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Fragrance Books Inc. @www.perfumerbook.com

The Woody Notes of Fragrance

Glen O. Brechbill

Fragrance Books Inc.

www.perfumerbook.com

New Jersey - USA

2012





“To my late much loved father Ray and beloved mother Helen Roberta without them non of this work

would have been possible”

II

THE WOODY NOTES OF FRAGRANCE ©

This book is a work of non-fiction. No part of the book may be used or reproduced inany manner whatsoever without written permission from the author except in the caseof brief quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews. Please note the enclosed book is based on Fragrance Ingredients by House ©.

Designed by Glen O. Brechbill

Library of Congress

Brechbill, Glen O.The Woody Notes of Fragrance / Glen O. Brechbill

P. cm. 309 pgs.1. Fragrance Ingredients Non Fiction. 2. Written odor descriptions to facillitate the

understanding of the olfactory language. 1. Essential Oils. 2. Aromas. 3. Chemicals.4. Classification. 5. Source. 6. Art. 7. Twenty one thousand fragrances. 8. Science.

9. Creativity. I. Title.

Certificate Registry #

Copyright © 2012 by Glen O. Brechbill

All Rights Reserved

PRINTED I N THE U NITED STATES OF AMERICA

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

First Edition

Glen O. Brechbill



The Woody Notes of Fragrance is basically about the wood ingredi-ents that are used in fragrance cre-ation. The Good Scent Companyhas a fairly complete listing on syn-

thetic ingredients, including myown notes to the back of the book.I wanted to make this a predomi-nately essential oil book, and savedata that is slowly disappearing dueto over regulation.

Woody aromatic materials are based on wood related materialssuch as cedar, fir or pine. They canmake up a very small part of a fra-grance blend or be a majority note.Synthetic notes are popular becausethey are based on petroleum, andare cheaper to produce. Theymimic what is found in nature, andsay it is better.

The hysteria created by the folks at( IFRA ), and indirectly by themajor five is obvious. The large

international houses control eighty percent of the worlds fragrancemarket, and want to control morethrough a monopoly that is slowlystrangling the heart of the art.

During the past twenty or so years

standards. This is censorshipart form worse then news ceship as can happen on the ww

If one speaks out against

lunatic organization you can ardize ones career. Only thosfumers who are independehighly placed speak out againfoolishness.

Profits and making more andmoney are at the heart of allness decisions today. The biwant to control the entire mand minimizing essential oilsto increase their dominance arts with synthetically crmaterials.

Monopolies occur in many itries including perfume. Thfive that includes GivaFirmenich, IFF, Syrmise Takasago gobble up smaller

panies to increase their profit

market share. This helps to creativity, and forces moremore natural business to go toral artists that call themselnose with little or no educEssential oils predominate

blends. However, most know

RIFM the research arm of theindustry is slowing eliminatingmany natural ingredients. As a per-fumer palette is reduced syntheticingredients play an important role

in most fragrances created today. Natural ingredients ad life and dif-fusion to a fragrance blend. Theamendments that IFRA creates arethus slowly destroying the creativeart.

This organization operates muchlike many secret police organiza-tions that totalitarian regimes createto stay in power. HomelandSecurity a by-product of September 11, 2001 created by the Patriot Acthas a dark side that in the wronghands would prove scary.Fragrance products are analyzed ina laboratory by this organization. If an offending ingredient is found

boy will they go on a witch-hunt.

A simple warning label could have

been implemented. Instead compa-nies have to purchase expensivesoftware programs that tells a nosehow much of this or that can go intoa formula. When a compositionthat creates a scent is completeddoes it comply with established use

About the Book


3



the major brokers adulterate their product to further profits.

The big five has slowly strangledthe creative aspect of the fragrance

art. As their domination growsthey can create shortages, price fix-ing, and slowly control all aspectsof the market. It's a shame whathas happened to this art. Ad layersof uninformed personnel who areenvious of a nose, but understandlittle of what they do it has to frus-trate those who make it their pro-fession to create a scent.

Marketing briefs are created, and a perfumer has to interpret meaning-less drivel to create a fragrance. Inmy mind an uninformed person isone who works in a occupation, andhas never read anything about the

business that employs you.

In the not to distant future the noseswho are held with low respect willeventually be replaced by artificialintelligence computers. This hashappened to the graphic arts, pho-tography, illustrators, commercialartists and many other occupations.Perfumers think that they areimmune to this technologicaldevelopment.

Any finished fragrance has tens of

thousands of permutations. Eachfragrance house has hundreds of thousands of compositions in their library. Why do they try and createnew ones when any old one is asgood as something freshly created?

Once one becomes a perfum passion to teach the next geneof artists is gone. There is aless game of trying to creatnext best seller with a dwin

palette of materials to chooseat an ever-cheaper price. In would estimate that it wouclose to impossible to creatething new with all of the retions in place. If one comes upsomething different it can be dcated by a competitor witweek.

The books that I have createdhelped me to deal with the strtaking care of my much beelderly mother. She is the lomy life, and when she unfortuly passes away I will deeplyher. All of my books are dedto my father Ray who has paway, and Roberta my mother

Many thanks to the folkWikipedia for the free use oenclosed material. Althincomplete, and its accuracy ione's guess it is free. Google other hand can't separate the from the shaft or rank inform

based on pertinence versus vance. A single page article cranked higher then a web sitcontains over 10,000 pag

information.

The woods are a separate fragrancefamily part of the reason why I cre-ated this book. When one consid-ers the fact that three of the big fivehave their own perfumer schools

very little attention is given to natu-ral materials. It is my opinion thatif a student doesn't understand theroot of an art which are essentialoils one will not fully understand asynthetic aromatic materials.

Three families that include Citrus,Chypre, and Fougere have beeneliminated from a perfumer palette

of possibilities due to a growing listof regulatory amendments.

Do I have something against thisregulatory body? I am in the slow

process of disclosing the industrysecrets book by book. I happen tolove the art, but hate the way candi-dates are selected for this presti-gious occupation. Instead of select-ing the best-qualified individualsthose that are chosen are often the

best connected. How can anythingnew be created when an artist is

blending something new based onwhat his or her father did ten twen-ty or forty years ago with newtwists.

Education in book reading should be encouraged. However, today it

is estimated that those under 30read on the average one to two

books a year for pleasure. I readover a hundred fragrance books intwo years before I created my first

book of notes many years ago.

Glen O. Brechbill

4





Index

Copyright 2

About The Book 3 - 4

Index 5 - 7

Essential Oil Map of the World 8

International Directory By Country & House 9 - 14

Woods 15 - 26

Abies Alba 27

Agarwood ( Oud ) 28 - 30

Amber 31 - 36

Amyris 37

Balsam 38

Copaifera Langsdorffie 39

Fir 40

Mecca 41

Myrosylan 42 - 43

Popular 44 - 45

Birch 46 - 50

5



Cade 51 - 52

Cedarwood 53

Atlas 54 - 55

Australian Red 56

Calocedrus Formosana 57

Calocedrus Macrolepis 58

California Incense 59

Cedrela Odorata 60

Cedrus 61 - 62

Ceylon 63 - 64

Cyprus 65

Eastern Red 66 - 68

Japanese 69 - 70

Lebanon 71 - 72

Mexican White 73 - 74

Northern White 75 - 76

Port Orford 77 - 78

Western Himalaya 79 - 80

Western Red 81 - 85

Fir 86 - 88

Guaiacwood 89

Mahogany 90 - 93

Glen O. Brechbill

6




Oakmoss 94

Patchouli 95 - 96

Pine 97 - 99

Sandalwood 100 - 102

Silver Fir 103

Spruce 104 - 106

Teak 107 - 109

Treemoss 110 - 111

Turpentine 112 - 113

Vetiver 114 - 116

BOOK # 1 ( A - H ) 117 - 204

BOOK # 2 ( I - Z ) 205 - 301

Woody Notes of Fragrance 302 - 306

Bibliography 307 - 309

7




A World of Fragrance s

Glen O. Brechbill

8




International Directory by Country & House

Continent/Country/Fragrance House Continent/Country/Fragrance House

Manuscript # 1 ( A - H )

Manuscript # 2 ( I - Z )

Canada

The Spice Trader

United States

Alfa ChemAmerican Society of PerfumersAromatic International LLCArtiste Flavor / EssenceAstral Extracts

Bedoukian Research, Inc.Bell Flavors & FragrancesBerje Inc.

Carrubba Inc.Central States Chemical MarketingChampon VanillaCitrus & AlliedCookson & Hunt International Co.Creative Fragrances Ltd.

DMH Ingredients

North America

Fiveash Data ManagementFleurchem, Inc.

Fleurin, Inc.Flexitral, Inc.Florachem CorporationFlorida Chemical Company, Inc.Florida Worldwide CitrusFrencharoma Imports Co., Inc.

Good Scents CompanyGorlin & CompanyGraham Chemical Corporation

I.P. Callison & SonsInnospec Inc.International Flavors & Fragrances

J & E Sozio, Inc.Joint American Ventures in China

MelChem DistributionMillennium Chemicals

Natural Resourcing Norwest Ingredients

Oliganic

Penta ManufacturingPhoenix Aromas & Essential OilsPolarome International


9




Prima Fleur

Rosetta Enterprises LLC

Sarcom Inc.

Science LabSensient Technologies CorporationSigma AldrichSpectrum ChemicalsSundial Fragrances & FlavorsSunrose Aromatics

TexaromeTreatt USA Inc.Trisenx, Inc.

Uhe Company, Inc.Ungerer & Company

Vigon International, Inc.

Walsh, John D., Company, Inc.

Mexico

Esencias y Materiales Lozmat

Tecnaal Group

Argentina

Esarco

Euma

Fritzsche SAICA

San Miguel Agici y F

Brazil

Citral Oleos Essenciais Ltda.

J. Piltz & Cia. Ltda.

Petit Marie

Rai Ingredients

Belgium

Synaco Group

Bulgaria

Vesselino Trading Company

Denmark

Wambesco Gmbh

France

A.N.E.C.Adrian Industries SASAlbert Vielle SAAromatic CollectionAromaxAxxence SARL

BFA LaboratoriesBarosyl S.A.Biolandes Parfumerie

Charabot & Company Inc.Clos D’Aguzon

Diffusions AromatiquesDulcos Trading

Exaflor

Glen O. Brechbill

Central America

South America

Europe

10




H.Reynaud & Fils

IPRA FragrancesInterchim

Laboratoire Monique Remy

Mane SAMoraflor Produits AromatiquesMuller & Koster

PCASPayan Bertrand SAProdaromProdasynth

Rhodia OrganicsRobertet SA

SIPA A. Ch. Berthier SovimpexSymarome

Germany

Basf

Dullberg Konzentra Gmbh

Eramex Aromatics Gmbh

Frey & Lau Gmbh

Lothar-Streck

Paul Kaders GmbH

Sensient Essential Oils GmbhSymrise GmbH & Co. KG

Th. Gyer Gmbh & Co. KG

Hungary

Silvestris & Szilas Ltd.

Italy

Baller s.r.l.

Capua s.r.l.Citroflor di G.

Espira S.p.A

Farotti Essences srl

Moelhausen S.P.A.

Portugal

Kruetz Helmut

Spain

Bordas Destilaciones Chinchurreta

Cami de Fontainilles

Destilerias Munoz Galvez, s.a.

Lluche Essence

Ventos, Ernesto S.A.

Switzerland

Essencia, Aetherische Oele AG

Firmenich

Givaudan Fragrance Corporation

Puressence Wuresten Inc.


11




The Netherlands

Brighten Colorchem, B.V.

Flavodor

PFW Aroma Chemicals

United Kingdom

A & E Connock Ltd.Augustus OIls. Ld.

British Society of PerfumersBuckton Home Page Ltd.

De Monchy Aromatics, Inc.

Earth Oil Plantations Ltd.

FD Copeland & Sons Ltd.Fine Chemical TradingFurest Day Lawson

Global Essence Ltd.

Handa Fine Chemicals Ltd.

JC Buck Ltd.

Lionel Hitchen Ltd.

Quality Analysis

SRS Aromatics Ltd.

Venus Enterprises

Israel

Agan Aroma & Fine ChemicalsAromor Flavors & Fragrances Ltd.

Fruitarom Industries

Nardev

China

China Aroma Chemical Co., Ltd.China Perfumer Chinessence Ltd.

HC BiochemHangzhou Aroma Chemical Co.

Shanghai M & U International

Tianjin Jiete Fine Chemical Co.

Hong Kong

Naradev

O’Laughlin Industries

India

Amen OrganicsAnthea Aromatics Pvt. Ltd.Anupam Industries

B.S. IndustriesBansal Aroma

FFC AromaFlowersynth

GMPCTGyran Flavours

Hermani Ex-Imp CorporationHindustan Mint & Agro Products

Indian Spices

Glen O. Brechbill

Mediterranean

Asia

12




Kanta HouseKatyani ExortsKrupa ScientificKuber Impex Ltd.

Narain Terpene & Allied Chemical

Organica Aromatics Pvt. Ltd.

P.P. Sheth & Co.Petitgara ChemicalsPremier Chemical CorporationPrivi Organics Ld.

Raj Aromatics Aroma Corporation

SAT GroupSeema InternationalShreeji AromaSom Santi HouseSome Extracts

Tadimetry Aromatics Pvt Ltd.Thakker Group

Ultra International LimitedU.K. Aromatic & Chemicals

Indonesia

Djasula Wangi

Haldin

Indesso

Japan

Basf Japan Ltd.

Kao Corporation

Takasago International Corporation

Zeon Corporation

Korea

Castrading

M.X.D. Enterprise System

Nepal

Shambhala Herbal & Aromatics Pvt. Ltd.

Singapore

Taytonn Pte Ltd.

Sri Lanka

EOAS International

Thailand

Thailand Institute of Science

Turkey

Oregano

Viet Nam

Enter Oil

Australian Botanical Products

Cosmark

Perfume & Flavor ManufacturersPeter Jarvis Cosmetic Develop.

W & W Australia Pty Ltd.


Australia

13




Africa Trade

Egypt

A.Fakhry & Company

Fayyum Gharbya Aromatic

Kato Aromatic S.A.E.

Glen O. Brechbill

Africa

14




Woods

is a hard, fibrous tissue found inmany trees. It has been used for hundreds of thousands of years for

both fuel and as a constructionmaterial. It is an organic material, a

natural composite of cellulosefibers (which are strong in tension)embedded in a matrix of ligninwhich resists compression. Wood issometimes defined as only the sec-ondary xylem in the stems of trees,or it is defined more broadly toinclude the same type of tissue else-where such as in tree roots or inother plants such as shrubs. In a liv-ing tree it performs a support func-tion, enabling woody plants togrow large or to stand up for them-selves. It also mediates the transfer of water and nutrients to the leavesand other growing tissues. Woodmay also refer to other plant mate-rials with comparable properties,and to material engineered fromwood, or wood chips or fiber.

The earth contains about one tril-lion tonnes of wood, which growsat a rate of 10 billion tonnes per year. As an abundant, carbon-neu-tral renewable resource, woodymaterials have been of intenseinterest as a source of renewable

Growth Rings

Wood, in the strict sense, is yi by trees, which increase in dia by the formation, between

existing wood and the inner of new woody layers which eop the entire stem, living branand roots. This process is knosecondary growth; it is the rescell division in the vascular cum, a lateral meristem, and squent expansion of the new Where there are clear seagrowth can occur in a diannual or seasonal pattern, leto growth rings; these can u

be most clearly seen on the enlog, but are also visible on thesurfaces. If these seasons are al these growth rings are referas annual rings. Where thereseasonal difference growth are likely to be indistinct or ab

If there are differences wit

growth ring, then the part growth ring nearest the centhe tree, and formed early igrowing season when growrapid, is usually composed of elements. It is usually lighcolor than that near the oute

energy. In 1991, approximately 3.5 billion cubic meters of wood wereharvested. Dominant uses were for furniture and building construction.

History

A 2011 discovery in the Canadian province of New Brunswick uncov-ered the earliest known plants tohave grown wood, approximately395 to 400 million years ago.

People have used wood for millen-nia for many purposes, primarily asa fuel or as a construction materialfor making houses, tools, weapons,furniture, packaging, artworks, and

paper.

Wood can be dated by carbon dat-ing and in some species by den-drochronology to make inferencesabout when a wooden object wascreated.

The year-to-year variation in tree-ring widths and isotopic abun-dances gives clues to the prevailingclimate at that time.


15




tion of the ring, and is known asearlywood or springwood. Theouter portion formed later in theseason is then known as the late-wood or summerwood. However,

there are major differences,depending on the kind of wood

Knots

A knot is a particular type of imper-fection in a piece of wood; it willaffect the technical properties of thewood, usually for the worse, butmay be exploited for visual effect.

In a longitudinally sawn plank, aknot will appear as a roughly circu-lar "solid" (usually darker) piece of wood around which the grain of therest of the wood "flows" (parts andrejoins). Within a knot, the direc-tion of the wood (grain direction) isup to 90 degrees different from thegrain direction of the regular wood.

In the tree a knot is either the baseof a side branch or a dormant bud.A knot (when the base of a side

branch) is conical in shape (hencethe roughly circular cross-section)with the inner tip at the point instem diameter at which the plant'svascular cambium was locatedwhen the branch formed as a bud.

During the development of a tree,

the lower limbs often die, but mayremain attached for a time, some-times years. Subsequent layers of growth of the attaching stem are nolonger intimately joined with thedead limb, but are grown around it.Hence, dead branches produce

it at right angles to its broadesface. Knots which occur neaends of a beam do not weakSound knots which occur icentral portion one-fourth

height of the beam from eitherare not serious defects.

Knots do not necessarily inflthe stiffness of structural tithis will depend on the sizlocation. Stiffness and estrength are more dependentthe sound wood than upon locdefects. The breaking streng

very susceptible to defects. Sknots do not weaken wood subject to compression paralthe grain.

In some decorative applicawood with knots may be desto add visual interest. In aptions where wood is painted,as skirting boards, fascia bdoor frames and furniture,

present in the timber may conto 'bleed' through to the surfacknot for months or even yearsmanufacture and show as a yor brownish stain. A knot p

paint or solution, correctly apduring preparation, may do mureduce this problem but it is cult to control completely, esply when using mass-produced

dried timber stocks.

Hartwood & Sapwood

Or duramen is wood that as a of a naturally occurring chetransformation has become

knots which are not attached, andlikely to drop out after the tree has

been sawn into boards.

In grading lumber and structural

timber, knots are classified accord-ing to their form, size, soundness,and the firmness with which theyare held in place. This firmness isaffected by, among other factors,the length of time for which the

branch was dead while the attach-ing stem continued to grow.

Wood Knot

Knots materially affect crackingand warping, ease in working, andcleavability of timber. They aredefects which weaken timber andlower its value for structural pur-

poses where strength is an impor-tant consideration. The weakeningeffect is much more serious whentimber is subjected to forces per-

pendicular to the grain and/or ten-sion than where under load alongthe grain and/or compression. Theextent to which knots affect thestrength of a beam depends upontheir position, size, number, andcondition. A knot on the upper sideis compressed, while one on thelower side is subjected to tension. If there is a season check in the knot,as is often the case, it will offer lit-

tle resistance to this tensile stress.Small knots, however, may belocated along the neutral plane of a

beam and increase the strength by preventing longitudinal shearing.Knots in a board or plank are leastinjurious when they extend through


16




resistant to decay. Heartwood for-mation occurs spontaneously (it is agenetically programmed process).Once heartwood formation is com-

plete, the heartwood is dead. Some

uncertainty still exists as to whether heartwood is truly dead, as it canstill chemically react to decayorganisms, but only once.

Usually heartwood looks different;in that case it can be seen on across-section, usually following thegrowth rings in shape. Heartwoodmay (or may not) be much darker

than living wood. It may (or maynot) be sharply distinct from thesapwood. However, other process-es, such as decay, can discolor wood, even in woody plants that donot form heartwood, with a similar color difference, which may lead toconfusion.

Sapwood (or alburnum) is theyounger, outermost wood; in thegrowing tree it is living wood, andits principal functions are to con-duct water from the roots to theleaves and to store up and give back according to the season the reserves

prepared in the leaves. However, bythe time they become competent toconduct water, all xylem tracheidsand vessels have lost their cyto-

plasm and the cells are therefore

functionally dead. All wood in atree is first formed as sapwood. Themore leaves a tree bears and themore vigorous its growth, the larg-er the volume of sapwood required.Hence trees making rapid growth inthe open have thicker sapwood for

the diameter of the upper seare less.

When a tree is very young it iered with limbs almost, i

entirely, to the ground, but grows older some or all of will eventually die and are

broken off or fall off. Subsegrowth of wood may compconceal the stubs which will ever remain as knots. No mhow smooth and clear a log the outside, it is more or less knear the middle. Consequent

sapwood of an old tree, and pularly of a forest-grown tree be freer from knots than the heartwood. Since in most uswood, knots are defects that wen the timber and interfere wease of working and other prties, it follows that a given piesapwood, because of its positthe tree, may well be strongea piece of heartwood from thetree.

It is remarkable that the inner wood of old trees remains as as it usually does, since in cases it is hundreds, and in instances thousands, of yearEvery broken limb or root, orwound from fire, insects, or ftimber, may afford an entran

decay, which, once started, penetrate to all parts of the The larvae of many insectsinto the trees and their turemain indefinitely as sourcweakness. Whatever advanhowever, that sapwood may ha

their size than trees of the samespecies growing in dense forests.Sometimes trees (of species that doform heartwood) grown in the openmay become of considerable size,

30 cm or more in diameter, beforeany heartwood begins to form, for example, in second-growth hicko-ry, or open-grown pines.

The term heartwood derives solelyfrom its position and not from anyvital importance to the tree. This isevidenced by the fact that a tree canthrive with its heart completely

decayed. Some species begin toform heartwood very early in life,so having only a thin layer of livesapwood, while in others thechange comes slowly. Thin sap-wood is characteristic of suchspecies as chestnut, black locust,mulberry, osage-orange, and sas-safras, while in maple, ash, hickory,hackberry, beech, and pine, thick sapwood is the rule. Others never form heartwood.

No definite relation exists betweenthe annual rings of growth and theamount of sapwood. Within thesame species the cross-sectionalarea of the sapwood is very rough-ly proportional to the size of thecrown of the tree. If the rings arenarrow, more of them are required

than where they are wide. As thetree gets larger, the sapwood mustnecessarily become thinner or increase materially in volume.Sapwood is thicker in the upper

portion of the trunk of a tree thannear the base, because the age and


17




this connection are due solely to itsrelative age and position.

If a tree grows all its life in the openand the conditions of soil and site

remain unchanged, it will make itsmost rapid growth in youth, andgradually decline. The annual ringsof growth are for many years quitewide, but later they become nar-rower and narrower. Since eachsucceeding ring is laid down on theoutside of the wood previouslyformed, it follows that unless a treematerially increases its production

of wood from year to year, the ringsmust necessarily become thinner asthe trunk gets wider. As a treereaches maturity its crown becomesmore open and the annual wood

production is lessened, therebyreducing still more the width of thegrowth rings. In the case of forest-grown trees so much depends uponthe competition of the trees in their struggle for light and nourishmentthat periods of rapid and slowgrowth may alternate. Some trees,such as southern oaks, maintain thesame width of ring for hundreds of years. Upon the whole, however, asa tree gets larger in diameter thewidth of the growth rings decreas-es.

Different pieces of wood cut from a

large tree may differ decidedly, par-ticularly if the tree is big andmature. In some trees, the woodlaid on late in the life of a tree issofter, lighter, weaker, and moreeven-textured than that producedearlier, but in other trees, the

being cut. Spruce impregnatedcrude resin and dried is also gincreased in strength thereby.

The wood of Coast Redwood

tinctively red in color

Since the latewood of a growtis usually darker in color thaearlywood, this fact may be u

judging the density, and thethe hardness and strength omaterial. This is particularlcase with coniferous woodring-porous woods the vesse

the early wood not infrequappear on a finished surfadarker than the denser latewthough on cross sections of wood the reverse is commonlyExcept in the manner just statcolor of wood is no indicatistrength.

Abnormal discoloration of often denotes a diseased condindicating unsoundness. The check in western hemlock iresult of insect attacks. Thedish-brown streaks so commhickory and certain other woomostly the result of injury by The discoloration is merely ancation of an injury, and in all ability does not of itself affe

properties of the wood. Certai

producing fungi impart to characteristic colors which

become symptomatic of weakhowever an attractive effect kas spalting produced by this pris often considered a desirableacteristic. Ordinary sap-stain

reverse applies. This may or maynot correspond to heartwood andsapwood. In a large log the sap-wood, because of the time in thelife of the tree when it was grown,

may be inferior in hardness,strength, and toughness to equallysound heartwood from the samelog. In a smaller tree, the reversemay be true.

Color

In species which show a distinctdifference between heartwood and

sapwood the natural color of heart-wood is usually darker than that of the sapwood, and very frequentlythe contrast is conspicuous (seesection of yew log above). This is

produced by deposits in the heart-wood of chemical substances, sothat a dramatic color differencedoes not mean a dramatic differ-ence in the mechanical propertiesof heartwood and sapwood,although there may be a dramaticchemical difference.

Some experiments on very resinousLongleaf Pine specimens indicatean increase in strength, due to theresin which increases the strengthwhen dry. Such resin-saturatedheartwood is called "fat lighter".Structures built of fat lighter are

almost impervious to rot and ter-mites; however they are very flam-mable. Stumps of old longleaf

pines are often dug, split into small pieces and sold as kindling for fires. Stumps thus dug may actual-ly remain a century or more since

Glen O. Brechbill

18




due to fungal growth, but does notnecessarily produce a weakeningeffect.

Water Content

Water occurs in living wood inthree conditions, namely: (1) in thecell walls, (2) in the protoplasmiccontents of the cells, and (3) as freewater in the cell cavities andspaces. In heartwood it occurs onlyin the first and last forms. Woodthat is thoroughly air-dried retains8–16% of the water in the cell

walls, and none, or practicallynone, in the other forms. Evenoven-dried wood retains a small

percentage of moisture, but for allexcept chemical purposes, may beconsidered absolutely dry.

The general effect of the water con-tent upon the wood substance is torender it softer and more pliable. Asimilar effect of common observa-tion is in the softening action of water on paper or cloth. Within cer-tain limits, the greater the water content, the greater its softeningeffect.

Drying produces a decided increasein the strength of wood, particular-ly in small specimens. An extremeexample is the case of a completely

dry spruce block 5 cm in section,which will sustain a permanent loadfour times as great as a green(undried) block of the same sizewill.

The greatest strength increase due

divide them into two large clring-porous and diffuse-pororing-porous species, such as

black locust, catalpa, chestnuthickory, mulberry, and oak

larger vessels or pores (as sections of vessels are calledlocalised in the part of the gring formed in spring, thus foa region of more or less ope

porous tissue. The rest of the produced in summer, is madesmaller vessels and a much g

proportion of wood fibers. fiber are the elements which

strength and toughness to wwhile the vessels are a sourweakness.

In diffuse-porous woods the are evenly sized so that the conducting capability is scathroughout the growth ring inof being collected in a band oExamples of this kind of woo

basswood, birch, buckeye, m poplar, and willow. Some spsuch as walnut and cherry, athe border between the two clforming an intermediate group

Earlywood and latewood inwood

In temperate softwoods thereis a marked difference bet

latewood and earlywood. Thewood will be denser thanformed early in the season. examined under a microscopcells of dense latewood are se

be very thick-walled and withsmall cell cavities, while

to drying is in the ultimate crushingstrength, and strength at elasticlimit in endwise compression; theseare followed by the modulus of rup-ture, and stress at elastic limit in

cross-bending, while the modulusof elasticity is least affected.

Structure

Wood is a heterogeneous, hygro-scopic, cellular and anisotropicmaterial. It is composed of cells,and the cell walls are composed of micro-fibrils of cellulose (40% –

50%) and hemicellulose (15% – 25%) impregnated with lignin(15% – 30%).

Sections of tree trunk

A tree trunk as found at the Veluwe, Netherlands

In coniferous or softwood speciesthe wood cells are mostly of onekind, tracheids, and as a result thematerial is much more uniform instructure than that of most hard-woods. There are no vessels("pores") in coniferous wood suchas one sees so prominently in oak and ash, for example.

The structure of hardwoods is morecomplex. The water conducting

capability is mostly taken care of by vessels: in some cases (oak,chestnut, ash) these are quite largeand distinct, in others (buckeye,

poplar, willow) too small to be seenwithout a hand lens. In discussingsuch woods it is customary to


19




Glen O. Brechbill

formed first in the season have thinwalls and large cell cavities. Thestrength is in the walls, not the cav-ities. Hence the greater the propor-tion of latewood the greater the

density and strength. In choosing a piece of pine where strength or stiffness is the important considera-tion, the principal thing to observeis the comparative amounts of ear-lywood and latewood. The width of ring is not nearly so important asthe proportion and nature of thelatewood in the ring.

If a heavy piece of pine is compared with a lightweight piece itwill be seen at once that the heavier one contains a larger proportion of latewood than the other, and istherefore showing more clearlydemarcated growth rings. In white

pines there is not much contrast between the different parts of thering, and as a result the wood isvery uniform in texture and is easyto work. In hard pines, on the other hand, the latewood is very denseand is deep-colored, presenting avery decided contrast to the soft,straw-colored earlywood.

It is not only the proportion of late-wood, but also its quality, thatcounts. In specimens that show avery large proportion of latewood it

may be noticeably more porous andweigh considerably less than thelatewood in pieces that contain butlittle. One can judge comparativedensity, and therefore to someextent strength, by visual inspec-tion.

stronger, and stiffer the wood.it must be remembered, aponly to ring-porous woods suoak, ash, hickory, and others same group, and is, of course

ject to some exceptions and ltions.

In ring-porous woods of growth it is usually the latewowhich the thick-walled, stregiving fibers are most abundathe breadth of ring diminishelatewood is reduced so thatslow growth produces com

tively light, porous wood comof thin-walled vessels and parenchyma. In good oak large vessels of the earlyoccupy from 6 to 10 percent volume of the log, while in inmaterial they may make up 25more. The latewood of good dark colored and firm, and comostly of thick-walled fibers wform one-half or more of the wIn inferior oak, this latewomuch reduced both in quantitquality. Such variation is largely the result of rate of gr

Wide-ringed wood is often "second-growth", becausegrowth of the young timber instands after the old trees haveremoved is more rapid than in

in a closed forest, and in the mfacture of articles where strenan important consideration "second-growth" hardwood mal is preferred. This is particthe case in the choice of hickohandles and spokes. Here no

No satisfactory explanation can asyet be given for the exact mecha-nisms determining the formation of earlywood and latewood. Severalfactors may be involved. In

conifers, at least, rate of growthalone does not determine the pro-

portion of the two portions of thering, for in some cases the wood of slow growth is very hard andheavy, while in others the oppositeis true. The quality of the site wherethe tree grows undoubtedly affectsthe character of the wood formed,though it is not possible to formu-

late a rule governing it. In general,however, it may be said that wherestrength or ease of working isessential, woods of moderate toslow growth should be chosen.

Earlywood and latewood in ring- porous woods

Earlywood and latewood in a ring- porous wood (ash) in a Fraxinusexcelsior; tangential view, widegrowth rings

In ring-porous woods each season'sgrowth is always well defined,

because the large pores formedearly in the season abut on thedenser tissue of the year before.

In the case of the ring-porous hard-

woods there seems to exist a prettydefinite relation between the rate of growth of timber and its properties.This may be briefly summed up inthe general statement that the morerapid the growth or the wider therings of growth, the heavier, harder,

20





strength, but toughness andresilience are important. The resultsof a series of tests on hickory by theU.S. Forest Service show that:

"The work or shock-resisting abili-ty is greatest in wide-ringed woodthat has from 5 to 14 rings per inch(rings 1.8-5 mm thick), is fairlyconstant from 14 to 38 rings per inch (rings 0.7–1.8 mm thick), anddecreases rapidly from 38 to 47rings per inch (rings 0.5–0.7 mmthick). The strength at maximumload is not so great with the most

rapid-growing wood; it is maxi-mum with from 14 to 20 rings per inch (rings 1.3–1.8 mm thick), andagain becomes less as the wood

becomes more closely ringed. Thenatural deduction is that wood of first-class mechanical value showsfrom 5 to 20 rings per inch (rings1.3–5 mm thick) and that slower growth yields poorer stock. Thusthe inspector or buyer of hickoryshould discriminate against timber that has more than 20 rings per inch(rings less than 1.3 mm thick).Exceptions exist, however, in thecase of normal growth upon dry sit-uations, in which the slow-growingmaterial may be strong and tough."

The effect of rate of growth on thequalities of chestnut wood is sum-

marised by the same authority asfollows:

"When the rings are wide, the tran-sition from spring wood to summer wood is gradual, while in the nar-row rings the spring wood passes

lected in the earlywood. The of rate of growth is, thereforthe same as in the ring-pwoods, approaching more nthe conditions in the conife

general it may be stated thatwoods of medium growth astronger material than whenrapidly or very slowly growmany uses of wood, total strennot the main consideration. Iof working is prized, wood s

be chosen with regard to its umity of texture and straightnegrain, which will in most

occur when there is little co between the latewood of oneson's growth and the earlywothe next.

Monocot Wood

Trunks of the Coconut pamonocot, in Java. From thisspective these look not much dent from trunks of a dicot or co

Structural material that roughits gross handling characterresembles ordinary, "dicoconifer wood is produced number of monocot plantsthese also are colloquially wood. Of these, bamboo, botaly a member of the grass familconsiderable economic impor

larger culms being widely use building and construction main their own right and, these in the manufacture of enginflooring, panels and veAnother major plant group thaduce material that often is

into summer wood abruptly. Thewidth of the spring wood changes

but little with the width of theannual ring, so that the narrowingor broadening of the annual ring is

always at the expense of the sum-mer wood. The narrow vessels of the summer wood make it richer inwood substance than the springwood composed of wide vessels.Therefore, rapid-growing speci-mens with wide rings have morewood substance than slow-growingtrees with narrow rings. Since themore the wood substance the

greater the weight, and the greater the weight the stronger the wood,chestnuts with wide rings musthave stronger wood than chestnutswith narrow rings. This agrees withthe accepted view that sprouts(which always have wide rings)yield better and stronger wood thanseedling chestnuts, which growmore slowly in diameter."

Earlywood and latewood in diffuse- porous woods

In the diffuse-porous woods, thedemarcation between rings is notalways so clear and in some cases isalmost (if not entirely) invisible tothe unaided eye. Conversely, whenthere is a clear demarcation theremay not be a noticeable difference

in structure within the growth ring.

In diffuse-porous woods, as has been stated, the vessels or pores areeven-sized, so that the water con-ducting capability is scatteredthroughout the ring instead of col-

21




wood are the palms. Of much lessimportance are plants such asPandanus, Dracaena and Cordyline.With all this material, the structureand composition of the structural

material is quite different fromordinary wood.

Hard & Soft Woods

There is a strong relationship between the properties of wood andthe properties of the particular treethat yielded it. The density of woodvaries with species. The density of

a wood correlates with its strength(mechanical properties). For example, mahogany is a medium-densehardwood that is excellent for finefurniture crafting, whereas balsa islight, making it useful for model

building. One of the densest woodsis black ironwood.

It is common to classify wood aseither softwood or hardwood. Thewood from conifers (e.g. pine) iscalled softwood, and the woodfrom dicotyledons (usually broad-leaved trees, e.g. oak) is calledhardwood. These names are a bitmisleading, as hardwoods are notnecessarily hard, and softwoods arenot necessarily soft. The well-known balsa (a hardwood) is actu-ally softer than any commercial

softwood. Conversely, some soft-woods (e.g. yew) are harder thanmany hardwoods.

Chemistry of Wood

Aside from water, wood has three

wood extractives are fatty resin acids, waxes and terpFor example, rosin is exudeconifers as protection from inThe extraction of these or

materials from wood provideoil, terpentine, and rosin.

Uses

Fuel

Wood has a long history of used as fuel, which continuthis day, mostly in rural areas

world. Hardwood is preferredsoftwood because it createssmoke and burns longer. Addwoodstove or fireplace to a hooften felt to add ambiancewarmth.

Construction

Wood has been an importantstruction material since hu

began building shelters, house boats. Nearly all boats were out of wood until the late 19thtury, and wood remains in comuse today in boat construction

Wood to be used for construwork is commonly known as

ber in North America. Elsewlumber usually refers to

trees, and the word for sawn pready for use is timber.

New domestic housing in parts of the world today is monly made from timber-frconstruction. Engineered

main components. Cellulose, acrystalline polymer derived fromglucose, constitutes about 41–43%.

Next in abundance is hemicellu-lose, which is around 20% in decid-

uous trees but near 30% in conifers.It is mainly five-carbon sugars thatare linked in an irregular manner, incontrast to the cellulose. Lignin isthe third component at around 27%in coniferous wood vs 23% indeciduous trees. Lignin confers thehydrophobic properties reflectingthe fact that it is based on aromaticrings. These three components are

interwoven, and direct covalentlinkages exist between the ligninand the hemicellulose. A major focus of the paper industry is theseparation of the lignin from thecellulose, from which paper ismade.

Chemical structure of lignin, whichcomprises approximately 30% of wood and is responsible for manyof its properties.

In chemical terms, the difference between hardwood and softwood isreflected in the composition of theconstituent lignin. Hardwood ligninis primarily derived from sinapylalcohol and coniferyl alcohol.Softwood lignin is mainly derivedfrom coniferyl alcohol.

Extractives

Aside from the lignocellulose,wood consists of a variety of lowmolecular weight organic com-

pounds, called extractives. The

Glen O. Brechbill

22




products are becoming a bigger partof the construction industry. Theymay be used in both residential andcommercial buildings as structuraland aesthetic materials.

In buildings made of other materi-als, wood will still be found as asupporting material, especially inroof construction, in interior doorsand their frames, and as exterior cladding.

Wood is also commonly used asshuttering material to form the

mould into which concrete is poured during reinforced concreteconstruction.

Furniture and Utensils

Wood has always been used exten-sively for furniture, such as chairsand beds. Also for tool handles andcutlery, such as chopsticks, tooth-

picks, and other utensils, like thewooden spoon.

Engineered Wood

Products, glued building products"engineered" for application-spe-cific performance requirements, areoften used in construction andindustrial applications. Glued engi-neered wood products are manufac-

tured by bonding together woodstrands, veneers, lumber or other forms of wood fiber with glue toform a larger, more efficient com-

posite structural unit. These prod-ucts include glued laminated timber (glulam), wood structural panels

its native form may be bdown mechanically (into fibchips) or chemically (into lose) and used as a raw materiother building materials, su

engineered wood, as well as board, hardboard, and meddensity fiberboard (MDF). wood derivatives are widely wood fibers are an important

ponent of most paper, and celis used as a component of synthetic materials. Wood dtives can also be used for kinflooring, for example lam

flooring.

Next Generation Wood Prod

Further developments includelignin glue applications, recyfood packaging, rubber tire repment applications, anti-bacmedical agents, and high strfabrics or composites. As scieand engineers further learndevelop new techniques to evarious components from woalternatively to modify wooexample by adding componewood, new more advanced ucts will appear on the m

place.

In the Arts

Main article: Wood as a medi

Wood has long been used artistic medium. It has been umake sculptures and carvingmillennia. Examples includtotem poles carved by N

(including plywood, oriented strand board and composite panels), lami-nated veneer lumber (LVL) andother structural composite lumber (SCL) products, parallel strand

lumber, and I-joists. Approximately100 million cubic meters of woodwas consumed for this purpose in1991. The trends suggest that parti-cle board and fiber board will over-take plywood.

Engineered wood products displayhighly predictable and reliable per-formance characteristics and pro-

vide enhanced design flexibility: onone hand, these products allow theuse of smaller pieces, and on theother hand, they allow for bigger spans. They may also be selectedfor specific projects such as publicswimming pools or ice rinks wherethe wood will not deteriorate in the

presence of certain chemicals, andare less susceptible to the humiditychanges commonly found in theseenvironments.

Engineered wood products prove to be more environmentally friendlyand, if used appropriately, are oftenless expensive than building mate-rials such as steel or concrete.These products are extremelyresource-efficient because they usemore of the available resource with

minimal waste. In most cases, engi-neered wood products are producedusing faster growing and oftenunderutilized wood species frommanaged forests and tree farms.

Wood unsuitable for construction in


23



American indigenous people fromconifer trunks, often Western RedCedar (Thuja plicata), and theMillennium clock tower, nowhoused in the National Museum of

Scotland in Edinburgh.

It is also used in woodcut printmak-ing, and for engraving.

Certain types of musical instru-ments, such as those of the violinfamily, the guitar, the clarinet andrecorder, the xylophone, and themarimba, are made mostly or

entirely of wood. The choice of wood may make a significant dif-ference to the tone and resonantqualities of the instrument, andtonewoods have widely differing

properties, ranging from the hardand dense african blackwood (usedfor the bodies of clarinets) to thelight but resonant European spruce(Picea abies) (traditionally used for the soundboards of violins). Themost valuable tonewoods, such asthe ripple sycamore (Acer pseudo-

platanus), used for the backs of vio-lins, combine acoustic propertieswith decorative color and grainwhich enhance the appearance of the finished instrument.

Despite their collective name, notall woodwind instruments are made

entirely of wood. The reeds used to play them, however, are usuallymade from Arundo donax, a type of monocot cane plant.

Sports & Recreational Equipment

Many types of sports equipment aremade of wood, or were constructedof wood in the past. For example,

cricket bats are typically made of white willow. The baseball batswhich are legal for use in Major League Baseball are frequentlymade of ash wood or hickory, andin recent years have been construct-ed from maple even though thatwood is somewhat more fragile. Insoftball, however, bats are morecommonly made of aluminium

(this is especially true for fastpitchsoftball).

Many other types of sports andrecreation equipment, such as skis,ice hockey sticks, lacrosse sticksand archery bows, were commonlymade of wood in the past, but havesince been replaced with moremodern materials such as alumini-um, fiberglass, carbon fiber, titani-um, and composite materials. Onenoteworthy example of this trend isthe golf club commonly known asthe wood, the head of which wastraditionally made of persimmonwood in the early days of the gameof golf, but is now generally madeof synthetic materials.

Medicine

In January 2010 Italian scientistsannounced that wood could be har-nessed to become a bone substitute.It is likely to take at least five yearsuntil this technique will be appliedfor humans.

Glen O. Brechbill

24



Woods:

Abies AlbaAgarwood ( Oud )Amber

Amyris

BalsamBirch

CadeCedar

Fir

Guaiacwood

Mahogany

Oakmoss

PatchouliPine

SandalwoodSilver Fir Spruce

Teak Tree MossTurpentine

Vetiver

Woody Notes - A Reference Book

on Fragrance Ingredients

AbalynAllyl IononeAloe Vera Lupo Quinon ExtractAlpha PineneAmbergris T OliffacAmphermate

Heptavert

Ionone BetaIononesIraldeine Beta

Iris ResinIso Bornyl AcetateIso Cyclomene EIso E Super Iso LongifolanoneIso Methyl Cedryl Ketone A

Kephalis LRG - 1182KoavoneKohinool

Linalool Oxide

MadroxMenthanyl AcetateMenthol RacemicMerionMethyl Cedryl KetoneMethyl Ionone BetaMethyl Ionone Beta Coeur Methyl Ionone Gamma AMethyl Ionone Gamma SupreMethyl Ionone TailsMethyl Ionone TerpenesMethyl IononesMousse De Chenne Abs.Mousse De MetraMoussyl 1055

Nerolidyl Acetate Nopol

Nopyl Acetate Norsdandyl 81157

OrivoneOrtho Methyl Cinnamic AldeOsyrol

Amyris AcetateAmyris Oil W.I.

BacdanolBeachwood Cresote

BenteineBeta PineneBirch Leaf OilBirch Tar OilBois Ambrene ForteBrahmanol

Cabreuva OilCade OilCadinene

CalamusCedarwood AlcoholCedarwood Oil TerpenelessCedarwood Oil Texas CrudeCedarwood Oil VirginiaCedramber CedreneCedrenolCedrol CrystalsCedrenyl AcetateCedryl AcetateCitronella Oil CeylonCortex AldehydeCostus OilCubeb OilCypress Oil

Di Hydro Cuminyl Alcohol

Fir Needle Balsam ResinFir Needle Siberian

FixolideFleuroxene

Ginger OilGuaicolGuaicwood AcetateGurjan Balsam Oil


25



Parsley Seed OilPatchonePatchouli Dark PetitgrainolPhenyl Acetaldehyde

Pine Oil Yarmor # 302Polarsan

RosemaryRose Nitrile

SandaloreSandelaSandalwood EssenceSandalwood 77.125B

Sandalwood Oil East IndiesSandalwood Oil AustralianSandranolSantalolSantalum CitrinumSantalyl Acetate

ThiazylTree Moss Abs.TrimofixTurpentine SDW

Unipine 85Unipine 90Unitene D

Valanone BVanorisVertenexVertofix Coeur Vetiverol

Vetivert Oil BourbonVetiveryl Acetate

Woodine

Glen O. Brechbill

26



Abies Alba

Abies alba, the silver fir or European silver fir, is a fir native tothe mountains of Europe, from thePyrenees north to Normandy, eastto the Alps and the Carpathians,

and south to southern Italy andnorthern Serbia

A. alba is a large evergreen conifer-ous tree growing to 40–50 m(exceptionally 60 m) tall and with atrunk diameter of up to 1.5 m. Thelargest measured tree was 68 m talland had a trunk diameter of 3.8 m.It occurs at altitudes of 300-1,700m (mainly over 500 m), on moun-tains with a rainfall of over 1,000mm.

The leaves are needle-like, flat-tened, 1.8–3 cm long and 2 mmwide by 0.5 mm thick, glossy dark green above, and with two green-ish-white bands of stomata below.The tip of the leaf is usually slight-ly notched at the tip. The cones are

9–17 cm long and 3–4 cm broad,with about 150-200 scales, eachscale with an exserted bract andtwo winged seeds; they disintegratewhen mature to release theseeds.[citation needed] The wood iswhite, leading to the species name

extracted. This pine-scented osoothing qualities, and is us

perfumes, bath products, aerosol inhalants.

Silver Fir is the species first ua Christmas tree, but has largely replaced by Nordman(which has denser, more attrfoliage), Norway Spruce (whmuch cheaper to grow), and species. The wood is modesoft and white, used for gconstruction and paper manture.

"alba".

It tends to forms woods with other firs and beeches. It is closely relat-ed to Bulgarian Fir (Abies borisi-

iregis) further to the southeast inthe Balkan Peninsula, and SicilianFir (A. nebrodensis) in Sicily, dif-fering from these and other relatedEuro-Mediterranean firs in thesparser foliage, with the leavesspread either side of the shoot,leaving the shoot readily visiblefrom above. Some botanists treatBulgarian Fir and Sicilian Fir asvarieties of Silver Fir, as A. albavar. acutifolia and A. alba var.nebrodensis respectively.

Ecology and Uses

Silver Fir is an important compo-nent species in the Dinaric calcare-ous Silver Fir forest in the westernBalkan Peninsula.

Its cone scales are used as food bythe caterpillars of the tortrix mothCydia illutana, while C. duplicanafeeds on the bark around injuries or canker.

A resinous essential oil can be


27



Agarwood or oodh (or just agar) isa dark resinous heartwood thatforms in Aquilaria and Gyrinopstrees (large evergreens native tosoutheast Asia) when they become

infected with a type of mold. Prior to infection, the heartwood is rela-tively light and pale coloured; how-ever, as the infection progresses,the tree produces a dark aromaticresin in response to the attack,which results in a very dense, dark,resin embedded heartwood. Theresin embedded wood is commonlycalled gaharu, jinko, aloeswood,agarwood, or oud (not to be con-fused with 'Bakhoor') and is valuedin many cultures for its distinctivefragrance, and thus is used for incense and perfumes.

One of the reasons for the relativerarity and high cost of agarwood isthe depletion of the wild resource.Since 1995 Aquilaria malaccensis,the primary source, has been listed

in Appendix II (potentially threat-ened species) by the Convention onInternational Trade in EndangeredSpecies of Wild Fauna and Flora. In2004 all Aquilaria species were list-ed in Appendix II; however, a num-

ber of countries have outstanding

(very similar but slightly hardeslightly more abundant), and wood proper. A pound of Cala

bought in Ho^.i An for 15could be sold in Nagasaki fo

taels. The Nguye^~n Lords established a Royal Monopolythe sale of Calambac. This moly helped fund the Nguye^~nfinances during the early yethe Nguyen rule.

Xuanzang's travelogues anHarshacharita, written in secentury AD in Northern mentions use of agarwood prosuch as 'Xasipat' (writing-maand 'aloe-oil' in ancient A(Kamarupa). The tradition ofing writing materials from itsstill exists in Assam.

Etymology

Agarwood is known under names in different cultures:

In Hindi (India), it is knowagar, which is originally Saaguru (in Bengali, also aguru)

It is known by the same Saname in Telugu and Kanna

reservations regarding that listing.

History

The odour of agarwood is complex

and pleasing, with few or no similar natural analogues. As a result, agar-wood and its essential oil gainedgreat cultural and religious signifi-cance in ancient civilizationsaround the world, being mentionedthroughout one of the world's old-est written texts - the SanskritVedas from India.

As early as the third century AD inancient China, the chronicle Nanzhou yi wu zhi (Strange things fromthe South) written by Wa Zhen of the Eastern Wu Dynasty mentionedagarwood produced in the Rinancommandery, now CentralVietnam, and how people collectedit in the mountains.

Starting in 1580 after Nguye^~n

Hoàng took control over the central provinces of modern Vietnam, heencouraged trade with other coun-tries, specifically China and Japan.Agarwood was exported in threevarieties: Calambac (ky` nam inVietnamese), tra^`m hu+o+ng

Agarwood ( Oud )

Glen O. Brechbill

28



Aguru.

It is known as chénxia-ngin Chinese, tra^`m hu + o + ng inVietnamese, and jinko -

in Japanese; all meaning "sinkingincense" and alluding to its highdensity. In Japan, there are severalgrades of jinko-, the highest of which is known as kyara.

Both agarwood and its resin distil-late/extracts are known as oud inArabic (literally "rod/stick") andused to describe agarwood in

nations and areas in Arabic coun-tries. Western perfumers may alsouse agarwood essential oil under the name "oud" or "oude".

In Europe it was referred to asLignum aquila (eagle-wood) or Agilawood, because of the similar-ity in sound of agila to gaharu.

Another name is Lignum aloes or Aloeswood. This is potentially con-fusing, since a genus Aloe exists(unrelated), which has medicinaluses.

In Tibetan it is known as (a-ga-ru).There are several varieties used inTibetan Medicine: unique eagle-wood: (ar-ba-zhig); yellow eagle-wood: (a-ga-ru ser-po), white

eaglewood: (ar-skya), and black eaglewood: (ar-nag).

In Assamese it is called as "sasi" or "sashi".

The Indonesian and Malay name is

colour, the resin dramatincreases the mass and densthe affected wood, changincolour from a pale beige to

brown or black. In natural

only about 7% of the treeinfected by the fungus. A commethod in artificial forestry inoculate all the trees with thegus.

Aquilaria species that proagarwood

Aquilaria khasiana, found in I

Aquilaria apiculina, founPhilippines

Aquilaria acuminata, founPapua New Guinea, IndonePhilippines

Aquilaria baillonil, founThailand and Cambodia

Aquilaria baneonsis, founVietnam

Aquilaria beccariana, founIndonesia

Aquilaria brachyantha, founMalaysia

Aquilaria crassna found

Cambodia, Malaysia, ThailanVietnam

Aquilaria cumingiana, founIndonesia and Malaysia

Aquilaria filaria, found in

"gaharu".

In Papua New Guinea it is called"ghara" or eaglewood.

In Thai language it is known as"Mai Kritsana".

In Tamil it is called "akil" thoughwhat was referred in ancient Tamilliterature could well be Excoecariaagallocha.

In Laos it is known as "MaiKetsana".

Formation

There are fifteen species in thegenus Aquilaria and eight areknown to produce agarwood. Intheory agarwood can be producedfrom all members; however, untilrecently it was primarily producedfrom A. malaccensis. A. agallochaand A. secundaria are synonyms for A. malaccensis. A. crassna and A.sinensis are the other two membersof the genus that are usually har-vested.

Formation of agarwood occurs inthe trunk and roots of trees thathave been infected by a parasitcascomycetous mold, Phae-oacre-monium parasitica, a dematiaceous

(dark-walled) fungus. As aresponse, the tree produces a resinhigh in volatile organic compoundsthat aids in suppressing or retardingthe fungal growth, a process calledtylosis. While the unaffected woodof the tree is relatively light in


29



Guinea, the Moluccas, andMindanao (Philippines).

Aquilaria grandiflora, found inChina

Aquilaria hirta, found in Thailand,Indonesia and Malaysia

Aquilaria malaccensis, found inMalaysia, Thailand, and India

Aquilaria microcapa, found inIndonesia and Malaysia

Aquilaria rostrata, found inMalaysia

Aquilaria sinensis, found in China

Aquilaria subintegra, found inThailand

Conservation of agarwood-produc-ing species

Overharvesting and habitat lossthreatens some populations of agar-wood-producing species. Concernover the impact of the globaldemand for agarwood has thus ledto the inclusion of the main taxa onCites Appendix II, which requiresthat international trade in agarwoodis subject to controls designed toensure that harvest and exports are

not to the detriment of the survivalof the species in the wild.

In addition, agarwood plantationshave been established in a number of countries. The success of these

plantation depends on the stimula-

tion of agarwood production in thetrees. Numerous inoculation tech-niques have been developed, withvarying degrees of success

Glen O. Brechbill

30



Amber

Is fossilized tree resin (not sap),which has been appreciated for itscolor and natural beauty since

Neolithic times. Amber is used asan ingredient in perfumes, as a

healing agent in folk medicine, andas jewelry. There are five classes of amber, defined on the basis of their chemical constituents. Because itoriginates as a soft, sticky treeresin, amber sometimes containsanimal and plant material as inclu-sions. Amber occurring in coalseams is also called resinite, andthe term ambrite is applied to thatfound specifically within NewZealand coal seams.

History & Etymology

The English word amber derivesfrom the Arabic anbar, viaMedieval Latin ambar and OldFrench ambre. The word originallyreferred to a precious oil derivedfrom the Sperm whale (now called

ambergris). The sense was extend-ed to fossil resin circa 1400, andthis became the main sense, as theuse of ambergris waned. The twosubstances were confused, becausethey both were found washed up on

beaches. Ambergris is less dense

people of Germany, inhabishores of an estuary of the Ocalled Mentonomon, their terextending a distance of six sand stadia; that, at one day

from this territory, is the IsAbalus, upon the shores of wamber is thrown up by the waspring, it being an excretion sea in a concrete form; as, alsothe inhabitants use this ambway of fuel, and sell it toneighbors, the Teutones.

While amber is not actually nait is called the concreti maris pmentum, "the leavings of the fsea" after the spring melt. Diouses e-lektron, the Greek woamber, the object that gave itsto electricity through its abilacquire a charge. Pliny is pring an archaic view, as in hisamber was a precious stone brfrom the Baltic at great exp

but the Germans, he says, use

firewood, according to Pythea

Earlier Pliny says that a large iof three days' sail from the Scycoast called Balcia by XenophLampsacus is called BasilPytheas. It is generally under

than water and floats, whereasamber is less dense than stone, buttoo dense to float. The word ambar was brought to Europe by theCrusaders. In French ambre gris

(lit. gray amber), became used for ambergris, while ambre jaune (yel-low amber), denoted the fossil resinwe now call amber.

Amber is discussed byTheophrastus, possibly the first his-torical mention of the material, inthe 4th century BC. The Greek name for amber was (elektron),"formed by the sun", and it wasconnected to the sun god (Helios),one of whose titles was Elector or the Awakener. According to themyth, when Helios' son Phaëtonwas killed, his mourning sisters

became poplars, and their tears became the origin of elektron,amber.

Another early reference to Amber

was Pytheas (330 BC) whose work "On the Ocean" is lost, but was ref-erenced by Pliny. According to The

Natural History" by Pliny theElder:

Pytheas says that the Gutones, a


31



to be the same as Abalus. Based onthe amber, the island could have

been Heligoland, Zealand, theshores of Bay of Gdansk, Sambiaor the Curonian Lagoon, which

were historically the richest sourcesof amber in northern Europe. Thisis the earliest use of Germania.

The modern terms "electricity" and"electron" derive from the Greek word for amber, and come fromWilliam Gilbert's research showingthat amber could attract other sub-stances. The word "electron" was

coined in 1891 by the Irish physi-cist George Stoney whilst analyz-ing elementary charges for the firsttime.

The presence of insects in amber was noticed by Pliny the Elder inhis Naturalis Historia, and led himto theorize correctly that, at some

point, amber had to be in a liquidstate to cover the bodies of insects.Hence he gave it the expressivename of succinum or gum-stone, aname that is still in use today todescribe succinic acid as well assuccinite, a term given to a particu-lar type of amber by James DwightDana (see below under BalticAmber).

Heating amber will soften it and

eventually it will burn, which iswhy in Germanic languages theword for amber is a literal transla-tion of burn-Stone (nl. barnsteen,de. Bernstein, the latter of whichthe Polish word bursztyn or theHungarian borostyán derives from).

sors in the labdane familycommunic acid, cummunol

biformene. These labdanesditerpenes (C20H32) and trequipping the organic skeleton

three alkene groups for polymtion. As amber matures oveyears, more polymerization

place as well as isomerizationtions, crosslinking and cycliza

The average composition of aleads to the general foC10H16O.

Formation

Molecular polymerization, ring from high pressures and

peratures produced by oversediment, transforms the resininto copal. Sustained heat andsure drives off terpenes and rin the formation of amber.

Botanical Origin

Fossil resins from Europe faltwo categories, the famous ambers and another that resethe Agathis group. Fossil from the Americas and Africclosely related to the modern Hymenaea, while Baltic ambethought to be fossil resins Sciadopityaceae family plant

used to live in north Europe.

Inclusions

The abnormal development ofhas been called succinImpurities are quite often pr

Heated above 200 °C, amber suf-fers decomposition, yielding an "oilof amber", and leaving a black residue which is known as "amber colophony", or "amber pitch";

when dissolved in oil of turpentineor in linseed oil this forms "amber varnish" or "amber lac".

Amber from the Baltic Sea has been extensively traded along theAmber Road since antiquity; and inthe mainland, from where amber was traded 2000 years ago, thenatives called it glaes (referring to

its see-through quality similar toglass).

The Baltic Lithuanian term for amber is Gintaras and LatvianDzintars. They, and the Slavic jan-tar or Hungarian gyanta ('resin'),are thought to originate fromPhoenician jainitar (sea-resin).While most Slavic languages,including Russian and Czech,retain the old Slavic word, in thePolish language, jantar, while cor-rect, is used very rarely (even con-sidered archaic) and was replaced

by the word bursztyn, derivingfrom the German term, Bernstein.

Composition and Formation

Amber is heterogeneous in compo-

sition, but consists of severalresinous bodies more or less solu-

ble in alcohol, ether and chloro-form, associated with an insoluble

bituminous substance. Amber is amacromolecule by free radical

polymerization of several precur-

Glen O. Brechbill

32



especially when the resin droppedon to the ground, so that the materi-al may be useless except for var-nish-making, whence the impureamber is called firniss. Enclosures

of pyrites may give a bluish color toamber. The so-called black amber is only a kind of jet. Bony amber owes its cloudy opacity to minute

bubbles in the interior of the resin.

In darkly clouded and even opaqueamber, inclusions can be imagedusing high-energy, high-contrast,high-resolution X-rays.

Extraction and Processing

Distribution and Mining

Amber is globally distributed,mainly in rocks of Cretaceous ageor younger. Historically, the coastaround Königsberg in Prussia wasthe world's leading source of amber. About 90% of the world'sextractable amber is still located inthe Kaliningrad Oblast of Russia onthe Baltic Sea (which was previous-ly Königsberg in Prussia, beforeWorld War II).

Pieces of amber torn from theseafloor are cast up by the waves,and collected by hand, dredging, or diving. Elsewhere, amber is mined,

both in open works and under-ground galleries. Then nodules of

blue earth have to be removed andan opaque crust must be cleanedoff, which can be done in revolving

barrels containing sand and water.Erosion removes this crust from

for smoking. This pressed ayields brilliant interference cin polarized light. Amber has

been imitated by other resincopal and kauri, as well as by

loid and even glass. Baltic amsometimes colored artificiallyalso called "true amber".

Appearance

Amber occurs in a range of dent colors. As well as the usualow-orange-brown that is assed with the color "amber", a

itself can range from a wcolor through a pale lemon yeto brown and almost black. more uncommon colors includamber (sometimes known as "ry amber"), green amber, and

blue amber, which is rare andly sought after.

Much of the most highly-pamber is transparent, in contrthe very common cloudy ambeopaque amber. Opaque ambertains numerous minute bubThis kind of amber is know"bony amber".

Although all Dominican amfluorescent, the rarest Domiamber is blue amber. It turns bnatural sunlight and any othe

tially or wholly ultraviolet source. In long-wave UV lihas a very strong reflection, awhite. Only about 100 kg is

per year, which makes it vaand expensive.

sea-worn amber.

Dominican amber, especiallyDominican blue amber, is minedthrough bell pitting, which is dan-

gerous due to the risk of tunnel col-lapse.

Treatment

This unreferenced section requirescitations to ensure verifiability.

The Vienna amber factories, whichuse pale amber to manufacture

pipes and other smoking tools, turnit on a lathe and polish it withwhitening and water or with rottenstone and oil. The final lustre isgiven by friction with flannel.

When gradually heated in an oil- bath, amber becomes soft and flex-ible. Two pieces of amber may beunited by smearing the surfaceswith linseed oil, heating them, andthen pressing them together whilehot. Cloudy amber may be clarifiedin an oil-bath, as the oil fills thenumerous pores to which the tur-

bidity is due. Small fragments, for-merly thrown away or used only for varnish, are now used on a largescale in the formation of "amberoid" or "pressed amber".The pieces are carefully heated

with exclusion of air and then compressed into a uniform mass byintense hydraulic pressure; the soft-ened amber being forced throughholes in a metal plate. The productis extensively used for the produc-tion of cheap jewelry and articles


33



Sometimes amber retains the formof drops and stalactites, just as itexuded from the ducts and recepta-cles of the injured trees. It isthought that, in addition to exuding

onto the surface of the tree, amber resin also originally flowed intohollow cavities or cracks withintrees, thereby leading to the devel-opment of large lumps of amber of irregular form.

Classification

Amber can be classified into sever-

al forms. Most fundamentally, thereare two types of plant resin with the potential for fossilization.Terpenoids, produced by conifersand angiosperms, consist of ringstructures formed of isoprene(C5H8) units. Phenolic resins aretoday only produced byangiosperms, and tend to servefunctional uses. The extinct medul-losans produced a third type of resin, which is often found asamber within their veins. The com-

position of resins is highly variable;each species produces a unique

blend of chemicals which can beidentified by the use of pyroly-sis–gas chromatography–massspectrometry. The overall chemicaland structural composition is usedto divide ambers into five class-

es.There is also a separate classifi-cations of amber gemstones,according to the way of production.

Class I

This class is by far the most abun-

based on communic acid; howthey lack succinic acid.

Ic

This class is mainly based on tio-labdatrienonic acids, suozic and zanzibaric acids. Itsfamiliar representative Dominican amber.

Dominican amber differenitself from Baltic amber by mostly transparent and oftentaining a higher number of

inclusions. This has enabledetailed reconstruction ofecosystem of a long-vanishedical forest. Resin from the especies Hymenaea protera isource of Dominican ambe

probably of most amber fouthe tropics. It is not "succinite"retinite".

Class II

These ambers are formed resins with a sesquiterpenoidsuch as cadinene.

Class III

These ambers are polystyrene

Class IV

This class is something of a w basket; its ambers are not polized, but mainly consist of ced

based sesquiterpenoids.

dant. It comprises labdatriene car- boxylic acids such as communic or ozic acids. It is further split intothree sub-classes. Classes Ia and Ibutilise regular labdanoid diterpenes

(e.g. communic acid, communol, biformenes), whilst Ic uses enantiolabdanoids (ozic acid, ozol, enantio

biformenes).

Ia

Includes Succinite (= 'normal'Baltic amber) and Glessite. Have acommunic acid base. They also

include much succinic acid.

Baltic amber yields on dry distilla-tion succinic acid, the proportionvarying from about 3% to 8%, and

being greatest in the pale opaque or bony varieties. The aromatic andirritating fumes emitted by burningamber are mainly due to this acid.Baltic amber is distinguished by itsyield of succinic acid, hence thename succinite. Succinite has ahardness between 2 and 3, which israther greater than that of manyother fossil resins. Its specific grav-ity varies from 1.05 to 1.10. It can

be distinguished from other ambersvia IR spectroscopy due to a specif-ic carbonyl absorption peak. IR spectroscopy can detect the relativeage of an amber sample.Succinic

acid may not be an original compo-nent of amber, but rather a degrada-tion product of abietic acid.

Ib

Like class Ia ambers, these are

Glen O. Brechbill

34




Class V

Resins are considered to be pro-duced by a pine or pine relative.They comprise a mixture of diter-

pinoid resins and n-alkyl compounds. Their type mineral is high-gate copalite.

Classification of Baltic amber (suc-cinite) gemstones by theInternational Amber AssociationTypical amber specimen with anumber of indistinct inclusions

Natural Baltic amber gemstonewhich has undergone mechanicaltreatment only (for instance: grind-ing, cutting, turning or polishing)without any change to its natural

properties

Modified Baltic amber – gemstonesubjected only to thermal or high-

pressure treatment, which changedits physical properties, includingthe degree of transparency andcolor, or shaped under similar con-ditions out of one nugget, previous-ly cut to the required size.

Reconstructed (pressed) Balticamber gemstone made of Balticamber pieces pressed in high tem-

perature and under high pressurewithout additional components.

Bonded Baltic amber – gemstoneconsisting of two or more parts of natural, modified or reconstructedBaltic amber bonded together withthe use of the smallest possibleamount of a colorless binding agent

Samland in Prussia (LSambia), in historical sourcereferred to as Glaesaria. Afterthis territory around Königwas turned into Kaliningrad O

Russia, where it is now systecally mined. It appears, howevhave been partly derived fromEocene deposits and it occuras a derivative phase in later ftions, such as glacial drift. Relan abundant flora occur as sions trapped within the awhile the resin was yet freshgesting relations with the flo

Eastern Asia and the southernof North America. HeGöppert named the comamber-yielding pine of the forests Pinites succiniter, but wood does not seem to differthat of the existing genus i

been also called Pinus succinIt is improbable, however, th

production of amber was limia single species; and indeed anumber of conifers belongidifferent genera are representhe amber-flora.

Paleontological Significance

Amber is a unique preservamode, preserving otherwise usilizable parts of organisms; asit is helpful in the reconstruct

ecosystems and organisms.

The chemical composition oresin is of limited utility in rstructing the phylogenetic afof the resin producer.

necessary to join the pieces.

Geological Record

The oldest amber recovered dates

to the Upper Carboniferous period(320 million years ago). Its chemi-cal composition makes it difficultto match the amber to its producersit is most similar to the resins pro-duced by flowering plants. Amber

becomes abundant long afterwards,in the Early Cretaceous, 150 mil-lion years ago, when it is found inassociation with insects. The oldest

amber with arthropod inclusionscomes from the Middle East fromLebanon and Jordan. This amber isroughly 125–135 million years oldand is considered of high scientificvalue. In Lebanon more than 450outcrops of Lower Cretaceousamber were discovered between the1960s and 1990s, among whichabout 20 outcrops have led to inten-sive biological inclusions compris-ing the oldest representatives of several recent families of terrestrialarthropods. Jurassic amber has

been found recently in Lebanon aswell. Many remarkable insects andspiders were recently discovered inthe amber of Jordan including theoldest zorapterans, clerid beetles,umenocoleid roaches, and achiliid

planthoppers.

Baltic amber or succinite (histori-cally documented as Prussianamber) is found as irregular nod-ules in marine glauconitic sand,known as blue earth, occurring inthe Lower Oligocene strata of

35



Amber sometimes contains animalsor plant matter that became caughtin the resin as it was secreted.Insects, spiders and their webs,annelids, frogs, crustaceans, bacte-

ria and amoebae, marine microfos-sils, wood, flowers and fruit, hair,feathers and other small organismshave been recovered in ambers dat-ing to 130 million years ago.

Use

Amber has been used since antiqui-ty in the manufacture of jewelry

and ornaments, and also in folk medicine. Amber also forms theflavoring for akvavit liquor. Amber has been used as an ingredient in

perfumes.

Jewelry

Amber has been used since thestone age, from 13,000 years ago.Amber ornaments have been foundin Mycenaean tombs and elsewhereacross Europe.To this day it is usedin the manufacture of smoking andglassblowing mouthpieces.Amber's

place in culture and tradition lendsit a tourism value; Palanga Amber Museum is dedicated to the miner-al.

Historic Medicinal Uses

Amber has long been used in folk medicine for its purported healing

properties. Amber and extractswere used from the time of Hippocrates in ancient Greece for awide variety of treatments through

It can be synthetically creatderived from natural resins. derived from natural resins most often created out ofdanum. Benzoin is usually p

the recipe. Vanilla and clovesometimes used to enhancaroma.

"Amber" perfumes may be crusing combinations of labda

benzoin resin, copal (itself a tytree resin used in incense manture), vanilla, Dammara and/or synthetic materials.

the Middle Ages and up until theearly twentieth century.

Scent of Amber and Amber

Pperfumery

In ancient China it was customaryto burn amber during large festivi-ties. If amber is heated under theright conditions, oil of amber is

produced, and in past times thiswas combined carefully with nitricacid to create "artificial musk" aresin with a peculiar musky odor.Although when burned, amber does

give off a characteristic"pinewood" fragrance, modern products, such as perfume, do notnormally use actual amber. This isdue to the fact that fossilized amber

produces very little scent. In per-fumery, scents referred to as“amber” are often created and

patented to emulate the opulentgolden warmth of the fossil. Themodern name for amber is thoughtto come from the Arabic word,ambar, meaning ambergris.Ambergris is the waxy aromaticsubstance created in the intestinesof sperm whales and was used inmaking perfumes both in ancienttimes as well as modern. The scentof amber was originally derivedfrom emulating the scent of amber-gris and/or labdanum but due to the

endangered status of the spermwhale the scent of amber is nowlargely derived from labdanum.The term “amber” is loosely used todescribe a scent that is warm,musky, rich and honey-like, andalso somewhat oriental and earthy.

Glen O. Brechbill

36




Amyris

Is a genus of flowering plants in thecitrus family, Rutaceae. The gener-ic name is derived from the Greek word (amyron), which means"intensely scented" and refers to the

strong odor of the resin. Membersof the genus are commonly knownas Torchwoods because of their highly flammable wood.

Uses

The trunks of Amyris species exudeelemi, a type of balsam (oleoresin)that contains elemic acids, liquidsesquiterpenes, and triterpenes suchas - and -amyrin among other com-

ponents. It is used medicinally[cita-tion needed] and in lacquers. Thewood is often used for torches andfirewood. Its high resin contentcauses it to burn brightly, and it will

burn well even when green. Inaddition, the wood is hard, heavy,close-grained, can take a high pol-ish, and repels dry wood termites.

Essential oils containingcaryophyllene, cadinene, and cadi-nol are extracted from A. balsam-ifera and A. elemifera. These areused in varnishes, perfumes, medi-cines, cosmetics, soaps, andincense.

Delile ex Caill.)

Canarium zeylanicum (RBlume (as A. zeylanica Retz.)

Clausena anisata (Willd.) H(as A. anisata Willd. or A. dWilld.)

Clausena heptaphylla (RoxDC.) Wight & Arn. ex Steud. heptaphylla Roxb. ex DC.)

Commiphora gileadensis C.Chr. (as A. gileadensis L. opobalsamum L.)

Commiphora kataf (Forssk.) (as A. kataf Forssk.)

Metopium toxiferum (L.) KrUrb. (as A. toxifera L.)

Schinus polygama (Cav.) Ca(as A. polygama Cav.)

Chemical compounds known aschromenylated amides isolatedfrom Amyris plumieri have shownsome inhibition of the cytochromeP450 enzymes.

Selected Species

Amyris balsamifera L. – BalsamTorchwood

Amyris diatrypa Spreng. – HairyTorchwood

Amyris elemifera L. – SeaTorchwood (Florida, the Caribbean,Central America)

Amyris madrensis S.Watson – Mountain Torchwood

Amyris polymorpha Urb. (Cuba)

Amyris texana (Buckley) P.WilsonTexas Torchwood, Chapotillo

Formerly placed here

Atalantia simplicifolia (Roxb.)Engl. (as A. simplicifolia Roxb.)

Boswellia papyrifera (Delile exCaill.) Hochst. (as A. papyrifera


37



Balsam

Balsam is a term used for various pleasantly scented plant products,and the plants which produce them.Balsams are oily or gummy oleo-resins, usually containing benzoic

acid or cinnamic acid, obtainedfrom the exudates of various treesand shrubs and used as a base for some botanical medicines. Theymay be obtained from:

Balsam fir (Abies balsamea), pro-ducing Canada balsam

Balsam poplars (Populus sectionTacamahaca), producing Balm of Gilead

Commiphora gileadensis, produc-ing Balsam of Mecca

Myroxylon, producing Tolu balsamand Peru balsam

Copaifera langsdorfii, producingcopaiba balsam

Balsam may also refer to:

the balsam family of flowering plants, Balsaminaceae

the plant genus Impatiens

Balsam (drink), an herbal liqueur

Riga Black Balsam (Ri-gasMelnais balzams), a traditionalLatvian herbal liqueur

Friar's balsam, or Tincture of ben-zoin

Glen O. Brechbill

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Balsam - Copaifera Langsdorffii

The tropical rainforest treeCopaifera langsdorffii is known asthe diesel tree and kerosene tree. Ithas many names in local languages,including kupa'y, cabismo, and

copaúva.

Biological Description

It is a medium-sized tree usuallyreaching 12 meters in height, withwhite flowers and small, oily fruits.The wood is light due to its porosi-ty. And, it is honeycombed withcapillaries filled with oil. Tappingthe tree involves cutting a well intowhich the oil seeps and where it can

be easily collected. Despite its vig-orous production of oil, the treedoes not grow well outside of thetropics, and does not show promiseas a reliable source of biodiesel intemperate climates.

Uses

Biodiesel Use

It produces a large amount of terpene hydrocarbons in its wood andleaves. One tree can produce 30 to53 liters of hydrocarbons per year,en masse producing 10,000 -

12,000 litres/hectare/year which isincredibly high. The oil is collected

by tree tapping. The main compound in the oil is copaiba, an ole-oresin which is useful in the pro-

duction of oil products such as lac-quers and can be used as biodiesel.The tree is also the main source of copaene, another terpene.

Wood Uses

The wood can be burned for fire-wood or used in carpentry.

Pollen Collector

Bees utilize the tree for pollen col-lection.

Medicinal Uses

The plant has a great number of his-torical medicinal uses.


39



Balsam - Fir

Balsam Fir (Abies balsamea) is a North American fir, native to mostof eastern and central Canada(Newfoundland west to centralAlberta) and the northeastern

United States (Minnesota east toMaine, and south in theAppalachian Mountains to WestVirginia)

Balsam Fir is a small to medium-size evergreen tree typically 14–20metres (46–66 ft) tall, rarely to 27metres (89 ft) tall, with a narrowconic crown. The bark on youngtrees is smooth, grey, and with resin

blisters (which tend to spray whenruptured), becoming rough and fis-sured or scaly on old trees. Theleaves are flat needle-like, 15 to 30millimetres (½–1 in) long, dark green above often with a small

patch of stomata near the tip, andtwo white stomatal bands below,and a slightly notched tip. They arearranged spirally on the shoot, but

with the leaf bases twisted toappear in two more-or-less hori-zontal rows. The cones are erect, 40to 80 millimetres (1½–3 in) long,dark purple, ripening brown anddisintegrating to release the wingedseeds in September.

and chickadees, as well as sfor moose, snowshoe hares, wtailed deer, ruffed grouse andsmall mammals and songbirdsneedles are eaten by some

dopteran caterpillars, for exathe Io moth (Automeris io).

Uses

Both varieties of the specievery popular as Christmas

particularly in the northeaUnited states. The resin is us

produce Canada balsam, andtraditionally used as a cold reand as a glue for glasses, oinstrument components, an

preparing permanent mounmicroscope specimens. The is milled for framing lumber, and pulped for paper manufaBalsam fir oil is an EPA appnontoxic rodent repellent. Thsam fir is also used as an air ener and as incense.

Tree Emblem

Balsam Fir is the Provincial t New Brunswick.

Variety

Abies balsamea var. balsamea (bal-sam fir) - bracts subtending seedscales short, not visible on the

closed cones. Most of the species'range.

Abies balsamea var. phanerolepis(bracted balsam fir or Canaan fir) -

bracts subtending seed scaleslonger, visible on the closed cone.The southeast of the species' range,from southernmost Quebec to WestVirginia. The name 'Canaan Fir'derives from one of its native local-ities, the Canaan Valley in WestVirginia. Some botanists regard thisvariety as a natural hybrid between

balsam fir and Fraser fir (Abiesfraseri), which occurs further southin the Appalachian mountains.

Ecology

On mountain tops, stands of

Balsam Fir occasionally develop fir waves. Often found in associationwith Black Spruce, White Spruceand trembling aspen.

This tree provides food for moose,American red squirrels, crossbills

Glen O. Brechbill

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Balsam - Mecca

Balsam of Mecca (also called the balsam of Gilead or balm of Gilead) is a resinous gum of thetree Commiphora gileadensis (syn.Commiphora opobalsamum),

native to southern Arabia and alsonaturalized, in ancient and again inmodern times, in ancientJudea/Palestine/Israel. The mostfamous site of balsam production inthe region was the Jewish town of Ein Gedi. The resin was valued inmedicine and perfume in ancientGreece and the Roman Empire.Thus Pliny the Elder mentions it asone of the ingredients of the "RoyalPerfume" of the Parthians in his

Naturalis Historia. In Latin theresin was technically known asopobalsamum; the dried fruit wascalled carpobalsamum, and thewood xylobalsamum.

When "balm" or "balsam" is men-tioned in translations of the Biblethis is probably the product that is

intended. Its literary connectionwith Gilead comes from Genesischapter 37 and from Jeremiah chap-ters 8 and 46 ( quoted below ).

Literary occurrence and symbolism

balm as a metaphor for teacheif to say "Did they not havrighteous men from whom toso that they should improveways?"

Some Christians interpret this passage as a prophetic allusiJesus. This symbol recurs in Christian hymns and popularlyrics. In the refrain to the gsong "Healing" (1999), RiSmallwood and his choir enssing the assertion "There is ain Gilead".

The speaker in Edgar Allan poem "The Raven" (1845) pres a belief that the "balm in Gcan heal his broken heart, behe laments the death of his(Lenore).

In Act I of Richard Wagner's Parsifal (1882), King Am

bears a wound that will not

because it was inflicted witown holy spear. A wild wcalled Kundry bursts in, andents the king with an Arabiansam". She informs the Knighthe Grail present there that

balsam does not stimulat

The Book of Genesis alludes to the balm of Gilead in one passage, andthe Book of Jeremiah alludes to itin two passages.

Translations excerpted from theJPS Tanakh:

“And they sat down to eat bread;and they lifted up their eyes andlooked, and, behold, a caravan of Ishmaelites came from Gilead, withtheir camels bearing spicery and

balm and ladanum, going to carry itdown to Egypt." Genesis 37:25

"Go up into Gilead, and take balm,O virgin daughter of Egypt; in vaindost thou use many medicines;there is no cure for thee." Jeremiah46:11

"Is there no balm in Gilead? Is thereno physician there? Why then is notthe health of the daughter of my

people recovered? Jeremiah 8:22

The obvious understanding for both; "my people" and "the daugh-ter of my people" in Jeremiah 8:22refers to the Jewish people living inthe land of Israel. Rabbinic com-mentators like Rashi interpreted the


41



Balsam - Myrosylon

Myroxylon is a genus of twospecies of Central American andSouth American trees in theFabaceae (Leguminosae). The treeis well known in the western world

as the source for Peru balsam andTolu balsam. The tree is oftencalled Quina or Balsamo. Other names include Tolu in Colombia,Quina quina in Argentina; in lum-

ber trade, sometimes named SantosMahogany.

Its sweetish scent, reminiscent of vanilla and green olives, has causedit to be used in the manufacture of

perfumes as a source for Balsam.Balsam of Peru is used as a flavor-ing and fragrance in many productsand can cause allergic reactions.

They are large trees growing to40 m tall, with evergreen pinnateleaves 15 cm long with 5-13leaflets. The flowers are white withyellow stamens, produced in

racemes. The fruit is a pod 7–11 cmlong, containing a single seed.

The wood is dark brown with adeep red heartwood. Natural oilsgrant it excellent decay resistance.In fact, it is also resistant to preser-

treatment of dry socket in denin suppositories for hemorrhthe plants have been reportinhibit Mycobacterium tubercas well as the common ulcer-

ing bacteria, H. pylori in tesstudies, so it is used topicallytreatment of wounds and ulcean antiseptic and used as anmuscle relaxant. Peru Balsam

be found in diaper rash ointmhair tonics, antidandruff pretions, and feminine hygiene sand as a natural fragrance in sdetergents, creams, lotions

perfumes.

Invasive Species

The balsam tree can become aly invasive species when duced into tropical countries wit is not native. In Sri Lanka overgrown several hectares oUdawatta Kele Sanctuary arapidly spreading there. In th

Lankan rain forest, Myroseeds sprout in very high numdue to tolerating more diverseconditions than native speciedue to the absence of naturamies such as diseases and inThis has given rise to dense s

vative treatment. Its specific gravi-ty is 0.74 to 0.81.

As regards woodworking, this treeis regarded as moderately difficult

to work but can be finished with ahigh natural polish; some tooldulling.

Peru Balsam

Aromatic resin is extracted fromthe variant Myroxylon balsamum

pereirae, native from CentralAmerica farther north. The name isa misinterpretation of its origin,since it was originally assembledand shipped to Europe from the

ports of Callao and Lima, in Peru,even though the species is notindigenous to Peru. The indigenoususe of Peru Balsam led to its exportto Europe in the seventeenth centu-ry, where it was first documented inthe German Pharmacopedia. TodayEl Salvador is the main exporter of

Peru Balsam where it is extractedunder a plainly handicraft process.

Peru balsam has uses in medicine, pharmaceutical, in the food indus-try and in perfumery. It has beenused as a cough supressant, in the

Glen O. Brechbill

42



of young trees where no other veg-etation can grow, causing severeecological disruption, i.e., the dis-appearance of local, native plantspecies and consequently of the

animals and insects that feed onthese.

The tree has also been introduced toseveral Pacific islands such as Fijiand to Indonesia and is a potentialecological threat there.


43



Balsam - Poplar

Populus balsamifera, commonlycalled balsam poplar,bamtree, east-ern balsam poplar, hackmatack,tacamahac poplar, tacamahaca, is atree species in the balsam poplar

species group in the poplar genus,Populus. The genus name Populusis from the Latin for poplar, and thespecific epithet balsamifera fromLatin for "balsam-bearing". Other common names for the speciesinclude heartleaf balsam poplar,and Ontario balsam poplar. The

black cottonwood, Populus tri-chocarpa, is sometimes considereda supspecies of P. balsamifera andmay lend its common name to thisspecies, although the black poplarsand cottonwoods of Populus sect.Aigeiros are not closely related.

Populus balsamifera is the north-ernmost American hardwood,growing transcontinentally on

boreal and montane upland andflood plain sites, and attaining its

best development on flood plains. Itis a hardy, fast-growing tree whichis generally short lived, but sometrees as old as 200 years have beenfound.

The Balm of Gilead (Populus ×

Lepidoptera that feed on popl jackii), also known as P. × gilead-ensis, is the hybrid between P. bal-samifera and the eastern cotton-wood (P. deltoides), occurringoccasionally where the two parental

species' ranges overlap. This hybridis also sometimes planted as ashade tree, and sometimes escapesfrom cultivation. The namePopulus candicans has been vari-ously used for either P. balsamiferaor P. × jackii; it is currently consid-ered a synonym of P. balsamifera.

Balm of Gilead is a balm (healingcompound) made from the resinousgum of this species or relatedspecies such as Populus × jackii.However, despite the name, thistree is not the source of the terpen-tine Canada balsam, derivedinstead from the balsam fir (Abies

balsamea).

The light, soft wood of Populus balsamifera is used for pulp and

construction.

Many kinds of animals use thetwigs of Populus balsamifera for food. The leaves of the tree serve asfood for caterpillars of variousLepidoptera. See List of

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44



king's recovery, "Arabia does nothide anything more that might healhim."

Balm in Gilead is also the title of an

early play by Lanford Wilson.

External Links

The Columbia Encyclopedia, SixthEdition. 2001-05.

Patrick O'Brian makes reference toit in the Aubrey/Maturin canon,

book 14, "The Nutmeg of

Consolation". At one point Dr.Stephen Maturin is quite sick, pre-sumably from food poisoning.Rather vehemently, he tells hisScottish assistant Macmillan "No"when alcoholic tincture of opium(laudanum) is offered to him.Instead, he says: " our best course isno doubt bark, steel, saline enema-ta, rest and above all quiet. Truequietness, as you know very well, isnot to be expected in a camp full of sailors; but balls of wax providesomething not unlike it. They are

behind the "Balm of Gilead.”


45



Birch

Birch is a broadleaved deciduoushardwood tree of the genus Betula ,in the family Betulaceae which alsoincludes alders, hazels and horn-

beams and is closely related to the

beech/oak family, Fagaceae. Thegenus Betula contains from 30 to60 known taxa of which 11 are onthe IUCN 2011 Red List of Threatened Species. They are typi-cally rather short-lived pioneer species widespread in the NorthernHemisphere particularly in north-ern temperate and boreal climates.

Etymology

The common name "birch" isderived from an old Germanic root,

birka, with the Proto-Indo-European root "white, bright; toshine." The Proto-Germanic rune

berkanan is named after the birch.The generic name Betula is fromLatin.

Description

Birch species are generally small tomedium-sized trees or shrubs,mostly of temperate climates. Thesimple leaves are alternate, singlyor doubly serrate, feather-veined,

Flower and Fruit

The flowers are monoecious, ing with or before the leave

borne on three-flowered clust

the axils of the scales of droor erect catkins or amStaminate aments are penduclustered or solitary in the axthe last leaves of the branch year or near the ends of the lateral branchlets of the year.form in early autumn and rerigid during the winter. The of the staminate aments mature are broadly ovate, rouyellow or orange color belomiddle, dark chestnut browapex. Each scale bears two braand three sterile flowers, flower consisting of a sessile,

branaceous, usually two-lcalyx. Each calyx bears fourfilaments with one-celled anor strictly, two filaments diinto two branches, each bear

half-anther. Anther cells opengitudinally. The pistillate aare erect or pendulous, solitarminal on the two-leaved lspur-like branchlets of the The pistillate scales are obovate, three-lobed, pale y

petiolate and stipulate. They oftenappear in pairs, but these pairs arereally borne on spur-like, two-leaved, lateral branchlets. The fruitis a small samara, although the

wings may be obscure in somespecies. They differ from the alders(Alnus, other genus in the family)in that the female catkins are notwoody and disintegrate at maturity,falling apart to release the seeds,unlike the woody, cone-like femalealder catkins.

The bark of all birches is character-istically marked with long, horizon-tal lenticels, and often separatesinto thin, papery plates, especiallyupon the paper birch. It is resistantto decay, due to the resinous oil itcontains. Its decided color gives thecommon names gray, white, black,silver and yellow birch to differentspecies.

The buds form early and are full

grown by midsummer, all are later-al, no terminal bud is formed; the

branch is prolonged by the upper lateral bud. The wood of all thespecies is close-grained with satinytexture and capable of taking a fine

polish; its fuel value is fair.

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46



green often tinged with red, becom-ing brown at maturity. These scales

bear two or three fertile flowers,each flower consisting of a nakedovary. The ovary is compressed,

two-celled, and crowned with twoslender styles; the ovule is solitary.

Ecology

Birches often form even-agedstands on light, well-drained, par-ticularly acidic soils. They areregarded as pioneer species, rapidlycolonising open ground especially

in secondary successionalsequences following a disturbanceor fire. Birches are early treespecies to establish in primary suc-cessions and can become a threat toheathland if the seedlings andsaplings are not suppressed bygrazing or periodic burning.Birches are generally lowlandspecies, but some species, such asBetula nana, have a montane distri-

bution. In the British Isles there issome difference between the envi-ronments of Betula pendula andBetula pubescens, and somehybridization, though both are"opportunists in steady-state wood-land systems". Mycorrhizal fungi,including sheathing (ecto)myc-corhizas, are found in some cases to

be beneficial to tree growth.

Birch foliage is used as a food plant by the larvae of a large number of Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths)species; see List of Lepidoptera thatfeed on birches.

Japanese birch

Betula maximowiczii - mo birch

Betula medwediewii - Cauc birch

Betula nana - dwarf birch (anorthern North America)

Betula pendula - silver birch

Betula platyphylla (Betula pevar. platyphylla) - Siberian

birch

Betula pubescens - downy also known as white, Eurwhite or hairy birch (Europnorthern Asia)

Betula pubescens subspecies osa - arctic downy birch (subEurasia)

Betula szechuanica (Betula pevar. szechuanica) - Sichuan bi

Betula tianshanica

Betula utilis - Himalayan birc

Note:

many American texts have B

dula and B. pubescens conthough they are distinct spwith different chromosome

bers.

Birches native to North Aminclude

Species

Birches native to Europe and Asiainclude

Betula aetniensis - Sicilian birch

Betula albosinensis - Chinese red birch

Betula albosinensis var. septentri-onalis - north Chinese red birch

Betula alnoides - alder-leaf birch

Betula austrosinensis - South China birch

Betula carpatica - Carpathian birch

Betula chinensis - Chinese dwarf birch

Betula dalecarlica

Betula ermanii - Erman's birch

Betula grossa - Japanese cherry birch

Betula jacquemontii (Betula utilissubsp. jacquemontii) - white-

barked Himalayan birch

Betula kamtschatica - Kamchatka birch platyphylla

Betula litvinovii

Betula mandschurica - Manchurian birch

Betula mandschurica var. japonica -


47



Betula alleghaniensis - yellow birch (B. lutea)

Betula cordifolia - mountain paper birch

Betula glandulosa - Americandwarf birch

Betula kenaica - Kenai birch

Betula lenta - sweet birch, cherry birch, or black birch

Betula lenta subsp. uber - Virginia

round-leaf birch (endemic, CressyCreek, Smyth County, Virginia)

Betula michauxii - Newfoundlanddwarf birch

Betula minor - dwarf white birch

Betula nana - dwarf birch or bog birch (also in northern Europe andAsia)

Betula neoalaskana - Alaska birchor Yukon birch

Betula nigra - river birch or black birch

Betula occidentalis - water birch or red birch (B. fontinalis)

Betula papyrifera - paper birch,canoe birch or American white

birch

Betula populifolia - gray birch

Betula pumila - swamp birch

Birch Leaves

Birch is also associated witfeast of Pentecost in GermCentral and Eastern Europe

Russia, where its branches areas decoration for churcheshomes on this day.

Birch leaves are used to mdiuretic tea and extracts forand cosmetics.

Ground birch bark, fermentsea water, is used for seasonin

woolen, hemp or linen sailhemp rope of tradi Norwegian boats.

Birch twigs bound in a bundlecalled birch, were used for bing, a form of corporal punish

Many of the First Nations of America prized the birch f

bark, which due to its light wflexibility, and the ease with wit could be stripped from trees, was often used for thestruction of strong, waterproolightweight canoes, bowlswigwams.

The Hughes H-4 Herculesmade mostly of birch wood, dits better-known moniker,

Spruce Goose".

Birch is used as firewood duehigh calorific value per unit wand unit volume. It burns without popping, even when fand freshly hewn. The bark

Uses

Birch wood is fine-grained and palein colour, often with an attractivesatin-like sheen. Ripple figuring

may occur, increasing the value of the timber for veneer and furniture-making. The highly decorativeMasur (or Karelian) birch, fromBetula verrucosa var. carelica, hasripple textures combined withattractive dark streaks and lines.Birch wood is suitable for veneer,and birch plywood is among thestrongest and most dimensionally

stable plywoods, although it isunsuitable for exterior use.

Birch plywood is made from lami-nations of birch veneer. It is light

but strong, and has many other good properties. Birch plywood isused to make longboards (skate-

board), giving it a strong yet flexi- ble ride. It is also used (often invery thin grades with many lamina-tions) for making model aircraft.

Extracts of birch are used for fla-voring or leather oil, and in cosmet-ics such as soap or shampoo. In the

past, commercial oil of wintergreen(methyl salicylate) was made fromthe sweet birch (Betula lenta).

Birch-tar or Russian oil extracted

from birch bark is thermoplasticand waterproof; it was used as aglue on, for example, arrows, andalso for medicinal purposes.

Fragrant twigs of silver birch areused in saunas to relax the muscles.

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48



burn very well even when wet because of the oils it contains. Withcare, it can be split into very thinsheets that will ignite from even thesmallest of sparks.

Birch sap is a traditional drink in Northern Europe, Russia, and Northern China. The sap is also bottled and sold commercially. Inthe British Isles, the sap is oftenused to make a wine.

Birch seeds are used as leaf litter inminiature terrain models.

"Birch flowers" is the English mar-keting name for the catkins of theBroussonetia luzonica tree. Knownin the Philippines as himbabao or alukon, these flowers are common-ly used in the cuisine of northeast-ern Luzon. However, despite their English name and the similar appearance of their flowers, B.luzonica is not in any way related tothe birch tree.

Medical

Birch bark is high in betulin and betulinic acid, phytochemicalswhich have potential as pharmaceu-ticals, and other chemicals whichshow promise as industrial lubri-cants.

Birch bark can be soaked untilmoist in water, and then formedinto a cast for a broken arm.

The inner bark of birch can beingested safely.

which are also the hardesspeakers to reproduce. This nance compensates for the roof low and high frequencies speakers, and evens the tone.

is known for having "natural

Drums are often made from Prior to the 1970s, it was one most popular drum woods. Beof the need for greater volummidrange clarity, drums were almost entirely from maplerecently, when advances insound reinforcement and

microphones have allowed thof birch in high-volume situaBirch drums have a natural bothe high and low frequenwhich allows the drums to fuller.

Birch wood is sometimes usetonewood for semiacousticacoustic guitar bodies, and sionally for solid-body guitaries. It is also a common maused in mallets for keyboardcussion.

Culture

Birches have spiritual imporin several religions, both mand historical.

They are associated with the TnÓg, the land of the dead anSidhe, in Gaelic folklore, asuch frequently appear in ScoIrish, and English folksong

ballads in association with deafairies, or returning from the g

In northern latitudes, birch is con-sidered to be the most importantallergenic tree pollen, with an esti-mated 15-20% of hay fever suffer-ers sensitive to birch pollen grains.

The major allergen is a proteincalled Bet v I.

Paper

Wood pulp made from birch givesrelatively long and slender fibresfor a hardwood. The thin wallscause the fibre to collapse upondrying, giving a paper with low

bulk and low opacity. The birchfibres are, however, easily fibrillat-ed and give about 75 % of the ten-sile strength of softwood. The lowopacity makes it suitable for mak-ing glassine.

In India, the birch (Sanskrit) holdsgreat historical significance in theculture of North India, where thethin bark coming off in winter wasextensively used as writing paper.Birch paper (Sanskrit: is excep-tionally durable and was the materi-al used for many ancient Indiantexts. This bark also has been usedwidely in ancient Russia as note

paper (beresta) and for decorative purposes and even makingfootwear.

Tonewood

Baltic birch is among the mostsought-after wood in the manufac-ture of speaker cabinets. Birch hasa natural resonance that peaks inthe high and low frequencies,


49



It is also New Hampshire's statetree.

In the Swedish city of Umeå, thesilver birch tree has a special place.

In 1888, the city was ravaged byfires that spread all over the cityand nearly burnt it down to theground, but some birches, suppos-edly, halted the spread of the fire.To protect the city against futurefires, it was decided to plant silver

birch trees all over the city. Umeålater adopted the unofficial name of "City of the Birches (Björkarnas

stad)". Also, the ice hockey team of Umeå is called Björklöven, trans-lated to English "The BirchLeaves".

In parts of Germany, young menerect decorated birch trees in frontof the houses of their love interestson the night of May 1, to show their feelings.

50

Glen O. Brechbill



Juniperus oxycedrus (PricklyJuniper, Prickly Cedar, CadeJuniper and Cade (from the Frenchgenévrier cade), Sharp Cedar) is aspecies of juniper, native across the

Mediterranean region fromMorocco and Portugal, north tosouthern France, east to western-most Iran, and south to Lebanonand Israel, growing on a variety of rocky sites from sea level up to1600 m altitude. The specific epi-thet oxycedrus means "sharp cedar"and this species may have been theoriginal cedar or cedrus of theancient Greeks

Description

The 'Juniperus oxycedrus tree isvery variable in shape, forming aspreading shrub 2–3 m tall to asmall erect tree 10–15 m tall. It hasneedle-like leaves in whorls of three; the leaves are green, 5–20mm long and 1–2 mm broad, with a

double white stomatal band (split by a green midrib) on the inner sur-face. It is usually dioecious, withseparate male and female plants.The seed cones are berry-like,green ripening in 18 months toorange-red with a variable pink

Juniperus deltoides R.P.AdaEastern Prickly Juniper. CItaly east to Iran and Israel. Llong (10–20 mm), broad-bcones with raised scale edges

Subspecies

An additional variety or subspJ. oxycedrus var. badia H.GayJ. oxycedrus subsp. badia (HDebeaux) is distinguished o

basis of larger cones (10–13diameter), tinged purple mature; it is described from nern Algeria, and also reportedPortugal and Spain.

A further species Juniperus mcarpa, confined to Mediterrcoastal sands, is more distinhas also often been treated as species of Prickly Juniper, oxycedrus subsp. macrocardiffers in the broader leavemm wide, and larger cones

mm diameter.

Other close relatives of J. odrus include Juniperus brevon the Azores, Juniperus cedrthe Canary Islands and Junformosana in eastern Asia.

waxy coating; they are spherical,7–12 mm diameter, and have threeor six fused scales in 1-2 whorls,three of the scales with a singleseed. The seeds are dispersed when

birds eat the cones, digesting thefleshy scales and passing the hardseeds in their droppings. The pollencones are yellow, 2–3 mm long, andfall soon after shedding their pollenin late winter or early spring.

As to be expected from the widerange, 'Juniperus oxycedrus is veryvariable. One recent study splits itinto three species, though other authorities do not accept this:

Juniperus oxycedrus L. - WesternPrickly Juniper. Southwest Europe,in eastern Portugal and Spain eastto southern France, northwest Italy,Corsica, and Sardinia, and north-west Africa from Morocco east toTunisia. Leaves long (10–20 mm),narrow-based; cones smooth.

Juniperus navicularis Gand. (syn. J.oxycedrus subsp. transtagana) -Portuguese Prickly Juniper. Coastalsouthwest Portugal. Leaves short(5–12 mm); cones smooth.

Cade


51



Uses

Cade oil is the essential oil obtainedthrough destructive distillation of the wood of this shrub. It is a dark,

aromatic oil with a strong smokysmell which is used in some cos-metics and (traditional) skin treat-ment drugs, as well as incense.

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52




Cedar wood comes from severaldifferent trees that grow in different

parts of the world, and may havedifferent uses.

California incense-cedar, fromCalocedrus decurrens, is the pri-mary type of wood used for making

pencils

Taiwan incense-cedar, comes fromCalocedrus formosana, an endan-gered species that has been over-harvested for its fragrant decay-resistant wood

Chinese incense-cedar, comes fromCalocedrus macrolepis, which has

been over-harvested for its fragrantdecay-resistant wood

Cigar-box cedar or Spanish cedar,from Cedrela odorata, is fragrant,insect-repellent, and light-weight,

primarily used to protect clothingfrom insects

Cedar from Cedrus, was once animportant timber in theMediterranean area, used for build-ing and shipbuilding, but severelyoverexploited for thousands of years.

ly small tree, and is used for cmaking, log cabins, fencesshingles

Australian red cedar from T

ciliata, is red, highly valuedeasy to work, used for furnmaking and shipbuilding

Port Orford cedar, from the western North American treeChamaecyparis lawsoniana, islight-weight and durable, and par-ticularly valued in east Asia

Japanese cedar, from Cryptomeria japonica, is a light-weight woodused in house-building

Mexican white cedar fromCupressus lusitanica, comes from adrought-resistant tree that has beenwidely cultivated for its timber for centuries

Eastern red cedar from Juniperusvirginiana, is soft, red, fine-grained,fragrant, and decay-resistant, oftenused for fence posts

Ceylon cedar from Meliaazedarach, is a high-quality timber that resembles teak

Western red cedar from Thuja pli-

cata, is soft red-brown, aromatic,decay-resistant, used for outdoor construction, shingles, and guitar-making,

Northern white cedar from Thujaoccidentalis, comes from a relative-

Cedar


53



Cedarwood - Atlas

Cedrus atlantica, the Atlas Cedar, isa cedar native to the AtlasMountains of Algeria (Tell Atlas)and Morocco (in the Rif andMiddle Atlas, and locally in the

High Atlas). A majority of themodern sourcestreat it as a distinctspecies Cedrus atlantica, but somesources consider it a subspecies of Lebanon Cedar (C. libani subsp.atlantica).

Fully grown, Cedrus atlantica is alarge tree, 30–35 m (rarely 40m)tall, with a trunk diameter of 1.5–2m.It is very similar in all charactersto the other varieties of LebanonCedar; differences are hard to dis-cern. The mean cone size tends to

be somewhat smaller (althoughrecorded to 12 cm, only rarely over 9 cm long, compared to up to 10 cmin C. brevifolia, and 12 cm in C.libani, though with considerableoverlap (all can be as short as 6cm). The Cedrus atlantica leaf

length (10–25 mm) is similar thatof C. libani subsp. stenocoma, onaverage longer than C. brevifoliaand shorter than C. libani subsp.libani, but again with considerableoverlap.

and hot conditions than conifers.

Many (but far from all) of thevated trees have glaucous (b

foliage, more downy shootscan have more leaves in whorl; young trees in cultivoften have more ascending bres than many cultivated Catlantica.

An Atlas Cedar is planted aWhite House South LawWashington, DC. President Cordered a tree house built withCedar for his daughter Amywooden structure was designthe President himself, and isupporting so as not to cause age to the tree.

Forestry

Male cones beginning to pollen

Cedar plantations, mainly Cedrus atlantica, have been lished in southern France for t

production.

Ecology

Atlas Cedar forms forests on moun-tain sides at 1,370 to 2,200 m, oftenin pure forests, or mixed with

Algerian Fir - Abies numidica,Juniperus oxycedrus, Holm oak Quercus ilex, and Acer opalus.These forests can provide habitatfor the endangered BarbaryMacaque, Macaca sylvanus, a pri-mate that had a prehistoricallymuch wider distribution in northernMorocco and Algeria.

Cultivation and Uses

Cedrus atlantica: Foliage andmature female cone

Landscape

Cedrus atlantica is common in cul-tivation as an ornamental tree intemperate climates. In garden set-tings, often the glaucous forms are

planted as ornamental trees, distin-guished as the Glauca Group, aCultivar Group. There are alsofastigiate, pendulous, and golden-leaf forms in cultivation. The AtlasCedar is useful in cultivation

because it is more tolerant of dry

Glen O. Brechbill

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Cultural References

George Harrison references thespecies in his song "Beware of Darkness."


55




Australian red cedar from Toonaciliata, is red, highly valued, andeasy to work, used for furniture-making and shipbuilding

Australian Red Cedar (called alsoToon, Suren or Indian Mahogany),Toona ciliata is a forest tree in thefamily Meliaceae which growsthroughout southern Asia fromAfghanistan to Papua New Guineaand Australia. In Australia its natu-ral habitat is now extensivelycleared subtropical rainforests of

New South Wales and Queensland.The Australian population was for-merly treated as distinct speciesunder the name T. australis. Thespecies can grow to around 60m inheight and its trunk can reach 3m ingirth. The largest recorded T. cilia-ta tree in Australia grew near Nulla

Nulla Creek, west of Kempsey, New South Wales and was felled in1883.

The southern most limit of naturaldistribution is on basaltic soils,growing west of the PrincesHighway near the village of Turmeil, south of Ulladulla, south-ern Illawarra, NSW. It also natural-ly occurs at Norfolk Island.

Cedar Tip Moth. Also referras Surian Cedar.

Other Areas

The Red cedar is widely plansubtropical and tropical parts world as a shade tree and ffast-growing aspect. It is grothe Hawaiian Islands and souand eastern Africa. In parZimbabwe and South Africa, naturalised; growing to maand spreading from seed.

It is one of Australia's few nativedeciduous trees. The timber is redin colour, easy to work and veryhighly valued. It was used exten-sively for furniture, wood panelling

and construction, including shipbuilding, and was referred to as"Red Gold" by Australian settlers.Heavily and unsustainably exploit-ed in the 19th Century and early20th Century, almost all the largetrees have been cut out and thespecies is essentially commerciallyextinct. However, the timber is rel-atively fast growing and followingon from a wave of tree cutting inthe 1950s, regrowth and timber from forestry sources currently pro-vides trees up to 1 metre in diame-ter for the furniture trade inAustralia and timber is not difficultto source.

Timber is currently also harvestedin New Guinea. Although it is notgenerally a viable plantation

species, trees are regularly harvest-ed by Forestry in the Athertonregion of Queensland. It grows bestin an environment with high lightlevels, however in the relative dark-ness of the rainforest understory, itis less susceptible to attack by the

56

Glen O. Brechbill

Cedarwood - Australian Red





Cedar - Calocedrus Formosana

Taiwan incense-cedar, comes fromCalocedrus formosana, an endan-gered species that has been over-harvested for its fragrant decay-resistant wood.

Calocedrus formosana (syn. C.macrolepis var. formosana (Florin)W.C.Cheng & L.K.Fu; TaiwanIncense-cedar; Chinese: tái wa-nxiao nan) is a conifer endemic toTaiwan

Descriptions

t is a medium-size tree to 20-25 mtall, with a trunk up to 3 m diame-ter. The bark is orange-brownweathering greyish, smooth at first,

becoming fissured and exfoliatingin long strips on the lower trunk onold trees. The foliage is produced inflattened sprays with scale-likeleaves 1.5–8 mm long; they arearranged in opposite decussate

pairs, with the successive pairs

closely then distantly spaced, soforming apparent whorls of four;the facial pairs are flat, with the lat-eral pairs folded over their bases.The upper side of the foliage spraysis green without stomata, the under-side is marked with dense patches

tions of faster-growing especies. Some areas are nowtected in reserves, and a liamount of replanting is t

place, but an overall decline c

ues. It is categorised by the Ias Endangered.

of white stomata.

The seed cones are 10–15 mm long, pale purple with a whitish waxcoating, with four (rarely six)

scales arranged in opposite decus-sate pairs; the outer pair of scaleseach bears two winged seeds, theinner pair(s) usually being sterile;the cones are borne on a 4–6 mmlong peduncle covered in small (2mm) scale leaves. The cones turn

brown when mature about 8 monthsafter pollination. The pollen conesare 4–5 mm long.

Variety Species

It is very similar to Calocedrusmacrolepis, and some botaniststreat it as a variety of that, C.macrolepis var. formosana. Theydiffer most obviously in the longer cone stem, 10–20 mm long, of C.macrolepis.

Threats

The species has a very limitednative range of less than 5,000 km²,and is threatened by over-harvest-ing for its valuable wood and con-version of natural forest to planta-

57



Glen O. Brechbill

58

Cedar - Calocedrus Macrolepis

Chinese incense-cedar, comes fromCalocedrus macrolepis, which has

been over-harvested for its fragrantdecay-resistant wood.

Alocedrus Macrolepis (ChineseIncense-cedar; Chinese: cui bai) isa conifer native to southwest China(Guangdong west to Yunnan),northern Vietnam, northern Laos,extreme northern Thailand andnortheastern Myanmar.

It is a medium-size tree to 25-35 mtall, with a trunk up to 2 m diame-ter. The bark is orange-brownweathering greyish, smooth at first,

becoming fissured and exfoliatingin long strips on the lower trunk onold trees. The foliage is produced inflattened sprays with scale-likeleaves 1.5–8 mm long; they arearranged in opposite decussate

pairs, with the successive pairsclosely then distantly spaced, soforming apparent whorls of four;

the facial pairs are flat, with the lat-eral pairs folded over their bases.The upper side of the foliage spraysis glossy green without stomata, theunderside is white with dense stom-ata.

The seed cones are 10–20 mm long, pale purple with a whitish waxcoating, with four (rarely six)scales arranged in opposite decus-sate pairs; the outer pair of scales

each bears two winged seeds, theinner pair(s) usually being sterile;the cones are borne on a 1–2 cmlong peduncle covered in verysmall (1 mm) scale leaves. Thecones turn brown when matureabout 8 months after pollination.The pollen cones are 4–8 mm long.

Foliage

It is closely related to Calocedrusformosana, with the latter oftentreated as a variety of C.macrolepis. They differ most obvi-ously in the shorter cone stem, only5 mm long, of C. formosana.

The species is still fairly wide-spread and frequent in the wild,though threatened by over-harvest-

ing for its valuable wood; it is alsoextensively planted within itsnative range for wood production.It is categorised by the IUCN asVulnerable.





59

California incense-cedar, fromCalocedrus decurrens, is the pri-mary type of wood used for making

pencils.

Calocedrus decurrens (Californiaincense-cedar; syn. Libocedrusdecurrens Torr.) is a species of conifer native to western NorthAmerica, with the bulk of the rangein the United States, from centralwestern Oregon through most of California and the extreme west of

Nevada, and also a short distanceinto northwest Mexico in northernBaja California. It grows at alti-tudes of 50–2900 m. It is the mostwidely-known species in the genus,and is often simply called incense-cedar without the regional qualifier.

It is a large tree, typically reachingheights of 40–60 m and a trunk diameter of up to 3 m (maxima, 69m tall and 4.5 m diameter), andwith a broad conic crown of spread-

ing branches. The bark is orange- brown weathering grayish, smoothat first, becoming fissured andexfoliating in long strips on thelower trunk on old trees. Thefoliage is produced in flattenedsprays with scale-like leaves 2–15

Cultivation & Uses

The wood is the primary mafor wooden pencils, becausesoft and tends to sharpen

without forming splinters.

It is also a popular ornamentavalued for its drought toleranis also grown particularly insummer climates (notably eBritain and elsewhere in noEurope, and in parts of the noPacific Northwest of NAmerica) for its very nacolumnar crown. This nacrown is not restricted to secultivars but is an unexplainedsequence of the climatic condin these areas, and is not showtrees in the wild; many species in the Cupressaceae similar effects to a smaller de

mm long; they are arranged inopposite decussate pairs, with thesuccessive pairs closely then dis-tantly spaced, so forming apparentwhorls of four; the facial pairs are

flat, with the lateral pairs foldedover their bases. The leaves are bright green on both sides of theshoots with only inconspicuousstomata.

The seed cones are 20–35 mm long, pale green to yellow, with four (rarely six) scales arranged in oppo-site decussate pairs; the outer pair of scales each bears two wingedseeds, the inner pair(s) usually

being sterile and fused together in aflat plate. The cones turn orange toyellow-brown when mature about 8months after pollination. The

pollen cones are 6–8 mm long.

This tree is the preferred host of awood wasp, Syntexis libocedrii aliving fossil species which lays its

eggs in the smoldering wood imme-diately after a forest fire. The tree isalso host to Incense-cedar mistletoe(Phoradendron libocedri), a para-sitic plant which can often be foundhanging from its branches.

Cedar - California Incense



60

Glen O. Brechbill

Cigar-box cedar or Spanish cedar,from Cedrela odorata, is fragrant,insect-repellent, and light-weight,

primarily used to protect clothingfrom insects.

(Spanish cedar, Mexican cedar,Cigar-box cedar, Cedro-cheiroso).The genus Cedrela has undergonetwo major systematic revisionssince 1960. The most recent revi-sion reduced the number of speciesin the genus to seven (Styles,1981). The common cedro, Cedrelaodorata L., embraces 28 other named species, including C. mexi-cana M. J. Roem. The taxon "C.angustifolia," a very vigorous typenow in demand because of itsapparent resistance to the shootbor-er, was left in an indeterminate sta-tus due to insufficient herbariummaterial. The result is that C. odor-ata as now constituted is a speciesshowing a high degree of popula-tion variation.

Cedro is a tree of the New Worldtropics, appearing in forests of moist and seasonally drySubtropical or Tropical life zones(24) from latitude 26°N. on thePacific coast of Mexico, throughout

base obliquely truncated and ametric.

Cedrela odorata is the most mercially important and widel

tributed species in the Cedrela. Known as Spanish-in English commerce, the arowood is in high demand iAmerican tropics because it isrally termite- and rot-resistanattractive, moderately lightwwood (specific gravity 0.4), imary use is in household arused to store clothing. Cedro wood contains an aromaticinsect-repelling resin that isource of its popular nSpanish-cedar (it resemblearoma of true cedars (CedrusCedro works easily and mexcellent plywood and veneewould be more widely usedcould be successfully plangrown. This plant is often usehoney production (beekeeping

humidor construction. It is sionally used for tops or venesome kinds of electric guitarswood is the traditional choicmaking the neck of flamencclassical guitars.

Central America and theCaribbean, to the lowlands andfoothills of most of South Americaup to 1200 m (about 4,000 ft) alti-tude, finding its southern limit at

about latitude 28°S. in Argentina.Cedro is always found naturally onwell-drained soils, often but notexclusively on limestone; it toler-ates a long dry season but does notflourish in areas of rainfall greater than about 3000 mm (120 in) or onsites with heavy or waterloggedsoils. Individual trees are generallyscattered in mixed semi-evergreenor semi-deciduous forests dominat-ed by other species. Mahogany, aclose relative, is often found withcedro and both suffer damage fromthe same pest, the mahogany shoot-

borer (Hypsipyla grandella).

The tree is monoecious semi-decid-uous ranging in height from 10meters to 30 meters. The trunk hasa thick gray - brown colored bark,

with longitudinal irregular grain.Pinnately compound leaves,grouped towards the end of the

branches, ranging from 15 cm to 50cm long, with pairs of scythe-shaped leaflets, lanceolate tooblong, 7-15 x 3-5 cm, with the

Cedar - Cedrela Odorata



Cedar from Cedrus, was once animportant timber in theMediterranean area, used for build-ing and shipbuilding, but severelyoverexploited for thousands of

years.

Occasionally 60 m) tall with spicy-resinous scented wood, thick ridgedor square-cracked bark, and broad,level branches. The shoots aredimorphic, with long shoots, whichform the framework of the branch-es, and short shoots, which carrymost of the leaves. The leaves areevergreen and needle-like, 8–60mm long, arranged in an open spi-ral phyllotaxis on long shoots, andin dense spiral clusters of 15–45together on short shoots; they varyfrom bright grass-green to dark green to strongly glaucous pale

blue-green, depending on the thick-ness of the white wax layer which

protects the leaves from desicca-tion. The seed cones are barrel-

shaped, 6–12 cm long and 3–8 cm broad, green maturing grey-brown,and, as in Abies, disintegrate atmaturity to release the wingedseeds. The seeds are 10–15 mmlong, with a 20–30 mm wing; as inAbies, the seeds have 2–3 resin

Lebanon Cedar or CedaLebanon C. libani. Cones smooth scales; two (or up tosubspecies:

Lebanon Cedar C. libani slibani. Mountains of Lebwestern Syria and south-cTurkey. Leaves dark green tocous blue-green, 10–25 mm.

Turkish Cedar C. libani sstenocoma. Mountains of swest Turkey. Leaves glaucousgreen, 8–25 mm.

Cyprus Cedar C. brevifolia (sylibani subsp. brevifolia, C. var. brevifolia). MountainCyprus. Leaves glaucous green, 8–20 mm.

Atlas Cedar C. atlantica (sylibani subsp. atlantica). mountains in Morocco & AlLeaves dark green to glau

blue-green, 10–25 mm.

A cedar in Lebanon

Ecology

Cedars are adapted to mounta

blisters, containing an unpleasant-tasting resin, thought to be adefence against squirrel predation.Cone maturation takes one year,with pollination in autumn and the

seeds maturing the same time ayear later. The pollen cones areslender ovoid, 3–8 cm long, pro-duced in late summer and shedding

pollen in autumn.

Taxonomy

Cedar forest in Algeria

Cedars share a very similar conestructure with the firs (Abies) andwere traditionally thought to bemost closely related to them, butmolecular evidence supports a

basal position in the family.

There are five taxa of Cedrus,assigned according to taxonomicopinion to between one and four different species.:

Deodar or Deodar Cedar, C. deo-dara (syn. C. libani subsp. deodara).Western Himalaya. Leaves brightgreen to pale glaucous green,25–60 mm; cones with slightlyridged scales.

Cedar - Cedrus


61



climates; in the Mediterranean theyreceive winter precipitation, mainlyas snow, and summer drought,while in the western Himalaya,they receive primarily summer

monsoon rainfall.

Cedars are used as food plants bythe larvae of some Lepidopteraspecies including PineProcessionary and Turnip Moth(recorded on Deodar Cedar).

Uses

ornamental trees, widely used inhorticulture in temperate climateswhere winter temperatures do notfall below about -25 °C. TheTurkish Cedar is slightly hardier, to-30 °C or just below. Extensivemortality of planted specimens canoccur in severe winters where tem-

peratures do drop lower. Areas withsuccessful long-term cultivationinclude the entire Mediterraneanregion, western Europe north to theBritish Isles, southern Australia and

New Zealand, and southern andwestern North America.

Cedar wood and cedar oil areknown to be a natural repellent tomoths, hence cedar is a popular lin-ing for modern-day cedar chestsand closets in which woolens are

stored. This specific use of cedar ismentioned in The Iliad (Book 24),referring to the cedar-roofed or lined storage chamber where Priamgoes to fetch treasures to be used asransom. Cedar is also commonlyused to make shoe trees as it can

to many other trees (sucWestern redcedar; in some the botanical name alludes tusage, such as the Calocedrus (meaning "bea

cedar"), also known as Inccedar). Such usage is regardsome authorities as a misaption of the name to be discour

absorb moisture and de-odorise.

Timber of trees with similar namessuch as Western Red Cedar is fre-quently confused with genuine

cedar.

The Cedar of Lebanon and to alesser extent the Deodar have localcultural importance.

Etymology

Both the Latin words cedrus andthe generic name cedrus are derived

from the Greek 'kedros'. AncientGreek and Latin used the sameword, kedros and cedrus respec-tively, for different species of plantsnow classified in the genera Cedrusand Juniperus (juniper). Species of

both genera are native to the areawhere Greek language and cultureoriginated, though as the word"kedros" does not seem to bederived from any of the languagesof the Middle East, it has been sug-gested the word may originallyhave applied to Greek species of

juniper and was later adopted for species now classified in the genusCedrus because of the similarity of their aromatic woods. The namewas similarly applied to citron andthe word citrus is derived from thesame root. However, as a loan word

in English, cedar had become fixedto its biblical sense of Cedrus bythe time of its first recorded usagein AD 1000.

The name "cedar" has more recent-ly (since about 1700) been applied

Glen O. Brechbill

62




Ceylon cedar from Meliaazedarach, is a high-quality timber that resembles teak

Melia azedarach, commonly known

as bead-tree or Cape lilac, is aspecies of deciduous tree in themahogany family, Meliaceae, thatis native to Pakistan, India,Indochina, Southeast Asia andAustralia. The genus Meliaincludes four other species, occur-ring from southeast Asia to north-ern Australia. They are all decidu-ous or semi-evergreen trees.

The adult tree has a rounded crown,and commonly measures attains aheight of 7-12 metres, however inexceptional circumstances M.azedarach can attain a height of 45metres. The flowers are small andfragrant, with five pale purple or lilac petals, growing in clusters.The fruit is a drupe, marble-sized,light yellow at maturity, hanging on

the tree all winter, and gradually becoming wrinkled and almostwhite.

The leaves are up to 50 cm long,alternate, long-petioled, 2 or 3times compound (odd-pinnate); the

warping and are resistant to finfection. The taste of the leanot as bitter as Neem (Azadirindica).

The hard, 5-grooved seeds widely used for making roand other products requiring b

before their replacement by m plastics.

The flowers are unattractive toand butterflies[citation neeThough some hummingbirdSapphire-spangled Em(Amazilia lactea), Glitteringlied Emerald (Chlorostlucidus) and Planalto H(Phaethornis pretrei) have recorded to feed on and polthe flowers, these too only topportunistically.

Toxicity

Fruits are poisonous to hum

eaten in quantity. However, likYew tree, these toxins are not ful to birds, who gorge themson the fruit, eventually reach"drunken" state. The toxinneurotoxins and unidentified rfound mainly in the fruits.

leaflets are dark green above andlighter green below, with serratemargins.

Nomenclature

Common names of Meliaazedarach include chinaberry,Persian lilac, white cedar, Texasumbrella, bead-tree, Cape lilac,Ceylon cedar, pride of India, malaivembu, bakain, zanzalakht anddharek or dhraik. In South Africa itis commonly but erroneously calledsyringa, which is in fact a differentlilac genus.

Uses & Ecology

The main utility of chinaberry is itstimber. This is of medium density,and ranges in colour from light

brown to dark red. In appearance itis readily confused with the unrelat-ed Burmese Teak (Tectona gran-dis). Melia azedarach in keeping

with other members of the familyMeliaceae has a timber of highquality, but as opposed to manyalmost-extinct species of mahogany it is under-utilised.Seasoning is relatively simple inthat planks dry without cracking or

63


Cedarwood - Ceylon



birds are able to eat the fruit,spreading the seeds in their drop-

pings. The first symptoms of poi-soning appear a few hours after ingestion. They may include loss of

appetite, vomiting, constipation or diarrhea, bloody faeces, stomach

pain, pulmonary congestion, car-diac arrest, rigidity, lack of coordi-nation and general weakness. Deathmay take place after about 24hours. Like in relatives, tetranor-triterpenoids consititute an impor-tant toxic principle. These arechemically related to Azadirachtin,

the primary insecticidal compoundin the commercially important Neem oil. These compounds are probably related to the wood andseed's resistance to pest infestation,and maybe to the unattractivenessof the flowers to animals.

Leaves have been used as a naturalinsecticide to keep with storedfood, but must not be eaten as theyare highly poisonous. A dilutedinfusion of leaves and trees has

been used in the past to induceuterus relaxation.

As Invasive Species

The plant was introduced around1830 as an ornamental in theUnited States (South Carolina and

Georgia) and widely planted insouthern states. Today it is consid-ered an invasive species by somegroups as far north as Virginia andOklahoma. But nurseries continueto sell the trees, and seeds are alsowidely available. It has become

naturalized to tropical and warmtemperate regions of the Americasand is planted in similar climatesaround the world. Besides the prob-lem of toxicity, its usefulness as a

shade tree in the United States isdiminished by its tendency tosprout where unwanted and to turnsidewalks into dangerously slip-

pery surfaces when the fruits fall,though this is not a problem wheresongbird populations are in goodshape. As noted above, the possibil-ity of commercially profitable har-vesting of feral stands remains

largely unexplored.

Common Names

Other common names includeGhoda neem (Ghoda meaninghorse) in Bengali and Vilayati (for-eign) neem in Bundelkhand region,and Bakain in East Uttar Pradeshand Jharkhand region of India. Ithas been naturalized in Madagascar where it is called vaondelaka.

Glen O. Brechbill

64



Cyprus Cedar C. brevifolia (syn. C.libani subsp. brevifolia, C. libanivar. brevifolia). Mountains of Cyprus. Leaves glaucous blue-green, 8–20 mm.

The Cyprus Cedar (Cedrus brevifo-lia) is a species of conifer in thegenus Cedrus. It is native to theTroödos Mountains of centralCyprus. It grows in the Pafos StateForest.

Cedarwood - Cyprus


65



66

Cedarwood - Eastern Red

Glen O. Brechbill

Eastern red cedar from Juniperusvirginiana, is soft, red, fine-grained,fragrant, and decay-resistant, oftenused for fence posts

uniperus virginiana (Eastern Red-cedar, Red Cedar, Eastern Juniper,Red Juniper, Pencil Cedar) is aspecies of juniper native to eastern

North America from southeasternCanada to the Gulf of Mexico andeast of the Great Plains. Further west it is replaced by the relatedJuniperus scopulorum (RockyMountain Juniper) and to the south-west by Juniperus ashei (AsheJuniper).

The Lakota Native American nameis Chansha, "redwood" or Hante'. Inits native range it is commonlycalled "cedar" or "red cedar,"names rejected by the AmericanJoint Committee on Horticultural

Nomenclature as it is a juniper, nota true cedar. However, "Red Cedar"

is the most used common name.

Description

Juniperus virginiana is a denseslow-growing tree that may never

become more than a bush on poor

late winter or early springtrees are usually dioecious,

pollen and seed cones on septrees.

There are two varieties, wintergrade where they meet:

Juniperus virginiana var. virgiis called eastern juniper / redcIt is found in eastern NAmerica, from Maine, wesouthern Ontario and Dakota, south to northernFlorida and southwest into thoak savannah of east-central TCones are larger, 4–7 mm; leaves are acute at apex and bred-brown.

Juniperus virginiana var. sili(Small) E.Murray (syn. Sabincicola Small, Juniperus sili(Small) L.H.Bailey) is knowsouthern or sand juniper / redHabitat is along the Atlanti

Gulf coasts from North Carsouth to central Florida and wsoutheast Texas. Cones are sm3–4 mm; scale leaves are bluapex and the bark is orange-bIt is treated by some authors lower rank of variety, while

soil, but is ordinarily from 5–20m/16–66 ft (rarely to 27 m/89 ft)tall, with a short trunk 30–100cm/12–39 in (rarely 170 cm/67 in)diameter. The oldest tree reported,

from Missouri, was 795 years old.The bark is reddish-brown, fibrous,and peels off in narrow strips. Theleaves are of two types; sharp,spreading needle-like juvenileleaves 5–10 cm (2.0–3.9 in) long,and tightly adpressed scale-likeadult leaves 2–4 mm (0.079–0.16in) long; they are arranged in oppo-site decussate pairs or occasionallywhorls of three. The juvenile leavesare found on young plants up to 3years old, and as scattered shootson adult trees, usually in shade. Theseed cones are 3–7 mm (0.12–0.28in) long, berry-like with fleshyscales, dark purple-blue with awhite wax cover giving an overallsky-blue color (though the waxoften rubs off); they contain one or two (rarely up to four) seeds, and

are mature in 6–8 months from pol-lination. They are an importantwinter food for many birds, whichdisperse the wingless seeds. The

pollen cones are 2–3 mm(0.079–0.12 in) long and 1.5 mm(0.059 in) broad, shedding pollen in




treat it as a distinct species.

Ecology

t is a pioneer invader, which means

that it is one of the first trees torepopulate cleared, eroded, or oth-erwise damaged land. It is unusual-ly long lived among pioneer species, with the potential to liveover 850 years. The tree is com-monly found in prairies or oak bar-rens, old pastures, or limestonehills, often along highways andnear recent construction sites. It is

an alternate host for cedar-applerust disease, an economicallyimportant disease of apples, andsome management strategies rec-ommend the removal of J. virgini-ana near apple orchards.

In many areas the trees are consid-ered an invasive species, even if native. The fire intolerant J. virgini-ana was previously controlled by

periodic wildfires. Low branchesnear the ground burn and provide aladder that allows fire to engulf thewhole tree. Grasses recover quicklyfrom low severity fires that arecharacteristic of prairies that keptthe trees at bay. With the urbaniza-tion of prairies, the fires have beenstopped with roads, plowed fields,and other fire breaks, allowing J.

virginiana and other trees to invade.Trees are destructive to grasslandsif left unchecked, and are actively

being eliminated by cutting and prescribed burning. The trees also burn very readily, and dense popu-lations were blamed for the rapid

seeds that have been consumthis bird have levels of germinroughly three times higherthose of seeds the birds did noMany other birds (from bluebi

turkeys) and many mammalenjoy these berries.

Uses

A log sawn in two and turnedlathe, exposing the pale sapand the reddish heartwood

'Corcorcor' Berries

The fine-grained, soft brittle ish- to brownish-red heartwofragrant, very light and durable, even in contact withBecause of its rot resistancewood is used for fence postsaromatic wood is avoidemoths, so it is in demand as for clothes chests and closets,referred to as cedar closetscedar chests. If correctly prepit makes excellent English

bows, flatbows, and NAmerican sinew-backed bowswood is marketed as "easterncedar" or "aromatic cedar"

best portions of the heartwooone of the few woods goomaking pencils, but the suppldiminished sufficiently by

1940s that it was largely rep by incense-cedar.

Juniper oil is distilled fromwood, twigs and leaves. The are used to flavor gin and as ney medicine.

spread of wildfires in droughtstricken Oklahoma and Texas in2005 and 2006.

Junipers also benefit from the

increased CO2 levels unlike thegrasses with which they compete.Many grasses are C4 plants thatconcentrate CO2 levels in their

bundle sheaths to increase the effi-ciency of RuBisCO, the enzymeresponsible for photosynthesis.Junipers are C3 plants that rely onthe natural CO2 concentrations of the environment, and are less effi-

cient at fixing CO2. However, thetrees will benefit from increasedCO2 levels, unlike grasses.

Damage done by J. virginianaincludes outcompeting foragespecies in pastureland. The low

branches and wide base occupy asignificant portion of land area. Thethick foliage blocks out most light,so few plants can live under thecanopy. The needles that fall raisethe pH of the soil, making it alka-line, which holds nutrients such as

phosphorus, making it harder for plants to absorb them. Juniperusvirginiana has been shown toremove nitrogen from the soil after invading prairie. It has also beenfound to reduce carbon stores in thesoil. This reduction in soil nutrients

also reduces the amount and diver-sity of microbial activity in the soil.

Cedar waxwings are fond of the berries of these junipers. It takesabout 12 minutes for their seeds to

pass through the birds' guts, and

67



Native American tribes used juniper wood poles to mark outagreed tribal hunting territories.French traders named BatonRouge, Louisiana (meaning "red

stick") from the reddish color of these poles.

During the Dust Bowl drought of the 1930s, the Prairie States ForestProject encouraged farmers to plantshelterbelts (wind breaks) made of eastern juniper throughout theGreat Plains. They grow well under adverse conditions. Both drought

tolerant and cold tolerant, theygrow well in rocky, sandy, and claysubstrate. Competition betweentrees is minimal, so they can be

planted in tightly spaced rows, andthe trees still grow to full height,creating a solid windbreak in ashort time.

A number of cultivars have beenselected for garden planting,including 'Canaertii' (narrow coni-cal; female) 'Corcorcor' (with adense, erect crown; female),'Goldspire' (narrow conical withyellow foliage), and 'Kobold'(dwarf). Some cultivars previouslylisted under this species, notably'Skyrocket', are actually cultivars of J. scopulorum.

In the Missouri and ArkansasOzarks, eastern juniper is common-ly used as a Christmas tree.

Allergen

The pollen is a known allergen,

although not as potent as that of therelated Juniperus ashei (Ashe

juniper), which sheds pollen amonth earlier. People allergic toone are usually allergic to both. J.

virginiana sheds pollen as early aslate winter and through earlyspring. Consequently, what beginsas an allergy to Ashe juniper in thewinter, may extend into spring,since the pollination of the eastern

juniper follows after that of theAshe juniper.

Contact with the leaves or wood

can produce a mild skin rash insome individuals.

Glen O. Brechbill

68



Cedarwood - Japanese

Cryptomeria is a monotypic genusof conifer in the cypress familyCupressaceae formerly belongingto the family Taxodiaceae; itincludes only one species,

Cryptomeria japonica (syn.:Cupressus japonica L.f.). It isendemic to Japan, where it isknown as Sugi, Japanese: . The treeis often called Japanese Cedar inEnglish, though the tree is not relat-ed to the cedars (Cedrus).

It is a very large evergreen tree,reaching up to 70 m (230 ft) tall and4 m (13 ft) trunk diameter, withred-brown bark which peels in ver-tical strips. The leaves are arrangedspirally, needle-like, 0.5–1 cm(0.20–0.39 in) long; and the seedcones globular, 1–2 cm (0.39–0.79in) diameter with about 20–40scales. It is superficially similar tothe related Giant Sequoia(Sequoiadendron giganteum), fromwhich it can be differentiated by the

longer leaves (under 0.5 cm in theGiant Sequoia) and smaller cones(4–6 cm in the Giant Sequoia), andthe harder bark on the trunk (thick,soft and spongy in Giant Sequoia).

Sugi has been so long-cultivated in

tus, E. punctimargo and E. uner.

Sugi (and Hinoki) pollen is a cause of hay fever in Japan.

Mechanical Pproperties

In dry air conditions, the density of Japanese cedar hasdetermined to be about 300kg/m3. It also displays a Yomodulus of 8017 MPa, 753and 275 MPa in the longituradial and tangential directirelation to the wood fibers.

Symbolism and Uses

Sugi is the national tree of Jcommonly planted around teand shrines, with many himpressive trees planted cenago. Sargent (1894; The FFlora of Japan) recordedinstance of a daimyo- (feudal

who was too poor to donate alantern at the funeral of the ShTokugawa Ieyasu (1543–161

Nikko- To-sho--gu-, but requinstead to be allowed to plaavenue of Sugi, "that future vimight be protected from the h

China that it is thought by some to be native there. Forms selected for ornament and timber productionlong ago in China have beendescribed as a distinct variety

Cryptomeria japonica var. sinensis(or even a distinct species,Cryptomeria fortunei), but they donot differ from the full range of variation found in the wild inJapan, and there is no definite evi-dence the species ever occurredwild in China. Genetic analysis of the most famous Chinese popula-tion of Cryptomeria japonica var.sinensis in Tianmu Mountain, con-taining trees estimated to be nearly1000 years old, supports thehypothesis that the population orig-inates from an introduction.

Biology

Cryptomeria grow in forests ondeep, well-drained soils subject towarm, moist conditions, and it is

fast-growing under these condi-tions. It is intolerant of poor soilsand cold, drier climates.

Cryptomeria is used as a food plant by the larvae of some moths of thegenus Endoclita including E. aura-


69



the sun". The offer was accepted;the avenue, which still exists, isover 65 km (40 mi) long, and "hasnot its equal in stately grandeur".

It is also extensively used inforestry plantations in Japan, Chinaand the Azores islands, and is wide-ly cultivated as an ornamental treein other temperate areas, includingBritain, Europe, North Americaand eastern Himalaya regions of

Nepal and India.

One very popular ornamental form

is the cultivar "Elegans", which isnotable for retaining juvenilefoliage throughout its life, insteadof developing normal adult foliagewhen one year old (see the picturewith different shoots). It makes asmall, shrubby tree 5–10m tall.There are numerous dwarf cultivarsthat are widely used in rock gardensand for bonsai, including 'tansu','koshyi', 'little diamond', 'yoko-hama' and 'kilmacurragh.'

The wood is scented, reddish-pink in colour, lightweight but strong,waterproof and resistant to decay. Itis favoured in Japan for all types of construction work as well as interi-or panelling, etc. In Darjeeling dis-trict and Sikkim in India, where it isone of the most widely growing

trees, Cryptomeria japonica iscalled Dhuppi and is favoured for its light wood, extensively used inhouse building.

Its introduction in the Azoresislands to be used commercially,

resulted in the destruction of muchof the original, now threatened,native laurel forest which affectedan entire complex environmentthreatening many other species

such as the priolo.

Glen O. Brechbill

70



71

Lebanon Cedar or Cedar of Lebanon C. libani. Cones withsmooth scales; two (or up to four)subspecies:

Lebanon Cedar C. libani subsp.libani. Mountains of Lebanon,western Syria and south-centralTurkey. Leaves dark green to glau-cous blue-green, 10–25 mm.

Turkish Cedar C. libani subsp.stenocoma. Mountains of south-west Turkey. Leaves glaucous blue-green, 8–25 mm.

Description

Cedrus libani is an evergreen conif-erous tree growing up to 40 m (130ft) tall, with a trunk up to 2.5 m (8ft 2 in) in diameter. The crown isconic when young, becoming

broadly tabular with age with fairlylevel branches.

The shoots are dimorphic, withlong shoots and short shoots. Theleaves are needle-like, spaced outon the long shoots, and in clustersof 15-45 on the short shoots; theyare 5–30 mm (1?4–13?16 in) inlength, quadrangular in cross-sec-

Ecology

In Lebanon and Turkey it omost abundantly at altitud1,000-2,000 m (3,300–6,50

where it forms pure foresmixed forests with Cilicia(Abies cilicica), European Pine (Pinus nigra), and se

juniper (Juniperus) speciesCyprus, it occurs at 1,000-1,5(3,300–5,000 ft) (reaching themit of Mount Paphos). In the Mountains of Morocco, it occ1,370–2,200 m (4,500–7,200

pure forests or mixed with species and Juniperus thurifer

History, Symbolism and Uses

The Cedar of Lebanon was imtant to various ancient civilizaThe trees were used byPhoenicians for building comcial and military ships, as whouses, palaces, and temples

ancient Egyptians used its remummification, and its sawdu

been found in the tombEgyptian Pharaohs. The SumEpic of Gilgamesh designatecedar groves of Lebanon adwelling of the gods to w

tion, and vary from green to glau-cous blue-green with stomatal

bands on all four sides. The seedcones are produced often every sec-ond year, and mature in 12 months

from pollination; mature cones inlate autumn are 8–12 cm (3–43?4in) long and 4–6 cm (11?2–23?8 in)wide.

Taxonomy

Cedrus libani was first classified bythe French botanist AchilleRichard. There are two distincttypes that are considered either assubspecies or varieties:

Cedrus libani var. libani (LebanonCedar):

Cedrus libani var. stenocoma(Turkish Cedar):

Some botanists also classify theCyprus Cedar (Cedrus brevifolia)

and Atlas Cedar (Cedrus atlantica)as subspecies of C. libani.However, a majority of the modernsources consider them distinctspecies.

Cedarwood - Lebanon




Gilgamesh, the hero, ventured.

Hebrew priests were ordered byMoses to use the bark of theLebanon Cedar in

circumcision[citation needed]andthe treatment of leprosy. TheHebrew prophet Isaiah used theLebanon Cedar as a metaphor for the pride of the world. According tothe Talmud, Jews once burnedLebanese cedar wood on the Mountof Olives to celebrate the new year.Foreign rulers from both near andfar would order the wood for reli-

gious and civil constructs, the mostfamous of which are KingSolomon's Temple in Jerusalemand David's and Solomon's Palaces.Because of its significance theword Cedar is mentioned 75 times(Cedar 51 times, Cedars 24 times)in the Bible, and played a pivotalrole in the cementing of theP h o e n i c i a n - H e b r e wrelationship.[clarification needed]Beyond that, it was also used byRomans, Greeks, Persians,Assyrians and Babylonians.

Over the centuries, extensive defor-estation has occurred, with onlysmall remnants of the originalforests surviving. Deforestation has

been particularly severe in Lebanonand on Cyprus; on Cyprus, only

small trees up to 25 m (82 ft) tallsurvive, though Pliny the Elder recorded cedars 40 m (130 ft) tallthere.[15] Extensive reforestationof cedar is carried out in theMediterranean region, particularlyTurkey, where over 50 million

movements, such as the K(Phalange), the Lebanese Fthe National Liberal Party, anFuture Movement. FiLebanon is sometimes meton

cally referred to as the Land Cedars. As a result of exploitation, few old trees rin Lebanon, but there is noactive program to conserveregenerate the forests. Lebanese approach has emphanatural regeneration rather

planting, and this by creatinright conditions. The Leb

state has created several CReserves or nature reservescontain cedars, including the CCedar Reserves, the Jaj CReserve, the Tannourine Rethe Ammouaa and Karm Reserves in the Akkar districthe Forest of the Cedars ofnear Bcharri. Extensive replais taking place in Turkey, wapproximately 300 square kitres (74,000 acres) of ceda

planted annually.

Horticultural Use

The Lebanon Cedar is widely ed as an ornamental tree in and large gardens, often

planted in landscape avenuesas focal point trees in large

scapes. The most prominent scaping feature in London's hiHighgate Cemetery is its "CirLebanon", where a Lebanon stands in the centre of a citrench cut into the ground andwith mausoleums.

young cedars are being plantedannually. The Lebanese popula-tions are also now expandingthrough a combination of replanti-ng and protection of natural regen-

eration from browsing by goats,hunting, forest fires, and wood-worms.

Historically, there were variousattempts at conserving the LebanonCedars. The first was made by theRoman Emperor Hadrian, whoissued a decree protecting parts of the Cedars of Lebanon in CE 118.

In the Middle Ages, the Mamluk Caliphs also made an attempt atconserving the Cedars and regulat-ing their use, followed by theMaronite Patriarch Yusuf Hbaych,who placed them under his protec-tion in 1832. In 1876, Britain'sQueen Victoria financed a wall to

protect the Cedars of God (near Bsharri) from the ravages of goatherding.

National and Regional

Significance

The Lebanese flag, with theLebanon Cedar in the middle

The Lebanon Cedar is the nationalemblem of Lebanon, and is dis-

played on the Lebanese flag and

coat of arms. It is also the logo of Middle East Airlines (MEA),which is Lebanon's national carrier.Beyond that, it is also the mainsymbol of Lebanon's "Cedar Revolution", along with manyLebanese political parties and

Glen O. Brechbill

72



73


Mexican white cedar fromCupressus lusitanica, comes from adrought-resistant tree that has beenwidely cultivated for its timber for centuries.

Cupressus lusitanica, (CedroBlanco; Teotlate, distinctive namesused in Mexico); Cedro Blancomeans White Cedar and is alsoknown as Mexican White Cedar, isa species of cypress native toMexico and Central America(Guatemala, El Salvador andHonduras). It has also been intro-duced to Belize, Costa Rica and

Nicaragua, growing at 1,200–3,000metres (3,900–9,800 ft) altitude.

The scientific name lusitanica (of Portugal) refers to its very earlycultivation there, with plantsimported from Mexico to themonastery at Buçaco, near Coimbrain Portugal in about 1634; thesetrees were already over 130 years

old when the species was botanical-ly described by Miller in 1768.

Description

Cupressus lusitanica is an ever-green conifer tree with a conic to

two planes. Occurs in lower raareas.

Cupressus lusitanica var. bent(syn. C. benthamii) - Bent

Cypress - Foliage in flatsprays, with small shoots all i plane. Occurs in higher raareas. (Near Threatened speci


Fast-growing and drought tolCupressus lusitanica has introduced from Mexico's pnances to different parts oworld. It is widely cultivatedas an ornamental tree and fo

ber production, in warm, tempand subtropical regions arounworld. Trees have been selectcultivation from northern M

populations, which have a drought endurance.

Locations

Its cultivation and subsequentralisation in parts of southernhas caused a degree of confwith native Cupressus specithat region; plants sold by nurunder the names of Asian sp

ovoid-conic crown, growing to 40m tall. The foliage grows in densesprays, dark green to somewhatyellow-green in colour. The leavesare scale-like, 2–5 mm long, and

produced on rounded (not flat-tened) shoots. The seed cones areglobose to oblong, 10–20 mm long,with four to 10 scales, green at first,maturing brown or grey-brownabout 25 months after pollination.

The cones may either open at matu-rity to release the seeds, or remainclosed for several years, only open-ing after the parent tree is killed ina wildfire, allowing the seeds tocolonise the bare ground exposed

by the fire. The male cones are 3–4mm long, and release pollen inFebruary–March. In most of its nat-ural environment rainfall occurswith more quantity in summer.

Varieties

There are two varieties, treated asdistinct species by some botanists:

Cupressus lusitanica var. lusitanica(syn. C. lindleyi) - MexicanCypress - Foliage in three-dimen-sional sprays, with small shoots in

Cedarwood - Mexican White



such as Cupressus torulosa often prove to be this species. It has been planted widely for commercial pro-duction: at high altitudes inColombia (3300 m), Bolivia and

South Africa, and near sea level in New Zealand where is fully natu-ralized. In Colombia trees are

planted to form windbreak curtainsand for fighting soil erosion onslopes.

It has been planted as an ornamen-tal tree near sea level in temperateclimates and has done very well:

Portugal (its name's source, after becoming popular there), BuenosAires Province, Argentina; Austin,Texas and the British Isles where itcan reach a height of 30 m-90 feet.

It is being planted in the provinceof Argentine province of San Luis,Argentina at 1500 m above sealevel with forestation purposes for creating artificial forests in a landoriginally lacking of them in a verysimilar climate to that of its originsite.

Glen O. Brechbill

74




Northern white cedar from Thujaoccidentalis, comes from a relative-ly small tree, and is used for canoe-making, log cabins, fences, andshingles

Thuja occidentalis (EasternArborvitae, Northern Whitecedar)is an evergreen coniferous tree, inthe cypress family Cupressaceae,which is widely cultivated for useas an ornamental plant known asAmerican Arbor Vitae. The endem-ic occurrence of this species is anortheastern distribution in NorthAmerica. It is thought to be the firsttree of that region to be cultivatedin the area in and around Europe.

Common names include: Tree of Life, Yellow Cedar, AmericanArborvitae, Arbor Vitae, AtlanticWhite Cedar, Cedrus Lycea,Eastern White Cedar, False WhiteCedar, Hackmatack, Lebensbaum,Thuia du Canada, Thuja.

Description

An evergreen tree with fan-like branches and scaly leaves. Unlikethe closely related species, Thuja

plicata (Western Redcedar), it is

Brunswick, and Nova SIsolated populations exist tsouth in MassachuConnecticut, Ohio, KentTennessee, North Car

Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virand West Virginia.

Naming and Taxonomy

The species was first describCarolus Linnaeus in 1753, anname remains current. Comnames include Eastern ArborAmerican Arborvitae, TArborvitae, or just Arborvitalast particularly in the horticutrade. This name, arbor vitderived from the tree of life mfor the supposed medicinal prties of the sap, bark and twiOther names by which it is kinclude Northern WhitecEastern Whitecedar or WCedar, and Swamp Cedar. occidentalis trees are unrelat

cedars, or to the AustralianMelia azedarach, also knowWhite Cedar. A large numbnames for cultivars are used byticulturalists.

only a small tree. Growing to aheight of 10–20 metres (33–66 ft)tall with a 0.4 metres (1.3 ft) trunk diameter, exceptionally to 30metres (98 ft) tall and 1.6 metres

(5.2 ft) diameter, the tree is oftenstunted or prostrate. The bark isred-brown, furrowed and peels innarrow, longitudinal strips. Thefoliage forms in flat sprays withscale-like leaves 3–5 millimetres(0.12–0.20 in) long. The cones areslender, yellow-green ripening

brown, 10–15 millimetres(0.39–0.59 in) long and 4–5 mil-limetres (0.16–0.20 in) broad, with6-8 overlapping scales. The branch-es may take root if the tree falls.

Northern whitecedars found to begrowing on cliff faces in southernOntario are the oldest trees inEastern North America and all of Canada, growing to ages in excessof 1,653 years old.

Distribution

Thuja occidentalis is native toManitoba east throughout the GreatLakes Region and into Québec,Vermont, New Hampshire, Maine,Prince Edward Island, New

75


Cedarwood - Northern White




Ecology

Thuja occidentalis grows naturallyin wet forests, being particularlyabundant in coniferous swamps

where other larger and faster-grow-ing trees cannot compete success-fully. It also occurs on other siteswith reduced tree competition suchas cliffs. Although not currentlylisted as endangered, wild Thujaoccidentalis populations are threat-ened in many areas by high deer numbers; deer find the soft ever-green foliage a very attractive win-

ter food, and strip it rapidly. Thelargest known specimen is 34 m talland 175 cm diameter, on SouthManitou Island within LeelanauCounty, Michigan.

It can be a very long-lived tree incertain conditions, with notably oldspecimens growing on cliffs wherethey are inaccessible to deer andwildfire; the oldest known livingspecimen is just over 1,100 yearsold, but a dead specimen with over 1,650 growth rings has been found.These very old trees are, despitetheir age, small and stunted due tothe difficult growing conditions.The Witch Tree, a T. occidentalisgrowing out of a cliff face on LakeSuperior in Minnesota, wasdescribed by a French explorer as

being a mature tree in 1731; it isstill alive today.

Uses

Grown as an ornamental specimen,Powsin Botanical Garden, Warsaw,

Poland

White Cedar is a tree with impor-tant uses in traditional Ojibwe cul-ture. Honoured with the name

Nookomis Giizhik ("Grandmother Cedar"), the tree is the subject of sacred legends and is considered agift to humanity for its myriad uses.It is used in craft, construction andmedicine. It is one of the four

plants of the Ojibwe medicinewheel, associated with the south.The foliage of Thuja occidentalis isrich in Vitamin C and is believed to

be the annedda which cured thescurvy of Jacques Cartier and his party in the winter of 1535–1536.Due to the neurotoxic compoundthujone, internal use can be harmfulif used for prolonged periods or while pregnant.

Thuja occidentalis is widely used asan ornamental tree, particularly for screens and hedges. Over 300 culti-vars exist, with some of the morecommon ones being: 'Degroot'sSpire', 'Ellwangeriana', 'HetzWintergreen', 'Lutea', 'Rheingold','Smaragd' (a.k.a. 'Emerald Green'),'Techny', and 'Wareana'. It wasintroduced into Europe as early as1540 and is widely cultivated now,especially in parks and cemeteries.

Northern white cedar is commer-cially used for rustic fencing and

posts, lumber, poles, shingles andin the construction of log cabins,White cedar is the preferred woodfor the structural elements, such asribs and planking, of birchbark

canoes and the planking of wocanoes.

The essential oil within the has been used for cleansers,

fectants, hair preparations, incides, liniment, room sprayssoft soaps. There are some rethat the Ojibwa made a soupthe inner bark of the soft tOthers have used the twigs to teas to relieve constipationheadache.

In the 19th century Thuja w

common use as an exterapplied tincture or ointment ftreatment of warts, ringwormthrush. "An injection of the tininto venereal warts is said to them to disappear."

Glen O. Brechbill

76



Cedarwood - Port Orford

77


Port Orford cedar, from the western North American treeChamaecyparis lawsoniana, islight-weight and durable, and par-ticularly valued in east Asia

Chamaecyparis lawsoniana is acypress in the genusChamaecyparis, family Cupre-ssaceae, known by the nameLawson's Cypress in the horticul-tural trade, or Port Orford-cedar inits native range (although not a truecedar). C. lawsoniana is native tothe southwest of Oregon and the far northwest of California in theUnited States, occurring from sealevel up to 1,500 m (4,900 ft) alti-tude in the Klamath Mountains val-leys, often along streams.

It is a large evergreen coniferoustree, maturing up to 200 feet tall or more, with trunks 4–6 feet in diam-eter, with feathery foliage in flatsprays, usually somewhat glaucous

blue-green in color. The leaves arescale-like, 3–5 mm long, with nar-row white markings on the under-side, and produced on somewhatflattened shoots. The seed cones areglobose, 7–14 mm diameter, with6-10 scales, green at first, maturing

pisifera and C. lawsoniana.

Cultivation & Uses

t is of great importance in hor

ture, with several hundred ncultivars of varying crown sgrowth rates and foliage chaving been selected for g

planting. It thrives best in drained but moist soils. The is light yet has great strengtrot resistance, and is partichighly valued in east Asia,large amounts being exportJapan where it is in high defor making coffins, and for shand temples. Its lumber isknown for its highly fragrant garoma. Due to the straightnessgrain, it is also one of the prewoods for the manufacture of shafts. It is also considereacceptable, though not ideal, for construction of aircraft.

However, it is considered than acceptable for use in strinstruments. It's fine grain, strength and tonal quality are ly regarded for soundboards itar making.

brown in early fall, 6–8 monthsafter pollination. The male conesare 3–4 mm long, dark red, turning

brown after pollen release in earlyspring. The bark is reddish-brown,

and fibrous to scaly in verticalstrips.

It was first discovered (by Euro-Americans) near Port Orford inOregon and introduced into cultiva-tion in 1854, by collectors workingfor the Lawson & Son nursery inEdinburgh, Scotland, after whom itwas named as Lawson's Cypress bythe describing botanist AndrewMurray. The USDA officially callsit by the name Port Orford Cedar,as do most people in its native area,

but as it is not a cedar, many botanists prefer to avoid the name,using Lawson's Cypress, or in veryrare instances Port Orford Cypress,instead to stop confusion. The hor-ticultural industry, in which thespecies is very important, mostly

uses the name Lawson's Cypress.

The extinct Eocene speciesChamaecyparis eureka, knownfrom fossils found on Axel HeibergIsland in Canada, is noted to bevery similar to Chamaecyparis




78

lation to a non-infected populationvia human or animal movement.After initial infection in streamside

populations, secondary spread viazoospores quickly infects all down-

stream individuals.

Human facilitated spread is thoughtto be responsible for most new, andall long-distance, infections. Soilon vehicle tires, especially loggingtrucks and other off road vehicles,is considered the most pressing

problem due to the volume of soilthat can be carried and the traffic

rate in and between susceptibleareas. Spread on boots and moun-tain bike tires has also been sug-gested and probably contributes tonew infections locally. Animalfacilitated spread is thought tooccur, but is localized.

The Bureau of Land Management(BLM) and United States ForestService (USFS) attempt to preventPhytophthora spread through roadclosures, monitoring, research andeducation. Research has focused ondetermining the dynamics andmechanisms of spread, as well asattempts to breed resistant trees.

Disease

In the wild, the species is seriouslythreatened by a root disease caused

by the introduced fungal pathogen,

Phytophthora lateralis. This diseaseis also a problem for horticultural

plantings in some parts of NorthAmerica. The tree is sometimeskilled, though less often, by other species of Phytophthora.

Phytophthora lateralis infection begins when mycelium, from a ger-minated spore, invade the roots.

The infection then spreads throughthe inner bark and cambium aroundthe base of the tree. Spread up thetrunk is generally limited. Infectedtissue dies and effectively girdlesthe tree. Large trees are more likelyto be infected than small trees dueto larger root areas (although alltrees at the edges of infectedstreams will eventually succumb).However, large trees can often livewith the infections for a longer duration (up to several years).

Port Orford "Cedar" in streamside populations are highly susceptibleto Phytophthora lateralis infection.However, the rate of Phytophthoraspread through populations in dryupland areas appears to be slow.Phytophthora lateralis spreads

through water via mobile spores(zoospores). The fungus also pro-duces resting spores (chlamy-dospores) that can persist in soil for a long period of time. New infec-tions generally begin when soil istransferred from an infected popu-



Cedarwood - Western Himalaya

Deodar or Deodar Cedar, C. deo-dara (syn. C. libani subsp. deodara).Western Himalaya. Leaves brightgreen to pale glaucous green,25–60 mm; cones with slightly

ridged scales.

Cedrus deodara (Deodar Cedar,Himalayan Cedar, or Deodar;Sanskrit, Hindi: devada-ru; Urdu:deoda-r; Chinese: xue song) is aspecies of cedar native to the west-ern Himalayas in easternAfghanistan, northern Pakistan,north-central India (HimachalPradesh and Uttarakhand), south-westernmost Tibet and western

Nepal, occurring at 1500–3200 maltitude. It is a large evergreenconiferous tree reaching 40–50 mtall, exceptionally 60 m, with atrunk up to 3 m diameter. It has aconic crown with level branchesand drooping branchlets.

The leaves are needle-like, mostly

2.5–5 cm long, occasionally up to 7cm long, slender (1 mm thick),

borne singly on long shoots, and indense clusters of 20-30 on shortshoots; they vary from bright greento glaucous blue-green in colour.The female cones are barrel-

trees, Ravana is to be seathere and there, together Seetha. [4-43-13]”

Forests full of deodar or deva

trees were the favorite living of ancient Indian sages andfamilies who were devoted tHindu god Shiva. To pleaseShiva, the sages used to pevery difficult tapasya (medit

practices in deodar forests. Alancient Hindu epics and Shtexts regularly meDarukavana, meaning a foredeodars, as a sacred place.

The deodar tree is the nationaof Pakistan.


It is widely grown as an ornamtree, often planted in parklarge gardens for its drofoliage. General cultivation is

ed to areas with mild winterstrees frequently killed by temtures below about - 25 °C, limit to hardiness zones 7 and wfor reliable growth. It is commgrown in western Europe (noScotland), in the Mediterr

shaped, 7–13 cm long and 5–9 cm broad, and disintegrate whenmature (in 12 months) to release thewinged seeds. The male cones are4–6 cm long, and shed their pollen

in autumn.

The specific epithet, which is alsothe English vernacular name,derives from the Sanskrit termdevada-ru, which means "wood of the gods", a compound of deva(god) and da-ru (wood, etym. tree).This tree is also the national tree of the country Pakistan

Cultural importance in the Indiansubcontinent

Among Hindus, as the etymologyof deodar suggests, it is worshipedas a divine tree. Deva, the first half of the Sanskrit term, means divine,deity, or deus. Da-ru, he second

part, connotes durum, druid, tree,true.

Several Hindu legends refer to thistree.

That means “In the stands of Lodhra trees, Padmaka trees and inthe woods of Devadaru, or Deodar

79




region, around the Black Sea, insouthern and central China, on thewest coast of North America as far north as Vancouver, BritishColumbia, in the southeastern

United States from Texas toMaryland, South Africa also insome parts of Australia .

The most cold-tolerant trees origi-nate in the northwest of the species'range in Kashmir and PaktiaProvince, Afghanistan. Selectedcultivars from this region are hardyto zone 7 or even zone 6, tolerating

temperatures down to about -30 °C. Named cultivars from this regioninclude 'Eisregen', 'Eiswinter', 'KarlFuchs', 'Kashmir', 'Polar Winter',and 'Shalimar'. Of these, 'Eisregen','Eiswinter', 'Karl Fuchs', and 'Polar Winter' were selected in Germanyfrom seed collected in Paktia;'Kashmir' was a selection of thenursery trade, whereas 'Shalimar'originated from seeds collected in1964 from Shalimar Gardens,Pakistan (in the Kashmir region)and propagated at the ArnoldArboretum.

Construction Material

Deodar is in great demand as build-ing material because of its durabili-ty, rot-resistant character and fine,

close grain, which is capable of tak-ing a high polish. Its historical useto construct religious temples andin landscaping around temples iswell recorded. Its rot-resistant char-acter also makes it an ideal woodfor constructing the well-known

Chemistry

Cedrus deodara contains amounts of taxifolin.

houseboats of Srinagar, Kashmir. InPakistan and India, during theBritish colonial period, deodar wood was used extensively for con-struction of barracks, public build-

ings, bridges, canals and railwaycars. Despite its durability, it is nota strong timber, and its brittlenature makes it unsuitable for deli-cate work where strength isrequired, such as chair-making.

Herbal Ayurveda

The curative properties of Deodar

are well recorded in Pakistani andIndian Ayurvedic medicines, whichare indicated below.

The inner wood is aromatic andused to make incense. Inner woodis distilled into essential oil. Asinsects avoid this tree, the essentialoil is used as insect repellent on thefeet of horses, cattle and camels. Italso has antifungal properties andhas some potential for control of fungal deterioration of spices dur-ing storage. The outer bark andstem are astringent.

Cedar oil is often used for its aro-matic properties, especially in aro-matherapy. It has a characteristicwoody odour which may changesomewhat in the course of drying

out. The crude oils are often yel-lowish or darker in colour. Its appli-cations cover soap perfumes,household sprays, floor polishesand insecticides and is also used inmicroscope work as a clearing oil.

80

Glen O. Brechbill



Cedarwood - Western Red Cedar

Western red cedar from Thuja pli-cata, is soft red-brown, aromatic,decay-resistant, used for outdoor construction, shingles, and guitar-making,

Thuja plicata, commonly calledWestern or pacific redcedar, giantor western arborvitae, giantcedar,[1] or shinglewood, is aspecies of Thuja, an evergreenconiferous tree in the cypress fami-ly Cupressaceae native to western

North America. Though commonlycalled a cedar, it does not belong tothe scientific family of trees that areclassified as "true cedars". It is theProvincial tree of British Columbia,and has extensive applications for the indigenous First Nations of thePacific Northwest.

Description

It is a large to very large tree, rang-ing up to 65–70 metres (213–230

ft) tall and 3–4 metres (9.8–13 ft) intrunk diameter, exceptionally evenlarger.[2][3] Trees growing in theopen may have a crown that reach-es the ground, whereas trees dense-ly spaced together will only exhibita crown at the top, where light can

Distribution and Habitat

Western Redcedar is native northwestern United Statessouthwestern Canada, from s

eastern Alaska and BColumbia southeast thrWashington and Oregon to thnorthwest of California, primin coastal forests but with a diinland population in the souof British Columbia, the exsouthwest of Alberta, norIdaho and westernmost MoPollen analysis and carbon-1ing indicates postglacial colotion around the lower Fraser Varound 6600 years ago. Th

prospers and accounted for nhalf the vegetation in the areyears ago. Currently, WeRedcedar comprises about tw

percent of the region's forests

Western Redcedar is amonmost widespread trees in the P

Northwest, and is associatedDouglas-fir and western hemin most places where it growsfound at the elevation range level to a maximum of 22above sea level at Crater LaOregon. In addition to grow

reach the leaves. It is long-lived;some individuals can live well over a thousand years, with the oldestverified being 1,460 years.

The foliage forms flat sprays withscale-like leaves in opposite pairs,with successive pairs at 90° to eachother. The foliage sprays are greenabove, and green marked withwhitish stomatal bands below; theyare strongly aromatic, with a scentreminiscent of pineapple whencrushed. The individual leaves are1–4 mm long and 1–2 mm broad onmost foliage sprays, but up to 12mm long on strong-growing leadshoots.

The cones are slender, 10–18 mmlong and 4–5 mm broad, with 8–12(rarely 14) thin, overlapping scales;they are green to yellow-green,ripening brown in fall about sixmonths after pollination, and openat maturity to shed the seeds. The

seeds are 4–5 mm long and 1 mm broad, with a narrow papery wingdown each side. The pollen conesare 3–4 mm long, red or purple atfirst, shedding yellow pollen inspring.


81



lush forests and mountainsides,Western Redcedar is also a ripariantree, and grows in many forestedswamps and streambanks in itsrange. The tree is shade-tolerant,

and able to reproduce under denseshade.

It has been introduced to other temperate zones, including westernEurope, Australia (at least as far north as Sydney), New Zealand, theeastern United States (at least as far north as Central New York), andhigher elevations of Hawaii.

The species is naturalized inBritain.

Taxonomy and Name

Thuja plicata is one of two Thujaspecies native to North America,the other being Thuja occidentalis.The species name plicata derivesfrom a Greek word meaning "fold-ed in plaits", a reference to the pat-tern of its small leaves.

Most authorities, both in Canadaand the United States cite theEnglish name in two words as west-ern redcedar, or occasionallyhyphenated as western red-cedar, toindicate is not a cedar (Cedrus), butit is also confusingly cited as west-

ern red cedar in some popular works. In the American horticultur-al trade, it is also known as thegiant arborvitae, by comparisonwith arborvitae for its close relativeThuja occidentalis. Other namesinclude giant redcedar, Pacific red-

Grave", a self dug grave creatthe force of its own impact.

A giant stump of a WRedcedar tree is on display ou

of the Tree House exhibit aJardin botanique de MontréQuebec, Canada. Visitors arecome to pose next to it for dra

photographs showing the giant scale.

The soft red-brown timber tight, straight grain and few kIt is valued for its distinct ap

ance, aroma, and its high nresistance to decay, being esively used for outdoor contion in the form of posts, decshingles and siding. It is also ly used throughout EuropeAmerica for making beehivescultivated as an ornamental tra limited extent in forestry ptions and for screens and hedgis commonly used for the fraand longwood in lightweigh

boats and kayaks. In larger bois often used in sandwich contion between two layers of eresin and/or fibreglass or s

products. Due to its light w(390-400 kg per m3 driedabout 30% lighter than com

boat building woods, sucmahogony. For its weight it is

strong but can be brittle. It well with epoxy resin or resoadhesive. It is also used to lineets and chests, for its pungenmatic oils are believed to disage moth and carpet beetle lwhich can damage cloth by e

cedar, shinglewood, BritishColumbia cedar, canoe cedar, andred cedar. Arborvitae comes fromthe Latin for "tree of life"; coinci-dentally, native Americans of the

West coast also address the speciesas "long life maker".

Notable Specimens

The "Quinault Lake Redcedar" isthe largest Western Redcedar in theworld

The "Quinault Lake Redcedar" is

the largest known specimen in theworld with a wood volume of 500cubic metres (17,700 cu ft). It islocated near the northwest shore of Lake Quinault north of Aberdeen,Washington, about 34 km from thePacific Ocean, it is 55 m tall with adiameter of 6.04 m By way of comparison, the largest known tree,a Giant Sequoia named "GeneralSherman", has a volume of 1,480cubic metres (52,300 cu ft).

The second largest is the CheewhatLake Cedar, in the West CoastVancouver Island-Pacific Rim

National Park, at 449 cubic meters,and then the Kalaloch Cedar in theOlympic National Park, at 350cubic meters.

A redcedar over 71m tall, 4.5m indiameter and over 700 years oldstood in Cathedral Grove onVancouver Island, BritishColumbia, before it was set on fireand destroyed by vandals in 1972.That tree now lies in "Giant's

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wool and similar fibres. This ismore effective in a properly con-structed redcedar chest (sometimesmade entirely of redcedar), sincethe oils are confined by shellac and

leather seals. A well-sealed red-cedar chest will retain its pungentodour for many decades, some-times for over a century. Its lightweight, strength and dark warmsound make it a popular choice for guitar soundboards.

Thujaplicin, a chemical substance,is found in mature trees and serves

as a natural fungicide,thereby pre-venting the wood from rotting. Thiseffect lasts around a century evenafter the tree is felled. However,thujaplicin is only found in older trees, and saplings that do not pro-duce the chemical often rot at anearly stage, causing some trees togrow with a somewhat hollow, rot-ten trunk.

Role in Indigenous Societies

Klallam people and canoe, ca. 1914

Western Redcedar has an extensivehistory of use by the indigenous

peoples of the Pacific NorthwestCoast, from Oregon to southeastAlaska. Some northwest coasttribes refer to themselves as "peo-

ple of the redcedar" because of their extensive dependence on the treefor basic materials. The wood has

been used for constructing housing,totem poles, and crafted into manyobjects, including masks, utensils,

boxes, boards, instruments, canoes,

Tools

The wood was worked primwith the adze, which was preover all other tools, even

introduced by European seAlexander Walker, an ensign ofur trade ship Captain Cook red that the indigenous peoplesan elbow adze, which they vover new tools brought byEuropeans, such as the saw axe, going so far as to modifyed tools back into an adzTools were generally made

stone, bone, obsidian, or a hwood such as hemlock. A varihand mauls, wedges, chiselknives were used. Excavadone at Ozette, Washington, tup iron tools nearly 800 yearfar before European contact. James Cook passed the areobserved that almost all toolsmade of iron. There has been ulation on the origin of thesetools, some theories include wrecks from East Asia, or pocontact with iron-using cufrom Siberia, as hinted in theadvanced woodworking founorthern tribes such as the Tli

Wood

Harvesting redcedars req

some ceremony, and included pitiation of the tree's spirits aas those of the surrounding tre

particular, many people specifrequested the tree and its brenot to fall or drop heavy braon the harvester, a situation w

vessels, and ceremonial objects.Roots and bark were used for bas-kets, ropes, clothing, blankets andrings.

History

A huge number of archeologicalfinds point to the continuous use of redcedar wood in native societies.Woodworking tools dating between5000–8000 years ago, such ascarved antlers, were discovered inshell middens at the Glenrose site,near Vancouver, British Columbia.

In Yuquot, on the west coast of Vancouver, tools dating 3000–4000years old have been found. TheMusqueam site, also near Vancouver, yielded bark basketswoven in five different styles,along with ropes and ships dated to3000 years ago. At Pitt River, adzesand baskets were dated around2900 years ago. 1000 year oldwooden artifacts were unearthed onthe east coast of Vancouver Island.

A legend amongst the Coast Salish peoples describes the origins of theWestern Redcedar. In this legend,there was a generous man who gavethe people whatever they needed.When the Great Spirit saw this, hedeclared that when the generousman died, a great redcedar tree will

grow where he is buried, and thatthe cedar will be useful to all the

people; providing its roots for bas-kets, bark for clothing, and woodfor shelter.


83



is mentioned in a number of differ-ent stories of people who were notsufficiently careful. Some profes-sional loggers of Native Americandescent have mentioned that they

offer quiet or silent propitiations totrees which they fell, following inthis tradition.

Felling of large trees such as red-cedar before the introduction of steel tools was a complex and time-consuming art. Typically the bark was removed around the base of thetree above the buttresses, and then

some amount of cutting and split-ting with stone adzes and maulswould be done, creating a wide tri-angular cut. The area above and

below the cut would be coveredwith a mixture of wet moss andclay as a firebreak, and then the cutwould be packed with tinder andsmall kindling and slowly burned.The process of cutting and burningwould alternate until the tree wasmostly penetrated through, andthen careful tending of the firewould fell the tree in the best direc-tion for handling. This processcould take many days, and constantrotation of workers was involved tokeep the fires burning through nightand day, often in a remote and for-

bidding location.

A pole outside a six-post house atthe University of British Columbia.

Once the tree was felled the work had only just begun, as it then hadto be stripped and dragged down toshore. If the tree was to become

huge monoxyla canoes in whimen went out to high sea to

poon whales and conduct One of those canoes (a 38-foodug out about a century ago)

bought in 1901 by Captain Voss, an adventurer. He gavthe name of Tilikum ("FrienChinook jargon), rigged herled her in a hectic three-yearage from British ColumbLondon.

Redcedar branches are very fleand have good tensile stre

They were stripped and usstrong cords for fishing linecores, twine, and other purwhere bark cord was not senough or might fray. Bot

branches and bark rope havereplaced by modern fiber and cordage among the abornorthwest coast peoples, thoug

bark is still in use for the othe poses mentioned above.

Bark

Illustration of women pullingfrom a tree, from Indian LegenVancouver Island by ACarmichael

The bark is easily removed live trees in long strips, and i

vested for use in making matsand cordage, basketry, rain clothing, and other soft goodsharvesting of bark must be with care because if the trcompletely stripped it will di

prevent this, the harvester u

canoes then it would often be divid-ed into sections and worked intorough canoe shapes before trans-

port, but if it were to be used for atotem pole or building materials it

would be towed in the round to thevillage. Many trees are still felledin this traditional manner for use astotem poles and canoes, particular-ly by artists who feel that usingmodern tools is detrimental to thetraditional spirit of the art. Non-tra-ditionalists simply buy redcedar logs or lumber at mills or lumber yards, a practice that is commonly

followed by most working in small-er sizes such as for masks andstaves.

Because felling required such anextraordinary amount of work, if only planks for housing were need-ed, these would be split from theliving tree. The bark was strippedand saved, and two cuts were madeat the ends of the planking. Thenwedges would be pounded in alongthe sides and the planks slowly splitoff the side of the tree. Trees whichhave been so harvested are still vis-ible in some places in the rainfor-est, with obvious chunks taken off of their sides. Such trees usuallycontinue to grow perfectly well,since redcedar wood is resistant todecay. Planks are straightened by a

variety of methods, includingweighing them down with stones,lashing them together with rope, or forcing them between a line of stakes.

Redcedar wood is used to make

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only harvests from trees whichhave not been stripped before.After harvesting the tree is not usedfor bark again, although it may later

be felled for wood. Stripping bark

is usually started with a series of cuts at the base of the tree aboveany buttresses, and the bark is

peeled upwards. To remove bark high up, a pair of platforms strungon rope around the tree are used,and the harvester climbs by alter-nating between them for support.Since redcedars lose their lower

branches as all tall trees do in the

rainforest, the harvester may climb10 m or more into the tree by thismethod. The harvested bark is fold-ed and carried in backpacks. It can

be stored for quite some time asmold does not grow on it, and ismoistened before unfolding andworking. It is then split lengthwiseinto the required width and wovenor twisted into shape. Bark harvest-ing was mostly done by women,despite the danger of climbing 10 min the air, because they were the

primary makers of bark goods.Today bark rope making is a lost artin many communities, although it isstill practiced for decoration or artin a few places. Other uses of bark are still common for artistic or

practical purposes.


85



Fir

(Abies) are a genus of 48–55species of evergreen conifers in thefamily Pinaceae. They are foundthrough much of North and CentralAmerica, Europe, Asia, and North

Africa, occurring in mountains over most of the range. Firs are mostclosely related to the cedars(Cedrus); Douglas-firs are not truefirs, being of the genusPseudotsuga.

All are trees, reaching heights of 10–80 m (30–260 ft) tall and trunk diameters of 0.5–4 m (2–12 ft)when mature. Firs can be distin-guished from other members of the

pine family by their needle-likeleaves, attached to the twig by a

base that resembles a small suctioncup; and by erect, cylindrical cones5–25 cm (2–10 in) long that disin-tegrate at maturity to release thewinged seeds. Identification of thespecies is based on the size andarrangement of the leaves, the size

and shape of the cones, andwhether the bract scales of thecones are long and exserted, or short and hidden inside the cone.

Abies fraseri - Fraser Fir

Abies balsamea - Balsam Fir Abies balsamea var. phanerolBracted Balsam Fir

Abies lasiocarpa - Subalpine

Abies lasiocarpa var. arizonCorkbark Fir

Abies lasiocarpa var. bifoRocky Mountains Subalpine F

Abies sibirica - Siberian Fir

Abies sibirica var. semenovii

Abies sachalinensis—Sakhali

Abies koreana - Korean Fir

Abies nephrolepis - Khinghan

Abies veitchii - Veitch's Fir

Abies veitchii var. sikokiaShikoku Fir

A. grandis foliage

Intact and disintegrated BulgFir cones

Species

Section Abies (central, south & eastEurope, Asia Minor)Abies alba - Silver Fir

Abies nebrodensis - Sicilian Fir

Abies borisii-regis - Bulgarian Fir

Abies cephalonica - Greek Fir

Abies nordmanniana - NordmannFir or Caucasian Fir

Abies nordmanniana subsp. equi-trojani - Kazdag(? Fir, Turkish Fir

Abies nordmanniana subsp. born-mülleriana - Uludag( Fir

Abies pinsapo - Spanish Fir

Abies pinsapo var. marocana -Moroccan Fir

Abies numidica - Algerian Fir

Abies cilicica - Syrian Fir

Section Balsamea (Taiga|borealAsia and North America, and highmountains further south)

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A. alba foliage from Dinaric cal-careous fir forests on Mt. Orjen

Section Grandis (western NorthAmerica to Mexico and Guatemala,

lowlands in north, moderate alti-tudes in south)

Abies grandis - Grand Fir or GiantFir

Abies grandis var. idahoensis -Interior Grand Fir or Giant Fir

Abies concolor - White Fir

Abies concolor subsp. lowiana -Low's White Fir

Abies durangensis—Durango Fir

Abies durangensis var. coahuilensis- Coahuila Fir

Abies flinckii - Jalisco Fir

Abies guatemalensis - GuatemalanFir

Section Momi (east & central Asia,Himalaya, generally at low to mod-erate altitudes)

Abies kawakamii - Taiwan Fir

Abies homolepis - Nikko Fir

Abies recurvata - Min Fir

Abies recurvata var. ernestii - MinFir

Abies firma - Momi Fir

Abies chengii - Cheng's Fir

Abies densa - Bhutan Fir Abies spectabilis - East HimaFir

Abies fargesii - Farges' Fir

Abies fanjingshanensis - Fanshan Fir

Abies yuanbaoshanensisYuanbaoshan Fir

Abies squamata - Flaky Fir

Abies webbiana -Talispatra

Section Oiamel (Central Mexihigh altitude)

Abies religiosa - Sacred Fir

Abies hickelii - Hickel's Fir

Abies hickelii var. oaxacaOaxaca Fir

A. magnifica, California, USA

Section Nobilis (western U.S.altitudes)

Abies procera - Noble Fir

Abies magnifica - Red Fir

Abies magnifica var. shasteShasta Red Fir

Section Bracteata (California c

Abies bracteata - Bristlecone

Abies beshanzuensis - BaishanzuFir

Abies holophylla - Manchurian Fir

Abies chensiensis - Shensi Fir

Abies chensiensis subsp. saloue-nensis—Salween Fir

Abies pindrow - Pindrow Fir

Abies ziyuanensis - Ziyuan Fir

Section Amabilis (Pacific coast

mountains, North America andJapan, in high rainfall mountains)

Abies amabilis - Pacific Silver Fir

Abies mariesii - Maries' Fir

A. fabri, Sichuan, China

Section Pseudopicea (Sino-Himalayan mountains, at high alti-tude)

Abies delavayi - Delavay's Fir

Abies delavayi var. nukiangensis

Abies delavayi var. motuoensis

Abies delavayi subsp. fansipanen-sis

Abies fabri - Faber's Fir

Abies fabri subsp. minensis

Abies forrestii - Forrest's Fir

87




Section Incertae sedis

Abies milleri - (Extinct) EarlyEocene

Uses & Ecology

The wood of most firs is consideredunsuitable for general timber use,and is often used as pulp or for themanufacture of plywood and roughtimber. Because this genus has noinsect or decay resistance qualitiesafter logging, it is generally recom-mended for construction purposes

as indoor use only (e.g. indoor dry-wall framing). This wood left out-side cannot be expected to lastmore than 12 to 18 months,depending on the type of climate itis exposed to. It is commonlyreferred to by several differentnames, including North Americantimber, SPF (spruce, pine, fir) andwhitewood.

Nordmann Fir, Noble Fir, Fraser Fir and Balsam Fir are popular Christmas trees, generally consid-ered to be the best for this purpose,with aromatic foliage that does notshed many needles on drying out.Many are also decorative gardentrees, notably Korean Fir andFraser Fir, which produce brightlycoloured cones even when very

young, still only 1–2 m (3–6 ft) tall.Other firs can grow anywhere

between 30 and 236 feet tall. Fir Tree Appreciation Day is June 18.

Firs are used as food plants by thecaterpillars of some Lepidoptera

species, including Chionodes abella(recorded on White Fir), AutumnalMoth, Conifer Swift (a pest of Balsam Fir), The Engrailed, GreyPug, Mottled Umber, Pine Beauty

and the tortrix moths Cydia illutana(whose caterpillars are recorded tofeed on European Silver Fir conescales) and C. duplicana (onEuropean Silver Fir bark aroundinjuries or canker).

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Guaiacwood

Oil of guaiac is a fragrance used insoap. It comes from the palo santotree (Bulnesia sarmientoi).

Oil of guaiac is produced through

steam distillation of a mixture of wood and sawdust from palo santo.It is sometimes incorrectly calledguaiac wood concrete. It is a yellowto greenish yellow semi-solid masswhich melts around 40-50 ºC. Oncemelted, it can be cooled back toroom temperature yet remain liquidfor a long time. Oil of guaiac has asoft roselike odour, similar to theodour of Hybrid Tea roses or vio-lets. Because of this similarity, ithas sometimes been used as anadulterant for rose oil.

Oil of guaiac is primarily composedof 42-72% guaiol, bulnesol, ?-bul-nesene, ?-bulnesene, ?-guaiene,guaioxide and ?-patchoulene. It isconsidered non-irritating, non-sen-sitizing, and non phototoxic to

human skin.

Oil of guaiac was also a pre-Renaissance remedy to syphilis.


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The name mahogany is commonlyapplied to many different kinds of tropical hardwood, most of whichare reddish-brown in colour andwidely employed in furniture-mak-

ing, boat building and other highspecification uses. However, thereare only three species of truemahogany, all of which are indige-nous to the Americas. These areSwietenia mahagoni (L.) Jacq., S.macrophylla King, and S. humilisZucc. The natural distribution of these species within the Americasis geographically distinct. S.mahagoni grows on the West Indianislands as far north as the Bahamas,the Florida Keys and parts of Florida; S. humilis grows in the dryregions of the Pacific coast of Central America from south-west-ern Mexico to Costa Rica; S.macrophylla grows in CentralAmerica from Yucatan southwardsand into South America, extendingas far as Peru, Bolivia and extreme

western Brazil. In the 20th centuryvarious botanists attempted to fur-ther to define S. macrophylla inSouth America as a new species,such as S. candollei Pittier and S.tessmannii Harms., but manyauthorities consider these to be spu-

Linnaeus (1707–1778) as Cemahagoni. The following ywas assigned to a new genu

Nicholas Joseph Ja(1727–1817), and named Swi

mahagoni. Until the 19th ceall mahogany was regarded aspecies, although varying in qand character according to soclimate. In 1836 the Ge

botanist Joseph Gerhard Zuc(1797–1848) identified a sspecies while working on mens collected on the Pacificof Mexico, and named it Swihumilis. In 1886 a third spSwietenia macrophylla, was n

by Sir George King (1840–after studying specimenHonduras mahogany planted Botanic Gardens in Calcutta, Today, all species of Swiegrown in their native locationlisted by CITES, and are the

protected. Both Swietenia mani, and Swietenia macrophylla

introduced into several Asian tries at the time of the restriimposed on American mahogathe late 1990s and both aresuccessfully grown and harvin plantations in those counThe world's supply of ge

rious. According to Record andHess 'all of the mahogany of conti-nental North and South Americacan be considered as one botanicalspecies, Swietenia macrophylla

King'.

The name mahogany was initiallyassociated only with those islandsin the West Indies under Britishcontrol (French colonists used theterm acajou, while in the Spanishterritories it was called caoba). Theorigin of the name is uncertain, butit could be a corruption of 'm'ogan-wo', the name used by the Yorubaand Ibo people of West Africa todescribed trees of the genus Khaya,which is closely related toSwietenia. When transported toJamaica as slaves, they gave thesame name to the similar trees theysaw there. Although this interpreta-tion has been disputed, a more

plausible origin has yet to be sug-gested. The indigenous Arawak

name for the tree is not known. In1671 the word mahogany appearedin print for the first time, in JohnOgilby's America. Among botanistsand naturalists, however, the treewas considered a type of cedar, andin 1759 was classified by Carl

Mahogany

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mahogany today comes from theseAsian plantations, notably fromIndia, Bangladesh, Indonesia andfrom Fiji, in Oceania.

Species of Swietenia cross-fertilisereadily when they grow in proximi-ty; the hybrid between S. mahagoniand S. macrophylla is widely plant-ed for its timber. Mahogany is thenational tree of DominicanRepublic and Belize. It also appearson the national seal of Belize.

"Mahogany" may refer to the

largest group of all Meliaceae, thefifteen related species of Swietenia,Khaya and Entandrophragma. Thetimbers of Entandrophragma aresold under their individual names,sometimes with "mahogany"attached as a suffix, for example"sipo" may be referred to as "sipomahogany". Kohekohe (Dysoxy-lum spectabile), a close relative, issometimes called New ZealandMahogany.

The term "genuine mahogany"applies to only the Swieteniamahoganies, wherever grown. Theterm "true mahogany" applies toany timber commercially called"mahogany" with or without quali-fication that is derived from theMeliaceae family. In addition to

Swietenia mahoganies this appliesalso to Khaya (African Mahogany)and Toona (Chinese Mahogany)which are both from the Meliacae(Mahogany) family.

In addition, the US timber trade

Hence very little of the mahogrowing in Spanish controlledtory found its way to Europe. the establishment of a Fcolony in Saint Domingue

Haiti), some mahogany fromisland probably found its wFrance, where joiners in thecities of Saint-Malo, NanteRochelle and Bordeaux usewood to a limited extent from 1700. On the English contislands, especially Jamaica anBahamas, mahogany was abu

but not exported in any qu

before 1700.

While the trade in mahoganythe Spanish and French terriin America remained moribunmost of the 18th century, thinot true for those islands British control. In 1721 the BParliament removed all imduties from timber importedBritain from British possessiothe Americas. This had the effimmediately stimulating the in West Indian timbers, of wthe most important was mahoImportations of mahoganyEngland (and excluding thoScotland, which were recordearately) reached 525 tonsannum by 1740, 3,688 ton1750, and more than 30,000 to

1788, the peak year of the 18thtury trade. At the same tim1721 Act had the effect of subtially increasing exportsmahogany from the West Indthe British colonies in NAmerica. Although initially re

also markets various other FederalTrade Commission-defined speciesas "mahoganies" under a variety of different commercial names, mostnotably "Philippine mahogany",

which in reality is actually from thegenus Shorea, a dipterocarp. Thiswood is also known as Lauan or Meranti.

History of the trade in Americanmahogany

There can be little doubt thatmahogany timber has been used

since prehistoric times by theindigenous peoples of theCaribbean and Central and SouthAmerica. In the 17th century the

buccanneer John Esquemelingrecorded the use of mahogany or cedrela on Hispaniola for makingcanoes; 'The Indians make thesecanoes without the use of any ironinstruments, by only burning thetrees at the bottom near the root,and afterwards governing the firewith such industry that nothing is

burnt more than what they wouldhave...'. The wood first came to thenotice of Europeans with the begin-ning of Spanish colonisation in theAmericas. A cross in the Cathedralat Santo Domingo, bearing the date1514, is said to be mahogany, andPhillip II of Spain apparently

employed the wood for the interior joinery of the Escorial Palace, begun in 1584. However, caoba, asthe Spanish called the wood, was

principally reserved for ship build-ing, and it was declared a royalmonopoly at Havanna in 1622.


91



ed as a joinery wood, mahoganyrapidly became the timber of choicefor makers of high quality furniturein both the British Isles and the 13colonies of North America.

Until the 1760s over 90 per cent of the mahogany imported into Britaincame from Jamaica. Some of thiswas re-exported to Europe, butmost was used by British furnituremakers. Quantities of Jamaicanmahogany also went to the NorthAmerican colonies, but most of thewood used in American furniture

came from the Bahamas. This wassometimes called Providencewood, after the main port of theislands, but more often madera or maderah, which was the Bahamianname for mahogany. In addition toJamaica and Bahamas, all theBritish controlled islands exportedsome mahogany at various times,

but the quantities were not large.The most significant third sourcewas Black River and adjacent areason the Mosquito Coast (nowRepublic of Honduras), from wherequantities of mahogany wereshipped from the 1740s onwards.This mahogany was known as'Rattan mahogany', after the islandof Ruatan which was the main off-shore entrepot for the British set-tlers in the area.

At the end of the Seven Years' War (1756–63) the mahogany trade

began to change significantly.During the occupation of Havana

by British forces between August1762 and July 1763, quantities of

Under Article XVII of the TreParis (1763), British cutters for the first time given the ricut logwood in Yucatan unmed, within agreed limits. Suc

the enthusiasm of the cutterwithin a few years the Eurmarket was glutted, and the prlogwood collapsed. Howeve

price of mahogany was stillafter the war, and so the cturned to cutting mahoganyfirst Honduras mahogany arrivKingston, Jamaica, in Nove1763, and the first shipm

arrived in Britain the folloyear.

By the 1790s most of the vstocks of mahogany in Jamaic

been cut, and the market was ed between two principal sourtypes of mahogany. Honmahogany was relatively c

plentiful, but rarely of thequality. Hispaniola (aka Spand St Domingo) mahoganythe wood of choice for high qwork. Although data are lackis likely that the newly indepeUnited States now received a

proportion of its mahogany Cuba. In the last quarter of thecentury France began tomahogany more widely; theample supplies of high q

wood from Saint Dominguerest of Europe, where the wooincreasingly fashionable, obtmost of their wood from Brita

The French Revolution of 178the wars that followed rad

Cuban or Havanna mahogany weresent to Britain, and after the citywas restored to Spain in 1763 smallquantities continue to be exported,mostly to small ports on the north

coast of Jamaica, from where it wassent to Britain. However, thismahogany was not much liked,

being regarded as inferior to theJamaican variety, and the traderemained fitful until the 19th centu-ry. Another variety new to the mar-ket was Hispaniola mahogany, alsocalled 'Spanish' and 'St Domingo'mahogany. This was the result of

the 1766 Free Ports Act, whichopened Kingston and other desig-nated Jamaican ports to foreignvessels for the first time. The objectwas primarily to encourage impor-tations of cotton from French plan-tations in Saint Domingue, butquantities of high qualitymahogany were also shipped.These were then forwarded toBritain, where they entered themarket in the late 1760s.

In terms of quantity, the most sig-nificant new addition to themahogany trade was Hondurasmahogany, also called 'baywood',after the Bay of Honduras. Britishsettlers had been active in southernYucatan since the beginning of the18th century, despite the opposition

of the Spanish, who claimed sover-eignty over all of Central America.Their main occupation was cuttinglogwood, a dyewood for whichthere was a high demand in Europe.The centre of their activity and the

primary point of export was Belize.

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changed the mahogany trade, pri-marily due to the progressive col-lapse of the French and Spanishcolonial empires, which allowedBritish traders into areas previously

closed to them. Saint Domingue became the independent republic of Haiti, and from 1808 onwardsSpanish controlled Santo Domingoand Cuba were both opened toBritish vessels for the first time.From the 1820s mahogany from allthese areas was imported intoEurope and North America, withthe lion's share going to Britain. In

Central America British loggersmoved northwest towards Mexicoand south into Guatemala. Other areas of Central America as far south as Panama also began to beexploited, but the most importantnew development was the begin-ning of large scale logging inMexico from the 1860s. Mostmahogany was cut in the provinceof Tabasco and exported from anumber of ports on the Gulf of Campeche, from Vera Cruz east-wards to Campeche and Sisal. Bythe end of the 19th century therewas scarcely any part of CentralAmerica within reach of the coastuntouched by logging, and activityalso extended into Colombia,Venezuela, Peru and Brazil.

The peak of the trade in Americanmahogany was probably reached inthe last quarter of the 19th century.Figures are not available for allcountries, but Britain alone import-ed more than 80,000 tons in 1875.This figure was not matched again;

made of mahogany, when the first became available to Amecraftsmen. Mahogany is still ly used for fine furniture; howthe rarity of Cuban mahogan

over harvesting of HonduraBrazilian mahogany has dished their use. Mahoganyresists wood rot, making it ative in boat construction. It ioften used for musical instrum

particularly the backs, sidenecks of acoustic guitars and dshells because of its ability toduce a very deep, warm tone

pared to other commonly woods such as Maple or BGuitars featuring mahogany inconstruction include Martin and Gibson Les Paul models.

Mahogany is now being usethe bodies of high-end s

phonographic record cartridgefor stereo headphones,[24] whis noted for “warm” or “musound.

from the 1880s African mahogany(Khaya spp.), a related genus,

began to be exported in increasingquantities from West Africa, and bythe early 20th century it dominated

the market. In 1907 the total of mahogany from all sources import-ed into Europe was 159,830 tons, of which 121,743 tons were fromWest Africa. By this timemahogany from Cuba, Haiti andother West Indian sources was

becoming increasingly difficult toobtain in commercial sizes, and bythe late 20th century Central

American and even SouthAmerican mahogany was headingin a similar direction. In 1975 S.humilis was placed on CITESAppendix II followed by S. mahag-oni in 1992. The most abundantspecies, S. macrophylla, was placedon Appendix III in 1995 and movedto Appendix II in 2003.

Uses

Mahogany has a generally straightgrain and is usually free of voidsand pockets. It has a reddish-browncolor, which darkens over time, anddisplays a reddish sheen when pol-ished. It has excellent workability,and is very durable. Historically,the tree's girth allowed for wide

boards from traditional mahogany

species. These properties make it afavorable wood for crafting cabi-nets and furniture.

Much of the first-quality furnituremade in the American coloniesfrom the mid 18th century was

93





Evernia prunastri, also known asOakmoss, is a species of lichen. Itcan be found in many mountainoustemperate forests throughout the

Northern Hemisphere, including

parts of France, Portugal, Spain, North America, and much of Central Europe. Oakmoss grows

primarily on the trunk and branchesof oak trees, but is also commonlyfound on the bark of other decidu-ous trees and conifers such as fir and pine. The thalli of Oakmoss areshort (3–4 cm in length) and bushy,and grow together on bark to formlarge clumps. Oakmoss thallus isflat and strap-like. They are alsohighly branched, resembling theform of deer antlers. The colour of Oakmoss ranges from green to agreenish-white when dry, and dark olive-green to yellow-green whenwet. The texture of the thalli arerough when dry and rubbery whenwet. It is used extensively in mod-ern perfumery.

Oakmoss is commercially harvest-ed in countries of South-CentralEurope and usually exported to theGrasse region of France where itsfragrant compounds are extractedas Oakmoss absolutes and extracts.

These raw materials are often usedas perfume fixatives and form the

base notes of many fragrances.They are also key components of Fougère and Chypre class per-

fumes. The lichen has a distinct andcomplex odor and can be describedas woody, sharp and slightly sweet.Oakmoss growing on pines have a

pronounced turpentine odor that isvalued in certain perfume composi-tions.

Health & Safety Information

Oakmoss should be avoided by people with known skin sensitiza-tion issues.

Oakmoss

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Patchouli

(Pogostemon cablin (Blanco)Benth; also patchouly or pachouli)is a species from the genusPogostemon and a bushy herb of the mint family, with erect stems,

reaching two or three feet (about0.75 metre) in height and bearingsmall, pale pink-white flowers. The

plant is native to tropical regions of Asia, and is now extensively culti-vated in China, Indonesia, India,Malaysia, Mauritius, Taiwan, thePhilippines, Thailand, andVietnam, as well as West Africa.

The heavy and strong scent of patchouli has been used for cen-turies in perfumes, and morerecently in incense, insect repel-lents, and alternative medicines.The word derives from the Tamil

patchai (leaf). In Assamese it isknown as xukloti.

Pogostemon cablin, P. commosum,P. hortensis, P. heyneasus and P.

plectranthoides are all cultivatedfor their oils and all are known as

patchouli oil.

Cultivation

Patchouli grows well in warm to

Uses

Perfume

Patchouli is used widely in m

perfumery[8] and modern scindustrial products such as towels, laundry detergents, afresheners. Two important conents of its essential oi

patchoulol and norpatchouSince the 1960s, it has beassociated with American couculture

Medicinal

In several Asian countries, suJapan and Malaysia, patchoused as an antidote for venosnakebites. The plant and oilmany claimed health benefherbal folk-lore and the sceused to induce relaxation. Chmedicine uses the herb to headaches, colds, nausea, dia

and abdominal pain. Patchoucan be purchased from mainsWestern pharmacies and alterntherapy sources as an aromathoil.

tropical climates. It thrives in hotweather, but not direct sunlight. If the plant withers due to lack of watering, it will recover well andquickly after it has been watered.

The seed-producing flowers arevery fragrant and bloom in late fall.The tiny seeds may be harvested for

planting, but they are very delicateand easily crushed. Cuttings fromthe mother plant can also be rootedin water to produce additional

plants.

Extraction of Essential Oil

Extraction of patchouli's essentialoil is by steam distillation, requir-ing rupture of its cell walls bysteam scalding, light fermentation,or drying.

Leaves may be harvested severaltimes a year, and when dried may

be exported for distillation. Somesources claim a highest quality oil

is usually produced from freshleaves distilled close to where theyare harvested; others that baling thedried leaves and fermenting themfor a period of time is best.


95




Insecticide

One study suggests patchouli oilmay serve as an all-purpose insectrepellent. More specifically, the

patchouli plant is claimed to be arepellent potent against theFormosan subterranean termite.

During the 18th and 19th century,silk traders from China traveling tothe Middle East packed their silk cloth with dried patchouli leaves to

prevent moths from laying their eggs on the cloth.[citation needed]

It has also been proven to effective-ly prevent female moths fromadhering to males, and vice versa.Many historians speculate that thisassociation with opulent Easterngoods is why patchouli was consid-ered by Europeans of that era to bea luxurious scent. It is said that

patchouli was used in the linenchests of Queen Victoria in thisway.

Incense

Patchouli is an important ingredientin East Asian incense. Both

patchouli oil and incense under-went a surge in popularity in the1960s and 1970s in the US andEurope, mainly due to the hippiemovement of those decades.

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96



Pine

Pines are trees in the genus Pinus ),in the family Pinaceae. They makeup the monotypic subfamilyPinoideae. There are about 115species of pine, although different

authorities accept between 105 and125 species

Etymology

The modern English name pinederives from Latin pinus by way of French pin; similar names are usedin other Romance languages. In the

past (pre-19th century) they wereoften known as fir, from Old Norsefyrre, by way of Middle Englishfirre. The Old Norse name is stillused for pines in some modernnorth European languages, inDanish, fyr, in Norwegianfura/fure/furu, Swedish, fura/furu,and Föhre in German, but in mod-ern English, fir is now restricted toFir (Abies) and Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga)

Taxonomy, nomenclature and codi-fication

Pinus Classification

Pines are divided into three subgen-

(Caribbean Pine). Pines haveintroduced in subtropical and

perate portions of the SouHemisphere, including CBrazil, South Africa, Tanz

Australia, Argentina and Zealand, where they are gwidely as a source of timbnumber of these introduced sphave become invasive, threatnative ecosystems.

Morphology

Ancient Pinus longaeva, NeUSA

Pines are evergreen, resinous(or rarely shrubs) growing 3–tall, with the majority of spreaching 15–45 m tall. The smare Siberian Dwarf Pine and PPinyon, and the tallest is a 26foot (81.79-meter) tall PondPine located in southern OreRogue River-Siskiyou Na

Forest.

The bark of most pines is thicscaly, but some species haveflaking bark. The branches arduced in regular "pseudo whactually a very tight spira

era, based on cone, seed and leaf characters:

Pinus subg. Pinus, the yellow or hard pine group

Pinus subg. Ducampopinus, thefoxtail or pinyon group

Pinus subg. Strobus, the white or soft pine groups

Distribution

Huangshan Pine (Pinus hwangsha-nensis), Anhui, China

Pines are native to most of the Northern Hemisphere. In Eurasia,they range from the Canary Islands,Iberian Peninsula and Scotland eastto the Russian Far East, and in thePhilippines, north to just over 70°Nin Norway, Finland and Sweden(Scots Pine) and eastern Siberia(Siberian Dwarf Pine), and south to

northernmost Africa, the Himalayaand Southeast Asia, with onespecies (Sumatran Pine) just cross-ing the Equator in Sumatra to 2°S.In North America, they range from66°N in Canada (Jack Pine and RedPine), south to 12°N in Nicaragua


97



appearing like a ring of branchesarising from the same point. Many

pines are uninodal, producing justone such whorl of branches eachyear, from buds at the tip of the

year's new shoot, but others aremultinodal, producing two or morewhorls of branches per year. Thespiral growth of branches, needles,and cone scales are arranged inFibonacci number ratios.The newspring shoots are sometimes called"candles"; they are covered in

brown or whitish bud scales and point upward at first, then later turn

green and spread outward. These"candles" offer foresters a means toevaluate fertility of the soil andvigour of the trees.

Pines are long-lived, typicallyreaching ages of 100–1,000 years,some even more. The longest-livedis the Great Basin Bristlecone Pine,Pinus longaeva. One individual of this species, dubbed Methuselah, isone of the world's oldest livingorganisms at around 4,600 yearsold. This tree can be found in theWhite Mountains of California. Anolder tree, unfortunately now cutdown, was dated at 4,900 years old.It was discovered in a grove

beneath Wheeler Peak and it is nowknown as Prometheus after theGreek immortal.

Foilage

Pines have four types of leaf:

Seed leaves (cotyledons) onseedlings, borne in a whorl of 4–24.

species) to mature after pollinwith actual fertilization delayeyear. At maturity the female are 3–60 cm long. Each connumerous spirally arranged s

with two seeds on each fertile the scales at the base and tip cone are small and sterile, wseeds. The seeds are mostly and winged, and are anemoph(wind-dispersed), but somlarger and have only a vewing, and are bird-dispersed

below). At maturity, the coneally open to release the seeds,

some of the bird-dispersed sp(e.g. Whitebark Pine), the seeonly released by the bird brethe cones open. In others, the are stored in closed ("serotincones for many years until anronmental cue triggers the coopen, releasing the seeds. Thecommon form of serotin

pyriscence, in which a resin the cones cones shut until m

by a forest fire.

Ecology

A prescribed fire in a EurBlack Pine (Pinus nigra) woodPortugal

Pines grow well in acid soils, also on calcareous soils;

require good soil drainage, pring sandy soils, but a fewLodgepole Pine) will tolerate ly drained wet soils. A few arto sprout after forest fires Canary Island Pine). Some spof pines (e.g. Bishop Pine) nee

Juvenile leaves, which followimmediately on seedlings andyoung plants, 2–6 cm long, single,green or often blue-green, andarranged spirally on the shoot.

These are produced for six monthsto five years, rarely longer.

Scale leaves, similar to bud scales,small, brown and non-photosyn-thetic, and arranged spirally like the

juvenile leaves.

Needles, the adult leaves, which aregreen (photosynthetic), bundled in

clusters (fascicles) of 1–6, com-monly 2–5, needles together, eachfascicle produced from a small budon a dwarf shoot in the axil of ascale leaf. These bud scales oftenremain on the fascicle as a basalsheath. The needles persist for 1.5–40 years, depending onspecies. If a shoot is damaged (e.g.eaten by an animal), the needle fas-cicles just below the damage willgenerate a bud which can thenreplace the lost leaves.

Cones

Pines are mostly monoecious, hav-ing the male and female cones onthe same tree, though a few speciesare sub-dioecious with individuals

predominantly, but not wholly, sin-

gle-sex. The male cones are small,typically 1–5 cm long, and only

present for a short period (usuallyin spring, though autumn in a few

pines), falling as soon as they haveshed their pollen. The female conestake 1.5–3 years (depending on

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98



to regenerate, and their populationsslowly decline under fire suppres-sion regimes. Several species areadapted to extreme conditionsimposed by elevation and latitude

(e.g. Siberian Dwarf Pine,Mountain Pine, Whitebark Pine andthe bristlecone pines). The pinyon

pines and a number of others,notably Turkish Pine and GrayPine, are particularly well adaptedto growth in hot, dry semi-desertclimates.

The seeds are commonly eaten by

birds and squirrels. Some birds,notably the Spotted Nutcracker,Clark's Nutcracker and Pinyon Jay,are of importance in distributing

pine seeds to new areas. Pine nee-dles are sometimes eaten by someLepidoptera (butterfly and moth)species (see list of Lepidoptera thatfeed on pines), the Symphytanspecies Pine sawfly, and goats.

Uses

Pines are among the most commer-cially important of tree species, val-ued for their timber and wood pulpthroughout the world. In temperateand tropical regions, they are fast-growing softwoods that will growin relatively dense stands, their acidic decaying needles inhibiting

the sprouting of competing hard-woods. Commercial pines aregrown in plantations for timber thatis denser, more resinous, and there-fore more durable than spruce(Picea). Pine wood is widely usedin high-value carpentry items such

include North American tiSPF (spruce, pine, fir) and wwood.

Food Uses

Edible seeds of the Korean(Pinus koraiensis)

Some species have large scalled pine nuts, that are harvand sold for cooking and baki

The soft, moist, white inner(cambium) found clinging t

woody outer bark is edible andhigh in vitamins A and C. It ceaten raw in slices as a snadried and ground up into a pofor use as a thickener in ssoups, and other foods, suFinnish pine bark bread tuleipä). Adirondack Indiantheir name from the MoIndian word atirú:taks, me"tree eaters".

A tea made by steeping ygreen pine needles in boiling (known as "tallstrunt" in Swis high in vitamins A and C.

as furniture, window frames, pan-elling, floors and roofing, and theresin of some species is an impor-tant source of turpentine.

Many pine species make attractiveornamental plantings for parks andlarger gardens, with a variety of dwarf cultivars being suitable for smaller spaces. Pines are also com-mercially grown and harvested for Christmas trees. Pine cones, thelargest and most durable of allconifer cones, are craft favorites.Pine boughs, appreciated especially

in wintertime for their pleasantsmell and greenery, are popularlycut for decorations. A number of species are attacked by nematodes,causing pine wilt disease, whichcan kill some quickly. Pine needlesare also used for making decorativearticles like baskets, trays, pots, etc.This Native American skill is now

being replicated across world. Pineneedle handicrafts are made in theUS, Canada, Mexico, Nicaraguaand India. Pine needles serve asfood for various Lepidoptera. SeeList of Lepidoptera which feed onPines.

Because pines have no insect or decay resistant qualities after log-ging, they are generally recom-mended for construction purposes

as indoor use only (ex. indoor dry-wall framing). This wood left out-side can not be expected to lastmore than 12–18 months depend-ing on the type of climate it isexposed to. It is commonly referredto by several different names which


99




is the name of a class of fragrantwoods from trees in the genusSantalum. The woods are heavy,yellow, and fine-grained, andunlike many other aromatic woods

they retain their fragrance for decades. As well as using the har-vested and cut wood, essential oilsare also extracted from the woodsfor use. Both the wood and the oil

produce a distinctive fragrance thathas been highly valued for cen-turies. Consequently, the slow-growing trees have been overhar-vested in many areas.

Sandalwoods are medium-sizedhemiparasitic trees. Notable mem-

bers of this group are Indian san-dalwood (Santalum album) andAustralian sandalwood (Santalumspicatum). Others in the genusspecies have fragrant wood. Theseare found in India, Bangladesh, SriLanka, Australia, Indonesia, andthe Pacific Islands. In India,

Bangladesh and Sri Lanka it iscalled Chandan.

Santalum album, or Indian sandal-wood, is a threatened species. It isindigenous to South India, andgrows in the Western Ghats and a

freycinetianum and S. panicuare relatively common todayhave not regained their foabundance or size, and S. ticum remains rare.

Santalum spicatum (Australiadalwood) is used by aroma

pists and perfumers. The conction differs considerably fromSantalum species. In the 1sandalwood was WAustralia’s biggest export eOil was distilled for the first ti1875, and by the turn of the cry there was intermittent prtion of Australian sandalwood

Production

Sandalwood leaf

Producing commercially valsandalwood with high levels ogrance oils, requires Santalumto be a minimum of eight year

but at least fourteen years iferred. Australia is the largesducer of Santalum albummajority grown around KunuWestern Australia.

Unlike most trees, sandalwo

few other mountain ranges like theKalrayan and Shevaroy Hills.Although sandalwood trees in Indiaand Nepal are government-ownedand their harvest is controlled,

many trees are illegally cut down.Sandalwood oil prices have risen to$1,000–1,500 per kg recently.Some countries regard the sandaloil trade as ecologically harmful asit encourages overharvesting san-dalwood trees. Sandalwood fromthe Mysore region of Karnataka(formerly Carnatic), and marayoor forest in kerala, Southern India ishigh quality. New plantations werecreated with international aid inTamilnadu for economic exploita-tion. In Kununurra in WesternAustralia, Indian sandalwood(Santalum album) is grown on alarge scale.

Santalum ellipticum, S. freycine-tianum, and S. paniculatum, theHawaiian sandalwood (?iliahi),

were also used and considered highquality. These three species wereexploited between 1790 and 1825

before the supply of trees ran out (afourth species, S. haleakalae,occurs only in subalpine areas andwas never exported). Although S.

Sandalwood

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100




harvested by toppling the entire treeinstead of sawing them down at thetrunk close to ground level. Thisway, wood from the stump and rootcan also be used.

Usage

Fragrance

Chess pieces in red sandalwood

Sandalwood essential oil provides perfumes with a striking wood basenote. Sandalwood smells somewhat

like other wood scents, except ithas a bright and fresh edge withfew natural analogues. When usedin smaller proportions in a perfume,it is an excellent fixative to enhancethe head space of other fragrances.

Sandalwood oil in India is widelyused in the cosmetic industry. Themain source of true sandalwood, S.album, is a protected species, anddemand for it cannot be met. Manyspecies of plants are traded as "san-dalwood". Within the genusSantalum alone, there are morethan nineteen species. Traders willoften accept oil from closely relatedspecies, such as various species inthe genus Santalum, as well as fromunrelated plants such as WestIndian Sandalwood (Amyris bal-

samifera) in the family Rutaceae or bastard sandalwood (Myoporumsandwicense, Myoporaceae).However, most woods from thesealternative sources will lose their aroma within a few months or years.

Sandalwood scent is believtransform one's desires and tain a person's alertness whmeditation. Sandalwood is alsof the more popular scents us

incense used when offering into the Buddha.

Chinese and Japanese Religio

Sandalwood, along with agarwis the most commonly used inmaterial by the ChineseJapanese in worship and vceremonies. It is used in I

incense, religiously or otherw[edit] Zoroastrianism

Zoroastrians offer sandaltwigs to the firekeeping priestoffer the sandalwood to thwhich keep the fire burSandalwood is offered to all three grades of fire in the Fire

ple, including the Atash DadSandalwood is not offered tdivo, a homemade lamp. Omoney is offered to the malong with the sandalwSandalwood is called sukhar Zoroastrian community. Thedalwood in the fire temple ismore expensive to buy thanZoroastrian store. It is ofsource of income for the fire

ple.

Medicine

Sandalwood essential oil was lar in medicine up to 1920-mostly as a urogenital (intand skin (external) antisepti

Isobornyl cyclohexanol is a syn-thetic fragrance chemical producedas an alternative to the natural prod-uct.

Hinduism

Sandalwood paste is integral to rit-uals and ceremonies, to mark reli-gious utensils and to decorate theicons of the deities. It is also dis-tributed to devotees, who apply it tothe forehead or the neck and chest.Preparation of the paste is a duty fitonly for the pure, and is therefore

entrusted in temples and during cer-emonies only to priests.

The paste is prepared by grindingwood by hand upon granite slabs(popularly known as Saane kallu inTamil) shaped for the purpose.With slow addition of water a thick

paste results, which is mixed withsaffron or other such pigments tomake Chandan.

Sandalwood is considered in alter-native medicine to bring one closer to the divine. It gives a cool sooth-ing effect to the body thus reducingthe body heat. In Thirupathi after religious tonsure, Sandal paste isapplied to protect the skin.Sandalwood essential oil is used for Ayurvedic purposes and treating

anxiety.

Buddhism

Sandalwood is considered to be of the padma (lotus) group and attrib-uted to Amitabha Buddha.

101





main component beta-santalol(~90%) has antimicrobial proper-ties. It is used in aromatherapy andto prepare soaps. Due to thisantimicrobial activity, it can be

used to clear skin from blackheadsand spots, but it must always be

properly diluted with a carrier oil.Because of its strength, sandalwoodoil should never be applied to theskin without being diluted in a car-rier oil.

Technology

Due to its low fluorescence andoptimal refractive index, sandal-wood oil is often employed as animmersion oil within ultravioletand fluorescence microscopy.

Distillation

Sandalwood is distilled in a four-step process, incorporating boiling,steaming, condensation and separa-tion. The process is known as"steam distillation" and is widelycarried out industrially at Kannauj,India.

Food

Australian Aboriginals eat the seedkernels, nuts, and fruit of local san-dalwoods, such as quandong

(Santalum acuminatum).

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Glen O. Brechbill



Silver Fir


Abies alba, the silver fir or European silver fir, is a fir native tothe mountains of Europe, from thePyrenees north to Normandy, eastto the Alps and the Carpathians,

and south to southern Italy andnorthern Serbia.

A. alba is a large evergreen conifer-ous tree growing to 40–50 m(exceptionally 60 m) tall and with atrunk diameter of up to 1.5 m. Thelargest measured tree was 68 m talland had a trunk diameter of 3.8 m.It occurs at altitudes of 300-1,700m (mainly over 500 m), on moun-tains with a rainfall of over 1,000mm.

The leaves are needle-like, flat-tened, 1.8–3 cm long and 2 mmwide by 0.5 mm thick, glossy dark green above, and with two green-ish-white bands of stomata below.The tip of the leaf is usually slight-ly notched at the tip. The cones are

9–17 cm long and 3–4 cm broad,with about 150-200 scales, eachscale with an exserted bract andtwo winged seeds; they disintegratewhen mature to release the seeds.The wood is white, leading to thespecies name "alba".

perfumes, bath products, aerosol inhalants.

Silver Fir is the species first ua Christmas tree, but has

largely replaced by Nordman(which has denser, more attrfoliage), Norway Spruce (whmuch cheaper to grow), and species. The wood is modesoft and white, used for gconstruction and paper manture.

It tends to forms woods with other firs and beeches. It is closely relat-ed to Bulgarian Fir (Abies borisi-iregis) further to the southeast inthe Balkan Peninsula, and Sicilian

Fir (A. nebrodensis) in Sicily, dif-fering from these and other relatedEuro-Mediterranean firs in thesparser foliage, with the leavesspread either side of the shoot,leaving the shoot readily visiblefrom above. Some botanists treatBulgarian Fir and Sicilian Fir asvarieties of Silver Fir, as A. albavar. acutifolia and A. alba var.nebrodensis respectively.

Ecology and uses

Silver Fir is an important compo-nent species in the Dinaric calcare-ous Silver Fir forest in the westernBalkan Peninsula.

Its cone scales are used as food bythe caterpillars of the tortrix moth

Cydia illutana, while C. duplicanafeeds on the bark around injuries or canker.

A resinous essential oil can beextracted. This pine-scented oil hassoothing qualities, and is used in

103




A spruce is a tree of the genus Picea(play /pa??si??/),[1] a genus of about 35 species of coniferousevergreen trees in the FamilyPinaceae, found in the northern

temperate and boreal (taiga)regions of the earth. Spruces arelarge trees, from 20–60 metres(66–200 ft) tall when mature, andcan be distinguished by their whorled branches and conical form.The needles, or leaves, of sprucetrees are attached singly to the

branches in a spiral fashion, eachneedle on a small peg-like structurecalled a pulvinus. The needles areshed when 4–10 years old, leavingthe branches rough with theretained pulvinus (an easy means of distinguishing them from other similar genera, where the branchesare fairly smooth).

Spruces are used as food plants bythe larvae of some Lepidopteraspecies; see list of Lepidoptera that

feed on spruces. They are also used by the larvae of gall adelgids(Adelges species).

In the mountains of westernSweden scientists have found a

Norway Spruce tree, nicknamed

largest species, to 95m tall; imtant in forestry.

Clade III

Picea engelmannii EngelSpruce. Western North Amemountains; important in fores

Picea glauca White Sp Northern North America; impin forestry.

Clade IV

Picea brachytyla Sargent's SpSouthwest China.

Picea chihuahuana ChihuSpruce. Northwest Mexico (ra

Picea farreri Burmese Sp Northeast Burma, southwest C(mountains).

Picea likiangensis Likiang Sp

Southwest China.

Picea martinezii Martinez Sp Northeast Mexico (very endangered).

Picea maximowiczii Maxim

Old Tjikko, which by reproducingthrough layering has reached an ageof 9,550 years and is claimed to bethe world's oldest known livingtree.

Classification

DNA analyses have shown that tra-ditional classifications based on themorphology of needle and cone areartificial. A recent study found thatP. breweriana had a basal position,followed by P. sitchensis, and theother species were further dividedinto three clades, suggesting thatPicea originated in North America.

Species

There are thirty-five named speciesof spruce in the world.

Clade I

Picea breweriana Brewer's Spruce.

Klamath Mountains, NorthAmerica; local endemic.

Clade II

Picea sitchensis Sitka Spruce.Pacific Coast of North America; the

Spruce

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Glen O. Brechbill




Spruce. Japan (rare, mountains).

Picea morrisonicola Yushan SpruceTaiwan (high mountains).

Picea neoveitchii Veitch's Spruce. Northwest China (rare, endan-gered).

Picea orientalis Caucasian Spruceor Oriental Spruce . Caucasus,northeast Turkey.

Picea purpurea Purple Spruce.Western China.

Picea schrenkiana Schrenk'sSpruce. Mountains of central Asia.

Picea smithiana Morinda Spruce.Western Himalaya.

Picea spinulosa Sikkim Spruce.Eastern Himalaya.

Picea torano Tiger-tail Spruce.Japan.

Picea wilsonii Wilson's Spruce .Western China.

Clade V

Picea abies Norway Spruce.Europe; important in forestry. Theoriginal Christmas tree.

Picea alcoquiana ("P. bicolor")Alcock's Spruce. Central Japan(mountains).

Picea alpestris Norway Spruce,Alpine Spruce. The Alps in Europe;

rare, often treated as a variant of P.abies (and hybridises with it) dis-tinct cones.

Picea asperata Dragon Spruce.

Western China; several varieties.

Picea crassifolia. China.

Picea glehnii Glehn's Spruce. Northern Japan, Sakhalin.

Picea jezoensis Jezo Spruce. Northeast Asia, Kamchatka southto Japan.

Picea koraiensis Korean Spruce.Korea, northeast China.

Picea koyamae Koyama's Spruce.Japan (mountains).

Picea mariana Black Spruce. Northern North America.

Picea meyeri Meyer's Spruce. Northern China (from Inner Mongolia to Gansu).

Picea obovata Siberian Spruce. North Scandinavia, Siberia. Oftentreated as a variant of P. abies (andhybridises with it) but distinctcones.

Picea omorika Serbian Spruce.

Serbia and Bosnia; local endemic;important in horticulture.

Picea pungens Blue Spruce or Colorado Spruce. RockyMountains, North America; impor-tant in horticulture.

105


Picea retroflexa. China.

Picea rubens Red Sp Northeastern North Amimportant in forestry. Know

Adirondack in musical instrumaking.

Uses

Timber

Spruce is useful as a buiwood, commonly referred several different names incl

North American timber, (spruce, pine, fir) and whitewSpruce wood is used for many

poses, ranging from generalstruction work and crates to hspecialised uses in wooden airand as a tonewood in many minstruments, including gumandolins, cellos, violins, ansoundboard at the heart of a and the harp. The Wright brofirst aircraft, the Flyer, was buspruce.

Because this species has no or decay resistance qualitieslogging, it is generally recommed for construction purposindoor use only (ex. indoor drframing). Spruce wood, wheoutside can not be expected t

more than 12–18 months deing on the type of climateexposed to.

Pulpwood

Spruce is one of the most imp



woods for paper uses, as it has longwood fibres which bind together tomake strong paper. The fibres arethin walled and collapses to thin

bands upon drying. Spruces are

commonly used in mechanical pulping as they are easily bleached.Together with northern pines north-ern spruces are commonly used tomake NBSK. Spruces are cultivat-ed over vast areas as pulpwood.[edit] Food and medicine

The fresh shoots of many sprucesand pines are a natural source of

vitamin C. Captain Cook madealcoholic sugar-based spruce beer during his sea voyages in order to

prevent scurvy in his crew. Theleaves and branches, or the essen-tial oils, can be used to brew spruce

beer.

The tips from the needles can beused to make spruce tip syrup.

Native Americans in New Englandalso used the sap to make a gumwhich was used for various rea-sons, and which was the basis of the first commercial production of chewing gum. In survival situationsspruce needles can be directlyingested or boiled into a tea. Thisreplaces large amounts of vitaminC. Also, water is stored in aspruce's needles, providing an alter-

native means of hydration. Sprucecan be used as a preventive meas-ure for scurvy in an environmentwhere meat is the only prominentfood source.

was a generic term for commo brought to England by Hanmerchants and the tree

believed to have come Prussia. According to a dif

theory, some suggest that ithowever be a direct loanworda Polish expression [drzedrewno] z Prus which litmeans "tree / timber from PruThat would suggest that thmediaeval Polish-speaking chants would import the timbEngland and the English w

pick up the expression from th

Other Uses

The resin was used in the manufac-ture of pitch in the past (before theuse of petrochemicals); the scientif-

ic name Picea is generally thoughtto be derived from Latin pix, pitch(though other etymologies have

been suggested).

Native Americans in NorthAmerica use the thin, pliable rootsof some species for weaving bas-kets and for sewing together piecesof birch bark for canoes. See also

Kiidk'yaas for an unusual goldenSitka Spruce sacred to the Haida people.

Spruces are also popular ornamen-tal trees in horticulture, admired for their evergreen, symmetrical nar-row-conic growth habit. For thesame reason, some (particularlyPicea abies and P. omorika) are alsoextensively used as Christmastrees.

Spruce branches are also used atAintree racecourse, Liverpool, to

build several of the fences on theGrand National course. It is alsoused to make sculptures andChristmas trees.

Etymology

Picea used in coat-of-arms of Kuhmo, Finland

The word "spruce" entered theEnglish language from Old FrenchPruce, the name of Prussia. Spruce

Glen O. Brechbill

106



Teak is the common name for thetropical hardwood tree speciesTectona grandis and its wood prod-ucts. Tectona grandis is native tosouth and southeast Asia, mainly

India, Indonesia, Malaysia, andBurma, but is naturalized and culti-vated in many countries, includingthose in Africa and the Caribbean.Burma accounts for nearly onethird of the world's total teak pro-duction.

The word teak comes from theTamil (in the Dravidan region)word thekku. This tree is men-tioned in the seventh-century litera-ture of Tamil popularly known asthe Tevaram.

Tectona grandis is a large, decidu-ous tree that is dominant in mixedhardwood forests. It has small, fra-grant white flowers and paperyleaves that are often hairy on thelower surface.

Description

Tectona grandis is a large, decidu-ous tree up to 40 m (131 ft) tall withgray to grayish brown branchlets.Leaves are ovate-elliptic to ovate,

pollen is shed within a few hothe flower opening. The flowe

primarily entomophilous (in pollinated), but can occasionaanemophilous (wind-pollinate

1996 study found that in its nrange in Thailand, the major nator were species in the Cegenus of bees.

Distribution and Habitat

Tectona grandis is one of species in the genus Tectonaother two species, T. hamiltoand T. philippinensis, are endwith relatively small native

butions in Myanmar andPhilippines, respectiveTectona grandis is native to Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanorthern Thailand, and northern Laos.

Tectona grandis is found in aety of habitats and climatic c

tions from arid areas with onlmm of rain per year to very forests with up to 5,000 mm o

per year. Typically, thoughannual rainfall in areas wheregrows averages 1,250-1,650with a 3-5 month dry season.

15–45 cm (5.9–17.7 in) long by8–23 cm (3.1–9.1 in) wide, and areheld on robust petioles that are 2–4cm (0.8–1.6 in) long. Leaf marginsare entire.

Flowers at Ananthagiri Hills, inRangareddy district of AndhraPradesh, India.

Flower, fruit & leaves of Tectonagrandis in Kolkata, West Bengal,India.

U Bein Bridge Amarapura,Myanmar. The longest teak bridgein the world at 1.2 km (0.75 mi) inlength.

Leaves of Tectona grandis inPalakkad, Kerala.

Fragrant white flowers are borne on25–40 cm (10–16 in) long by 30 cm(12 in) wide panicles from June toAugust. The corolla tube is 2.5–3

mm long with 2 mm wide obtuselobes. Tectona grandis sets fruitfrom September to December;fruits are globose and 1.2-1.8 cm indiameter. Flowers are weakly

protandrous in that the anthers pre-cede the stigma in maturity and


Teak

107



Botanical History

Tectona grandis was first formallydescribed by Carl Linnaeus theYounger in his 1782 work

Supplementum Plantarum. In 1975,Harold Norman Moldenke pub-lished new descriptions of four forms of this species in the journalPhytologia. Moldenke describedeach form as varying slightly fromthe type specimen: T. grandis f.canescens is distinguished from thetype material by being denselycanescent, or covered in hairs, on

the underside of the leaf, T. grandisf. pilosula is distinct from the typematerial in the varying morphologyof the leaf veins, T. grandis f. punc-tata is only hairy on the larger veinson the underside of the leaf, and T.grandis f. tomentella is noted for itsdense yellowish tomentose hairs onthe lower surface of the leaf.

Cultivation

Teak is a yellowish brown timber with good grains and texture. It isused in the manufacture of outdoor furniture, boat decks, and other arti-cles where weather resistance isdesired. It is also used for cutting

boards, indoor flooring, counter-tops and as a veneer for indoor fur-nishings.

Teak, though easily worked, cancause severe blunting on edgedtools because of the presence of sil-ica in the wood. Teak's natural oilsmake it useful in exposed locations,and make the timber termite and

America.

Hyblaea puera, a moth natisoutheast Asia, is a teak pest wcaterpillar feeds on teak and

species of trees common iregion.

Uses

Teak is used extensively in Inmake doors and window frfurniture, and columns and bin old type houses. It is very rant to termite attacks. Mature

fetches a very good price. grown extensively by forest dments of different states in areas.

Leaves of the teak wood treused in making Pellakai gatti fruit dumpling), where bat

poured into a teak leaf asteamed.[citation needed] Thiof usage is found in the coastatrict of Udupi in the Tuluregion in South India. The lare also used in gudeg, a diyoung jackfruit made in CJava, Indonesia, and give theits dark brown color.

Teak is used as a food plant blarvae of moths of the Endoclita including E. arou

chalybeatus, E. damor, E. gmE. malabaricus, E. sericeus asignifer and other Lepidoincluding Turnip Moth.

Teak is used extensively indecks, as it is extremely du

pest resistant. Teak is durable evenwhen not treated with oil or var-nish. Timber cut from old teak treeswas once believed to be moredurable and harder than plantation

grown teak. Studies haveshown[10] Plantation Teak per-forms on par with old-growth teak in erosion rate, dimensional stabili-ty, warping, and surface checking,

but is more susceptible to color change from UV exposure.

The vast majority of commerciallyharvested teak is grown on teak

plantations found in Indonesia andcontrolled by Perum Perhutani (astate owned forest enterprise) thatmanages the country's forests. The

primary use of teak harvested inIndonesia is in the production of outdoor teak furniture for export.

Teak consumption raises a number of environmental concerns, such asthe disappearance of rare old-growth teak. However, its populari-ty has led to growth in sustainablePlantation Teak productionthroughout the seasonally dry trop-ics in forestry plantations. TheForest Stewardship Council offerscertification of sustainably grownand harvested teak products.Propagation of teak via tissue cul-ture for plantation purposes is com-

mercially viable.

Much of the world's teak is export-ed by Indonesia and Myanmar.There is also a rapidly growing

plantation grown market in CentralAmerica (Costa Rica) and South

Glen O. Brechbill

108



and requires very little mainte-nance. The teak tends to wear in tothe softer 'summer' growth bandsfirst, forming a natural 'non-slip'surface. Any sanding is therefore

only damaging. Use of moderncleaning compounds, oils or preser-vatives will shorten the life of theteak, as it contains natural teak-oil avery small distance below the whitesurface. Wooden boat experts willonly wash the teak with salt water,and re-caulk when needed. Thiscleans the deck, and prevents itfrom drying out and the wood

shrinking. The salt helps it absorband retain moisture, and preventsany mildew and algal growth.People with poor knowledge oftenover-maintain the teak, and drasti-cally shorten its life.

Teak is often an effective materialfor the construction of both indoor and outdoor furniture. Teak's highoil content, strong tensile strengthand tight grain makes it particularlysuitable for outdoor furniture appli-cations. Over time teak can matureto a silvery-grey finish.

Propagation

Tree in new leaves in Kolkata, WestBengal, India.

Teak is propagated mainly fromseeds. Germination of the seedsinvolves pretreatment to removedormancy arising from the thick

pericarp. Pretreatment involvesalternate wetting and drying of theseed. The seeds are soaked in water

for 12 hours and then spread to dryin the sun for 12 hours. This isrepeated for 10–14 days and thenthe seeds are sown in shallow ger-mination beds of coarse peat cov-

ered by sand. The seeds then germi-nate after 15 to 30 days.

Clonal propagation of teak has beensuccessfully done thorough graft-ing, rooted stem cuttings and micro

propagation. While bud grafting onto seedling root stock has been themethod used for establishing clonalseed orchards that enables assem-

blage of clones of the superior treesto encourage crossing, rooted stemcuttings and micro propagated

plants are being increasingly usedaround the world for raising clonal

plantations.


109




Usnea is the generic and scientificname for several species of lichenin the family Parmeliaceae, thatgenerally grow hanging from tree

branches, resembling grey or

greenish hair. It is sometimesreferred to commonly as Old Man'sBeard, Beard Lichen, or Treemoss.Usnea looks very similar to Spanishmoss, so much so that the latter

plant's Latin name is derived fromit (Tillandsia usneoides, the 'Usnea-like Tillandsia').

Usnea grows all over the world.Like other lichens it is a symbiosisof a fungus and an alga. The fungus

belongs to the divisionAscomycota, while the alga is amember of the divisionChlorophyta.

Taxonomy

Many species have been described.A monography by Józef Motyka

from 1947 distinguished 451species. Many of these are nowregarded as morphological varietiesand adaptations to local circum-stances. The taxonomic categoriza-tion of many members of this genusremains uncertain. The number of

In modern American herbal cine, Usnea is primarily uslung and upper respiratory infections, and urinary tract tions. There are no human cl

trials to either support or either practice, although in research does strongly suUsnea's antimicrobial propert

Usnea also has shown usefulnthe treatment of difficult tofish infections in aquarium

ponds; in part due to the Usnicfor digestive internal infectioexternal infections, and as wegill infections/stress dueMucilage which is also containUsnea.

Usnea was one ingredient in a uct called Lipokinetix, promoinduce weight loss via increametabolic rate. Lipokinetix

been the topic of an FDA wain the USA,[2] due to pot

hepatotoxicity, although unclear yet if any toxicity wouattributable to the ULipokinetix also contained caffeine, yohimbine and diiodronine. There is reason to bthat usnic acid, in high conc

recognized species in Finland isdecreasing for this reason, from 34in 1951 to 25 in 1963 and only 12in 2000. It is now noted as includ-ing more than 600 species and

being one of the largest generawithin the Parmeliaceae.(Ref.Wirtz, N. et al. 2006.)

Ecology

Usnea is very sensitive to air pollu-tion, especially sulfur dioxide.Under bad conditions they maygrow no larger than a few millime-tres, if they survive at all. Wherethe air is unpolluted, they can growto 10–20 cm long.

Uses

Usnea has been used medicinallyfor at least 1000 years. Usnic acid(C18H16O7), a potent antibioticand antifungal agent is found inmost species. This, combined with

the hairlike structure of the lichen,means that Usnea lent itself well totreating surface wounds when ster-ile gauze and modern antibioticswere unavailable. It is also edibleand high in vitamin C.

Treemoss

Glen O. Brechbill

110




tions, could possess some toxicity.The National Toxicology Programis currently evaluating the issue.

There is no formal scientific infor-

mation on the safety or efficacy of oral use of Usnea, although its longhistory of use strongly suggestsvalue.

Species

Some of the species of Usneainclude:

Usnea barbata

Usnea dasypoga

Usnea florida

Usnea hirta

Usnea rubicunda

Usnea rubiginea

Usnea scabrida

Usnea subfloridana

Usnea strigosa

The species Usnea longissima wasrenamed Dolichousnea longissimain 2004.

111




Turpentine

Turpentine (also called spirit of turpentine, oil of turpentine, and woodturpentine) is a fluid obtained bythe distillation of resin obtainedfrom live trees, mainly pines. It is

composed of terpenes, mainly themonoterpenes alpha-pinene and beta-pinene. It is sometimes collo-quially known as turps.

The word turpentine derives (viaFrench and Latin) from the Greek word terebinthine, the name of aspecies of tree, the terebinth tree,from whose sap the spirit was orig-inally distilled. Mineral turpentineor other petroleum distillates areused to replace turpentine, but theyare very different chemically.

Source Trees

One of the earliest sources was theterebinth or turpentine tree (Pistaciaterebinthus), a Mediterranean treerelated to the pistachio. Important

pines for turpentine productioninclude:

Maritime Pine (Pinus pinaster),

Aleppo Pine (Pinus halepensis),

Industrial and Other End Use

1912 postcard depicting harv pine resin for the turpentine itry

As a Solvent

The two primary uses of turpein industry are as a solvent ansource of materials for organithesis. As a solvent, turpentused for thinning oil-based pfor producing varnishes, andraw material for the cheindustry. Its industrial use as vent in industrialized nationlargely been replaced by the cheaper turpentine substitutetilled from crude oil. Turpehas long been used as a somixed with beeswax or withnauba wax, to make fine furwax for use as a protective coover oiled wood finishes lemon oil).

Source of Organic Compoun

Turpentine is also used as a sof raw materials in the synthefragrant chemical compoCommercially used cam

Masson's Pine (Pinus massoniana),

Sumatran Pine (Pinus merkusii),

Longleaf Pine (Pinus palustris),

Loblolly Pine (Pinus taeda) and

Ponderosa Pine (Pinus ponderosa).

Jeffrey pine, which resembles

Ponderosa Pine, produces a resinthat, when distilled, yields almost

pure n-Heptane, which is explo-sive: it cannot be used to make tur-

pentine.

When producing chemical wood pulp from pines or other coniferoustrees with the Kraft process, turpen-tine is collected as a byproduct.Often it is burned at the mill for energy production. The averageyield of crude turpentine is 5–10kg/t pulp.

Canada balsam, also called Canadaturpentine or balsam of fir, is a tur-

pentine which is made from theresin of the balsam fir. Venice tur-

pentine is produced from theWestern Larch Larix occidentalis.

Glen O. Brechbill

112



linalool, alpha-terpineol, andgeraniol are all usually producedfrom alpha-pinene and beta-pinene,which are two of the chief chemicalcomponents of turpentine. These

pinenes are separated and purified by distillation. The mixture of diterpenes and triterpenes that isleft as residue after turpentine dis-tillation is sold as rosin.

Medicinal Elixir

Turpentine and petroleum distil-lates such as coal oil and kerosene

have been used medicinally sinceancient times, as topical and some-times internal home remedies.Topically it has been used for abra-sions and wounds, as a treatmentfor lice, and when mixed with ani-mal fat it has been used as a chestrub, or inhaler for nasal and throatailments. Many modern chest rubs,such as the Vicks variety, still con-tain turpentine in their formula-tions.

Taken internally it was used astreatment for intestinal parasites

because of its alleged antiseptic anddiuretic properties, and a generalcure-all as in Hamlin's Wizard Oil.Sugar, molasses or honey weresometimes used to mask the taste.Internal administration of these

toxic products is no longer commontoday.

Turpentine was a common medi-cine among seamen during the Ageof Discovery, and one of several

products carried aboard Ferdinand

Magellan's fleet in his first circum-navigation of the globe.

Niche Uses

Turpentine is also added to manycleaning and sanitary products dueto its antiseptic properties and its"clean scent". In early 19th-centuryAmerica, turpentine was sometimes

burned in lamps as a cheap alterna-tive to whale oil. It was most com-monly used for outdoor lighting,due to its strong odor. A blend of ethanol and turpentine added as an

illuminant called burning fluid wasalso important for several decades.In 1946, Soichiro Honda used tur-

pentine as a fuel for the first Hondamotorcycles as gasoline was almosttotally unavailable following WorldWar II.

Turpentine was a common additivein cheap gin until the 20th centuryand gave it its characteristic juniper

berry flavor without the need for pricier distillations with aromaticspices and berries.

Hazards

As an organic solvent, its vapor canirritate the skin and eyes, damagethe lungs and respiratory system, aswell as the central nervous system

when inhaled, and cause renal fail-ure when ingested, among other things. Being combustible, it also

poses a fire hazard.


113




Vetiver

Chrysopogon zizanioides, com-monly known as vetiver, is a peren-nial grass of the Poaceae family,native to India. In western andnorthern India, it is popularly

known as khus. Vetiver can growup to 1.5 metres high and formclumps as wide. The stems are talland the leaves are long, thin, andrather rigid; the flowers are brown-ish-purple. Unlike most grasses,which form horizontally spreading,mat-like root systems, vetiver'sroots grow downward, 2–4 m indepth. Vetiver is most closely relat-ed to Sorghum but shares manymorphological characteristics withother fragrant grasses, such aslemongrass (Cymbopogon citra-tus), citronella (Cymbopogon nar-dus, C. winterianus), and palmarosa(Cymbopogon martinii). Though itoriginates in India, vetiver is wide-ly cultivated in the tropical regionsof the world. The world's major

producers include Haiti, India,

Java, and Réunion. The most com-monly used commercial genotypesof vetiver are sterile (do not pro-duce fertile seeds), and becausevetiver propagates itself by smalloffsets instead of undergroundstolons, these genotypes are nonin-

are in pairs, and there are thremens.

The plant stems are erect andThey can persist deep water

Under clear water, the plansurvive up to two months.

The root system of vetiver is structured and very strong. Igrow 3–4 m deep within theyear. Vetiver has no stolons nozomes. Because of all these chteristics, the vetiver plant is hdrought-tolerant and can he

protect soil against sheet erosicase of sediment depositionroots can grow out of buried n

Uses

Vetiver grass is grown for different purposes. The plant to stabilise soil and proteagainst erosion, but it can alsotect fields against pests and w

Vetiver has favourable qualitianimal feed. From the roots, extracted and used for cosmand aromatherapy. Due tfibrous properties, the planalso be used for handicrafts, and more.

vasive and can easily be controlled by cultivation of the soil at the boundary of the hedge. However,care must be taken, because fertilegenotypes of vetiver have become

invasive. Vegetatively propagated,almost all vetiver grown worldwidefor perfumery, agriculture, and bio-engineering has been shown byDNA fingerprinting to be essential-ly the same nonfertile cultigen(called 'Sunshine' in the UnitedStates, after the town of Sunshine,Louisiana).

The Vetiver system, a technologyof soil conservation and water qual-ity management, is based on the useof the vetiver plant.

Morphology

The vetiver grass has a gregarioushabit and grows in bunches. Shootsgrowing from the undergroundcrown make the plant frost- and

fire-resistant, and allow it to sur-vive heavy grazing pressure. Theleaves can become up to 120-150cm long and 0.8 cm wide. The pan-icles are 15-30 centimeters longand have whorled, 2.5-5.0 centime-ters long branches. The spikelets

114

Glen O. Brechbill




Erosion Control

Several aspects of vetiver make itan excellent erosion control plant inwarmer climates. Unlike most

grasses, it does not form a horizon-tal mat of roots; rather, the rootsgrow almost exclusively down-ward, 2–4 m, which is deeper thansome tree roots. This makes vetiver an excellent stabilizing hedge for stream banks, terraces, and rice

paddies, and protects soil fromsheet erosion. The roots bind to thesoil, therefore it can not dislodge.

The plant also penetrates andloosens compacted soils.

Runoff mitigation and water con-servation

The close-growing culms also helpto block the runoff of surface water.It slows water's flow velocity andthus increases the amount absorbed

by the soil (infiltration). It canwithstand a flow velocity up to 5metres per second (16 ft/s).

Vetiver mulch increases water infil-tration and reduces evaporation,thus protects soil moisture under hot and dry conditions. The mulchalso protects against splash erosion.

Crop Protection

Vetiver can be used for crop protec-tion. It attracts pests, such as thestem borer (Chilo partellus), whichlay their eggs preferably on vetiver.Due to the hairy architecture of vetiver, the larvae can not move on

producers. Vetiver processingintroduced to Haiti in the 194Frenchman Lucien Ganot. In Franck Léger established a plathe grounds of his father Dem

Léger's alcohol distillery. Thewas taken over in 1984 by Frason, Pierre Léger, who expthe size of the plant to 44 a

pheric stills, each built to hone metric ton of vetiver Total production increased iyears from 20 to 60 tonnes anly, making it the largest produthe world. The plant extracts

er oil by steam distillation. Anmajor operation in the field one owned by the Boucard faRéunion is considered to prthe highest quality vetiver oil c"bourbon vetiver" with thefavorable being Haiti andJava.

The United States, Europe, and Japan are the main consu

Essential Oil

Composition - Vetiver oil oroil is a complex oil, containing100 identified components, tyly:

benzoic acid furfurolvetivene vetivenyl vetiv

terpinen-4-ol 5-epiprezizanekhusimene -muurolenekhusimone Calacorene-humulene -longipinene-selinene - selinene-cadinene valencenecalarene,-gurjunene ?-amorp

the leaves, fall to the ground anddie.

As a mulch, vetiver is used for weed control in coffee, cocoa and

tea plantations. It builds a barrier inthe form of a thick mat. When themulch breaks down, soil organicmatter is built up and additionalnutrients for crops become avail-able.

Animal Feed

The leaves of vetiver are a useful

byproduct to feed cattle, goats,sheep and horses. The nutritionalcontent depends on season, growthstage and soil fertility. Under mostclimates, nutritional values andyields are best if vetiver is cut every1-3 months.

Perfumery & Aromatherapy

Vetiver is mainly cultivated for thefragrant essential oil distilled fromits roots. In perfumery, the older French spelling, vetyver, is oftenused. Worldwide production is esti-mated at about 250 tons per annum.Due to its excellent fixative proper-ties, vetiver is used widely in per-fumes. It is contained in 90% of allwestern perfumes. Vetiver is a morecommon ingredient in fragrances

for men; some notable examplesinclude Dior Eau Sauvage,Guerlain Vetiver, Zizan byOrmonde Jayne and Vetiver byL'Occitane.

Indonesia, China, Haiti are major

115





epizizanal 3-epizizanolkhusimol Iso-khusimolvalerenol vetivone-vetivone vetivazulene

Structure of - vetivone, the mainfragrant component of the oil of vetiver

Structure of khusimol, another fra-grant component of the oil of vetiv-er

Structure of - vetivone, another fra-grant component of the oil of vetiv-

er

The oil is amber brown and rather thick. Its odor is described as deep,sweet, woody, smoky, earthy,amber, and balsam. The best quali-ty oil is obtained from 18- to 24-month-old roots. The roots are dugup, cleaned, and then dried. Beforethe distillation, the roots arechopped and soaked in water. Thedistillation process can take up to24 hours. After the distillate sepa-rates into the essential oil andhydrosol, the oil is skimmed off andallowed to age for a few months toallow some undesirable noteswhich form during the distillationto dissipate. Like patchouli andsandalwood essential oils, the odor of vetiver develops and improves

with aging. The characteristics of the oil can vary significantlydepending on where the grass isgrown and the climate and soil con-ditions. The oil distilled in Haitiand Réunion has a more floral qual-ity and is considered of higher qual-

The mats are typically hungdoorway and kept moist by sing with water periodically;cool the passing air, as well asting a refreshing aroma.

In the hot summer months in sometimes a muslin sachet of er roots is tossed into the ea

pot that keeps a household's ding water cool. Like a bogarni, the bundle lends distinflavor and aroma to the wKhus-scented syrups are also

Fuel Cleaning

A recent study found the plcapable of growing in fuel-coinated soil. In addition, the discovered the plant is also aclean the soil, so in the endalmost fuel-free.

Other Uses

Vetiver grass is used as roof t(it lasts longer than other mals), mud brick-making for hoconstruction (such bricks lower thermal conductivity), sand ropes and ornamentals (flight purple flowers).

ity than the oil from Java, whichhas a smokier scent. In the north of India, oil is distilled from wild-growing vetiver. This oil is knownas khus or khas, and is considered

superior to the oil obtained from thecultivated variety. It is rarely foundoutside of India, as most of it isconsumed within the country.

Medicinal Use

Vetiver has been used in traditionalmedicine in South Asia, SoutheastAsia, and West Africa.

Old Tamil literature mentions theuse of vetiver for medical purposes.

In-house Use

In the Indian Subcontinent, khus(vetiver roots) is often used toreplace the straw or wood shaving

pads in evaporative coolers. Whencool water runs for months over wood shavings in evaporative cool-er padding, they tend to accumulatealgae, bacteria and other microor-ganisms. This causes the cooler toemit a fishy or seaweed smell intothe house. Vetiver root paddingcounteracts this smell. A cheaper alternative is to add vetiver cooler

perfume or even pure khus attar tothe tank. Another advantage is that

they do not catch fire as easily asdry wood shavings.

Mats made by weaving vetiver roots and binding them with ropesor cords are used in India to coolrooms in a house during summer.

116

Glen O. Brechbill




A & E Connock Ltd. - United Kingdom

Essential Oils & Aromatic Chemicals

BOOK # 1 ( A - H )

Birch Tar

CadeCedarwood

Fir Needle

Guaicwood

PatchouliPine ( Pumilionis )

SandalwoodSweet Birch


117




A.N.E.C. - France

Endroit Produits

Ambre

Bois de cèdreBois de santal

Cade

Patchouli

Glen O. Brechbill

118




Adrian Industries SAS - France

Products

Amyris

Cedarleaf Cedarwood AtlasCedarwood China

Cedarwood TexasCedarwood Virginia

Patchouli

Pine NigraePine Siberia

Sandalwood

Processed Essential Oils

Birch Tar, rectifiedBirch Tar, twice rectified

Cade rectifiedCedarwood Texas, rectifiedCedarwood Virginia, rectified

Patchouli, decolorized

Terpenes & By Products

Vetiver Terpenes

Balsams & Gums

Cade

Guaiacwood

Aromatic Raw Materials

Alpha Pinene Dextro

Alpha Pinene Laevo

Beta Pinene

CedrolCedryl Acetate

Isobornyl Acetate

Sandenol

Vetiveryl Acetate

Organic Essential Oils & Extracts

Cedarwood MorroccoCedrus Atlantica

Patchouli OilPogostemon Cablin

Pine Oil

Pinus Sylvrestis

Turpentine OilPinus Pinaster

Vetiver OilVetiveria Zizanoides


119



Agan Aroma & Fine Chemicals - Israel

Products

AmberonneAtralone

Glen O. Brechbill

120




Abies Oil - KoreaAmyris Sandalwood Oil - Haiti

Cedarleaf Oil - FranceCedarwood Oil Atlas - Morocco

Cedarwood Oil Virginia - USA

Patchouli Light Oil - IndonesiaPatchouli Oil - IndiaPatchouli Oil - IndonesiaPine Maritime Oil - FrancePine Needles Oil - Siberia

Sandalwood Oil - Sri Lanka, New Caledonia

Vetiver Oil - Haiti, Java

Absolutes

Sandalwood Abs. - Spain New Caladonia,

Treemoss Abs. - Yugoslovia

Albert Vieille SA - France

Maitieres Premietres Aromatiques


121




Alfa Chem - USA

Fine Aroma Materials

Amyris Oil

Balsam CopaibaBalsam Copaiba OilBalsam Fir Canada

Balsam GurjunBalsam PeruBalsam Peru OilBalsam ToluBirch Tar rectified

Cade OilCade Oil rectifiedCedarleaf OilCedarwood Oil AtlasCedarwood Oil ChineseCedarwood Oil TexasCedarwood Oil Texas LightCedarwood Oil VirginiaCedarwood Oil redistilledCedarwood Terpenes ( Cedrene )CedreneCedrol China, Texas

Fir Balsam CanadianFir Needle Oil Canadian

Fir Needle Oil Siberian

Guaiacwood OilGuaiacwood AcetateGurjun Balsam

Patchouli Oil Indonesia

Iso Borneol

L-Bornyl AcetateLongifolene

( MCK ) Acetyl CedreneMethyl CedryloneMethyl Cedryl Ketone

Polarsan

Patchouli Oil LightPatchouli Oil Micro DistilledPatchouli Oil redistilledPinus Pumilionis OilPinus Sylvestris Oil

Vetiver Acetate HaitiVetiver Acetate JavaVetiver Oil BourbonVetiver Oil ChineseVetiver Oil JavaVetiver Redistilled

Absolutes

Fir Balsam Abs.

Oakmoss Moroccan Abs.Oakmoss Yougoslav Abs.

Aromatic Chemicals

Alpha Pinene, DextroAlpha Pinene, Laevo

Beta Pinene

Cedrol Methyl Ether Cedryl Acetate 50 %Cedryl Acetate 70 %

D-Alpha Pinene

Glen O. Brechbill

122




Amen Organics - India

Products

Abies Oil

Pine Oil

Sandalwood Oil

Essential Oils

Amyris Oil

Birch Oil

Cade OilCedarwood OilCyperess Oil

Fir Needle OilFir Oil

Patchouli OilPine OilPine Seed Oil

Sandalwood Oil


123




American Society of Perfumers - USA

Classification of Olfactory Notes

Essential Oils - Woody Note

AmyrisCedarwoodGuaiacwood

OakmossPatchoulySandalwoodTreemossVetiver

Aromatic Materials - Woody Note

Bois Ambrene ForteCedramber

CedrolCedryl AcetateGuaiyl AcetateIononesIso E SuperKephalisMadroxMethyl Ionones

Nopyl AcetateOakmoss SyntheticSandalwood Synthetic

SantalolSantalyl AcetateVertenexVertofix CoeurVetiverolVetiveryl Acetate

Glen O. Brechbill

124



Acetyl LongifoleneAnthamber Anthamber PremiumAnthea Sandal Coeur

Chandanone

Isolongifolanone

Anthea Aromatics Pvt. Ltd. - India

Product Catalog


125




Anupam Industries - India

Product Catalog

Alpha Ionone

BacdanolBeta Ionone

Camwood ( Acetoketol )Cedarwood RectifiedCedarfixCedramber Cedryl Acetate LiquidCervolide

EbanolEndanol ( Bacdanol / Anandol )

Guaiyl Acetate

Hinolene ( Greenyl Butyrate )

Iononyl Alcohol Ester Ionone 100 %Ionone PureIrisone AlphaIrisone PureIrone AlphaIrotyl

Iso E Super Iso Raldeine 70Iso Raldeine 95

KarnalKepahlisKoavone

Linalool OxideLongifolene Ketone

MadroxMassada

Methyl Cedryl KetoneMethyl IononeMethyl Ionone GammaMusk NCMysoriff

OkoumalOrivoneOxyoctaline Formate

P Tertiary Butyl Cyclo HexanylAcetate

SandaloreSandenolSantalaire ( SMC )

Timberiff TobaccorolTrimofix ‘O’

VertofixVetiveryl Acetate Popular Vetiveryl Acetate Pure

Glen O. Brechbill

126




Aromatic Collection - France

Endroit: Produits

Cade Oil Rectified

Guaiacwood Oil

Patchouli Crude

Patchouli LightPatchouli Oil MDPine Oil Siberian

Sandalwood Australian

Vetiver Oil

Natural Isolates

Alpha Pinene Dextro

Vetyverol

Natural Derivatives

Vetiveryl Acetate


127




Aromatic International LLC - USA

Odor Profiles

Woody / Balsams / Moses Group

Amyris

Benzoin

CedarwoodCistus

Guaiacwood

Labdanum

Myrrh

Oakmoss

PatchouliPeru Balsam

Sandalwood

TobaccoToluTreemoss

VanillaVetivert

Glen O. Brechbill

128




Aromatics Adl - France

Catalogue Des Produits

Amyris

Cade Crue ( Juniperus )Cedre AtlasCedre Chine

Cedre Virginie

Patchouli Indonesie FoncePatchouli Indonesie Clair

PRODUITS AROMATIQUES DEFINIS E X

N ATUREL ET SYNTHETIQUES

Acetate Bornyle CristalliseAcetate Bornyle LiquideAcetate CedrenyleAcetate Cedryle CristalliseAcetate Cedryle LiquideAcetate NonyleAcetate NopyleAlpha Pinene DextroAlpha Pinene Laevo

Beta Pinene 85 %Beta Pinene 95 %

CedreneCedrol Liquide

Ionone BetaIonone Beta Savon

Methyl Ionone Alpha 75 %Beta 20 %

Methyl Ionone BruteMethyl Ionone GammaMethyl Ionone Iso Alpha

Methyl Ionone PureMethyl Ionone Savon


129



Aromor Flavors & Fragrances Ltd. - Israel

Products

Ambermor

Vetiver TerpeneVetiveryl Acetate

Glen O. Brechbill

130




Artiste Flavor / Essence - USA

Fragrances & Specialty Ingredients

Birch Oil

Cedarwood Oil

Fir Needle Oil

Patchouli OilPine Oil

Sandalwood Oil


131




Astral Extracts - USA

Products

Amyris

Balsam Peru

Cedarwood - Virginia

PatchouliPine Needle

Sandalwood - Agemark

Glen O. Brechbill

132




Augustus Oils Ltd. - U.K.

Fragrance Specialties & Essential Oils

Ambre Augaflor 1Ambre Augaflor 3

Drywood Augaflor 8

Patchouli Augaflor 22

Essential Oils

Agarwood OilAmyris Oil

Cedarwood Oils

Fir Needle Oils

Guaicwood Oil

Pine Needle Oil

Sandalwood Oils

Vetyvert Oils


133




Australian Botanical Products Pty. Ltd. - Australia

Essential & Citrus Oils

Cedarleaf Cedarwood AtlasCedarwood ChineseCedarwood HimalayanCedarwood Texas

Fir Needle CanadaFir Needle SiberianFir Needle Silver

Guaicwood

PatchouliPatchouli LightPatchouli ACEHPinus PumilioPinus Sylvestris

Sandalwood East IndianSandalwood Pacific IslandsSandalwood West AustralianSandalwood West Indian

Turpentine

Vetiver

Vetiver BourbonVetiver HaitiVetiver Java

Glen O. Brechbill

134




Axxence SARL - France

Specialty Materials

Travail a Facon Rectification

Fractionnement

Birch Tar RectifiedBouleau Rectifiee

Guaicwood OilGuaic ( Boise De )

Vetyveryl AcetateVetyveryl Acetate


135



BASF Japan Ltd. - Japan

Fine Chemicals

Beta Ionone R

Glen O. Brechbill

136



BASF Japan Ltd. - Japan

Fine Chemicals

Amberwood

Rootanol 100

Ketone

DiHydro Beta Ionone


137




BFA Laboratoires - France

Essential Oils & Specialties

Cedar woodCedrus Atlanticus

Glen O. Brechbill

138




B.S. Industries - India

Amber ShamamaAmyris Oil

Cade OilCedar Wood Oil

Fir Needle Oil

Guaicwood Oil

Patchouli natural & std Oil

Essential Oils


139




Bansal Aroma - India

Product List

Cedarwood Oil


Sandal Wood Oil

Vetivert

Glen O. Brechbill

140




Barosyl S.A. - France

Essential Oils

AmyrisAmyris Balsamifera

Balsam CopaibaCopaifera Officinalis

Balsam PeruMyroxylon BalsamumBalsam Tolu

Myroxylon Balsamum

CadeCade rectifiedCedar Leaf Cedarwood Atlas

Cedrus AtlanticaCedarwood Chinese

Cedrus DeodaraCedarwood Virginia

Juniperus Virginia

Patchouly IndonesianPosgostemon Cablin

Patchouly LightPogostemon Cablin

Patchouly Madagascar Pogostemon Cablin

Pine Nedle AustriaPine Needle SiberiaPine Sylvestris

Pinus Sylvestris

Sandalwood Mysore

Vetyver HaitiVetiveria Zizanoides

Vetyver JavaVetiveria Zizanoides

Vetyver Madagascar

Vetiveria Zizanoides

141





Berge Inc. - USA

Essential Oils, Aroma Chemicals & Fragrance Specialties

Amyris Oil W.I.

Balsam CopaibaBalsam Copaiba OilBalsam Peru

Balsam Peru Oil

Cedarleaf OilCedarwood Oil ChineseCedarwood Oil TexasCedarwood Oil Virginia

Fir Balsam CanadianFir Needle Oil CanadianFir Needle Oil ChineseFir Needle Oil Siberian

Guaiacwood Oil

Oakmoss Absolute Green

Patchouli Oil IndonesianPatchouli Oil LightPatchouli Oil M.D.Pinus Oil PumilioPinus Oil Sylvestris

Sandalwood Oil AustraliaSandalwood Oil East IndiesSandalwood Oil IndonesiaSiamwood Oil

Vetiver Oil Haitian

Vetiver Oil IndonesianVetiver Terpenes

Aroma Chemicals

Bornyl Acetate Iso

CedreneCedrenolCedryl AcetateCedryl Acetate 50%Cedryl Acetate CrystalsCedryl Methyl Ether

Ionone BetaIonone For Soap

Nopol Nopyl Acetate

Pinene Alpha P & FPinene Beta P & F

Glen O. Brechbill

142





Biolandes Parfumerie - France

Fine Essential Oils

Wood, branches

ArmoiseCistusCypress

EucalyptusJuniper LaurelLentisqueRosemaryThyme

Specialties

Treemoss Concentrae SubstituteTreemoss Absolute 50 SubstituteTreemoss Colorless SP Substitute

Vetiveryle Acetate RS

Natural Products

Cedarwood Inco 100

Fir Balsam Anhydrol Inco 5

Pine Needle Oil

Absolutes

Fir Balsam Absolute

Sandalwood Super EcoSandalwood Artessence

Resinoid

Fir Balsam Resinoid

Peru EAL Resinoid

Peru Hex Resinoid

Bioabsolutes

Pine Bioabsolute

Moses

Cedarmoss AbsoluteCedarmoss Absolute Decolorized

Oakmoss Absolute IF 12/04Oakmoss Inco 20 IF 12/04Oakmoss AbsoluteOakmoss Absolute SylvestreOakmoss Absolute Sylvestre

50 % / DPGOakmoss Inco 10

Treemoss Inco 10Treemoss Concrete

Treemoss AbsoluteTreemoss Decolorized

Olfactory Reproductions

Fir Balsam Artessence

143




Bordas Destilaciones Chinchurreta Sa - Spain

Fine Essential Oils

Cade Oil, CrudeEx Jun. Oxycedrus

Cade Oil, CrudeEx Jun. Phoenicea

Cade, Rectfied

Ex Jun. OxycedrusCedarwood Oil, ChinaCedarwood Terpenes Def.

Pine Oil 900Pine Oil 907

Absolutes

Oakmoss Absolute A MPGOakmoss Absolute E DEP 500Oakmoss Absolute E DPG 50Oakmoss Absolute E MPGOakmoss Absolute, Decoloured

Concretes

Oakmoss ConcreteOakmoss Concrete Green

Aroma Chemicals

Alpha Pinene DextroAlpha Pinene Laevo 90Alpha Pinene Laevo 95 Rectified

Beta Pinene Laevo 96Borneol Crystal 60/40

Borneol Crystal 97/3

Cedrene Alpha 80Cedrene RectifiedCedrol Crystal 97

Cedrol Liquid 65Cedryl Acetate CrystalCedryl Acetate LiquidCedryl Acetate Liquid 55

Iso Bornyl Acetate

Methyl Cedryl Ketone

Nopyl Acetate

Sandol

Terpenes

Cedarwood Terpenes Def.

Glen O. Brechbill

144




Brighten Colorchem B.V. - The Netherlands

Product List of Aromatic Chemicals

Cedarwood Oil

Pine OilPine Oil Light

Turpentine Oil

Aromatic Chemicals

Sandaler Sanenol


145




Buckton Page Ltd. - U.K.

Product List

Amyris Oil

Cade OilCedarwood Oils

Fir/Pine Needle Oils

Guaiacwood Oil

Pine Oil

Sandalwood OilSpruce Oil

Vetiver Oil

Glen O. Brechbill

146




Camí de Fontanilles - Spain

Product List

Cedarleaf Oil

Other Origin

Cedarwood Atlas Oil

Cedarwood Oil

Oakmoss Resinoid

Patchouly Oil Dark Patchouly Oil Light

Sandalwood Oil ( Indonesia )

Treemoss Resinoid

Vetiver Oil


147




Carrubba Inc. - USA

Botanical Extracts

Amber

Cedarwood

Oakmoss

PatchouliPine Maritime ( Sea Pine )

SandalwoodSilver Fir NeedleSpruce ( Norway )

Vetiver

Glen O. Brechbill

148




Castrading - Korea

Essential Oils

Amyris

Birch Tar, Rectified

Cade, Rectified

Cedarwood, ChinaCedarwood, TexasCedarwood, Virginia

Fir Needle, CanadaFir Needle, Siberia

Guaiacwood

Patchouly, ChinaPatchouly, East IndiesPatchouly, DecolorizedPine NeedlePinus PumilionisPinus Sylvestris

Sandalwood, IndiaSandalwood, JavaSpruce, Canada

Vetyver, Bourbon

Vetyver, HaitiVetyver, Java


149




Central States Chemical Marketing - USA

Bio Scent’s Product Catalog

Cade Oil rectifiedCedarleaf Oil

Fir Needle Siberian Oil

Patchouli Crude OilPatchouli Light OilPatchouli MD Oil

Vetivert AcetateVetivert Oil - HaitiVetivert Oil - Java

Absolutes

Oakmoss Abs. P & N

Treemoss Abs. 50 % in Citroflex

Glen O. Brechbill

150




Champon Vanilla, Inc. - USA


Amyris Oil

Balsam CopaibaBalsam GurjonBalsam Peru Crude

Balsam Tolu

Cedarleaf OilCedarwood ChineseCedarwood TexasCedarwood Virginia

Fir Needle CanadianFir Needle Siberian

Patchouli

Sandalwood

Vetiver BourbonVetiver Chinese / JavaVetiver Haiti

Aromatic Chemicals

Beta Pinene 95 / 98 %

Cedryl Acetate

Ionone Alpha / BetaIso Longifoline

Methyl Cedrialone


Nopol Nopyl Acetate


151




Charabot & Company Inc. - France

Fine Essential Oils

Guaicwood Acetate

Vetivert AcetateVetiver Oil

Glen O. Brechbill

152




China Aroma Chemical Co., Ltd. - China

Essential Oils & Imported Products

Agar OilAgarwood OilAmyris Oil

Cedarwood Oil

Fir Oil

Patchouli OilPine Seed Oil

Sandalwood Oil

Turpentine Oil

Vetiver Oil

Concretes

Oak Moss Concrete

Tinctures

Ebony Tincture


153




Citral Oleos Essenciais Ltda. - Brazil

Perfume Bases, Essential Oils & Aromatic Chemicals

Black Agar Givco 215

Oakmoss Givco 214

Sandawood Givco 203

Sandec Givco 220

Vetiver Organic Oil B 1350

Aromaterapia

Cedar Atlantica Oil

Pine Needle Pinaster Oil

Vetiver Zizanoides Oil

Oleos Essencias - Naturals

CedroTexas Oleo

Patchouli Dark OEPatchouli Oil DM

Vetiver Organic Oil B1350

Perfumaria

Acetato Cedrenila

Bacdanol

Cedramber

Indisan

Javanol

Kephalis

Metil Cedril Ketone

Okoumal

SandaloreSandela

Vertenex - Acetato PTBCHVertofix

Glen O. Brechbill

156




Cade Oil Rectified

Guaiacwood Oil

Patchouli Crude

Patchouli LightPatchouli Oil MDPine Oil Siberian

Vetiver Oil

Concretes & Absolutes

Fir Needle

Oakmoss

Treemoss

Natural Isolates

Alpha Pinene Dextro

Vetyverol

Natural Derivatives

Amyris Acetate

Guaiyl AcetateGuaiacwood Acetate

Vetiveryl Acetate

Matieres Premieres Aromatiques

Clos D Aguzon - France


157




Amyris Oil - Haiti

Balsam Copaiba - BrazilBalsam Peru - El Salvador Balsam Tolu - South America

Guaiaicwood Oil - Paraguay

Patchouli Oil - Indonesia,China

Sandalwood Oil - India, Indonesia,Australia

Vetivert Oils - Haiti, Indonesia,China

Cokson & Hunt International Co. - USA


Glen O. Brechbill

158




Creative Fragrances Ltd. - USA

Essential Oils

Amyris Oil - Haiti

Birch Oil Sweet - CanadaBirch Tar Oil rectified - France

Cade Oil rectified - SpainCedarleaf Oil - CanadaCedarwood Oil - USCopaiba Oil - BrazilCopaiba Balsam - Brazil

Fir Balsam Resin - CanadaFir Needle Oil Siberian - Russia

Guaiacwood Oil - Paraguay

Hemlock Oil ( Spruce Oil ) - US

Moss ( Mousse de Arbre ) - France

Oakmoss ( Mousse de Chene )Abs. - France

Patchouly Oil Light - Indonesia

Sandalwood Mysore E.I. - India

Spruce Oil ( See Hemlock ) - US

Vetiver Oil - Haiti


159




DMH Ingredients - USA


Amyris

Balsam ( Various )Birch Sweet, SouthernBirch Tar

Cade RectifiedCedarleaf

Fir Needle - Canada

Guaiacwood

Patchouly - China EIPine NeedlePinus Pumilionis, Sylvestris

SandalwoodSpruce - Canada

Vetyver

Glen O. Brechbill

160




Cedarwood Virginiana

Gurjun BalsamGurjun Balsam ( Refined )

PatchouliPatchouli ( Light )

Sandalwood AustralianSandalwood Indonesian

Vetivert

Natural Aroma Chemicals

Pinene AlphaPinene Beta

De Monchy Aromatics, Inc. - U.K.

Essential Oils & Specialties


161




Destilerias Munoz Galvez, s.a. - Spain

Essential Oils, Aroma Chemicals & Flavours

CadeCade rectified

Pine

Aromatic Chemicals

Alpha Pinene 99 % DextroAlpha Pinene 99 % Laevo

Bornyl Iso Acetate

Glen O. Brechbill

162




Diffusions Aromatiques - France

Matieres Premieres Aromatiques

Produit De Synthese

Acetate Iso BornyleAmbercore

Cedramber ( MCE )Cedrol Cristallise

Sandal Mysore CoreSandaloreSandol ( Bacdanol Indes )


163




Dulcos Trading - France

Liste de Produits

Amyris Haiti

Cade

Patchouli Chine

Patchouli IndonesiePin Siberie

Santal Inde AgemarkedSantal Indonesie

Vetyver BourbonVetyver ChineVetyver HaitiVetyver Java

Glen O. Brechbill

164




Dullberg Konzentra GmbH - Germany

Fine Essential Oils

Abies Alba Needle Oil

Balm Peru

Cade Oil

Cedarleaf OilCedarwood Oil

Dwarf Pine Needle Oil

Fir Needle Oil

Guaiac Wood OilGurjum Oil

Patchouli OilPine Needle Oil

Sandalwood OilTurpentine Oil

Vetiver Oil


165




Earth Oil Plantations Ltd. - U.K.

Organic Essential Oils

Patchouli Oil

Sandalwood Oil

Vetiver Oil

Glen O. Brechbill

166




Enter Oil - Viet Nam

Essential Oils

Turpentine Oila-Pinen 60 %/b-Pinen 4 %a-Pinen 85 %/b-Pinen 1 %

Isolates

a-Pinen - ex. Turpentine Oil90 % min.


167




Eramex Aromatics GmbH - Germany

Esential, Citrus Oils & Aromataic Chemicals

Amyris Oil, West Indian

Birch Tar Oil

Cade Oil

Cedarleaf OilCedarwood Oil, TexasCedarwood Oil, Virginia

Fir Needle Oil, Siberian

Patchouli Oil, IndonesianPatchouli Oil, Indonesian, LightPine Needle Oil Dwarf

Sandalwood Oil, East IndianSandalwood Oil, IndonesianSandalwood Oil, West Australian

Vetivert Oil IndonesianVetiverty Oil Indian

Absolute/Concrete

Oakmoss/Treemoss Absolute/Concrete

Aroma Chemicals

Ambermor

Longifolene

Glen O. Brechbill

168




Esarco - Argentina

Organic Herbs

Guaiacwood Oil

Essential Oils

Cedarwood Oil

Sandalwood Oil


169




Esencias y Materiales Lozmar, S.A. de C.Y. - Mexico

Esencias

Cedro HojasCedro TexasCedro Virginia

Patchouly Dark

Patchouli Light

Sandalo AmirisSandalo MysoreSandela “T”

Quimicos De Aromaticos

Acetato De CedriloAcetato De Iso Bornilo

Balsamo De Tolu

Cedramber

Ionona BetaIso E Super

Metil Cedril Ether

Veramoss

VertenexVertofix ( Methyl Cedrelona )

Glen O. Brechbill

170




Esperia S.p.A - Italy

Pine Needle Dwarf

Essential Oils


171




Exaflor - France

Catalogue

Patchouli IndonesiePin CanadienPin Maritime

Santal Inde

Vetyver Indonesie

Huiles Essentielles

Promenez Vous Sur La Carte

Canada

Pin Cadien

France

Pin Maitime

Inde

Santal

Indonesie

Patchouli

Vetyver

Maitieres Brutes

Bois De Santal Route - Inde

174

Glen O. Brechbill




Amyris Oil - West Indian Sandal

Cade OilCedar Atlas OilCedar Leaf Oil ( Thuja )

Cedarwood Oil Virginian

Pine Oil Sylvestris

Sandalwood Oil - East IndianSandalwood Oil - Indonesian

Vetivert Oil - BourbonVetivert Oil - HaitiVetivert Oil - Java

Absolutes

Oakmoss Abs.

Treemoss Abs.

FD Copeland & Sons Ltd. - UK

Essential Oils

175




FFC Aromas Private Limited - India

Products

Vetamber ( Kepahlis )

Woodynol IWoodynol II

Glen O. Brechbill

176




Farotti Essences srl - Italy

Natural Essential Oils

Amyris Haiti EssenceAmyris Sandalwood Essence

Birch White Rett Essence

Cedarwood Essence

Fir Dalmatian White EssenceFir Sachalin Essence

Patchouli Malaysia EssencePine Mountain EssencePine Scots EssencePine Stone Essence

Sandal Agemarked Essence

Turpentine Essence

Vetiver Java Essence

177




Firmenich SA - Switzerland

Product Catalog

AmbrinolAmbrox DL

CedroxydeCetalox Laevo

Cetyver SA

FlorexFlorol

Limbwood Base 109389 B

Palisandrol 17979

Rhubofix

Sandalwood 77125 BSandalwood 77125D

Teak 109955

Vetyrisia


179




Fiveash Data Management, Inc., - USA

Spectra of Essential Oils

Agarwood India

Birch Sweet CanadaBirch Sweet Yellow USA

Cade SpainCedar Leaf Thuja Canada, EuropeCedar Wood Atlas MoroccoCedar Wood Himalayan India,

China, Japan, Port Orford,Virginia

Fir Needle, Austria, Canada,Douglas USA, DouglasSlovenia, Siberian Russia

Guaiacwood Paraguay

Patchouli Dark IndonesiaPine Black BulgariaPine Dwarf ItalyPine Ocean FrancePine Scotch Bulgaria, HungaryPine White USA

Sandalwood Australian, Indonesia

Sandalwood Mysore IndiaSandalwood Premium AustraliaSandalwood Tamil Nadu IndiaSpruce Black CanadaSpruce - Eastern Hemlock Canada

Vetiver Haiti

Vetiver Indonesia

180

Glen O. Brechbill




Flavodor - The Netherlands

Catalogues

Abies Alba OilAmyris Oil

Birch Tar Oil rectified

Cade OilCedarwood Oil

Fir Needle Oil

Guaiacwood Oil

Patchouly OilPine Oil, Misc. Origins

Sandalwood Oil

Vetyver Oil

Absolute Resinoids

Oakmoss

Peru BalsamPine Needle

Treemoss

Terpenes

Patchouly Residues

Sandalwood Fractions

181





Amyris ( Sandalwood W. I. )

BalsamsBirch Tar

Cedar Leaf Cedarwood, ChineseCedarwood, TexasCedarwood, Virginia

Fir Balsam Oil, CanadianFir Needle, AustrianFir Needle, CanadianFir Needle, Chinese 15 %Fir Needle, Siberian

Guiaicawood

Hemlock ( Spruce )

PatchouliPine Needle

Sandalwood, East IndianSandalwood, SingaporeSpruce ( Hemlock )

Vetivert, Bourbon ( Reunion )Vetivert, HaitianVetivert, Java

Aromatic Chemicals

Alpha Pinene

Cedrene

CedrolCedryl Acetate

GuiacolGuaicwood Acetate

Ionone, BetaIonone, Gamma MethylIso-Bornyl Acetate


Santalol

Turpentine, rectified

VetiverolVetiveryl Acetate, BourbonVetiveryl Acetate, HaitiVetiveryl Acetate, Java

Fleurchem, Inc. - USA


182





Patchouly Oil

Sandalwood Oil

Vetiver Oil

Vetiveryl Acetate

Absolutes

Oakmoss Abs.

Fleurin, Inc. - USA

Product Listing


183




Florachem Corporation - USA

Cade Oil, Crude ( ex JuniperusOxycedrus )

Cade Oil, Crude ( ex JuniperusSabina )

Cade Oil, rectified ( ex Jun. Oxy. )

Turpentine Oil ( ex Gum )

Absolute/Concretes

Oakmoss Absolute “A” ( Brown )Decoloured

Oakmoss Absolute “E” ( Green )Oakmoss Concrete

Florachem

Alpha Pinene

Beta Pinene

Gum Turpentine

Pine Oil

Harting Aromas

Alpha Pinene ( ex CST )

Beta Pinene ( ex CST )

Cedrol p-Menthanol-8Di Hydro Terpineol

Cedryl Acetate 70% ( Liquid Cedryl Acetate Crystal


Nopol Nopyl Acetate

Makhteshim Again of N.A. - Israel

AmberonneAtralone

Iso E Super ( ® IFF )

Mousse de Metre, Evernyl( ® Givaudan )

Veramoss ( ® IFF )

Privi Organics Limited - India

Beta Ionone

Sandal Fleur

Timber Touch

Aroma Chemicals

Alpha Pinene DextroAlpha Pinene Laevo

Beta - Pinene ( laevo )

Borneol Crystal 65/35 %Borneol Crystal 90/10 %Bornyl Acetate Crystal 97/3 %Bornyl Acetate Liquid 50/50 %

Cedrene

Aroma Chemicals

Glen O. Brechbill

184




Frencharoma Imports Co., Inc. - USA


Amyris

Balsam CopaibaBalsam Gurjon OilBalsam ( Peru )

Cade ( rectified )Cedarwood Oil TexasCopaiba Oil

Fir Needle ( Siberian )

Gurjon Balsam

Patchouli CrudePatchouli LightPeru BalsamPine Needle

Sandalwood

Vetyver ( Haiti )

Aromatic Chemicals

Alpha Pinene

Beta Pinene

Ionone, Beta

Pinene, AlphaPinene, Beta

Turpentine Oil (SDW)


185




Cedarleaf OilCedarwood Oil ChineseCedarwood Oil Texas

Dwarf Pine Needle Oil

( Pumilio )

Fir Needle Oil AsiaFir Needle Oil CanadianFir Needle Oil Siberian

Guaiacwood Oil

Patchouli Oil

Pine Needle Oil CanadianPine Needle Oil Siberian

Sandalwood Oil West -Indian

Vetiver Oil

Frey + Lau GmbH - Germany


Glen O. Brechbill

186




Fritzsche SAICA - Argentina

Products

Cedarwood White Texas Oil


Sandalwood Oil

Vetiver Oil


187




Fruitarom Industries - Israel

Essential Oils, Citrus & Specialties

Cade OilCedarwood OilCedarwood Oil MicroscopyCedarwood Oil VirginiaCypress Oil


Patchouli Oil Indonesia ( Dark )Parchouli Oil MDPatchouli Oil SubstitutePatchouli Oil Tartarized ( Light )Peru Balsam 50 %Peru Balsam Oil NaturalPine Oil Pumilionis

Sandalwood Oil Substitute

Turpentine Oil (-VE) BP2000

Vetivert Oil Java

Glen O. Brechbill

188




Fuerst Day Lawson - U.K.

Essential Oils & Aroma Chemicals

Cedarwood Oil

Gurjun BalsamGuaiacwood Oil

Patchouli Oil Indonesia, China

Sandalwood Oil India, Indonesia

Aroma Chemicals

Alpha Cedrene Epoxide

Cedryl AcetateCedryl Methyl Ether

Iso Bornyl AcetateIsolongifolene

Longifolene


Sandenol


189




GMPCT - India

Essential Oils & Perfumery Chemicals

Cedarwood Oil AtlanticaCedarwood Oil ( Rectified )

Pine Oil

Sandlewood Oil odor typecompounds

Aromatic Chemicals

Iso-Bornyl acetate from campheneand Pinene 5655-61-8

Glen O. Brechbill

190




Givaudan Fragrance Corporation - Switzerland

Specialty Bases & Aroma Chemicals Compendium

Black Agar Givco 215

Oakmoss Givco 214Orris Givco 204/2

Sandalwood Givco 203Sandec Givco 220

Aroma Chemicals Compendium

Aldehyde C - 12 LauricAmbrofix

Base 3Boisiris

CetonalCetone Alpha

Dihydro AmbrateDihydro Ionone Beta

Ebanol

Kephalis

Madrox

Okoumal

Raldeine A GV

Vetynal Extra

Givaudan / Quest International

Perfumer s Compendium

Acetyl Cedrene FIcArboroma

Bangalo

Cedar EnglishCitrowood ABQ7021

Leather Base FM1064Leaather Base FM1064B

Moss AB311Moss AB311DMouse De Mer FM 1052

Patchouli Oil Acid WashedPatchouli SUB AM4927GMYPrecious Wood AM401

Sandalwood FM1068Sandalwood Oil Nardanised


191




The Good Scents Company - USA

Perfumery Raw Materials Information

Agarwood OilAmyris Woody Oil

Balsam Fir Oil AmericaBirch Bud Oil

Birch Oil Sweet AmericaBirch Tar Oil

Cade OilCedarleaf Oil CanadaCedarleaf Oil TerpenelessCedarleaf Oil Western RedCedarwood Oil AtlasCedarwood Oil ChinaCedarwood Oil HimalayaCedarwood Oil Port OrfordCedarwood Oil TexasCedarwood Oil Virginia

Fir Needle Oil CanadaFir Needle Oil SiberiaFir Needle Oil Terpeneless Canada

Guaiacwood OilGuaiacwood Oil 25 % in Gurjun

Balsam Oil

Gurjun Balsam Oil

Hibawood Oil

Oakmoss Oil

Patchouli Oil

Concretes

Oakmoss Concrete

Pine Needle Concrete

Treemoss Concrete

Woody Notes

Agarwood OilAmber CarbinolAmber DecatrieneAmber DioxaneAmber DodecaneAmber FormateAmber PentadecaneAmber SpiroleneAmbrene AcetalAmyris Acetate

Bornyl Iso Valerate

Cabreuva OilCadineneCamphene

Caryophyllene Alcohol AcetaCaryophyllene Alcohol AcetaCaryophyllene Epoxide - BetaCedanolCedar CyclododecarieneCedarwood Absolute AtlasCedarwood Oil Atlas

Pine Needle Oil Dwarf Pine Needle Oil Scotch SiberiaPine Tar Oil

Sandalwood Oil Australia

Sandalwood Oil East IndianSandalwood Oil RedSilver Spruce Oil From NeedlesSpruce Oil Black Spruce Oil CanadaSpruce Oil RedSpruce Oil White From ConesSpruce Sitka OilSugi Wood Oil

Vetiver Oil Haiti

Absolutes

Cedarwood Atlas Absolute

Fir Balsam Absolute

Oakmoss Absolute

Patchouli Absolute

Pine Needle Absolute

Spruce Needle Absolute

Tolu Balsam AbsoluteTreemoss Absolute


193




Cedarwood Oil ChinaCedarwood Oil EpoxidizedCedarwood Oil HimalayaCedarwood Oil Port OrfordCedarwood Oil Texas

Cedarwood Oil VirginiaCedraloneCedrene - AlphaCedrene Epoxide - AlphaCedrenolCedrenyl AcetateCedrol Cedrol Methyl Ether Cedryl AcetateCedryl FormateCedryl Methyl Ether

Cistus AbsoluteCistus OilCopaene - AlphaCopaiba BalsamCyclododecyl FormateCyperus Root Oil

Decalyl Acetate - BetaDiethyl Dimethyl - 2 - HexenoneDihydro - Alpha - Terpinyl A.Dihydro - Beta - IonolDihydro - Beta - Ionone

Elecampane Root AbsoluteElecampane Root OilEthyl Geranate - ( E )Eudesmol - Beta

FarneseneFarnesene - BetaFrankincense Gum Grade “I”

Somalian TearsFrankincense Resin Somalia

Guaiacwood OilGuaiacwood Oil 20 % in Gurjun

Balsam OilGuaiacyl Acetate

Patchouli OilPatchouli Woody Amber Phorone IsoPinacol2 - Pinanol

Polylimonene

Rhubarb Oxirane

Sandal ButenolSandal CyclopentaneSandal CyclopropaneSandal Glycol AcetalSandal HexanolSandal Octanol

Sandal PentanolSandal PentenoneSandalromeSandalwoodSandalwood Oil East IndianSandalwood Oil West AustralSantallSantalolSantalyl AcetateSantalyl ButyrateSantalyl Phenyl AcetateSantol PentenolSclareolideSpikenard OilSpruce Oil CanadaSugi Wood Oil

Terpinene - AlphaThujaplicin - BetaTimber DioxolaneTimber Propanol

Tobacco DodecaneTobacco NoneneTreemoss Concrete

Undecenoic Acid - 10

Vetiver Oil Haiti

GuaiolGurjunene - Alpha

Herbal NorbornaneHibawood Oil

Hinoki Root OilHumuleneHuon Pine Wood Oil4 - Hydroxybenzaldehyde

Juniperberry Oleoresin

Labdanum ConcreteLabdanum EthanoneLongifolene

Longifolene Epoxide IsoLongifolene Ketone Iso

Marine FormateMenth - 3 - en - 1 - ol ParaMenth - 8 - en - 1 - ol ParaMethoxy - 4 - Vinyl Phenol 2Methyl Cedryl KetoneMethyl Ionol - Iso AlphaMethyl Ionone DeltaMethyl Ionone Beta4 - Methyl - 1 - Phenyl - 2 Penta.1 - Methyl PyrroleMethyl SandalMethyl Tetrahydroionyl AcetateMethyl VetivateMyrtenyl Iso ButyrateMyrtenyl Formate

Nopyl Aldehyde

Orris Hexanone

PatchouliPatchouli AbsolutePatchouli EthanolPatchouli EthanonePatchouli Hexanol

Glen O. Brechbill

194




Vetiver ResinoidVetiverolVetiveryl AcetateViolet Propanol

Woody AcetateWoody AmyleneWoody BouquetWoody CarboxylateWoody CyclohexanoneWoody DioxolaneWoody DodecaneWoody EpoxideWoody Ether Woody Heptene

Woody NonaneWoody OcteneWoody Propanol

Zedoary Bark Oil


195




Gorlin & Company - USA

Essential Oils

Amyris

Birch Tar, Rectified

Cade, rectified

Cedarleaf Cedarwood, ChinaCedarwood, TexasCedarwood, VirginiaCypres

Fir Needle - CanadaFir Needle - Siberia

GuaiacwoodGurjon Balsam

Patchouly, ChinaPatchouly, DecolorizedPatchouly, East IndiesPeru BalsamPine NeedlePinus PumilionisPinus Sylvestris

Sandalwood - India

Sandalwood - JavaSpruce - Canada

Vetyver, Bourbon

Glen O. Brechbill

196




Graham Chemical Corporation - USA

Amyris Oil

Balsam Fir OilBalsam OilBirch Sweet Oil

Birch Tar Oil

Cade OilCedarleaf OilCedarwood OilCypress Oil

Fir Needle Oil

Guaiacwood Oil

Patchouli OilPine Needle OilPine Oil ScotchPine Oil White

Sandalwood OilSpruce Oil ( Hemlock )

Aroma Chemicals

Guaiol Acetate

Iso Bornyl Acetate

Pinene, alphaPinene, beta

VetiverolVetiveryl Acetate

Aroma Chemicals & Essential Oils


197




Agar OilAmyris Oil

Cedar Wood Oil

Patchouli OilPine Seed Oil

Turpentine Oil

Vetiver Oil

Concretes

Hemlock

Oak Moss

Peru

Treemoss

Vetiver

Tinctures

Ebony

HC Biochem - China

Essential Oils & Concretes

Glen O. Brechbill

198




H. Reynaud & Fils - France

Essential Oils

Pin Des GrainesPine Woodland

Absolue

Mousse De CheneOakmoss TreeMousse D’Arbre Brune

Treemoss BrownMousse D’Arbre Incolore

Treemoss Colorless

Resinoid

Mousse D’ArbreTree Moss

Essential oils and extracts adapted

to Aromatherapy:

Nom du produit

Amyris HaitiAmyris Oil

Bois De GayacGuaiacwood Oil

Bouleau RectifieBirch Oil Rectified

Cade Ex JuniperiCade Oil

Cedre Atlas MarocCedarwood Oil Atlas

Vetyver HaitiVetyrvert Haiti Oil

Vetyver JavaVetyvert Jave Oil

Water Soluble Oils

Bois De GayacGuaiacwood Oil

Cypres EspagneCypress Oil

Patchouli IndonesiePatchouly Oil

Perou BaumePeru Balsam

Pin Siberie RussiePine Siberian Oil

Vetyver JavaVetyvert Java Oil

Hydrolats

Santal

Sandalwood

Cedre ChineCedarwood Oil Chinese

Cedre Feuilles CanadaCedar Leaf Oil

Cedre Virginie USA

Cedarwood Oil VirginiaCypress EspagneCypress Oil

Mousse Arbre Absolue Fr.Oakmoss Abs.

Patchouli IndonesiePatchouly Oil

Perou BaumePeru Balsam

Pin Des Landes FrancePine Woodland Oil


Pin Sylvestre EuropePine Sylvestre Oil

Pin Des Landes FrancePine Woodland Oil


Pin Sylvestre EuropePine Sylvestre Oil

Santal IndeSandalwood Oil


199




Haldin - Indonesia

Essential Oils & Extracts

Agarwood Oil

Patchouli Oil

Sandalwood Oil

Vetiver Oil

Glen O. Brechbill

200




Handa Fine Chemicals Ltd., - U.K.

Fine Essential Oils

Agar OilAgarwood OilAmyris Oil

Balsam Oil

Cedarwood Oil RectifiedCypress Oil

Guaiacwood Oil


Sandalwood Oil

Vetivert Oil

Concentrated Botanical Herbal

Extracts

BalsamBirch

Cedarwood

Fir

Oak

PatchouliPine

Sandalwood

Tree BalsamTree Moss


201




Hangzhou Aroma Chemical Company - China

Products

Aplha Cedrene Epoxide

Cedrol ( 70 % )Cedrol CrystalsCedryl Acetate 50 %

Methyl Cedryl Ether methyl Cedryl KetoneMethyl Cedryl Ketone Coeur MCKhac ( Cedryl Methyl Ketone )

Turpentine Oil Derivatives

SandacanalSandasweet

Glen O. Brechbill

202




Hemani Ex-Imp Corporation - India

Natural Essential Oils Aromatic Chemicals

Cedarwood Oil ( Rect )Cedarwood Oil ( D.D. )


203




Hindustan Mint & Agro Products Pvt. Ltd. - India

Products

Agarwood Oil

Cederwood Oil

Patachauli Oil

Sandalwood Oil

Vetivert Oil

Glen O. Brechbill

204




BOOK # 2 ( I - Z )

IPRA Fragrances - France

Produits

Cedre AtlasCypres Pays

Patchouly IndonesiePin Siberie

Santal Indes

Vetyver HaitiVetyver Java

Produits Organiques et de

Synthese

Acetate De Cedryle LiquideAcetate De Vetyveryle HaitiAcetyl Cedrene


Santalol

VetyverolVetyverol Extra


205




Innospec Inc. - USA

Aroma List

Herbaceous

Bigarade Oxide

Iso Freshal Nitrile

Iso Tagetone 50Isobornyl Isobutyrate

Ocimene PQ

Thymoxane

Glen O. Brechbill

206



Indesso - Indonesia

Essential Oils, Natural Extracts & Aromatic Chemicals

Patchouli Oil 865 Pale yellow to yellow brown viscous liquid. Woody, balsamic, sweetcamphoraceous.

Patchouli Oil F 867 Pale yellow to yellow brown viscous liquid. Woody, balsamic, sweetcamphoraceous.

Patchouli Oil J871 Pale yellow to yellow brown viscous liquid. Woody, balsamic, sweet,camphoraceous.

Patchouli Oil Light F 866 Yellow to brown viscous liquid. Woody, balsamic, sweet, camphoraceous.

Patchouli Oil Light P 868 Yellow to brown viscous liquid. Woody, balsamic, sweet, camphoraceous.


207



Innospec Inc. - USA

Aroma List

Woody

Amborate

Has a delicate woody-amber character, combining notes of cedarwood, vetiveryl acetate, clary sage and

orris. Tenacity - 1 week on a smelling strip. Has considerable potential throughout the entire perfumeryspectrum, from alcoholic preparation to modern soap and detergent fragrances, particularly in woody,spicy and oriental types. It is compatible with a wide range of perfumery component materials and hasmarked fixative properties. Amborate has been evaluated in a variety of media for compatibility, stabilityof odour and colour and, in the case of aerosols, also for freedom from corrosive effect and clogging of valves.

Amborol 50

Delicate, warm, woody, with notes of amber and clary sage. Of wide potential application, from concentrates and toilet waters to fragrances for antiperspirants and deodorants. It is of particular value in woodtypes and has considerable potential in perfumes for men’s toiletries. It is compatible with a wide range

perfumery compounding materials and has marked fixative properties. Amborol has been evaluated in avariety of media for compatibility and stability for odour and colour.

Amboryl Acetate

A modern woody note, with a delicate, tenacious woody-amber character reminiscent of vertiveryl acetasandalwoods and clary sage. Tenacity - over one week on a smelling strip. Of wide potential applicatiofrom concentrates and toilet waters to modern soap and detergent fragrances. It is of particular value inwoody, spicy and oriental types and has considerable potential for men’s toiletries. It is compatible with

wide range of perfumery component materials and has marked fixative properties. Amboryl Acetate has been evaluated in a variety of media for compatibility and stability of odour and colour.

Bigarade Oxide

Woody, herbal, grapefruit. A middle to topnote material which provides interesting twist to a variety offragrance types. Floral, oriental and of course, citrus fragrances may be improved by the effect of Bigar

Glen O. Brechbill

208



Oxide.

Isofreshal Nitrile

Ozone green, herbaceous, woody. Hard surface cleaners especially where pH stability is important, air

freshners and detergents.

Osyrol

Sandalwood, with a flowery, woody note, very reminiscent of natural sandalwood oil. Recommended fofragrances in which a high quality sandalwood character is required. Blends well with floral compoundsuch as rose and muguet and is most effective with chypre and woody notes. Has excellent fixative propties and contributes to the overall blending and perfecting of the composition. Has great potential in luxfragrances, including those for cosmetics and toiletries, and is also of value in perfumes for soaps and degents.

Vetimoss

Outdoor, forest, damp wood, vegetation, potatoes. Many applications, for use in most fragrances, especiair fresheners, cosmetics and household cleaners.


209




JC Buck Ltd. - U.K.

Products

Amyris

Cade RectifiedCade CrudeCypress French

Cypress Spanish

Fir Needle AustrianFir Needle Siberian

Guaiacwood

Palmarosa IndianPatchouli ChinesePatchouli IndonesianPatchouli Indonesian LightPine PumilionisPine Sylvestris

Sandalwood East IndianSandalwood Indonesian

Turpentine Rectified

Vetivert Bourbon TypeVetivert Haiti

Vetivert Java

By Products

Vetivert Terpenes


211




J & E Sozio, Inc. - USA

Esential Oils

Cedarwood Oil Texas LightCypress Oil

Patchouli Oil T.I.

Sandalwood Oil E.I.

Glen O. Brechbill

212




J. Piltz & Cia. Ltda. - Brazil

Esential Oils

Cedro ( Arvore )Cedro ( Folha )

Patchouli

Sandalo

Vetiver


213




Joint American Ventures in China - USA

Aroma Chemicals

Alpha Cedrene Epoxide

Cedryl AcetateCedryl Methyl Ether

Iso Bornyl Acetate

Methyl Cedryl KetoneMethyl Ionone AlphaMethyl Ionone Gamma

Vetiverol ExtraVetivert Acetate Extra

Glen O. Brechbill

214




Kanta House - India


Cedarwood Oil ( Indian )

Thuja Wood Oil

Vetiver Oil

( Northern Indian Quality )Vetiver Oil( Southern Indian Quality )

Rectified Essential Oils

Cedarwood Oil rectifiedCedar Wood Oil double distilled


215



Kao Corporation - Japan

Aroma Chemicals

Acetyl Cedrene Coeur “Vertofix”Amber Core

Boisambrene Forte

Cedryl Methyl Ether

o-t-BCHA

p-t-BCHA

Sandalmysore Core

Glen O. Brechbill

216




Arjuna Terminalia Arjuna Bark Ashoka Saraca Indica (South) Bark

Babool Acacia Arabica Bark Bharangi Clerodendrum S. Bark

Dalchini Cinnamomum Tamal. Bark Daru Haridra Berberis Aristata Bark Devdaru Polyalthia Longifolia Wood

Gular Ficus Racemosa Bark

Kachnar Bauhinia Variegata Bark Khardira Acacia Catechu Bark Kuda / Kurchi Holarrhena Antidy. Bark

Lodhara Symplocos Racemosa Bark

Narvel Viburnum Foetidum Bark

Rohital Aphanamixis Poly. Bark

Sahjana Moringa Oleifera Bark

Vijayasar Pterocarpus Marsup. Wood

Katyani Exports - India

Fine Spices & Herbs


217

Indian Name Botanial Name Part

Used




Kruetz Helmut - Portugal

Produto

Amyris Oil

Cade OilCedarwood Oil MicroscopyCedarwood Oil Perfumery

Cedarwood Oil - VirginiaCopaiba Balsam OilCopaiba Oil Daniel DistilledCoriander Oil - RussiaCypress Oil

Fir Needle Siberian Oil

Gurjum BalsamGurjum Oil rectifiedGuaicwood Oil

Patchouli Oil ( Dark ) - IndonesiaPatchouli Oil MDPatchouli Oil SubstitutePatchouli Oil Tartarized ( Light )Pine SachalinensisPine SiberianPine Oil PumilionisPine Silvestris

Sandalwood Oil Substitute

Turpentine Oil ( - VE ) BP2000

Vetivert Oil Java


218




Krupa Scientific - India

Flavours & Fragrances

Sweet

Vetiveryl Acetate

Vetiver

Vetiveryl Acetate


219




Kuber Impex Ltd. - India

Herbs & Spices

Agar Aquillaria Gallocha

Devdhar Cedrus Deodara

Sandal, Chandan ( Sweet ) Santalum Album

Viburnum Bark, Narvela Viburnum Foetidum

Local Name Botanical Name

Glen O. Brechbill

220




Laboratoire Monique Remy - France

Specialty Materials - The Major Catalog’s of Fragrance

Moss-Oak Absolute Yugo 5 % DPG Mousse Chene Yugo Absolue 50 % DPGMoss-Tree Absolute MD IPM ( IFRA ) Mousse Arbre Absolue DM IPM ( IFRA )Moss-Oak Absolute MD 20 % Solvents Mousse Chene Absolue DM 20 % SolvantsMoss-Oak Absolute Decol Mousse De Chene Absolue Deco

Patchoul Heart No. 3 Patchouli Coeur No 3Patchouli Oil Indonesia Iron Free Patchouli Indonesie Essence DeferiseePatchouly Oil Indoneisa MD Patchouli Indonesie Essence DM

Sandalwood Oil India Santal Inde Essence

Vetiver Oil Haiti Vetiver Haiti EssenceVetiver Oil Haiti MD Vetiver Haiti Essence DMVetiver Oil Java Vetiver Java EssenceVetiver Oil Java MD Vetiver Java Essence DM


221




Lluche Essence - Spain

Essential Oils & Aromatiac Chemicals

Exclusive Distributing Agent for

the following companies:

Amgat Citrus Productos S.A.( AMC Grupo )

Aromor ( Aromor F & F )

Axxence Aromatic( Axxence Aromatic Gmbh )

Barosyl S.A.

Camphor & Allied Products Lmt.

Chugay Boyeki Co. Ltd.( Shin Etsu )

C.V. Aroma & Co.

Destilaciones Bordas Chinchu-rreta, SA ( DBCH )

Fruitarom Ltd.

Grau Aromatics GMBH & Co.KG

H. Reynaud Et Fils

Kato Aromatic S.A.E.

Krems Chemie

Agarwood OilAmyris Oil

Birch Rect. Oil

Cade Crude OilCade Rectified OilCedarwood Atlas OilCedarwood China OilCedarwood India OilCedarwood Leaf OilCedarwood Texas OilCedarwood Virginia OilCypress Oil

Guayacwood OilGurjum Ref. 25 OilGurjum Ref. 34 Oil

Indian Sandal Coeur

Patchouly Indonesia OilPatchouly Light Indonesia OiPatchouly Molecular DistilledPine Mugo OilPine Needle Sachalinensis Oi

Pine Needle Siberia OilPine Sylvestris Oil

Sandalwood Australia OilSandalwood India Oil

Turpentine Oil

Mentha & Allied Products Ltd.

Millennium Specialty Chemicals

Plant Lipids Limited

Privi Organics Pvt. Ltd.

Quest International

Soda Aromatic Co., Ltd.

Tecnaal, S.A.

Toyotama Internacional Inc.

Vioryl S.A.

The company also has products in

stock of other well-known compa-

nies like:

Basf

Celanese

Firmenich

Givaudan

PCAS

Glen O. Brechbill

222




Vetyvert Brasil OilVetyvert China OilVetyvert Haiti OilVetyvert Java OilVatyvert Terpene

Absolutes

Fir Needle Green Abs.

Pine Needle Abs.

Resinoids

Galbanum Resinoid

Gurjum Balsam

Natural Isolates

CedreneCedrol CrystalCedrol Liquid - ChinaCedrol Liquid - USACedryl Acetate Liquid - ChinaCedryl Acetate Liquid - USA

Guiacwood Acetate

Vetiveryl Acetate

Aromatic Chemicals

Acetyl EugenolAllyl IononeAmbar CrystalAmberfluer

Ambermor

BangalolBornyl Acetate CrystalsBornyl Acetate Liquid

Ebanol

Irone AlfaIso Bornyl Acetate

Kephalis

Linalool OxideLongifolene

MagnolanMCK Coeur MCK TechMethyl Ionone GammaMethyl Ionone Gamma Coeur Methyl Ionone Iso Super AlfaMethyl Ionone Soap

Nopyl Acetate

PatchonePatchoulolPine 50 %Pinene AlphaPinene Beta

SandalinaSandaltouchSandelaSandenol

Timber Touch

VetyverolVetyverol Coeur

WoodaromWoodinyl Acetate


223



Lothar Streek - Germany

Ingredients by

Base 3

CetonalCetone AlphaCetone V

Ebanol

Irisone AlphaIrisone PureIrone Alpha

Kephalis

Linalool Oxide

Madrox

Okoumal

Sandalore

Glen O. Brechbill

224




M.X.D. Enterprise System - Korea

Perfume List

Birch Tar Oil Purified ExtraBirch Tar Oil Rectified Extra

Cedarwood Texas Oil ExtraCopaiba Oil Extra

Cypress OilCypress Oil ExtraCypress Oil Terpeneless Extra

Guaiacwood Oil Extra

Patchouly Oil Redistilled ExtraPatchouly Old OilPatchouly Old Oil ExtraPeru OilPine Siberian Oil Extra

Sandalwood Oil Extra

Vetiver Oil Extra

Absolutes

Oakmoss Yugoslavian Abs.

Patchouli Abs. Extra

Patchouly Abs. MDPeru Abs. ExtraPine Sylvestris Abs.

Treemoss Abs. Colourless LiquidTreemoss Abs. Extra

Resinoids

Peru Resinoid Extra


225




Mane SA - France

Raw Materials Catalog

Patchouly Oil MD - IndonesiaPeru Oil - El Salvador

Natural Absolutes

Patchouly Abs. - Indonesia

Peru Resinoid - El Salvador

Natural Concrete

Mousse Cedre Concrete - Morocco

Molecular Distillations

Fir Balsam Abs. MD

Oakmoss Abs. MD

Patchouli Abs. MDPatchouli Essential Oil MDPeru Balsam MD

Sambac Abs. Indian MD

Treemoss Abs. MD

Vetyver Abs. MD

Aroma Chemicals & Isolates

Cedryl Acetate

Santalol

Vetiver AcetateVetiverolVetiveryle Acetate

Glen O. Brechbill

226




MelChem Distribution - USA

Natural Aroma Chemicals

Ionone Beta Nat.Ionone Mixture Nat.

Linalool Oxide Nat.

Pinene Alpha ( 1S ) Nat.Pinene Beta ( 1S ) Nat.


227




Millennium Chemicals - USA

Fragrances Bases & Aromatic Chemicals

Alpha Pinene, P & F

Beta - Pinene P & F

L-Alpha Pinene

Glen O. Brechbill

228




Moelhausen S.p.A. - Italy

Fine Essential Oils

Birch Oil rectified

Cade Oil crudeCade Oil rectifiedCedar Bark Oil

Cedarwood Oil ChineseCedarwood Oil TexasCedarwood Oil VirginiaCopaiba BalsamCypress Oil

Guaiacwood OilGurjum Balsam decolorizedGurjum Balsam rectified

Patchouly OilPatchouly Oil Extra LightPatchouly Oil IndonesiaPatchouly Oil LightPatchouly TerpenesPine Oil SiberianPine Needle OilPine Sachalinensis OilPine Scotch Oil

Sandalwood Oil

TurpentineTurpentine Larch

Vetiver OilVetiver Oil China

Absolutes

Oakmoss Abs.


229




Muller & Koster - France

Essential Oils

Patchouly IndonesiaPogostemon Cablin

Patchouly MalaccaPogostemon Cablin

Peru' Quintessence

Myroxylon PereiraePino AmericanoAbies Balsamea

Pino MugoPinus Pinaster

Pino SilvestrePinus Sylvestris

Pino Silvestre PaysPinus Sylvestris

SandaloSantalum Album

Sandalo IndieSantalum Album

Sandalo MisoreSantalum Album


231




Naradev - Hong Kong

Essential Oils

Amyris

Cedar LeavesCedarwood AtlasCedarwood Virginian

Cypress Leaves

Patchouli BlondPatchouli DionizedPatchouli MDPatchouli MD Super Patchouli SingaporePatchouli Singapore ExtraPine SiberianPine Siberian Extra

Sandalwood Mysore East-IndianSandalwood New Caledonia

Distical BrandSandalwood West Indian

( see amyris )

Vetiver HaitianVetiver Java

Glen O. Brechbill

232




Nardev - Israel

Essential Oils

Amyris Oil

Balsam Copaiba OilBalsam Peru Oil

Cedar Leaf OilCedarwood Oil - AtlasCedarwood Oil - ChinaCedarwood Oil redistilledCedarwood Oil - TexasCedarwood Oil - VirginiaCypress Oil

Fir Needle Oil CanadianFir Needle Oil Siberian

Guaiacwood Oil

Patchouli Oil - IndonesiaPatchouli Oil LightPatchouli Oil Micro DistilledPatchouli Oil redistilledPeru Balsam OilPimento Leaf Oil rectifiedPinus Pumilionis OilPinus Sylvestris Oil

Sandalwood Oil - AustraliaSandalwood Oil - IndiaSandalwood Oil - Indonesia

Vetiver Oil - BourbonVetiver Oil - China

Vetiver Oil - HaitiVetiver Oil - Java


233




Natural Sourcing, LLC - USA

Essential Oils

Amyris, Haiti

Cedarleaf, BulgariaCedarwood, IndiaCedarwood, Virginia

Cypress, FranceCypress, Spain

Fir Balsam, Bulgaria

Gurjum Balsam, Indonesia

Patchouli, IndonesiaPine Needle, Hungary

Sandalwood, India

Vetiver, Haiti


234




Oliganic - USA

Essential Oil Crop Calendar

Amyris - Haiti

Balsam Copaiba - BrazilBalsam Peru - El Salvador

Cedarleaf - CanadaCedarwood - ChinaCedarwood - USA

Fir Needle - AustriaFir Needle - Canada

Guaiacwood - ParaguayGurjum Balsam - Indonesia

Patchouli - ChinaPatchouli - IndonesiaPeru Balsam - El Salvador Pine Needle - Europe

Sandalwood - AustraliaSandalwood - IndiaSandalwood - Indonesia

Vetiver - ChinaVetiver - Haiti

Vetiver - IndonesiaVetiver - Reunion


235




PCAS - France

Specialty Chemicals Odor Classification

Woody

l - Camphor Cyclohexanone Para Tertio ButylCyclododecyl Formate

Cyclofor

Glycoacetal 236

Irisone Crystals

Phenyl Benzoate


237




PFW Aroma Chemicals - The Netherlands

Fine Chemicals

CostaulonCostausol

Orinox

Patchwood

Thiazyl 1 % in DPG

Glen O. Brechbill

238




P.P. Sheth & Co. - India

Essential Oils

Amyris Oil

Cedar Leaf OilCedarwood Oil TerpenesCedarwood OilCypress Oil

Oakmoss AbsoluteOakmoss Resinoid

Patchouli OilPatchouli Oil MDPatchouli Oil Iron FreePatchouli Oil LightPeru Balsam

Tolu BalsamTreemoss Resinoid

Vetiver Oil


239




Paul Kaders GmbH - Germany

Fine Aroma Products

Abies Alba Needle OilAmyris Oil

Cade Oil, Crude + Rect.Cedarwood Oil, Texas

Cedarwood Oil, Chin. BPCCypress Oil

Fir Needle Oil ( Pine Needle Oil )

Guaiacwood Oil

Patchouly OilPine ( Fir ) Needle Oil SiberiaPinus Pumilio Oil ( Dwarf Pine

Needle )

Sandalwood Oil

Vetiver Oil

Aromatic Chemicals

Guaiacwood Acetate

Glen O. Brechbill

240




Payan Bertrand SA - France

Essential Oils, Absolutes & Specialties

Birch Tar Purified Oil

Cedarwood VirginiaCypress Oil

Patchouly OilPatchouly Old OilPatchouly Redistilled OilPine Siberian Oil

Sandalwood Oil

Vetyver Haiti OilVetyver Java Oil

Absolute

Peru Abs.


241




Penta Manufacturing - USA

Natural Chemicals

Amyris Oil

Birch Oil SweetBirch Oil, Tar Rectified

Cade OilCedar Leaf OilCedarwood Oil, ChineseCedarwood Oil, Texas LightCedarwood Oil, VirginiaCypress Oil

Fir Needle Oil CanadianFir Needle Oil Siberian

Guaicwood OilGurjun Balsam Oil

Patchouli OilPatchouli Oil Bleached & FilteredPatchouly Oil MD ColorlessPine OilPine Needle OilPine Tar Oil

Sandalwood Oil

Tolu Balsam Oil

Vetiver Oil (Bourbon)Vetiver Oil ( Brazil )Vetiver Oil Indonesian ( Haiti )Vetiver Oil ( Java )

Oakmoss

Oakmoss Concrete BrownMorocco

Oakmoss Concrete Green

Morocco

Terpenes

Cedarwood Terpenes

Vetiver Terpenes

Aromatic Chemicals

Linalool natural Oxide

Pinene - alphaPinene - beta

Glen O. Brechbill

242




Perfume & Flavor Manufacturers - Australia

A Complete Listing

Abies Alba Mill OilAbies Balsamea L. Mill Oil - USAbies Balsamea L. Needle Oil-

CanadaAbies Picea Lindl. Needle Oil

Abies Sibirica Ledeb. Needle Oil -SiberiaAbies Spp. Needle Oil - SiberiaAmber OilAmyris Wood Oil

Balsam Fir Needle OilBalsam Fir Oil - AmericaBalsam Peru OilBirch Black OilBirch Bud OilBirch Oil SweetBirch Tar Oil

Cabreuva Wood OilCade OilCedarleaf Oil - ChinaCedarleaf Oil - Western RedCedarleaf White Oil - CanadaCedarwood Oil - AtlasCedarwood Oil - China

Cedarwood Oil - East AfricaCedarwood Oil - HimalayaCedarwood Oil - LebanonCedarwood Oil - MoroccoCedarwood Oil - Port OrfordCedarwood Oil - Red AmericaCedarwood Oil - Texas

Sandalwood East Indian OilSandalwood Oil - Australia,

West IndianSandalwood Oil YellowScotch Pine Oil

Spruce Black OilSpruce Red OilSpruce Seed OilSpruce Silver Oil From ConeSpruce Sitka OilSpruce White Oil From Cone

Turpentine Oil

Vetiver Oil - Haiti

Cedarwood Oil - VirginiaCedrus Atlanteca Oil - MoroccoCedrus Deodara Oil - HimalayaCedrus Wood Oil - LebanonCopaiba Balsam Oil - S.M.

Fir Needle Oil - CanadaFir Siberian Oil - SiberiaFir Silver Oil - America

Guaiacwood OilGurjun Balsam Oil

Norway Pine Oil Norway Spruce Oil

Patchouli OilPine Bark White OilPine Mountain OilPine Needle Mugo Turra OilPine Needle Dwarf OilPine Norway OilPine Scotch OilPine Sea OilPine Tar OilPinus Leucodermis Oil

Pinus Mugo Turra OilPinus Nigra OilPinus Pinaster OilPinus OilPinus Strobus OilPinus Sylvestris Oil


243




Petigara Chemicals - India

Natural Products

Cedarwood Oil Himalayan

Vetiver Oil


245




Petit Marie - Brazil

Lista De Produtos

Cade Oil CrudeCedarleaf OilCedarwood Texas Oil

Guiaicwood Oil

Patchouli OilPine Siberian Oil

Sandalwood Oil

Vetiver Indonesia Oil

Oleo

Cade OleoCedro Folhas OleoCedro Madeira Virginia OleoCedro Texas Oleo

Patchouly OleoPinho OleoPinho Oleo 45inho Oleo 50Pinho Oleo 65Pinho Oleo 70

Pinho Oleo 75Pinho Oleo 80Pinho Siberiano Oleo

Vetivert Oleo

Sandalo OlifacSandalo AmirisSandalo MysoreSandaloreSantal Core

TimberolTobacarol

Veramoss ( Mousse Mietra )Evernyl

Vertofix Coeur( Metil Cedril Ketone )

Resins

Mousse De Chene Resin( Carbalho )

Aromatic Chemicals

Acetato CedrilaAcetato Cedrila CristalizadoAcetato Iso BornilaAmbrinol - FirmenichAmbrox DL

BacdanolBrahmanol

Fir Balsam Oreton

Guaiacol

IndisanIonona BetaIso E Super

Metil Ionona Gamma

Orivone

PatchonePiconiaPineno AlfaPineno Beta

Glen O. Brechbill

246




Phoenix Aromas & Essential Oils, Inc. - USA

Essential Oils

Amyris Oil

Cedarleaf OilCypress Oil


Patchouli OilPatchouli Oil LightPatchouli Oil MD

Sandalwood OilIndian, Indonesian

Vetivert Oil Haiti


247




Plant Lipids - India

Product Catalog

Vetiver Oil

Glen O. Brechbill

248




Polarome Intenrational - USA

Product Listing

Amyris Oil

Balsam Copaiba OilBalsam Fir CanadaBalsam Peru Oil

Birch Tar Rectified

Cade OilCade Oil RectifiedCedar Leaf OilCedarwood Oil AtlasCedarwood Oil ChineseCedarwood Oil RedistilledCedarwood Oil TexasCedarwood Oil Texas LightCedarwood Oil VirginiaCypress Oil

Fir Balsam CanadianFir Needle Oil CanadianFir Needle Oil Siberian

Guaiacwood Oil

Hemlock - ( Spruce )

Patchouli Oil IndonesiaPatchouli Oil LightPatchouli Oil Micro-DistilledPatchouli Oil RedistilledPeru Balsam OilPinus Pumilionis OilPinus Sylvestris Oil

Treemoss Abs.

Concrete

Oakmoss Moroccan Concrete

Oakmoss Yougoslav Concrete

Treemoss Concrete

Terpenes

Cedarwood Terpenes ( Cedren

Aromatic Chemicals

Alpha Pinene, ( Dextro, Levo

Cedrol ChinaCedrol Methyl Ether Cedrol TexasCedryl Acetate 50 %Cedryl Acetate 70 %

Iso Bornyl Acetate

Para Cymene

Vetiver Acetate HaitiVetiver Acetate JavaVetiver Redistilled

Sandalwood Oil IndianSandalwood Oil IndonesianSpruce ( Hemlock )

Turpentine Crude, Dextro

Turpentine Crude, LaevoTurpentine Rectified

Vetiver Oil BourbonVetiver Oil ChineseVetiver Oil HaitianVetiver Oil Java

Balsams

Balsam Gurjun

Balsam Peru

Balsam Tolu

Resinoid

Peru Resinoid

Treemoss Resinoid

Absolute

Fir Balsam Abs.

Oakmoss Moroccan Abs.Oakmoss Yougoslav Abs.


249




Premier Chemical Corporation - India


Amyris Oil

Birch Tar Oil

Cade Oil Rectified

Cedar Wood Oil Rectified( Cedrus Deodara )Cedar Wood Oil Double Distilled

( Cedrus Deodara )

Gurjam Oil


Vetiver Oil

Aromatic Chemicals

Beta Ionone ( P/G )

Sandol-SA( Equivalent to Bacdanol )

Woodamber-SA( Equivalent to Timberol )


250




Prima Fleur - USA


Balsam, El Salvador Myroxylon Balsamum Var.

Balsam, ToluMyroxylon Balsamum

Birch

Betula Lenta

Cedar Cedrus Atlantica

Cedar VirginianaJuniperus Virginiana

CypressCuminum Cyminum

CypressCupressus Sempervirens

Cypress BlueCallitris Intratropica

Fir BalsamAbies Balsamea

Fir BalsamAbies Balsamea

Fir DouglasPseudotsuga Menziesii

Fir GrandAbies Gandis

Fir Silver Abies Alba

PatchouliPogostemon Patchouli

PinePinus Sylvestris

PinePinus Pinaster

PinePinus Pinaster

SandalwoodSantalum AlabumSpruce

Picea SitkaSpruce Black

Picea Mariana

VetivertAndropogon Muricatus

Absolutes

Oakmoss Abs.Evernia Prunastri


251



Glen O. Brechbill

Privi Organics Ltd. - India

Product

Alpha IononeAlpha Ionone PureAmber Fleur

Beta Ionone

Floralscone

Indian Sandal Coeur Ionone 100 %

Methyl Ionone

Nimberol

Sandal Fleur Sandal Touch

Timber ForteTimber Touch

252




Prodarom - France

Training Manual For Student Perfumer’s

Main Group of Raw Materials

Main Olfactory Groups

Wooded:

Amyris

Cedar wood

Guaiacwood

Patchouli

Sandalwood

Vetiver


253




Prodasynth - France

Aroma Product Line

Alpha Pinene

Beta Pinene

Glen O. Brechbill

254




Puressence Wuersten Inc. - Switzerland

Essential Oils

Abies Alba OilAmyris Oil

Birch Tar Oil

Cade OilCedarleaf OilCedarwood OilCypress Oil

Firneedle Oil

Guajacwood Oil

Patchouly OilPine Oil

Vetyver Oil

Resinoid

Perubalsam

Concretes

Oakmoss

Pineneedle

Balsam

Canadafirbalsam

Firbalsam

Perubalsam

Terpenes

Patchouly Fractions/ Residues


255




Quality Analysis Ltd. - U.K.

Product List

Amyris Oil - West Indies( Sandalwood Oil W.I. )

Cedarwood Oil - China, Himalaya,Texas, Virginia

Cedarwood Oil Atlas - MoroccoCypress Oil - Spain

Guaicwood Oil - Paraguay

Patchouli Oil - IndonesiaPine Needle Oil - Europe

Sandalwood Oil - Australia, EastIndia, Indonesia

Silver Fir Oil - Siberia

Terebinth / Turpentine Oil

Vetivert Oil - Java, Haiti

Glen O. Brechbill

256




Rai Ingredients - Brazil

Raw Materials

Bacdanol

Cedramber Cedrenyl AcetateCedrenol

Guaiacum

Iso E Super Isobornyl Acetate

Patchouly Light OE

Vertenex

China Perfumer - Givaudan mate-

rial listing

Base 3Black Agar Givco 215Boisiris

CetonalCetone AlphaCetone V

EbanolEvernyl

Javanol

Kephalis

Linalool Oxide

Madrox

Oakmoss Givco 214

Okoumal

SandaloreSandalwood Givco 203Sandec Givco 220Sandela


257




Robertet SA - France

Natural Ingredients

Ambre 140 BSA

Brich Sweet Essence

Fir Balsam Abs.

Iris Concrete

Patchouli Bleached OilPatchouli Rectified EssencePatchouli Rectified OilPatchouly Abs.Pine BT ResinoidPine Needles Abs.Pine Siberian EssencePine Siberian Oil

Turpentine Oil

Vetiveryl Bourbon Oil

Glen O. Brechbill

260




Rosetta Enterprises, LLC - USA

Products

Amyris FCC

Birch Sweet Southern FCC

Cedarleaf Thuja Occidentals FCC


Fir Canadian FCCFir Siberian FCC

Guaiacwood Concrete

Hemlock

Patchouli Amber Patchouli Dark Patchouli LightPatchouli MDPine Needles Siberian FCC

Sandalwood East Indian FCCSpruce

Vetivert BourbonVetivert Java

Balsams & Gums

Balsam CopaibaBalsam Fir OregonBalsam Peru Genuine


261




Sarcom Inc. - USA

Fine Oils & Aromatic Chemicals

Cedarwood BPC49

Patchouli ChinaPatchouli Indonesia

Sandalwood East Indian

Vetyver Indonesia

Aromatic Chemicals

Cedryl Acetate Crystals 98 %China

Iso Bornyl Acetate 97 % China

Sandenol China

Glen O. Brechbill

264




Seema International - India

Product List

Amyris Oil

Cedarwood Oil

Patchouli Oil

Pine Oil

Vetivert Oil

Glen O. Brechbill

266




Sensient Essential Oils Gmbh - Germany

Products

Abies Oil - East AsianAmyris Oil - West Indian

Cade Oil rectifiedCedar Leaf Oil - Canada

Cedarwood Oil - AtlasCedarwood Oil - HimalayaCedarwood Oil - Texas 22 %Cedarwood Oil - Texas 25 %Cedarwood Oil - Texas 40 %Cypress Oil - France


Patchouli Oil - IndonesiaPatchouli Oil - Indonesia ironfree

Pine Needle Oil - China 15 %Pine Needle Oil - Siberia 30 %Pine Needle Oil - Slovenia

Sandalwood Oil - East IndianSwiss Pine Oil - Allgäu rect. 15/16Swiss Pine Oil ( Arven Oil )

Vetiver Oil - Haiti, Javi


267




Shanghai M & U International Trade Co., Ltd. - China


Cedarwood Oil

Guaiaicol

Patchouli Oil

Aromatic Chemicals

Iso Bornyl Acetate


Sandenol 208Sandenol 803

Vetivert Oil


269




Sigma Aldrich - USA

Essential Oils

Amyris Oil

Birch Sweet OilBirch Tar Oil rectified

Cade OilCade Oil rectifiedCedarwood Oil TexasCedarwood Oil Texas WhiteCedarwood Oil VirginiaCedrol redistilledCedryl AcetateCopaiba BalsamCopaiba Balsam OilCopaiba Balsam bleached

Fir Needle Oil, CanadianFir Needle Oil, Siberian

Guaicwood AcetateGuaiacwood Oil

Methyl Cedryl Ether > 96 %Methyl Cedryl KetoneMethyl Cedryl Ketone Coeur

Patchouli Oil

Sandalwood Oil, Indonesia

L-Turpentine

Vetiver Acetate


271




Som Santi House - India

Natural Products

Cedarwood Oil - Nat.

Vetiver Oil - Nat.


273




Some Extracts - India

Products

Vetiver Oil

Imported Products

Guajacwood Oil - Paraguay

Patchauli - Indonesia

Indigenus Essential Oils

Herbs/Wood Oils

Vetiver Oil nat.

Resinoids / Bases

Treemoss 50 % BB - Nepal


274




Sovimpex - France

Produits

Les Huiles Essentielles

CITRONELLE / CHINE

HUILE DE M ANDARINE / ITALIE

HUILE DE NEROLI / M AROCHUILE DE P ACHOULI / INDE

MENTHE PIPERITA / INDE

ORANGE / BRESIL

ORIGAN / EUROPE DE L EST

SPEARMINT N ATIVE - USA

T EA

T REE

/ AUSTRALIE

Y LANGS / M ADAGASCAR

Amyris

Bois De Cedre Texas LightBois De Cedre Texas Regular Bois De Cedre VirginieBois De Roses BresilBois De Santal - Australie

Bois De Santal - IndeBois De Santal - Indonesie

PatchouliPatchouli D.M.Patchouli LightPin Siberie

Methyl Cedryl KetoneMCK - Coeur

Pin Sylvestre

Vetyver HaitiVetyver Java

Derives Natureles

Acetate Vetyveryle

CedreneCedrol

Terpenes

Vetyver

Absolutes / Concretes

Mousse D’ArbreMousse De Chene

Baumes, Feves Gommes,

Resinoides

Baume CopahuBaume Gurjum

Baume PerouBaume Tolu

Aromatics De Synthese

Acetate Iso Bornyle


275




Spectrum Chemicals - USA

Fine Chemicals

Birch Sweet Southern Oil

Cedarwood OilCypress Oil

Fir Needle Oil Canadian FCC

Guaiacwood Oil

Patchouli OilPine Oil White Low AlcoholPine Sylvestris Oil natural

Sandalwood Oil

Vetivert Oil Haitian natural

Glen O. Brechbill

276




Sundial Fragrances & Flavors - USA

Aromatic Chemicals

Ionone AB 80 % Total IononesIonone BetaIso Bornyl Acetate 88 %

Pine Oils Natural 60 %

Pine Oils Natural 70 %Pine Oils Natural 80 %Pine Oils Natural 90 %Pine Oils Synthetic 60 %Pine Oils Synthetic 70 %Pine Oils Synthetic 80 %Pine Oils Synthetic 90 %Pinene Alpha SDW 90 % naturalPinene Alpha RS 92 %Pinene Alpha P & F 97 % FCCPinene Beta P & F 97 % FCCPinene Beta R & S 83 %

Steam Distilled Wood ( SDW )

TurpentineTurpentine Gum SpiritsTurpentine Gum Spirts Domestic


277




Sunrose Aromatics - USA

Fine Essential Oils

Key:

O - Organic

ONC - Organic, not certified

WC - Wild crafted

Cedarwod Himalayan (WC)Cedarwood Atlas MoroccoCypressCypress (O)

Douglas Fir Needle (O)

Fir Balsam (WC)Fir Needle (WC)

Guaiacwood

PatchouliPatchouli, Iron FreePine Needle

Sandalwood, AustraliaSpruce (WC)

Vetivert, Haiti (WC)Vetivert, India (WC)

Absolutes

Oak Moss Abs. Extra

Organic Essential Oils

Black Spruce - (O) NOP

Douglas Fir Needle (O)

Wild Crafted Essential Oils

Spruce (WC)


Rare & Exotic

Oak Moss Absolute Extra

Sandalwood, Australia


Glen O. Brechbill

278



Symrise GmbH & Co. KG - Germany

Fragrance Ingredients

Argumex HCAmberwood FAmbrinol S

Brahmanol

Brahmanol F

MahagonatMajantolMysore Acetate

PalisandalPalisandin

Sandel 80Sandel ExtraSandel H & R ECOSandel SPSandel SR Sandranol

TabanonTimberol

Vetikon

Y samber K


279



Synaco Group - Belgium

Essential Oils

Amyris Oil

Cade Oil rectifiedCedar Leaf OilCedarwood Oil - China, Virginia


Patchouli Oil IndonesianPine Needle Oil

Sandalwood Oil - Indian, Australia

Turpentine Oil

Vetivert Oil

Glen O. Brechbill

280



Acetal Bois 12

Cederone

Lycopene

Mousse SXJMysoral

Aromatic Chemicals Natural

Acetate De Cedryle CristalliseAcetate De SantalyleAcetate De Vetiver Coeur Acetate De Vetiveryle SupraAcetate Sylvestre

Cyprenate

Mossarome

Synarome - France

Specialty Products


281



Taytonn Ptd Ltd. - Singapore

Fine Aromas

Companies Represented

Aroma & Fine Chemicals

CV Aroma

Capua

Citrovita

EOAS International

IFF

Miltitz Aromatics

Silvestris & Szilas

Taiwan Fine Chemicals

Toyotama

Essential Oils

I NDONESIAN

Patchouli

Vetivert

EUROPEAN

Pinus Sylvestris

International Flavors & Fragrances

Bacdanol

Cedramber

Cedrenyl Acetate

Guaiyl Acetate

Ionone BetaIso E Super

Methyl Ionone Gamma AMethyl Ionone Gamma Supreme

Orivone

Patchone

VertenexVertofix Coeur

Toyotama

Nopyl Acetate


283



Texarome - USA

Product List

Glen O. Brechbill

Alpha CedreneAmyris OilAmyris AlcoholAmyris Terpenes

Cedar Wood Oil Perfumer GradeCedar Wood Oil TexasCedar Wood Oil VirginiaCedar Wood Oil Texas CrudeCedar Wood Oil Texas HydrosolCedar Wood Oil Texas RedistilledCedar Wood Oil Texas ResinCedar Wood Oil Texas

Water SoluableCedreneCedrenol TexasCedrol Crystal Texas

Thujopsene

Vetiver Oil HaitiVetiver Oil Haiti redistilled

284



Thailand Institute of Science & Technology - Thailand

Essential Oils by Country

Albania

Abies Alba Oil

Austria

Birch Tar Oil

Brazil

Vetiver Oil

Bulgaria

Albies Alba Oil

Canada

Cedarleaf OilFir Balsam OilFir Needle Oil

China

Cedarwood Oil

Patchouli OilSiberian Pine Needle OilVetiver Oil

El Salvador

Peru Balsam Oil

Spain

Cade Oil

Thailand

Gurjan Balsam

United States

Cedarwood OilFir Balsam OilPine Oil

USSR

Birch Tar OilSiberian Pine Needle Oil

Yugoslavia

Abies Alba

Germany

Birch Tar Oil

Guatemala

Vetiver Oil

Haiti

Amyris OilVetiver Oil

India

Cedarwood OilSandalwood OilVetiver Oil

Indonesia

Patchouli OilSandalwood OilVetiver Oil

Morocco

Cedarwood Oil

Poland

Abies Alba Oil


285



Agarwood - SymriseAmyris Oil Extra - Payan Bertrand

Balsam Copaiba - Payan BertrandBalsam Peru - Payan Bertrand

Cedarwood Oil - Virginia

Oakmoss Absolute - Payan &Bertrand

Oakmoss Thick Resinoid -Payan Bertrand

Sandal Forte - Forte

Treemoss Absolute - PayanBertrand

Aromatic Chemicals

Bacdanol ( Anandol / Sandolene )IFF, Symrise

Boisanol - Symrise

Majantol - SymriseMethyl Cedryl Ketone ( MCK ) -

China

Thakker Group - India

Essential Oils & Fragrances

Glen O. Brechbill

286



Th. Gyer Gmbh & Co. KG - Germany

Products

Base Timbrox 10BrahmanolBrahmanol F

Sandolen

Timberol

Ysamber - K

Aroma Chemicals

Ambrinol S

Isobornylacetate

Majantol

PalisandalPalisandin

SandelSandolen


287



Treatt USA Inc. - USA

Essential Oil Map of the World by Treatt USA Inc.

Europe

Austria

Fir

Finland

Fir

France

Cypress

Georgia

Pine

Greece

Pine

Portugal

Turpentine

Russian Federation

Birch Tar Pine Needle

Caribbean

Haiti

Amyris

Vetivert

South America

Brazil

GuaiacwoodVetivert

Chili

Turpentine

Paraguay

Guaiacwood

Asia

Democratic Republic of Kore

Pine

East Teamor

Sandalwood

Middle East

Turkey

Cypress

Africa

Angola

Vetivert

Reunion

Vetivert

Tanzania

Sandalwood

North America

Canada

Cedarleaf

United States

Turpentine


289



India

AgarwoodSandalwood

Indonesia

PatchouliSandalwoodTurpentineVetivert

Malaysia

Patchouli

Mayanmar - Burma

Turpentine

Napal

Turpentine

Sir Lanka

Vetivert

Pacific Ocean

Australia

Sandalwood

New Caladonia

Sandalwood

Glen O. Brechbill

290




Trisenx, Inc. - USA

Fine Aromatic Chemicals

Cedar Wood Oil ( Light Texas )

Patchouly Oil ( Light Bleached )

Sandalwood Oil ( EL )

Library of Fine Chemicals

Bacdanol

Cedar - wood Oil ( Light Texas )

Patchouly Oil - ( Light Bleached )Polysantol

Sandalwood Oil ( EL )Sandela

Alcohols

Bacdanol

Polysantol

291



Uhe Company, Inc. - USA

Essential Oils & Aroma Chemicals

Amyris

Cedarleaf Cedarwood

Fir Needle

PatchouliPinus Pumilionis

Sandalwood

Vetivert

Glen O. Brechbill

292



Ultra International Limited - India


Amyris

Cedarwood

Fir Needle

Patchouli

Sandalwood

Vetiver

Natural Reconstruction Oils

Patchouli

Sandal Indian

Vetivert


293



Ungerer & Company - USA

Essential Oils Compendium

Amyris FCC

Birch Sweet Southern FCC

Cedarleaf, Thuja Occidentals FCC


Fir Canadian FCCFir Siberian FCC

Guaicwood Concentrate

Patchouli Amber Patchouli Dark Patchouli LightPatchouli MDPine Needles Siberian FCC

Sandalwood East IndianSpruce

Vetivert Java

Glen O. Brechbill

294



Ventos, Ernesto S.A. - Spain

Products

Amyris Oil

Cade Oil, RectifiedCedarleaf OilCedarwood Oil, Atlas

Cedarwood Oil, ChineseCedarwood Oil, TexasCedarwood Oil, VirginiaCypress Coeur Cypress Coeur Super LightCypress OilCypress Oil, rectified

Guaiac Wood OilGurjum Balsam Oil

Patchouli Coeur Super LightPatchouli Oil MD IndessoPatchouli Oil MD VentosPatchouli Oil, 70 %Patchouli OilPatchouli Oil, IndonesiaPatchouli Oil, Iron FreePatchouli Oil, LightPine Oil 65 - IFFPine Oil 85 - IFF

Pine Oil 900 - IFFPine Oil, AustrianPine Oil, SiberianPine Oil, Sylvestris

Sandalwood Oil, AustralianSandalwood Oil, Indian

Amber Core - KAOAmboryl AcetateAmbarome Abs. - SynaromeAmbrox DL - Firmenich

Cedramber - IFFCedrenyl Acetate EOA - IFFCedrenyl Acetate - IFFCedrone S - IFFCedroxyde - FirmenichCedryl Acetate, LiquidCedryl Methyl Ether Coniferan - IFF

Ebanol - Givaudan

Iso Bornyl Acetate

Koavone - IFFKohinool - IFF

Majantol - SymriseMethyl Cedryl Ketone, Chine

Nopyl Acetate

Orivone - IFF

Piconia - IFFPino Acetaldehyde - IFFPolysantol - Firmenich

Sandalore

Vetiver Extract CO2Vetiver Oil Brazil Super LightVetiver Oil, BrazilVetiver Oil, HaitiVetiver Oil, Indonesian

Natural Aromatics

Beta-Pinene

Cedrol 35 %Cedrol 60 %Cedrol CrystalsCedrol Crystals 1X - IFF

Santalol

Vetiverol - Synarome

Resinoids

Oakmoss Resinoid

Absolutes

Fir Balsam Abs. - IFF

Oakmoss Abs.Oakmoss Abs. Yugoslavia

Aromatic Chemicals

Alpha Irone - Givaudan


295



Sandela - GivaudanSandenolSandenol ExtraSandol, AsiaSanjinol - IFF

Santaliff - IFF

Tobacarol - IFFTrimofix O - IFF

Veramoss - IFFVertenex HC - IFFVertofix Coeur - IFF

Woodamber / Timberol

Glen O. Brechbill

296



Venus Enterprises Ltd. - U.K.

Products

Amyris Oil

Cedarwood Oil

Fir Needle Oil

Guaiacwood Oil

Patchouli OilPine Needle OilPine Oil

Sandalwood Oil

Vetivert Oil

Aromatic Chemicals

Alpha IononeAlpha Pinene Dextro Natural

Beta Ionone

Iso Bornyl Acetate


Sandasweet


297



Vigon International, Inc. - USA

Essential Oils

Balsam Oil Peru Extra

Cedarwood Oil ChineseCedarwood Oil Texas

Patchouli Oil( 30 % Patchouli Alcohol )

Glen O. Brechbill

298



Walsh, John D., Company Inc. - USA

Products

Alpha Pinene 99% Natural

Beta Pinene 98% Natural

Cade Oil

Cedarleaf OilCedarwood Oil, TexasCedarwood Oil, VirginianaCedarwood Oil, WhiteCypress Oil

Fir Needle Oil, CanadianFir Needle Oil, Siberian

Patchouli Oil, E.I.Pine Oil

Absolutes

Fir Balsam Abs.

Oakmoss Abs.

Treemoss Abs.

Aromatic Chemicals & Naturals

Bacdanol

CedraclaireCedramberCedrenyl Acetate

( Cedryl Acetate )

Cedrenyl Acetate CrystalsCedrol CrystalsCedrone SConiferan

Fir Balsam Oliffac

Guaiacwood AcetateGuaiyl Acetate

Iso E Super

KoavoneKohinool


Osyrol

Nopyl Acetate

Patchone

Piconia

Sandalwood Oliffac

Sandela

Trimofix OTurpentine

Veramoss

Glen O. Brechbill

300



Wambesco Gmbh - Denmark

Essential Oils & Essences

Cedarleaf OilCedarwood Burnt OilCedarwood Terpenes OilCedarwood Unburnt Oil

Fir Needle Oil

Gurjun Balsam Oil

Patchouly OilPine OilPine Aleppo Oil

Sandalwood OilSibirian Pine Oil

Vetiver Oil

Aromatic Chemicals

Beta Ionone

Cedrene Epoxide AlphaCedrenyl AcetateCedrol Liquid ex Cedarwood OilCedrol Crystal

Cedryl Acetate Crystal exCedarwood Oil

Cedryl Acetate Liquid exCedarwood Oil

Cedryl Methyl Ether M.C.E.


Methyl Cedryl Ketone exCedarwood Oil

Vertilione ex Cedarwood OilVetiveryl Acetate Select - Haiti


301




Woody Fragrance Chemicals

Abalyn A weak piney woody odor.

Allyl Ionone Oily sweet slight flowery, but also fruity woody bark like green.

Aloe Vera Lupo Quinon Extract An extremely fine delicate ambergris sandalwood odor.

Alpha Pinene Warm resinous, refreshing coniferious like.

Ambergris T Oliffac Amber

Amphermate Woody.

Amyris Acetate Woody slightly sweet dry, fresh.

Amyris Oil W.I. Faintly woody not dry.

Bacdanol Powerful sandalwood note.

Beachwood Cresote Powerful and penetrating resembling that of smoked wood.

Benteine A woody odor.

Beta Pinene Dry, woody resinous piney.

Birch Leaf Oil Pleasant woody green balsamic odor.

Birch Tar Oil A phenolic tarry woody smoky leathery, diffusive material.

Brahmanol A light sweet odor of sandalwood.

Cabreuva Oil Sweet woody very delicate slightly floral.

Cade Oil Intense tar like smoky phenolic odor.

Glen O. Brechbill

302




Cadinene Mild, dry woody slightly medicinal tarry odor.

Calamus Warm, woody spicy and pleasant odor.

Cedarwood Alcohol A woody cedar type odor, a bit harsh.

Cedarwood Oil Terpeneless Stronger woody cedar odor free from terpenes.

Cedarwood Oil Texas Crude Pleasant sweet woody somewhat tar like odor.

Cedarwood Oil Virginia Oily woody almost sweet mild pleasant, cedar chest like odor.

Cedramber Refined woody, pleasantly green odor.

Cedrene Woody, camphoraceous, somewhat dry green odor.

Cedrenol Mild woody odor less dry more balsamic than cedrene.

Cedrol Crystals Very faint odor of cedarwood type.

Cedrenyl Acetate Faint fresh woody odor.

Cedryl Acetate Woody slight leathery.

Citronella Oil Ceylon Peculiar warm woody yet fresh grassy odor of wet leaves.

Cortex Aldehyde Powerful green woody sap like, but fresh aldehydic sweet.

Costus Oil Peculiar soft tenacious, reminiscent of old precious wood.

Cubeb Oil Dry woody, but simultaneously warm camphoraceous spicy.

Cypress Oil Pleasing smoky woody similar to amber.

Di Hydro Cuminyl Alcohol Warm, herbaceous slightly woody oily odor.

Fir Needle Balsam Resin A powerful diffusive pine forest type odor.

Fir Needle Canadian Rich balsamic sweet, and pleasant oily pinaceous fragrance.

Fir Needle Siberian Refreshing balsamic, slight fatty oily with Pw pine forest odor.

Fixolide Sweet woody musky.


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Fleuroxene A strong green floral woody non descript odor.

Ginger Oil Sweet fresh woody spicy.

Guaicol Powerful smoke like medicinal odor.

Guaicwood Acetate Soft warm delicately sweet rosy woody odor.

Gurjan Balsam Oil Mildly woody balsamic sweet odor.

Heptavert A green woody odor.

Ionone Beta More fruity, and woody like than alpha.

Iraldeine Beta Woody warm odor.

Iris Resin Deep sweet slightly woody tobacco like.

Iso Cyclomene E Woody amber.

Iso E Super Woody amber.

Iso Longifolanone Fresh woody raw amber.

Iso Methyl Cedryl Ketone A A fine sandalwood cedar complex quite natural.

Kephalis LRG - 1182 Woody amber complex.

Koavone Woody floral complex with amber violet note.

Kohinool A fine woody amber dry out.

Linalool Oxide Powerful sweet woody floral.

Menthanyl Acetate Fresh piney citrusy somewhat herbaceous.

Menthol Racemic Similar to above more woody less sweet.

Merion A diffusive oriental woody complex.

Methyl Ionone Beta Woody warm odor.

Methyl Ionone Beta Coeur Purer grade more woody, and warm.

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Methyl Ionone Gamma A A floral violet woody isomeric mixture.

Methyl I G Supreme Floral woody fruity complex.

Methyl Ionone Tails A harsh woody solvent masking odor.

Methyl Ionone Terpenes Harsh woody solvent masking fragrance.

Mousse De Chenne Abs. Powerful clean oakmoss odor.

Mousse De Metra Powder form of oakmoss.

Moussyl 1055 A mossy balsamic type odor almost woody like very dry.

Nerolidyl Acetate Sweet woody and mildly refreshing green.

Nopol Mild woody camphoraceous odor.

Nopyl Acetate Sweet woody fruity odor.

Norsdandyl 81157 A fine woody complex.

Orivone Very diffusive woody camphoraceous odor.

Ortho Methyl Cinnamic Ald. Powerful sweet herbaceous woody camphoraceous.

Osyrol Sandalwoody flowery woody note.

Parsley Seed Oil Warm woody sweet spicy.

Patchone Extremely dry woody camphoraceous.

Patchouli Dark Extremely rich sweet herbaceous aromatic spicy woody.

Petitgrainol Intensely woody neroli note.

Phenyl Acetaldehyde Powerful green wood sap like.

Pine Oil Yarmor # 302 Fresh, harsh pine type.

Polarsan Sandalwood.

Rosemary Oil Woody herbaceous, reiminiscent of spike lavender oil.


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Rose Nitrile Rich rose geranium woody iris.

Sandalore Sandalwood amyris woody type odor.

Sandela Sandalwood.

Sandalwood Essence Captures the sweetness and heart of sandalwood very nice.

Sandalwood 77.125B Has the dry slightly sweet balsamic odor of amyris oil W.I.

Sandalwood Oil East Indies Extremely soft sweet woody almost animal balsamic.

Sandalwood Oil Australian Soft woody extremely tenacious and somewhat balsamic.

Sandranol Woody, and extremely fine sandalwood compound last days.

Santalum Citrinum Very pleasant sweet woody odor reminiscent of sandalwood.

Thiazyl Dry woody and Eau De Grouts character.

Tree Moss Abs. A strong at the same time persistent moss odor.

Trimofix Amber woody note with vetivert and smoky tobacco nuances.

Turpentine SDW A woody solvent which is steam distilled.

Unipine 85 Fresh pine.

Unipine 90 Fresh pine.

Unitene D Piney lemony type odor.

Valanone B Warm woody odor.

Vanoris Woody fruity, soft refreshing odor of mild orris type.

Vertenex Sweet, animal creamy woody odor with a soft floral undertone.

Vertofix Woody.

Vetivert Oil Bourbon Woody, finest grade of vetivert oil.

Woodine Woody.

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the woody notes of fragrance

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