Theme 2Lectures #6-10

1. How do you know that what you know is knowledge?

2. Who decides on what constitute knowledge?

3. How is such decision arrived at?4. What processes determines the knowledge status of knowledge

Discussion Question

As knowledge (Theme 1), science can be viewed as a product of negotiations and deliberations amongst actors of different social backgrounds and contexts. Therefore, science is subjective and is a product of social processes and interactions.

Lecture 6

Explain the role of negotiation and agreement among experts in the production of scientific knowledge.

Appreciate the interplay of subjectivity and objectivity in scientific inquiry.

Recognize that social integration and/or conflict has been a catalyst for the development of science and technology.

Realize that social institutions and diversity in perspectives can facilitate and/or constrain scientific progress.

Find and present evidences from history that social institutions and conflict play a role in the development of science and technology.

Reevaluate the nature and limitations of science given that it is a socio-historical product.

Alternative Class

Lecture 8

Grab popcorn and drinks. Take note of how science is “practiced” by

scientists involved in the discovery of the AIDS virus.

What do their behavior and attitude tell us about the “actual” practice of science and scientific knowledge production?

Take note also of the role of non-science people in the shaping of scientists’ work and their influence on the knowledge produced by scientists.

Lecture 9

Differentiation of people based on several discrete categories.

Differentiation connotes ranking and hierarchy.

Rank and hierarchy become the bases of how social privileges are distributed.

Privileges are not necessarily material. They influenced who’s voice should be heard and who’s opinion should be valued; hence who’s position becomes the basis of knowledge /truth.

Class Gender Race/Ethnicity Religious beliefs Political Beliefs

Income level (poor, middle class, rich)

Profession (working class, intellectual class)

Power (elites, non-elites) Position vis-à-vis

ownership of means of production (capitalist, working class)

Biological identity (sex) – male, female

Sexual orientation – heterosexual, homosexual, gay, lesbian, bisexual, transsexual

Refers to race or ethnic identities

Manifested in:◦Physical appearance

(white vs. peoples of color)

◦Cultural beliefs and practices

Each cleavage has its own experiential bias in terms of locating their claims and advancing its political agenda.

Each cleavage may have access and can mobilize a unique resource in order to articulate such claims.

Each cleavage may be situated in different power locations that may or may impact on their claims making.

Each cleavage

Individual rights versus collective rights viz. feminism, reproductive health rights, right to die movement, IPs, elderly, gay rights.

Distribution of power in society e.g., elitist or pluralist type of society.

Lecture 10

S &T may either facilitate or constrain the tension between collective and individual rights.

S &T may either maintain or impair existing power relations.

Cite specific examples for each

Episode 21 / Season 1Three Stories

Write a brief essay on the following questions:

“What is the purpose of medical diagnosis? Are outcomes of diagnosis always accurate/objective? If not, what are the possible limitations of diagnosis as a form of knowledge production? Lecture 7

Notes from Student Essays An art to determine disease(s); conditions of

patients; disorder; opinion of attending doctors

Diagnosis is a human endeavor; affects personal judgment; too involved; too many details considered

Accurate because doctors are trained professionals

Symptoms may be the same for many diseases

Notes from Student Essays-2 Diagnosis uses technology and observation

to determine / classify illness/ cure or next step

Outcomes not accurate at times re personal feelings / opinions; technology limits outcomes/ patients lie / hide facts/ relations/ wrong interpretation between patients and doctors

Doctors ‘read’ patients / ask questions / medical history/ smart guess

Doctors are specialists / educated

Notes from Student Essays_3 To find out the nature / cause disease /

resolve problem Diagnosis is a form of “reading” the patient

via symptoms / use technology Diagnosis can be inaccurate if patients lie

and if doctors are subjective. Doctors are professionals yet / are human

with emotions and personal biases Diagnosis is a trial and error process “Overdiagnosis”

Faith / belief in GodExperts’ opinionCommon agreementScience

Subjective: symptoms “reading” are almost always a matter of personal interpretation.

Intuitive: interpretation is based on hunches and guesses; on trial and error.

Multivoice: subject to multiple observers, hence, multiple interpretations and readings of symptoms

Power-based: interpretations of more senior person becomes the basis of the final diagnostic decision. Patient’s voice is silenced.

The process of observation is prone to be limited by subjective selection.

It is possible for different individuals to have different observations for a single phenomenon.

The process of observation may also be influenced by what is expected, even as it cannot be certainly said that what is observed at one particular time period is true for other time periods.

There are many hidden structures in society that are unobservable

The public manifestation of human behavior does not necessarily reflect their true feelings

What is visible may not necessarily be authentic

Scientists are not actually detached, but are in fact emotionally attached to their hypotheses and theories.

In addition, while they adhere to a community where sharing of knowledge is a norm, scientists often keep secret their own researches and findings.

It is also normal for scientists to be influenced by their personal beliefs and biases when they evaluate the work of their peers.

Scientists are not actually open minded, but are in fact active advocates of particular points of view

Science is in fact an interpretive activity. It is not based only on objective discovery but is also shaped by the internal politics that exist within the science community.

This internal politics is seen in the personal rivalries, insecurities, and groups which eventually affect the way scientific work is done and judged by peers.

It emerges within the conditions of a given socio-political and economic context.

The credibility of the scientist is no longer determined solely by his/her work, but is also determined by who the scientist is, what school s/he graduated from, and the reputation of the university or organization he/she is working with.

Production and even articulation of scientific knowledge is tempered by knowledges produce by non-science people especially by the epistemic communities representing or belonging to certain powerful stakeholders.

Scientific methods have inherent limitations due to problems in objectivity, neutrality and quantification.

Take note of how science is “practiced” by scientists involved in the discovery of the AIDS virus.

What do their behavior and attitude tell us about the “actual” practice of science and scientific knowledge production?

Take note also of the role of non-science people in the shaping of scientists’ work and their influence on the knowledge produced by scientists.