling the Manusmritiwere added. With these additions, a text whichinitially perhaps had less than 10,000 verses grewto comprise about 100,000 verses. This enormouscomposition is traditionally attributed to a sagenamed Vyasa.

6.3 The search for convergenceThe Mahabharata, like any major epic, contains vividdescriptions of battles, forests, palaces andsettlements. In 1951-52, the archaeologist B.B. Lalexcavated at a village named Hastinapura in Meerut(Uttar Pradesh). Was this the Hastinapura of theepic? While the similarity in names could becoincidental, the location of the site in the UpperGanga doab, where the Kuru kingdom was situated,suggests that it may have been the capital of theKurus mentioned in the text.

Lal found evidence of five occupational levels, ofwhich the second and third are of interest to us.This is what Lal noted about the houses in the secondphase (c. twelfth-seventh centuries BCE): “Within thelimited area excavated, no definite plans of houseswere obtained, but walls of mud and mud-brickswere duly encountered. The discovery of mud-plasterwith prominent reed-marks suggested that some ofthe houses had reed walls plastered over with mud.”For the third phase (c. sixth-third centuries BCE), henoted: “Houses of this period were built of mud-brickas well as burnt bricks. Soakage jars and brickdrains were used for draining out refuse water, whileterracotta ring-wells may have been used both aswells and drainage pits.”



Was the description of the city in the epic addedafter the main narrative had been composed, when(after the sixth century BCE) urban centres flourishedin the region? Or was it a flight of poetic fancy, whichcannot always be verified by comparisons with otherkinds of evidence?

Consider another instance. One of the mostchallenging episodes in the Mahabharata isDraupadi’s marriage with the Pandavas, an instanceof polyandry that is central to the narrative. If weexamine the section of the epic that describes thisevent, it is evident that the author(s) attempted toexplain it in a variety of ways.

Draupadi’s marriage

Drupada, the king of Panchala, organised a competitionwhere the challenge was to string a bow and hit a target;the winner would be chosen to marry his daughterDraupadi. Arjuna was victorious and was garlanded byDraupadi. The Pandavas returned with her to their motherKunti, who, even before she saw them, asked them toshare whatever they had got. She realised her mistakewhen she saw Draupadi, but her command could not beviolated. After much deliberation, Yudhisthira decided thatDraupadi would be their common wife.

When Drupada was told about this, he protested.However, the seer Vyasa arrived and told him that thePandavas were in reality incarnations of Indra, whose wifehad been reborn as Draupadi, and they were thus destinedfor each other.

Vyasa added that in another instance a young womanhad prayed to Shiva for a husband, and in her enthusiasm,had prayed five times instead of once. This woman wasnow reborn as Draupadi, and Shiva had fulfilled herprayers. Convinced by these stories, Drupada consentedto the marriage.

Fig. 3.10A wall excavated at Hastinapura

Hastinapura

This is how the city is describedin the Adi Parvan of theMahabharata:

The city, bursting like theocean, packed with hundredsof mansions, displayed withits gateways, arches andturrets like massing cloudsthe splendour of GreatIndra’s city.

Source 15

Source 16 Do you think Lal’s finds

match the description ofHastinapura in the epic?

Why do you think the author(s) offered threeexplanations for a single episode?

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Present-day historians suggest that the fact thatthe author(s) describe a polyandrous union indicatesthat polyandry may have been prevalent amongstruling elites at some point of time. At the same time,the fact that so many different explanations areoffered for the episode (Source 16) suggests thatpolyandry gradually fell into disfavour amongst theBrahmanas, who reworked and developed the textthrough the centuries.

Some historians note that while the practice ofpolyandry may have seemed unusual or evenundesirable from the Brahmanical point of view, itwas (and is) prevalent in the Himalayan region.Others suggest that there may have been a shortageof women during times of warfare, and this led topolyandry. In other words, it was attributed to asituation of crisis.

Some early sources suggest that polyandry wasnot the only or even the most prevalent form ofmarriage. Why then did the author(s) choose toassociate this practice with the central charactersof the Mahabharata? We need to remember thatcreative literature often has its own narrativerequirements and does not always literally reflectsocial realities.

7. A Dynamic TextThe growth of the Mahabharata did not stop withthe Sanskrit version. Over the centuries, versionsof the epic were written in a variety of languagesthrough an ongoing process of dialogue betweenpeoples, communities, and those who wrote thetexts. Several stories that originated in specificregions or circulated amongst certain people foundtheir way into the epic. At the same time, the centralstory of the epic was often retold in different ways.And episodes were depicted in sculpture andpainting. They also provided themes for a wide rangeof performing arts – plays, dance and other kindsof narrations.

Discuss...Read the excerpts from theMahabharata included in thischapter once more. For eachof these, discuss whether theycould have been literally true.What do these excerpts tell usabout those who composedthe text? What do they tell usabout those who must haveread or heard the epic?



Most retellings or re-enactments of the epic draw onthe main narrative in creative ways. Let us look at oneexample, an episode from the Mahabharata that hasbeen transformed by Mahashweta Devi, a contemporaryBengali writer known for raising her voice against allforms of exploitation and oppression. In this particularinstance, she works out alternative possibilities fromthe main story of the Mahabharata and draws attentionto questions on which the Sanskrit text is silent.

The Sanskrit text describes how Duryodhana plottedto kill the Pandavas by inviting them to stay in aspecially prepared house of lac, which he planned toset on fire. Forewarned, the Pandavas dug a tunnel toensure their escape. Then Kunti arranged for a feast.While most of the invitees were Brahmanas, a nishadawoman came with her five sons. When they weresatiated with drink and fell off to sleep, the Pandavasescaped, setting fire to the house. When the bodies ofthe woman and her sons were discovered, peoplethought that the Pandavas were dead.

In her short story titled “Kunti O Nishadi”,Mahashweta Devi takes up the narrative from wherethe Mahabharata ends it. She sets the story in a forest,where Kunti retires after the war. Kunti now has timeto reflect on her past, and often confesses to what sheregards as her failings, talking with the earth, thesymbol of nature. Every day she sees the nishadas whocome to collect wood, honey, tubers and roots. Onenishadi (a nishada woman) often listens to Kunti whenshe talks with the earth.

One day, there was something in the air; the animalswere fleeing the forest. Kunti noticed that the nishadiwas watching her, and was startled when she spoke toher and asked if she remembered the house of lac. Yes,Kunti said, she did. Did she remember a certain elderlynishadi and her five young sons? And that she hadserved them wine till they were senseless, while sheescaped with her own sons? That nishadi … “Not you!”Kunti exclaimed. The nishadi replied that the womanwho was killed had been her mother-in-law. She addedthat while Kunti had been reflecting on her past, notonce did she remember the six innocent lives that werelost because she had wanted to save herself and hersons. As they spoke, the flames drew nearer. The nishadiescaped to safety, but Kunti remained where she was.

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Timeline 1Major Textual Traditions

c. 500 BCE Ashtadhyayi of Panini, a work on Sanskrit grammar

c. 500-200 BCE Major Dharmasutras (in Sanskrit)

c. 500-100 BCE Early Buddhist texts including the Tripitaka (in Pali)

c. 500 BCE-400 CE Ramayana and Mahabharata (in Sanskrit)

c. 200 BCE-200 CE Manusmriti (in Sanskrit); composition and compilationof Tamil Sangam literature

c. 100 CE Charaka and Sushruta Samhitas, works on medicine(in Sanskrit)

c. 200 CE onwards Compilation of the Puranas (in Sanskrit)

c. 300 CE Natyashastra of Bharata, a work on dramaturgy(in Sanskrit)

c. 300-600 CE Other Dharmashastras (in Sanskrit)

c. 400-500 CE Sanskrit plays including the works of Kalidasa;works on astronomy and mathematics by Aryabhata andVarahamihira (in Sanskrit); compilation of Jaina works(in Prakrit)

Timeline 2Major Landmarks in the Study of the Mahabharata

Twentieth century

1919-66 Preparation and publication of the Critical Edition of theMahabharata

1973 J.A.B. van Buitenen begins English translation of the CriticalEdition; remains incomplete after his death in 1978



Answer in 100-150 words

1. Explain why patriliny may have been particularlyimportant among elite families.

2. Discuss whether kings in early states wereinvariably Kshatriyas.

3. Compare and contrast the dharma or normsmentioned in the stories of Drona, Hidimba andMatanga.

4. In what ways was the Buddhist theory of a socialcontract different from the Brahmanical view ofsociety derived from the Purusha sukta?

5. The following is an excerpt from theMahabharata, in which Yudhisthira, the eldestPandava, speaks to Sanjaya, a messenger:

Sanjaya, convey my respectful greetings to allthe Brahmanas and the chief priest of thehouse of Dhritarashtra. I bow respectfully toteacher Drona … I hold the feet of ourpreceptor Kripa … (and) the chief of the Kurus,the great Bhishma. I bow respectfully to theold king (Dhritarashtra). I greet and ask afterthe health of his son Duryodhana and hisyounger brother ... Also greet all the youngKuru warriors who are our brothers, sons andgrandsons … Greet above all him, who is tous like father and mother, the wise Vidura(born of a slave woman) ... I bow to the elderlyladies who are known as our mothers. Tothose who are our wives you say this, “I hopethey are well-protected”… Our daughters-in-law born of good families and mothers ofchildren greet on my behalf. Embrace for methose who are our daughters … The beautiful,fragrant, well-dressed courtesans of ours youshould also greet. Greet the slave women andtheir children, greet the aged, the maimed(and) the helpless …

Try and identify the criteria used to make thislist – in terms of age, gender, kinship ties. Are thereany other criteria? For each category, explain whythey are placed in a particular position in the list.

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Write a short essay (about500 words) on the following:

6. This is what a famous historian of Indianliterature, Maurice Winternitz, wrote about theMahabharata: “just because the Mahabharatarepresents more of an entire literature … andcontains so much and so many kinds of things, …(it) gives(s) us an insight into the most profounddepths of the soul of the Indian folk.” Discuss.

7. Discuss whether the Mahabharata could havebeen the work of a single author.

8. How important were gender differences in earlysocieties? Give reasons for your answer.

9. Discuss the evidence that suggests thatBrahmanical prescriptions about kinship andmarriage were not universally followed.

Map work

10. Compare the map in this chapter with Map 1 inChapter 2. List the mahajanapadas and citieslocated near the Kuru-Panchala lands.

Project (any one)

11. Find out about retellings of the Mahabharata inother languages. Discuss how they handle anytwo of the episodes of the text described in thischapter, explaining any similarities or differencesthat you notice.

12. Imagine that you are an author and rewrite thestory of Ekalavya from a perspective of yourchoice.

If you would like to knowmore, read:Uma Chakravarti. 2006.Everyday Lives, EverydayHistories. Tulika, New Delhi.

Irawati Karve. 1968.Kinship Organisation in India.Asia Publishing House, Bombay.

R.S. Sharma. 1983.Perspectives in Social andEconomic History of Early India.Munshiram Manoharlal,New Delhi.

V.S. Sukthankar. 1957.On the Meaning of theMahabharata. Asiatic Society ofBombay, Bombay.

Romila Thapar. 2000.Cultural Pasts: Essays in EarlyIndian History. Oxford UniversityPress, New Delhi.


For more information,you could visit:http://bombay.indology.info/mahabharata/statement.html

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