the vitality of ism and other essays - adam, james, 1860-1907

8/2/2019 The Vitality of ism And Other Essays - Adam, James, 1860-1907

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THE VITALITY OFPLATONISMAND OTHER ESSAYS


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CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESSILontron: FETTER LANE, E.G.

C. F. CLAY, Manager

(StsinhutQl) : loo, PRINXES STREETBerlin: A. ASHER AND CO.ILeipjig: F. A. BROCKHAUS

i^jto gorfe: G. P. PUTNAM'S SONSBombag anU (JTalrutta: MACMILLAN AND CO., Ltd.

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THE VITALITY OFPLATONISMAND OTHER ESSAYS

BYJAMES ADAM

LATE FELLOW AND SENIOR TUTOR OF EMMANUEL COLLEGE,CAMBRIDGE

EDITED BY HIS WIFEADELA MARION ADAM

Cambridgeat the University Press

191 1


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A3

CambrilrgePRINTED BY JOHN CLAY, M.A.AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS


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TOIC(J)|ATAT0IC cmoi

CYNecTi'oic re kai cyNTpAnezoic,OYK ACHMOY noAeooc noAiTAic

'EMMANOYHA,ToAe TO BiBAiAApiON

eyMeNec n^pA eYMeNoycKexApicGoa.

ei MEN 0lAOCO(|)HTeON, (|)lAOC04)HTeON, KAI 1 MH (|)lAOCO(J)H-TeON,


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CONTENTS

I. The Vitality of Platonism ....II. The Divine Origin of the Soul .III. The Doctrine of the Logos in Heraclitus .IV. The Hymn of Cleanthes ....V. Ancient Greek Views of Suffering and EvilVI. The Moral and Intellectual Value of Classical

Education

PAGEI

3577

104190

213


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PREFACETHESE essays were read by my husband as

papers or lectures on various occasions. TheDivine Origin of the Soul was published in Cam-bridge Praelectiofis, 1906, and The Moral andIntellectual Value of Classical Education in theEmmanuel College Magazine, Vol. vil. I have tothank the Syndics of the Cambridge UniversityPress and the editor of the magazine respectivelyfor their kind permission to reprint them. TheVitality of Platonism was read to the ClassicalSociety at Aberdeen University in 1902, and to asimilar society In Edinburgh in the following year.The Doctrine of the Logos in Heraclitus is a paperread before the Oxford University PhilologicalSociety in 1906. The essay entitled The Hymn ofCleanthes contains the substance of three lecturesdelivered in 1906 at Westminster College, Cam-bridge, before a Summer School of Theology. Theremaining essay on Ancient Greek Views of Sufferingand Evil was the author's last public lecture, which


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viii Prefacewas given to the Vacation Biblical Students atNewnham College, Cambridge, in 1907, one monthbefore his death.

In preparing this volume for the press it has notseemed possible altogether to eliminate overlappingbetween the essays among themselves or withJames Adam's book on The Religious Teachers ofGreece. When ideas and illustrations recur, it isusually in a different setting, and they fulfil a specialpurpose in the separate essays.

Dr Giles has been kind enough to read theproofs, and Mr Leonard Whibley to give adviceconcerning the MS and its arrangement.

I have prefixed to the book the dedication andmotto originally set before the last essay. It isfitting that the expression of my husband's love forthe college where he worked should introduce theseechoes of his teaching.

A. M. A.May^ 191 1.


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>

THE VITALITY OF PLATONISMA distinguished philosopher, speaking of the

educational value of Plato and Aristotle, remarkedon one occasion that he had grave doubts whetherit was expedient to make men study "dead philo-sophies, imperfectly understood." It might fairlybe said in reply that no philosophic system whichis worth studying at all has ever been perfectlyunderstood, except, perhaps, by its inventor ; andsome have actually doubted whether Hegel wasalways intelligible even to himself. But it is amuch more disputable assertion to say that Platonismis dead, and if one were to join issue with so boldan antagonist on his own ground and fight him withhis own weapons, we should be tempted to maintainon the other hand that Platonism, so far from havingjoined the majority, is not even sickly or moribund,but rather the only philosophy which is really alive.Like Teiresias in the realm of shades, Plato, wemight say, oTo^ TriirvvraL, to\ 8e (tkloI dicrcrovcri.But I am far from making any such reflection uponother philosophic systems, and will content myself

^, with trying to show that the announcement of thedeath of Platonism is a little premature.

A. E. I


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2 The Vitality of PlatonismIt is at all events a curious and significant sign

of Plato's continued vitality that we often findmodern philosophers displaying an almost patheticanxiety to father their doctrines upon him. Takefor example Lotze, who after explaining hisown metaphysical principles, proceeds to identifythem with the Platonic Ideas, which he interprets,as philosophers are apt to do, in the light of hisown theory. The truth which Plato intended toteach, says Lotze, is no other than that which wehave just been expounding, that is to say, thevalidity of truths as such, apart from the questionwhether they can be established in relation to anyobject in the external world, as its mode of being ornot\ I have elsewhere^ tried to show that Lotze'sapplication of his own metaphysical doctrines tothose of Plato involves an entirely erroneous viewof Plato's theory of Ideas : but it is a striking proofof the vitality of Plato's authority and name thatsuccessive generations of idealists are so apt toshelter themselves beneath his wing. And if theinfluence of Plato's teaching is still alive in modernphilosophy, and affects, as in point of fact it doesaffect, nearly every revival of idealism, it is hardlyless dominant in theology and religion. Some ofthe early apologists for Christianity, such as JustinMartyr, Clement of Alexandria, and Origen, showthat they recognised and acknowledged the connec-tion between Platonism and the Christian faith when

* Logic, E. T.= p. 2 10.' Adam, Republic of Plato, vol. ii. 169 f.


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Influence of Plato 3they speak of Greek philosophy as a preparation forChristianity, and assert, as Clement does, that Platowrote by the inspiration of God iirnrvoia eou^Few writers have had more influence in shaping thecourse of theological thought in England than theCambridge Platonists of the 1 7th century, Cudworth,John Smith, Nathanael Culverwel, and others ; andthe fundamental principles of this school or band ofthinkers were derived from a study of Platonism,which was uncritical indeed, and often mistaken,but always apprehended with the firmest grasp thecentral doctrine of Plato's religious teaching, theessential divinity of the human soul. In a latergeneration Ackerman and Baur, in their treatises onthe Christian elements in Plato, and on Socratesand Christianity, discussed the relationship betweenPlatonism and Christianity with a keener insightand a surer criticism, and pointed out many strikingcoincidences between the two systems. And to takea still more recent example, Bishop Westcott, nearlyall of whose theological writings are coloured byPlatonism, has declared that the myths of Platoanswered in the first place to Revelation, as anendeavour to enrich the store of human knowledge,and in the second place '*to the Gospel, as anendeavour to present, under the form of facts, themanifestation of Divine Wisdom.". . ." Plato," he says,"points us to St John'."

The stimulus exerted by Platonism on poets and1 Coh. ad Gent. 180 a, Migne.- Contetnporary Review^ 11. p. 480 f.

I


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4 The Vitality of Platonism- artists has been hardly less remarkable. In spite

of the severe and almost puritanical regulations bywhich Plato in the Republic tries to clip the wingsof Poetry and Art, the artistic temperament has inall ages been powerfully attracted by his writings,and it is highly significant of the intellectual affinitybetween Plato and Ruskin that in drawing up a listof books worth reading Ruskin took his pen andwrote ''Plato, every word^ The Platonic conceptionof an eternal self-existent principle of Beauty, stand-ing serene and changeless above all the fluctuationsof fashion and taste, has proved an inexhaustiblefountain of inspiration to some of the greatestpainters and sculptors in the most flourishing andcreative period of Italian art. Perhaps the mostnoteworthy example of the influence of Plato's ideal-ism on the artistic imagination is that of MichaelAngelo, who was a member of the Platonic Academyat Florence, and gives expression to the idea whichvitalises all his greatest work in language whichmight have come from Plato himself. One of hissonnets, translated by Wordsworth, contains thesetruly Platonic lines :

Heaven-born, the Soul a heaven-ward course must hold';Beyond the visible world she soars to seek(For what delights the sense is false and weak)Ideal Form^, the universal mould.The wise m.an, I affirm, can find no restCf. Man is a (^uto' qvk ^yyaov, dWa ovpdviov. Plato, Twi.

90 A.^ Cf. Platonic Ideas.


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Hostility to Greek ideas 5In that which perishes : nor will he lendHis heart to aught which doth on time depend ^The fact is that Platonism, if we understand the

word in a broad and Hteral, and not in a narrow orpedantic sense, is not yet dead, and cannot die,because its roots are struck deep in universal humannature. / It is true that in the popular language ofhis time Plato speaks of the barbarian as the naturalenemy of Greece ; it is true that he calls his ownideal republic emphatically a Greek city ; but theanimating spirit of his teaching, as we shall see, isthe enthusiasm of humanity, and leaves no roomfor the artificial distinctions of barbarian and Greek,bond and free. To the most characteristic principlesof Greek life and thought he is constantly opposed.The old and all but universal rule of pagan morality,'Mo good to your friends, and evil to your foes" isattacked by him in the Republic and elsewhere^ witharguments based on a loftier view of man's natureand work than anything which we meet with inGreek literature before his time, and the practicalconclusions which he draws '* that the good mannever does evil to any," *' that it is better to sufferthan to do wrong," have justly been held to fore-shadow the Sermon on the Mount. " Ye have heardthat it hath been said, Thou shalt love thy neighbour,and hate thine enemy. But I say unto you. Loveyour enemies, bless them that curse you, do good

^ Cf. ycVccri? as opposed to ovo-ta, and time as opposed toeternity. See Plato, Rep. 509 b et passim.

"^ Rep. 335 A ff., Crito 49 c, Gorg. 472 d ff.


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6 The Vitality of Platonismto them that hate you, and pray for them whichdespitefully use you and persecute you." Plato doesnot go , so far as this, but he is following the sameroad. /On questions like the training and work ofwomen, the true functions of statesmanship, thetheory and practice of education, and many otherswhich might be named, Plato is equally hostile toprevalent Greek ideas. But in nothing does hedisplay so marked an antagonism to contemporarythought and feeling as in his attitude to Greektheology and religion. Starting from the funda-mental principles that the divine nature is good,immutable, and cannot lie, he attempts to show,with more refinement perhaps, but hardly lessvigour, than Tertullian, that the Olympian theologyviolates these canons at every point. His diatribesagainst the religion and theology of Homer andHesiod, who were regarded by the Greeks as thefounders of their theogony, were perhaps the severestblow which paganism suffered before the Christianera, and may fairly be considered as preparing andpaving the way {irpoo^oTToieiv) for a higher form ofreligious belief. In the words of Clement of Alexan- )dria, TrpoTrapacrKevd^eLt) (f)L\o(TO(f)La, TTpoohorroiovcraTov 19 y^picTTov TeXeLovixevov^.

These considerations make it clear that thegenius of Plato is by no means exclusively Greek,and that in many points his teaching is directlyopposed to some of the most cherished beliefs ofhis own age. Even his political sympathies are

^ Sir. I. 717 D, Migne.


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Appeal to universal aspirations *jPanhellenic rather than Athenian, and his philo-sophy, though reared on the soil of Attica, appeals,as I have already hinted, to certain universal ele-ments in human nature, and not to Hellenic humannature only. For this reason he is careful to placehis ideal city under the protection, not of Athena,the patron goddess of Athens, or any other divinitypeculiarly associated with one particular branch ofthe Hellenic race : he commits it to Apollo, thegod of Delphi, the symbol of Greek unity, aye, andsomething more, the God of the whole human race,so far as antiquity recognised such a God of all, theco7nmune humani generis oraculmUy the ancestral in-terpreter, who seated on the holy stone in the centreof the earth expounds the Father's will to all man-kind {Traa-iv dvOpcoTTOLs, Rep. 427 c). And what arethese universal human instinct^ and aspirations towhich Platonism makes appeal ? It is said thatwhen Anaxagoras was asked for what purpose hewas born, he replied *' In order that I may lookupon the heavens and the sun," and some of Plato'scontemporaries were fond of deriving the worddvOp(DTTo^ from 6 ra dvo) dOpoiv, the creature whoseeyes are directed on the heavenly places, in distinc-tion from the lower animals, whose eyes are bentdownwards on the earth \ In a deeper sense it isperhaps true that Nature has implanted in all man-kind an unquenchable longing for the things that areabove : ra dvta (f)poveLT, /xt) tol iirl yrj


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8 The Vitality of Platonismcompany of the greatest and noblest in every age,and it is to this inborn passion for perfection that heappealsthis innate though often unconscious yearn-ing after the ideally true and beautiful and good,which finds its highest embodiment in lives devotedto the service of Knowledge, Art, Humanity, andGod. The philosophy of Plato furnishes the mostpoetical and perhaps the truest answer to

"those obstinate questioningsOf sense and outward things"

which are the heritage of human nature : it is themost inspiring philosophical expression of

"those first affections,Those shado\^7 recollections,

Which, be they what they may,Are yet the fountain light of all our day,Are yet a master light of all our seeing;

Uphold us, cherish, and have power to makeOur noisy years seem moments in the beingOf the eternal Silence : truths that ffltake.

To perish never;Which neither listlessness, nor mad endeavour,

Nor Man nor Boy,Nor all that is at enmity with joy.Can utterly abolish or destroy !

It is because Plato has attempted, and attemptedwith more success than others, to satisfy these per-manent aspirations of humanity that his philosophystill lives, and is likely to live

"While water flows and tall trees bloom in spring"tor av vS(o/3 re pcT^ koX 8cV8pa fxaKpa TeOrjXr].


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Plato s view of Nature 9The ancients were in the habit of saying that if

the Muses spoke in Greek, they must have spokenwith the tongue of Plato. But it is not only in his "style and language that Plato is poetical : his philo-sophy itself is steeped in poetry, and we shallaltogether fail to understand his significance in thehistory of human thought unless we realise this in-disputable fact. On this account I shall havefrequent recourse to modern poetry in seeking toexplain and illustrate the vitality of Platonism, andin particular to the poetry of Wordsworth andTennyson, whose writings are often tinged by philo-sophic thought. The method which I propose tofollow is to give an outline of Plato's teaching, firston Nature and secondly on human nature, addingparallels and illustrations, chiefly from Tennyson andWordsworth, as opportunity occurs. It is impossiblewithin the time at my disposal to touch on all theleading doctrines of a writer who ranges with almostequal authority over the entire domain of humanlife and thought, but if I succeed in showing youthat Plato's philosophy of Nature and especially ofhuman nature is not yet dead, my discourse mayprove at least a finger post to point the wayanlyvQ% Tco ravTov /xerioj^rt, which is Plato's ideal ofwhat a lecture ought to be.

Perhaps the best way to approach the subject ofPlato's conception of Nature will be to start fromthe Timaeus. The central idea of that great dia-logue Is the analogy between the Macrocosm andthe microcosm, the Universe and man. Let us J^


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lo The Vitality of Platonis7nconsider the Universe first. The world in whichwe live, says Plato \ is the product of two causes,Necessity and Perfect Reason>^ Necessity performsthe function of the passive or material cause, and isin fact nothing but the personification of the original,inchoate, indeterminate material substratum, like theTTpoiTq vXrj of Aristotle. Ideal Reason, in the personof the Sr)fjiLovpy6


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The So2cl of the World 1according to Plato is as it were the incarnation of theDivine Reason, less perfect indeed than God himselfbut still wholly rational and far from anger or desire I will ask you to believe that this World-Soul orWorld-Reason is in reality Plato's conception ofNature. I think a careful study of the Timaeiiswill convince you that the identification is sound.And if the Soul of the World which God creates inthe Tiviaeus is in reality Nature, see what follows.It follows that Nature, as Dante somewhere says, isthe child of God. that she is a spiritual and not amaterial creature, good and not evil ; for God, ac-cording to Plato, is the author only of good, andevil Cometh not from him. In Plato's way ofthinking God and Nature are not two mutuallyopposing forces, but an omnipotent Father and aloyal son, working harmoniously together toward

"that far-off divine eventTo which the whole Creation moves,"

when Necessity shall bow the knee, and Goodprevail. The fact is that it is Plato, and notAristode, who founded the theological view of theUniverse, and Aristotle is only Platonising when hesays that God and Nature do nothing in vain. Wemay add that from another point of view Nature isin Plato at once the revelation of God to man andGod's vice-gerent, ever indwelling in the world ofspace and time.

So much at present for Plato's idea of Nature.Other important points will come to light of them-


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12 The Vitality of Platonzsntselves, when I describe his view of human nature,which I now proceed to do.

Plato was profoundly attracted by Nature, buthe felt an even deeper interest in man. In thisrespect he is the true successor of his master Socrates.The essential nature and history of humanity, withall its hopes and enthusiasms, with all its infinitepossibilities for good and evil, is the dominant themeof nearly all his greatest dialogues. It would seemthat his conception of the Universe itself is in realitysuggested and conditioned by his view of man.The Universe is a ''magnus homo," and has a Soul,purer indeed and grander than the soul of man, butessentially the same in kind ; and just as the truestnature of man is to be sought in his soul and not inhis body, so also, as we have seen, it is the Soul,and not the Body of the Universe which constitutesthe Nature of the Whole.

What then, according to Plato, is the nature ofmian ? As he appears in this life, man "is a com-pound of the mortal and the immortal, standingmidway between corruptibility and incorruptibility :in the words of Philo, Bvqrrjf; koI aOavdrov (f)vo-eo)


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Plato's view of man 13described by Plato. After the Creator had com-pounded the Universal Soul "again into the samecup, in which he blended and mingled the Soul ofthe Universe, he poured that which was left of theformer elements, mingling them in somewhat thesame way, yet no longer so pure as before, but oneor two degrees less pure\" In other words therational or immortal part of soul, for it is that alonewhich comes immediately from God himself, is madeof the same elements as the Soul of the Universe.Now we have already seen that Plato thinks of theWorld-Soul as Nature, and I would have you ob-serve what follows as to the relationship existingbetween Nature and man. Every vestige of hos-tility and antagonism disappears ; and Nature,instead of being **red in tooth and claw with ravine,"is man s elder brother co-operating with him and theuniversal Father in one great Trinity of beneficenceand love against the stubborn and malignant forcesof Necessity and Chaos. It has been said that it isa good thing to have a devil in the world, so longas you keep your foot on his neck. War is thenever-ending lot of man7roXe/xos irdpTcov na-n/jpand in the struggle against evil we have the godsfor our allies. The general conception of a naturalaffinity or kinship between God and man, and manand Nature was not invented by Plato. It was afamiliar Greek idea that men are but " mortal gods,"and gods "immortal men^" and Pindar was only

^ Tim. 41 D.^ These words are put into Heraclitus' mouth by Lucian, Vif.

Auct. 14.


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14 The Vitality of Platonism

expressing a common belief when he sang *'one isthe race of men and gods : and from one mother weboth inherit the breath of Hfe\" There is alsoreason to believe that the same inspiring conceptionhad already even before the time of Plato assumeda deeper and more religious significance in Orphicand Pythagorean teaching. The unity betweenman and nature, again, was an underlying hypothesisof Greek life ; and the life in harmony with Nature,that is, with the Nature of the Whole, is an idealwhich expresses much of the best Greek thoughteven before the days of Stoicism. But Plato is thefirst of the Greeks to make the kinship of the divineand human natures the basis of a philosophy of man,and he expounds the doctrine with more emphasisthan any pre-Christian thinkers except the Stoics,and with a far greater wealth of philosophic meaningthan any other writer in any age.

At this stage I will invite you to pause for amoment and consider the affinity between this viewof Nature and that with which we meet in thepoems of Wordsworth. The subject of Words-worth's Platonism has already been briefly touchedupon by the author of John Inglesant, in a paperread to the Wordsworth society in 1881 : and Iobserve that a critic in the Ti?nes of to-day (March20, 1903) pronounces Wordsworth ''the profoundest,the most daring Platonist in English literature." MrShorthouse lays stress upon a remarkable passagefrom the Exctcrsion and finds in it ''the key not

^ Nem. 6. i.


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Plato and Wordsworth 15only to Wordsworth's Platonism, but to that peculiarconception of his that an entrance into the world ofabstract thought may be won by the help of materialobjects\" The lines of Wordsworth are :

" While yet a child and long before his timeHad he perceived the presence and the powerOf greatness : and deep feelings had impressedGreat objects on his mind, with portraitureAnd colour so distinct, that on his mindThey lay like substances, and almost seem'dTo haunt the bodily sense-."

''The presence and the power of greatness,'"says Shorthouse ''this is that 'principle of excel-lence' in which Plato believed." The poet seemsto affirm that by the help of the vast objects ofnature, perceived in silence and in solitude, we areenabled to understand and to conceive the greatrealities of abstract thought, and to

"breathe in worldsTo which the Heaven of Heavens is but a veil."

These remarks are suggestive and true ; but inwhat I have to say of Wordsworth's Platonism Iwill pursue a somewhat different, and for some ofyou perhaps an easier line of thought, confiningmyself to Wordsworth's view of Nature and herrelation to man. It seems to me that the philo-sophical idea which underlies nearly all the finestpoetry of Wordsworth is no other than that whichwe have already found in Plato, although theEnglish poet develops it in a somewhat different

' p. 12. ^ Book I.


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1 The Vitality of Platonismway from the Greek philosopher. To Wordsworthas to Plato, Nature is a Soul or Spirit, and divine

"O Soul of Nature! that by laws divineSustained and governed, still dost overflowWith an impassioned life^ ! "

And just as in Plato Nature imitates God, andis created by Perfect Wisdom, so in WordsworthNature is

"a PowerThat is the visible quality and shapeAnd image of Right Reason : that maturesHer processes by stedfast laws; gives birthTo no impatient or fallacious hopes,No vain conceits : provokes to no quick turnsOf self-applauding intellect ; but trainsTo meekness, and exalts by humble faith ^"

In more than one passage Wordsworth appearsto conceive of Nature as an indwelling soul, likePlato's Soul of the Universe :

"To every form of Being is assignedAn active Principle : ...

it subsistsIn all things, in all natures ; in the starsOf azure heaven, the unenduring clouds,In flower and tree, in every pebbly stoneThat paves the brooks, the stationary rocks,The moving waters, and the invisible air.Spirit that knows no insulated spot,No chasm, no solitude; from link to linkIt circulates, the Soul of all the Worlds I"

^ Prelude, Book xii. = y^^^^ ^qqY xiii.' Excursion^ Book ix. ad init.


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Plato and Wordsworth 1It is In this spirit that Wordsworth finds the true

and essential unity of Nature,"Even as one essence of pervading lightShines in the brightest of ten thousand starsAnd the mute moon that feeds the lonely lampCouched in the de\^7 grass \"

With this may be compared the passage from-the Lines coinposed a few miles above Tintem Abbeybeginning

"I have feltA presence that disturbs me with the joyOf elevated thoughts'."

And it is the same idea to which the poet givesmagnificent expression in his description of thescenery of Switzerland :

"The immeasurable heightOf woods decaying, never to be decayed,The stationary blasts of waterfalls,And in the narrow rent at every turnWinds thwarting mnds, bewildered and forlorn,The torrents shooting from the clear blue sky,The rocks that muttered close upon our ears.Black drizzling crags that spake by the waysideAs if a voice were in them, the sick sightAnd giddy prospect of the raving streams.The unfettered clouds and region of the Heavens,Tumult and peace, the darkness and the lightWere all the workings of one mind, the featuresOf the same face, blossoms upon one tree;Characters of the great Apocalypse,The types and symbols of Eternity,Of first, and last, and midst, and without end^"

' Prelude, Book xiv.- Quoted i7ifra. The Divifie 0?'igi?i of the Sou/, p. 48.^ Prelude, Book vi.A. E. 2


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1 The Vitality of PlatonismAnd in her relations with man, how kind, and

beneficent is Nature ! What lessons of moderationand calm she teaches us ! What strength and con-solation we derive from communion with the " kin-dred spectacles and sounds" of nature, "the noise ofwood and water," the starry heavens, the sea, the" everlasting hills " ! Of these and similar ideas thepoetry of Wordsworth is full, and quotations wouldbe superfluous. I will only add that Wordsworth,like Plato, is never forgetful of man when he writesof Nature. As Shorthouse says, if ''Nature elevatesman," ''man consecrates Nature"''man and Natureact and re-act\" And thus it is that no one who isnot a friend of man can hope to understand the voiceof Nature.

"But this we from the mountains learnAnd this the valleys show,That never will they deign to holdCommunion where the heart is coldTo human weal and woe^."

It is''the still sad music of humanity"

that Nature sings,"Not harsh nor grating, though of ample power

To chasten and subdued"These quotations, which might be greatly

multiplied, may seem perhaps to show you thatthere is a strong vein of Platonism in Wordsworth.

^ p. 6 of paper quoted above.^ Lines composed at Cora Lin?t.^ Lines composed a few miles above Tintern Abbey,


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Celestial origin of man 19Mr Shorthouse is unwilling to assert that Words-worth '' consciously Platonized ; on the contrary, itis not likely that he ever read the Dialogues." Ido not feel sure of this, but all that I wish at presentto maintain is that Wordsworth's interpretation ofNature has its philosophical basis whether con-sciously or unconsciously in Platonism. Let us nowreturn to Plato himself.

The famous words in which Plato proclaims thatman is " a celestial and not a terrestrial plant'"ovpdvLov (J)vt6v, ovk eyyeuovsum up a whole schoolof theological and religious thought. You rememberthe passage in which St Paul addresses the Stoicand Epicurean philosophers on the Areopagus atAthens : " God hath made of one blood all nationsof men for to dwell on all the face of the earth, andhath determined the times before appointed, and thebounds of their habitation : that they should seekthe Lord, if haply they might feel after him, and findhim, though he be not far from any one of us : forin him we live, and move, and have our being : ascertain also of your own poets have said. For weare also his offspring " tov yap /cat yeVo9 icjxiv (Actsxvii. 26-28). These sentences are full of Stoic moraland religious teaching, and the sentiment with whichthey conclude, though it may have been derived byPaul from the Phaenoynena of Aratus, who uses thesame quotation in the second century before Christor possibly from Aristobulus of Alexandria thisprofound conviction of the universal brotherhood of

' Tim. 90 A.


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20 The Vitality of Platonismmen and their relationship to God the Father reachesback through the hymn of Cleanthes the Stoic to thegreat Platonic doctrine which I have named. It isthe same behef in the celestial origin of man thatinspires the teaching of some of the early fathersof the Church, such as Justin Martyr, Clement ofAlexandria, and Origen, nor has it lost its power tomove the minds and sway the hearts of men to-day.Perhaps it is not too much to say that the Ik crovyap yivo


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Essential divinity of man 21whereas man is a child of Heaven. It is the higherwhich is the human nature, and according to thishigher nature man must be defined and placed. Thenoble lines of George Herbert, which I have else-where quoted to illustrate this subject, express theteaching of Plato better than anything that I can say,and may at the same time serve to show you thatwhether Platonism is a dead philosophy or not, itmay sometimes be a living faith.

" To this life things of senseMake their pretence :

In th' other Angels have a right by birthMan tries them both alone,And makes them oneWith th' one hand touching heav'n^ with th' other earthyIn soul he mounts and flies,In flesh he dies,

He wears a stuffe whose thread is coarse and round,But trimm'd with curious lace;And should take place

After the trimming, not the stuffe and ground \''Of this doctrine of the essential divinity of man

I have said in another place that "the sure andabiding conviction of the presence of a divine ele-ment within us, rendering our nature essentially andtruly human, makes itself felt in nearly all thedialogues of Plato. It is the ultimate source of allhis idealism, religious and metaphysical, no less thanmoral and political, and may well be considered themost precious and enduring inheritance which hehas bequeathed to posterity'." To me this doctrine

1 Ma?i's Medley. ' Note en J^ep, 501 b.


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22 The Vitality of Platonismappears to be more fundamental than anything elsein Plato, except perhaps the theory of Ideas, withwhich it stands in close relationship ; and it isassuredly the most living, aye and life-giving of allPlatonic doctrines. Let us endeavour for a momentto understand how it is connected with other partsof Plato's teachingsuch as his theory of knowledge,the pre-existence and immortality of the soul, andthe aim and scope of education./' The only true objects of knowledge, accordingto Plato, are the transcendent, self-existing Ideas,

^^*^ which are poetically described in the myth of thePhaedrtis. These Ideas, which are themselves theonly true realities, on the model of which thevisible Universe and all its parts are fashioned,depend in turn upon the one supreme or sovereignIdea, that is the Good, so that the whole Universeof thought and things is, if we may adopt a phraseof Aristotle, attached to dvrjpTr)TaL ckthe Idea ofGood or God. Or to change the figure, v/e may saythat the totality of existences is one long altar-stair,ascending step by step from the lowest to the highest,

" Through the mighty commonwealth of things,Up from the creeping plant to sovereign manV'and higher still through all the infinite gradationsof the spiritual world, whose lamp or sun is Godhimself. Both conceptions are Platonic, and bothare also Tennysonian

"For so the whole round earth is every wayBound by gold chains about the feet of God^"

* Wordsworth, Exnirsio?i, Book iv. ^ Morte d'Arthur.


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Human soul akin to the Ideas 23And again :

"the great world's altar-stairsThat slope through darkness up to God\"To these transcendent Ideas, and especially to theIdea of Good, the human soul, in virtue of itsInherent divinity, is akin, and by reason of its kin-ship with the Ideally true and beautiful, It is able toapprehend perfection.As the Cambridge Platonists In the seventeenthcentury loved to say, Man's Reason Is the candle ofthe Lord, lighted by God himself, to guide the soulon high. In the words of Xathanael Culverwel,perhaps the most truly eloquent of that illustriousband of writers and thinkers : " The Candle of theLord it came from him, and 'twould falne return tohim,... the face of the soul naturally looks up to God,coelurnque tueri Jussit, et erectos ad sidera tollerevulttis, 'tis as true of the soul as of the body. Alllight loves to dwell at home with the Father ofLights. Heaven 'tis Patria hwtinum, God hasthere fixt a tabernacle for the Sun, for 'tis good tobe there, 'tis a condescension In a Sunne-beam that'twill stoop as low as earth, and that 'twill guild thisinferiour part of the world ; 'tis the humility of lightthat 'twill incarnate and incorporate It self untosublunary bodies ; yet even there 'tis not forgetfulof Its noble birth and original, but 'twill still lookupwards to the Father of Lights^"

^ I71 Memoriam, 55.^ A discourse of the Light of Nature^ ist Ed., p. 199.


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It is in this way that the doctrine of the divinityof the human soul is connected with the Platonictheory of knowledge. How is it related to theteaching of Plato on pre-existence and immortality ?Throughout the whole of Greek literature, fromHomer downwards, immortality is universally heldto be an attribute of that which is divine, and it isa wide-spread principle of Greek philosophy thatthe a(l)6ap7ov is also dyevrjTovthe immortal is alsothe uncreated. Each of these principles is fullyaccepted by Plato, and although in the Timaetts hespeaks of the creation of the human soul by God,that is in all probability only an allegorical way ofsaying that the soul of man is an efflux or fragmentaTTocTTracr/xa, as the Stoics saidof the divine Soul.It certainly does not imply that Soul as such had abeginning in time. In this way the divinity of Soulimplies at once its pre-existence and its immortality.To tell the story of the Soul as Plato tells it,mingling poetic fancy with moral and religioustruth, and '* overlaying all with the Muses' charm"nitisaeo contingens cuncta leporewould requirethe genius of another Plato. Each particular soul

^^ has _aji-,^ndless history behind it, and an Infinite! prospect before. Incarnation is only an episodein a life that stretches throug^h both eternities, ahakagzplace^or^hall we say a quiet haven '^. Nayrather a troubled and storm-tossed sea, a prison-house in which the soul is chained till Death, thegreat deliverer, sets her free, a tomb in which soullies dead, until death's resurrection morn shall bid


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Pre-existence and hnmortality 25the shadows flee away. We are again reminded ofSt Paul :

'' O wretched man that I am, who shalldeliver me from this body of death ? " (Rom. vll. 24)." For we that are In this tabernacle do groan, beingburdened : not for that we would be unclothed, butclothed upon, that mortality might be swallowed upof life" (2 Cor. V. 4). Or in the words of St Peter,both of whose epistles furnish many analogies to thedoctrine of Plato, OavaTOjOeU /-xei^ crapKi, l^cjoTroL-qOeUSe TTveviiaTithe death of the body makes the spiritalive. Before the round of Incarnation began, saysPlato in the Timaeus\ God ''set each soul as it werein a chariot and showed her the nature of the whole,"in harmony with which it Is her duty to live ; andin the interval betw^een each successive incarnation,the soul that has strenuously followed truth andrighteousness on earth, renews her faded fires andplum.es her wings afresh by gazing on the perfectforms of Beauty and Truth in the realms of theIdeas. And when she returns to earth again, if shehave drunk not too deeply of that ''daughter ofLethe," that awaits "the slipping through from stateto state " it may often happen that a stray sunbeamfrom the heavenly kingdom enters the window ofthe prison-house and reminds her of the " imperialpalace whence she came," making her to rejoiceand sing like " Memnon smitten with the morningsun." This is the Platonic form of that doctrine^of Reminiscence or Recollection with which we so

1 41 E, 42 B.


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26 The Vitality of Platonismoften meet in English poetry. It is this whichinspires the lines of Tennyson :

" Moreover, something is or seems,That touches me with mystic gleams,Like gUmpses of forgotten dreamsOf something felt, like something hereOf something done, I know not where;Such as no language may declare*."

The same thought is expressed by Boethius^"Who for a good he knows not sighs?Who can an unknown end pursue?How find? How e'en when haply foundHail that strange form he never knew?Or is it that man^s inmost soulOnce knew each part and knew the whole 7

" Now, though by fleshly vapours dimmed,Not all forgot her visions past;For while the several parts are lost,To the one whole she cleaveth fast;Whence he who yearns the truth to findIs neither sound of sight nor blind.

" For neither does he know in full,Nor is he reft of knowledge quite,But, holding still to what is left,He gropes in the uncertain light,And by the past that still survivesTo win back all he bravely strives."

And it is essentially the same idea which was in themind of Wordsworth when he wrote the Ode on theIntimations of Immortality.

^ The Two Voices.'^ Consolation of Philosophy, v. 3, tr. James.


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Doctrine of Reminiscence 27" Hence in a season of calm weatherThough inland far we be

Our Souls have sight of that immortal seaWhich brought us hither,Can in a moment travel thither,

And see the Children sport upon the shore,And hear the mighty waters rolling evermore."

In the prefatory note with which he introducesthis poem, Wordsworth is careful to indicate that heis not committed to the doctrine of the pre-existenceof the soul : he merely regards the notion " ashaving sufficient foundation In humanity " to justifyhim In using It for poetical purposes. The doctrinealmost disappears from Greek philosophy, properlyso-called, between the time of Plato and the Neopla-tonlsts ; but Its Influence Is traceable In the apocryphalliterature of the Old Testament, and especially Inthe book of the Wisdom of Solomon. '' I was achild of goodly parts," says the author of that work,'' and received a good soul ; or rather, being good, Icame Into a body undefiled " dyaOo^ a)P tjXOov eUcrw/xa diJLLavTov^. It has not been accepted by theChristian Church, and now survives In Westernliterature chiefly as a poetic fancy. In the East,on the other hand, it is still what It was to Platoand to Orlgen, and in later times to Henry Moorean Integral and essential part of the belief in theeternity of Soul. The other half of Plato's doctrinehas fared better ; but there is no philosophicalsystem at the present day which can be compared


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with Platonism In the extent to which It Is mouldedand inspired by the ever-present consciousness ofimmortality.

It remains for us to see In what way Plato'sdoctrine of the divinity of the human soul affectshis conception of the scope and method of education.In our essential nature, the soul is divine ; but whenIncarnate in a mortal body, she is clogged and en-cumbered by the evils inseparable from her tenementof flesh. In these circumstances, what Is the dutyof the teacher ? Is It, as some of Plato's contem-poraries heldnor is the opinion even now extinctis it to endeavour "to put sight as it were Intoblind eyes "In other words to fill the soul withmoribund facts and dogma, imperfectly understood,or rather, as Plato would say, not understood at all ?Against this view of education Plato urges unrelent-ing warfare, for it is the entire and absolute negationof his whole theory and practice. According to himReason, which is the eye of the soul, present Inmany men and women, Is never blind ; although itsgaze is only too often directed on the false andfleeting, the hollow and impure. The ''leadenweights " of tradition, prejudice, passion and desire,drag the soul's eye downwards to that which is ofthe earth earthy. Who then, according to Plato, isthe true and heaven-born teacher ? He Is one whomakes It his aim, not to multiply, but to removethose leaden weights, that the soul may thus obeyher native impulse and soar upwards. Or to changethe figure, and avail myself of what I have ventured


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Tra7tsformation of the soul by education 29to write elsewhere, *' Michael Angelo used to saythat every block of marble contained a statue, andthat the sculptor brings it to light by cutting awaythe encumbrances by which the 'human face divine'is concealed. In like manner, according to Plato, itis the business of the teacher to prune the soul ofhis pupil of those unnatural excrescences and incrus-tations which hide its true nature, until the humansoul divine stands out in all its pristine grace andpurity^" Or yet again, the teacher is a kind ofrevolutionist, seeking to turn round the soul of hispupil from darkness into light. In this process ofrevolution or circumversion TrepLaycjyij is the Greekwordthe moral as well as the intellectual part ofour nature shares. Plato is most careful to pointthis out', and he would have refused to admit thatit is possible for the intellect to be transformedwithout a corresponding transformation of the moralnature. But the transformation is effected, accordingto Plato, through the Reason, which is the elementof God within us, rather than through the will, andit is the development of the reason and the reasoningfaculties which his curriculum of studies in theRepublic is primarily intended to produce.

What is that curriculum.^ Theory of Number,Plane Geometry, Stereometry, Astronomy, Har-monics and Dialectic. We need not suppose thatPlato was irrevocably committed to these particularstudies : he did what every great educational reformermust always do, adopted the leading scientific studies

^ Note on Rep. 518 c. " Ibid,


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of his day, and infused new life and meaning intothem. But I feel sure that Plato would never havesurrendered the one great principle that the avenueto the knowledge of the Ideas leads through Mathe-matics to Dialectic : for inasmuch as Nature isconstructed by God according to mathematical laws

^609 ael yeojfjLeTpeLhe who would apprehend thetruths of Nature must travel through Mathematicsto his goaP. I have elsewhere drawn attention to aninteresting and, as I think, important fact in con-nexion with the influence of Plato's curriculum on thecourse of medieval academic study. You are awarethat the curriculum of our Universities used to con-sist of a quadrivium and a trivium, the quadriviumbeing Arithmetic, Geometry, Music and Astronomy.These four studies you will observe correspond toPlato's five preliminary studies, Theory of Number,Plane Geometry, Stereometry, Astronomy andHarmonics: for Stereometry, as conceived by Plato,is only a branch of Geometry. Now the PlatonicAcademy had a continuous history till Justinianclosed the philosophic schools, and we can hardlybe wrong in supposing that the adoption of thesestudies into the medieval curriculum was duedirectly or indirectly to the value attached to themby the Platonic school. But there is a still morestriking link cementing our Universities with theAcademy of Plato and even with the fourth centuryB.C. In the medieval Universities those who were

^ See Adam, Religious TeacJiers of Greece^ p. 419 f.; Republicof Plato, vol. ii., p. 168.


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Educational currimlmn 31duly qualified in the quadrivium and trivitim receivedthe title of bachelors or masters of Arts, becauseArithmetic, Geometry, Astronomy and Music, to-gether with the studies of the trivium, were techni-cally called Arts, Now the interesting point tonotice is that this use of the word Arts in what Imay call the academic sense, actually occurs in Plato,who speaks of Number or Arithmetic, Geometry,Astronomy and Music as the so-called Arts. Whenthe mystic cap is placed upon your heads, makingyou magistros or 7nagistras artium as the case maybe, I ask you to remember that you are indebtedto Plato, or the age in which he lived, for part atleast of this high sounding and doubtless well-deserved title.

So far, I have spoken of Plato's educationaltheory as if it affected our present life on earth andnothing more. But inasmuch as the faculty ofreason, which the teacher tries to cherish and foster,is immortal and divine, the horizon of the teacher isnot limited by this transitory life. The soul, saysPlato, takes nothing with it into the unseen worldexcept its education\ Plato therefore "believesthat the teacher can influence the pupil for hereafteras well as for life here, and that the soul which isonce smitten with the love of truth may still advancefrom knowledge to more knowledge throughout un-numbered lives and phases of existence " still tocome". If the seed appears for the moment to fall

' Fhaed. 107 D.^ Adam, Rep. of Plato, vol. ii., p. 168.


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on barren soil, the teacher may still be comforted :perchance it may yet '^ bloom to profit, otherwhere."*'We will not," says the Platonic Socrates, "relinquishour endeavour, until we either persuade Thrasy-machus and the others, or make some progress inview of the life which is to come, when in anotherexistence we may chance on topics such as these\"KaXoi^ TO a9\ov kol rj iXnU fieydXr) I think you willagree with me that such a theory of education upholdsto us a larger prospect than the usual application oftheterm either in ancient or in modern times. Accordingto the familiar saying, some of us are born Platonists,and the rest Aristotelians ; and the Aristotelian willprobably think that here, as elsewhere, Plato soarstoo high. In reply to this objection, Plato wouldprobably say, and say with truth, that even if thegoal appears to some impossible to reach, thestimulus of a great though unattainable ideal mayenable them to reach the limits of that to which theyca7i attain. Think of the heavenly pastures throughwhich the soul is led in looking for that untravelledland. And even if we refuse to follow Plato intothese loftier regions of thought and speculation, hisremarks on educational theory and method furnishmany lessons for the guidance of teacher and pupileven within a narrower sphere. Among these Iwill only mention two or three. How does Platoconceive of the relationship between the teacher andthe taught ? They are intellectual partners orcomrades in the search for knowledge. The teacher

1 J^eJ^. 498 D.


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The goal and means of education 33is himself a learner, and the pupil a teacher ; for it isfrom the contact of the two minds that truth orknowledge springs to light. Another lesson is thateducation is at once an intellectual and a moralrevelation, the Trepiayojyrj of the whole nature ofthe pupil K cr/coTovs eh (f)mout of darkness intolight. The ultimate goal of intellectual education,according to Plato, is the knowledge of God, andmoral training culminates in assimilation to Hisglorious imageo/xotcjcrts 6eq) Kara to hvpaToudvOp(o7T(ij\ This is Plato's version of man's chiefend. Hardly less valuable and significant is Plato'sview of education as the free and unconstraineddevelopment of the individual soul, and his concep-tion of the means whereby this end can be attainedstimulus, the shock of surprise and contradiction,the pleasure of discovery, generalisations prematurelyformed and Q^ladlv discarded in favour of new andJater generalisations, destined themselves to sufferthe same fate as the intellectual horizon widens andexpands. These and many other kindred principlesof educational theory are frequently heralded as newdiscoveries of the present day, as for example byProfessor Armstrong, who is never weary of extol-ling what he calls the "heuristic" method. In pointof fact, they are all of them found in Plato, and theiremployment in the art and practice of education isabundandy illustrated throughout his dialogues.But we shall miss the most distinctive and essentialelement in Plato's theory of education if we seek to

^ Theaet. i-j^b.A. E. z


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34 The Vitality of Platonismnarrow its range or isolate it from the rest of hisphilosophy. Plato never loses sight of the wholewhen treating of the part, and education in his viewis but a part of life ; as life itself is of eternity. Thegenius of Plato is always reaching forth after tot)okov KoX 7ravTo


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II. THE DOCTRINE OF THECELESTIAL ORIGIN OF THE SOULFROM PINDAR TO PLATO

Kttt (TWfxa fxlv rrdvToiV eVtTai Oavdro) 7repnT0Vi,^ioov S' en ActVcTat aiwvo? ctSwXov to yap iarn fiovovK 0(j)V ivSu Bk Trpaa-crovTiov /xcXcW, drap cvSoVrco-crtv

iv TToXXoU ovcipoisStiKVVdt Tp7rvo)V iep7roL(rav ;>(a\7r(oi/ re Kpiatv.

FiNDAR, /ragnient 131 Bergk.Tke body of all men is subject to all-powerful deathsbut alive there yet remains an image of the living

man ; for that alone isfrom the gods. It sleeps when the limbs are active,

but to them that sleep in many a dreamit revealeth an award ofjoy or sorrow draiving near.

I propose in the present lecture to invite yourattention to part of a remarkable fragment ofPindar's dirges, preserved by Plutarch in his Con-solatio ad Apolloniu7n}. It has long been recognisedthat the Pindaric dirges introduce us to a circle ofideas to which Greek poetry is hitherto a stranger,although parallels are to be found in Orphic eschato-logy and to a certain extent also in the fragments

' c. 35.32


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36 The Divine Origin of the Soulof Heraclitus. From whatever source Pindar mayhave derived his conception of the future world, andhe certainly did not evolve it out of his innerconsciousness and nothing else, the power of poetryto refine and purify religious sentiment has neverbeen better illustrated than by the poet whothroughout his whole career believed himself thechosen servant of Apollo, the god of religious andprophetical as well as of poetical inspiration. Myobject, however, is not to discuss the origin of thesebeliefs : it is rather to trace from Pindar to Plato thegradual development and progressive intellectualisa-tion of one of the beliefs contained in the particularfragment which I have put into your hands, andincidentally, perhaps, to remark upon its significancein connexion with later developments in Poetry,Philosophy, and Religion.A word or two is necessary with reference tothe translation. oXoiv, which I have taken as '* theliving man," means simply "life." Pindar is using theabstract for the concrete. In my opinion W. Christis grievously wrong when he explains the word byaevi sernpiterni, " eternity " : alo^v is never so usedby Pindar. In the last line Kpiaiv means *' adjudica-tion," as Kpiv(ji in a passage of the Pythians means"adjudge^":

TOl% OVT V'dcTTOS O/V.WSiTTtt/Wvos v HvOlolSl KpiOiy.

"To them, at the Pythian festival, no such glad returnto home was adjudged " :

' 8. Zz.


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Homeric notion of sonl 37but the specific reference in our fragment, as Boeckhand other editors have pointed out, Is doubtless tothe adjudication of joy and sorrow at the judgmentof the dead. Pindar recognises such a judgment inthe second Olympian', and implicitly also In otherfragments of his OprjvoL- describing the bliss thatawaits the pious, and the torments in store for thewicked. Anyone who reads the fragments of theOprjvoL side by side will agree, I think, that Kpicriv isto be understood in this way.

Let us now turn our attention to the Ideas whichPindar's w^ords embody. We note to begin withthe survival of the old Homeric notion of the soulas the shadow of the living self. The soul ofPatroclus, you remember, appeared to Achilles in avision of the night, ''In all things like to the manhimself, in stature and fair eyes and voice, and theraiment on his body was the same^" So far, there-fore, we are entirely on Homeric ground. But therest of the passage belongs to a stratum of Ideaswhich is unlike anything to be found In the Iliad orOdyssey. In the first place, the soul Is said to be ofdivine descent ; secondly, this kinship with the godsis cited as a ground for believing In immortalityTO yap icTTi ixovov Ik decov, the first indication, Ibelieve, in Greek literature of a definite argumentfor this belief, such as Plato afterwards developedin the Phaedo ; and thirdly, the fundamental Idea inthe last two lines, the Idea of which the premonitoryvision of the day of judgment is one particular

' 2. 59. ' 130, 132, 133 Bergk. ' 11 23. 66.


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38 The Divine Origin of the Soulapplication, is that during life, so long as we areawake and conscious, the soul is asleep, but whenthe body is laid to rest, the soul awakes and revealsto us in visions of the night that which in ourwaking moments we cannot see. It is the first ofthese conceptions, that of the celestial origin of thesoul, with whose development in Greek literaturedown to Plato I wish at present to deal ; but weshall find that the other two ideas are closely boundup with it, and sometimes make their appearance inwriters by whom the soul's divinity is affirmed.

In Pindar, as in Heraclitus, a thinker withwhom the poet has other points in common besidesobscurity, the celestial origin of the soul is still,what it primarily was, a predominantly religiousbelief; but the germs of a philosophical inter-pretation are already discernible when the poetdeliberately founds his faith in immortality upon thisdoctrine, and also when by means of it he explainsthe possibility of divination during sleep. Theparticular idea involved in the latter part of thepassage before us, reappears not only in the Republicof Plato ^ but also in an Aristotelian fragment, wherewe are told that " whenever the soul is alone and byitself in sleep, it recovers its proper nature," that is,of course, its celestial nature, '' and divines andprophesies the future- " ; and the same idea lies atthe root of the Stoic philosophy of divination. Noris it, indeed, unknown in modern psychologicalthought. Pindar's description of the soul in this

^ IX. 572 A. ^ Fr. 12.


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Pindar and modern psychology 39passage bears an obvious and striking resemblanceto Mr Myers' theory of the subconscious or sub-liminal self, which, according to the hypothesis ofProfessor James, is the medium of communicationbetween the soul and that higher or transcendentalregion which he calls God : nor did the analogyescape Mr Myers, for he chooses the Pindaricfragment as the heading of his chapter on Sleep\In his Ingersoll lecture, again, Professor Jamesmakes the existence of this subliminal self the basisof an argument for immortality, precisely as Pindarsays: ''for this alone is from the gods." Thepossibility of a philosophical development of thePindaric notion is also, I think, involved in anotherpassage of Pindar. You will observe that here it issimply y\ivyr\soul in the old Homeric sense, or notmuch morethat comes from the gods. In thesixth Nemean, however, after emphatically pro-claiming the original unity of men and godstv dvSpcjT/, h 6eo)v yevos' Pindar suggests thatperhaps the point in which we resemble the im-mortals is in mind or reason {[xeyaf v6ov)\ And itis on the divinity of vov


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40 The Divine Origin of the Soulmentions in yet another fragment \ It would beabsurd, of course, to attribute to a poet any rigidpsychological nomenclature ; but no one denies thatvov% in Pindar is predominantly, though not ex-clusively, an intellectual faculty' ; and in Greekphilosophy itself, even, I believe, in Stoicism, vov^is never the merely siccum lumen, the clear, coldlight, which ive are sometimes in the habit of callingreason. The dry soul, says Heraclitus, is the wisestawi] ^r)pr) i/^fx^? croc^wrarT^ : but, we must remember,it was made of fire.

In classical Greek lyric poetry, other than Pindar,there is no certain trace of the ideas we are nowconsidering. The younger Melanippides, who diedperhaps about 413 B.C., has left a striking fragmentof a prayer, addressed presumably to Dionysus^:

kXvOl fxoLj u) iranp,Savjxa fipoTijJV, tS? act^wov

" Hear me, O Father, honoured of mortal men,thou that art lord of the ever-living soul."

If the whole of this poem had survived, it is possiblethat some further light would be thrown on thesubject of this lecture. Aeschylus has one or twodefinite suggestions of the divine affinity of thesoul, notably in the passage where he speaks of the

' 137 Bergk.^ Aios Toi v6o


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The soul in lyric poets and tragedy 41mind's eye as seeing clearly during sleep, whereasin the day men see not the future :

^}iOV(TO. yap (f>pr]v 6/Xfxacnv \afXTrpvvTai,iv yp-epa Se /xotp' aVpo'cTKOTro? fSpoTwvK

The notion underlying this passage, and I thinkalso a passage in the Agamemiion-, is the sameas we have already found in the fragments ofPindar and Aristotle. In sleep the soul is to acertain extent released from the shackles of thebody, and foresees the future by virtue of hernatural affinity with the gods. In harmony withthis conception, Aeschylus attaches great weight torevelation by means of dreams ; and even when thebody is awake, in moments of ecstatic elevation,such as he portrays in the person of Cassandra, andin those dim forebodings of futurity that so oftenhaunt the mind of the Chorus in the Oresteia, thesoul appears to give proof of her connexion withthe divine. Nowhere in Aeschylus, however, is thisdoctrine brought into relationship with the beliefin immortality, as it is by Pindar ; nor. indeed,except in recognising a judgment and punishmentsnever, I believe, rewardshereafter, and in oneor two further details, do the eschatological picturesof Aeschylus differ very much from those in Homer,except that the all-pervading gloom is deeper andmore intense. W^ith regard to Sophocles, I willonly say that although Dronke has rightly called

* Eum. 104 f.^ 189 ff. a-rd^iL h" Iv d' lyrvoi kt\. See Headlam in C/. Rei\ for

1903, p. 241.


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42 The Divine Origin of the Soulattention to certain exquisite touches of religiousmysticism in his plays, for example avrX iivpLOJv fxiav\jjvxiJT^\ the particular subject we are now discussingcannot be illustrated from him. With Euripidesthe case is different, and we shall find that the formIn which he expresses the Idea of the soul's divinityis of the highest interest and importance in con-nexion with later philosophical thought in Greece.But before we speak of Euripides himself, it Isnecessary to say something about the sources ofthat distinctive type of theology with which in hisplays and fragments the notion of man's relationshipto God is associated.

In the age of Euripides, the concept of a creativeor world-forming Nous or Reason had been madefamiliar to Greek thought by Anaxagoras' epoch-making declaration, Travra xpyjixara tjv ofxov' etravov(; lkdo}v avTOL Ste/coV/i-Tycre": "when all things weretogether, Reason came and set them in order."Whether the creative vovs of Anaxagoras was apurely incorporeal or as we should say spiritualsubstance or not, is a question still debated ; butthis much at least Is clear, that if it was corporeal,the material of which It was composed differed somuch from every other kind of matter that it didnot deserve to be called matter at all. To call it bythe question-begging epithet of ''thought-matter"or "thought-stuff," as Windelband does, throws nolight upon Its nature, besides being in my judgmenta forced and unnatural translation of the Greek

^ O. C. 498. ^ ap. Diog. Laert. 11. 6.


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TJie Nous of Anaxagoras 43word 1/0O9. Gomperz talks vaguely of ''a kind offluid or aether," a ''curious reasoning fluid," ''of anextremely refined and mobile materiality'." Everysuch suggestion appears to me incompatible withthe well-known criticism in the Phaedo, where Platocharacteristically blames Anaxagoras, because afterannouncing that Mind is the cause of everything,he made little or no use of this great principle inexplaining the constitution of the Universe, but hadrecourse to "airs and aethers and waters and manyother such absurdities'." The opposition in thispassage between N'ous on the one hand, and the"airs and aethers" on the other, tells stronglyagainst the identification of Nous with any substanceof the kind ; and, indeed, according to Anaxagorashimself, air and aether are among the substanceswhich ASCIIS originally separated off from theprimeval mixture or chaos'. It is impossible fullyto discuss the matter here : I will only say that Iagree with Heinze' and Arleth' in holding thatAnaxagoras probably intended us to understand byA"o2is an incorporeal essence, although in the absenceof an accepted philosophical terminology he failedto make the new idea absolutely clear. There arestill two points in connexion with Anaxagoras'theory of which my subject requires me to remind

' Greek T/iinkers (E.T.), 1216, 1217.- Phaedo 98 c.=* Fr. 2 Diels {Fragmente der Vorsokratiker).* Ueber d. Nov? d. Afiaxagoras (Leipzig, 1890).' Archivf. Gesch. d. Philos. viii. 461 if.


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44 ^/^^ Divine Origin of the Soulyou. The world-ordering Reason which he describesis transcendent rather than immanent, although itsimmanence In certain things is not denied : ecrrtiôfo-t 8e Acal vov'^ evL\ And finally, although thisN'ous possesses many of the attributes and dis-charges many of the functions which later philo-sophy ascribed to the Deity, Anaxagoras in hisextant fragments nowhere calls it God.

Turn now for a little to the fragments ofDiogenes of Apollonia, who lived in Athens duringthe latter part of the fifth century B.C., and whosephilosophy is in effect little more than a revisionof the physical theory of Anaximenes In the lightof Anaxagoras' theory of Mind. The primarysubstance, says Diogenes, of which all other thingsare only particular forms or differentiations, is''great and strong and eternal and immortal andpossessed of much knowledge " {noWa etSos ea-nY,being able " to preserve the measures of all things,winter and summer, night and day, rains and windsand sunny weather^" " By means of Air," he saysin another fragment, "all are steered and over allAir has power. For this very thing seems to meGod" {avTo yap jxoi rovro deos So/cel ÎvaiY, "andI believe that it reaches to everything and disposeseverything andîs present in everything. ...There aremany forms of living creatures many in number,resembling one another neither In appearance norin way of life nor in intelligence owing to the

^ Fr. II Diels. - J^r. 8 Diels. ^ Fr. 3 Diels.* ^0? is Usener's certain emendation for iOo^.


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Diogenes of Apollonia 45multitude of differentiations ; but yet they all liveand see and hear by virtue of the same element,and all of them too derive their intelligence fromthe same source^" The Air within us, that is, ourreason, Diogenes called a '* little part of God(ixLKpoi^ fjLopLou Tov Oeov)''. From these extracts youwill see in the first place that Diogenes materializesthe pov


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46 The Divine Origin of the SoulNo ancient poet has suffered so much as Euripidesboth in his own Hfetime and afterwards from thevulgar species of gallery criticism that hisses thestage-villain. I may nevertheless be allowed toexpress my personal belief that the passages aboutto be discussed reflect a tone of feeling peculiarlycongenial to the great poet of humanity, for areason which will afterwards appear.

Let us now consider some of the passages inquestion. We have seen that Diogenes identifiesthe all-pervading Air with God. To this theoryEuripides has an allusion in the famous prayer ofHecabe in the Troades^ :

ocTTis 7T0T et avj SvcTTOTraaTO's eiScvai,Zcvs, fiT uvayKYj (^vcreog, cire vovs jSpoTwv,7rpoar]V^dfxy]v cr^' iravra yap Sl d\p6fj>ov[iaivdiv KeXevOov Kara Slkyjv to. OvrjT ayts :

" O Earth's upholder, throned upon the Earth," etc. :for Anaximenes, the philosophical master of Dio-genes, taught that the earth "rides upon the air"(eVoxetTat Ta> dept), and also that ''just as our Soul,which is Air, holds us together, so also breath andAir encompass the whole Universe^" You willremember that Plato, too, in speaking of thistheory, compares the i\ir to a ^dOpov or pedestalsupporting the earth I For the most part, however,when Euripides writes in this vein, it is Aether andnot Air which he calls Zeus. In a poet, of course,

^ 884 ff. -^ Diels p. 22 ^ 6, 25 2.' Phaedo 99 b.


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The Aether in Etiritides 47we ought not to expect a clear distinction betweenthese two concepts, although Anaxagoras hadalready differentiated them. Euripides, no doubt,prefers the word ''Aether" partly as having agreater wealth of poetical and religious associationsthan '\\ir." Thus in one fragment' we read

yata /xeyto-T?; koX Aio? AlOijp" Mightiest Earth and Aether of Zeus "

that is, I believe, not Aether "home of Zeus,"though Euripides sometimes describes the elementin that way, but just '' Zeus's Aether," the Aether inwhich Zeus consists, the Aether of which Zeus ismade, in no respect different from Zeus himself.The remainder of the fragment clearly shews thatZeus is here identified with Aether. '^^ether,"continues the poet, '' is the father of men and gods ;and Earth receives into her womb the falling rainof dewy drops, and bears mortal men, aye, andfood, and the tribes of wild beasts." But the mostcharacteristic example in Euripides of this identifica-tion is contained in the well-known lines :

opas Tov v\j/ov revs' aTretpov alO^paKal yrjv Trept^ i)(pv&' vypal% Iv ayKciAais ;TovTOV vo/xt^ Zyjva, rovS rjyov Oiov^ :

thus translated by ^Ir Way :"Seest thou the boundless ether there on highThat folds the earth around with dewy arms?This deem thou Zeus, this reckon one with God."

1 839 Nauck^.- Fr. 941. Cf. 877 aA/V alBrjp tiktu ae, KOpa, Zcvs os

aV^pOJTTOtS 6l'0{J.d^TaL,


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48 The Divine Origin of the SoulThere is more than a touch of what W. K. CHffordcalled ''cosmic emotion" in these verses. Nowhere,however, does ancient literature furnish a moreperfect expression of cosmic feeling or a finerexample of the poetical treatment of a philosophicalconception than we meet with in a less knownfragment of Euripides descriptive of the aetherialcreative reason indwelling in the world :

ere Tov avTOcfiVu, tov iv alOiptiopvfx^ia TToivToiv i)(opVL^.

"Thee, self-begotten, who in ether rolledCeaselessly round, by mystic links dost bindThe nature of all things, whom veils enfoldOf light, of dark night flecked with gleams of gold,Of star-hosts dancing round thee without end."Mr Way, to whom this translation is due, justly

compares the familiar lines of Wordsworth :"I have feltA presence that disturbs me with the joyOf elevated thoughts ; a sense sublimeOf something far more deeply interfused,Whose dwelling is the light of setting suns.And the round ocean, and the living air.And the blue sky, and in the mind of man :A motion and a spirit that impelsAll thinking things, all objects of all thought,And rolls through all things."

We may say, I think, that in this all-pervadingspirit, ''the soul of all the worlds," as he sometimes

' 593 Nauck-.


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Euripides and Wordsworth 49calls it, Wordsworth finds the true and essentialunity of Natureit embraces, as Euripides wouldhave said, the "nature of all things,"

"Even as one essence of pervading lightShines in the brightest of ten thousand starsAnd the meek worm that feeds her lonely lampCouched in the dewy grass."

The parallel between Euripides and Wordsworth ishere complete ; and in Virgil, too, we have exactlythe same conception :

deum namque ire per omnesterrasque tractusque maris caelumque profundum'.

Some may be disposed to call this philosophy,others will call it poetry, and others, perhaps,religion ; but in truth it is only one particular wayof trying to express that omnipresent unity whichpoetry and religion make us feel, which science alsopresupposes, and which it is perhaps the ultimategoal of a philosophy of the sciences Plato, at least,believed it wasto demonstrate and apprehend.But to return. I think it is deserving of particularnotice that in each of the three poets I havenamed, this kind of poetical pantheism, or Nature-mysticism, as it may more appropriately be called,is accompanied not only by a deeper sense ofthe unity between man and nature, but also by aprofounder sympathy with '* human weal and woe"than we readily find elsewhere. It was a trueinstinct that prompted Tennyson to put together in

' Georgics 4. 221 f. : also in Ae/ieid 6. 724 ff.A. E. 4


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50 The Divine Origin of the Soul

a single stanza these two characteristics of Virgil'spoetry :"Thou that seest Universal

Nature moved by Universal Mind;Thou majestic in thy sadness

At the doubtful doom of human kind."The power inherent in Nature dwells also ''in themind of man," so that the link which binds us tothe one unites us also to the other. You willremember that the later Stoics expressly foundedtheir doctrine of human brotherhood on the presencein all men of the koivo% \6yos, or universal reasonthat " moves through all things, mingling with thegreat and lesser lights\" Marcus Aurelius, forexample, reminds us that man's brotherhood withall mankind depends not on blood, or the generativeseed, but on community in mind (vov kolvcji/lo) :each man's mind, he says, is God and an effluxfrom God" ; and God is ef? Sta iravToiv /cat ovcriafjiia, "one God, one essence stretching through allthings"'," present in Nature as well as in man. Thehumanism of Euripides is not an intellectual dogma,but the language of the heart ; yet it is more than amere accident I would rather say it is the operationof a law of naturethat the most profoundly humanof tragedians should have been the author of thegreatest nature-drama of antiquity, I mean, ofcourse, the Bacchae.

So far, I have spoken only of the peculiar kind^ Hymn of Cleanthes 1 2 f." XII. 26. 3 yjj ^


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Nattire-mysticism, of Euripides 51of poetical theology which is sometimes found inEuripides. That which Pindar calls " the gods"TO yap ian jiovov eV Sewvhas become, under theinfluence, perhaps, of Diogenes, an immanent, all-embracing aetherial substance designated by thename of Zeus. Let us now turn from the divineto the human, and consider one or two of thosepassages in which the poet has in view the doctrineof man's affinity to God. The fragment mostcommonly cited by the ancients in this connexionis the line

6 vovs ya/j qfx


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52 The Divine Origin of the Soul

Zeus in language suggested by the theory ofDiogenes, according to which the mind of man isa form of that universally diffused aerial substancewhich Diogenes holds to be God. I do not thinkthe two alternatives avdyK-q (jyucreos and t/ov


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Phenomena of life mid death 53they were slain'/' In the background there is thetheory, derived, no doubt, from Anaxagoras, thatabsokite creation and absolute destruction have noplace in the economy of nature ; the phenomena wecall life and death are only the temporary unionand subsequent dissolution of pre-existing andimperishable elements. The bearing of this theoryon anthropology is thus expressed by Euripides in afragment to which I have already referred : *' Allthings go back whence they came : that which wasborn of Earth to Earth, and that which sprang fromthe seed of Aether returns to the firmament ofHeaven \" You will further notice that in Euripidesit is not, as in the epitaph, ^v)(f\, but vov%, thatreturns to the aetherial element. Elsewhere, inagreement with Epicharmus (if the fragments arereally by Epicharmus^), he calls the divine elementin manthe element that rejoins the aetherby thename of nvevixa,

TTvevfxa fxiv Trpo? alOipaTO


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54 The Divine Origin of the Soulspending to the Divine Spirit and fitted to be thesphere of His operations \" while vov%, in the wordsof another theologian, is in St Paul just " the nvevfxaoperative as a faculty of knowledge directed towardDivine things^" In Euripides, perhaps, it may bedoubted whether Trvevfxa really means much morethan ''breath"; but vov^ certainly does, and in thisrespect there seems to me a real analogy betweenthe Greek and Christian thinker. Still morecharacteristically philosophical is the distinctionw^hich the poet here draws between life and con-sciousness. The mind, when reabsorbed in aether,no longer lives, that is to say, it has no personalor individual existence, but it nevertheless shares inthe consciousness belonging to the universal spirit.The passage we are now discussing is, I believe,the earliest explicit affirmation in Greek literatureof the kind of cosmic immortality which Aristotleascribes to his vov


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Cosmic immortality 55sometimes lift the poet may be seen from anextraordinary fragment which would probably havebeen denounced as a Neoplatonic forgery, if it hadnot been referred to by Plutarch as well as quotedby Clement : " Upon my back sprout golden wings :my feet are fitted with the winged sandals of theSirens : and I shall soar to the aetherial firmamentto unite with Zeus " Zy]v\ 7rpo(rfJii^(oi/\ I think itprobable that Zeus in this fragment stands for thed6dvaTo


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56 The Divine Origin of the SoulSocrates himself developed the notion on practicalrather than theoretical lines, using it as a motive toencourage piety, by dwelling on the unwearied zealwith which this cosmic intelligence consults theinterests of manfor his teleology is almost pain-fully anthropocentric ; but there is none the less areal analogy between the Socratic conception andthe philosophical theory we have been discussing.And in at least one passage of the MemorabiliaSocrates definitely suggests that the human mind isitself only a portion of the world-informing Reason,which, according to Xenophon, he occasionallyidentified with God. Xenophon is relating a con-versation between Socrates and Aristodemus, andhas reached the point at which the young man,though originally disposed to ridicule the belief ingods, is constrained to allow that there is some littleforce in the argument from design. "Well now,"says Socrates, "do you suppose that you have alittle wisdom yourself, and yet that there is nowisdom to be found elsewhere ? And that, too,when you know that you have in your body only asmall fragment of the mighty earth, and a littleportion of the great waters, and of the other ele-ments, extending far and wide, you received, Isuppose, a little bit of each towards the framing ofyour body? Mind alone, forsooth" vovv 8e apaixovovadds Socrates, sarcastically, "which is no-where to be found, you seem by some lucky chanceor other to have snatched up from nowhere \" In

^ Mem, I. 4. 8.


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Socrates and the divinity of the soul 57its full significance, the implication contained in thisconcluding sentence is that the soul or rather themind {yov


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58 The Divine Origin of the Soulfully realises its kinship with the Godhead, andpenetrates the veil that usually hides from us thefuture ; and the explanation is that during sleepmore than at any other time the soul is freed fromthe dominion of the body\ For the origin of theseand similar views, which only make explicit what isalready implicit in the fragment of Pindar, we mustdoubtless look to the Pythagorean doctrine of thebody as the sepulchre of the soul ; but what I wishto suggest is that it is perfectly possible for myown part I think it highly probablethat thehistorical Socrates sometimes conversed in thisway. The Cyropaedia is permeated, of course, bySocratic ideas ; and in this instance the parallelbetween Xenophon and Plato is in favour, so faras it goes, of the presence in their common masterof a similar strain or tendency of thought. Norare such ideas otherwise than in harmony with thetemperament of Socrates. Although no one everserved the cause of Reason better, he was not, inany narrow acceptation of the word, a "rationalist"pure and simple. His susceptibility to the influenceof dreams, attested both by Xenophon and Plato ;his faith in oracles; those frequent "pauses ofimmobility," during which he would stand for hourstogether, as Gellius says, '' inconnivens, immobilis,eisdem in vestigiis, tanquam quodani secessn mentisatgne animi facto a corp07'e^''\ and, above all, thedivine sign or " voice," the pledge and symbol ofhis intimate relationship to Godfor these and

^ CyroJ>. VIII. 7. 19 f.' Nodes Ait, 11. i.


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Religious rationalism of Socrates 59other features we must seek analogies in the history,not of rationaHsm, but of reHgion. It is impossible,I think, to understand the historical Socrates withouttaking account of the religious as well as of therationalistic elements in his character ; but the linkthat unites the two is contained in the doctrine thatReason is itself divine : to yap iart fxovov e/c deojv.

From Socrates we now pass to Plato. It wouldrequire a treatise to give any adequate idea of theextent to which this doctrine penetrates nearly thewhole of Plato's teaching from beginning to end ofhis long career, and I can hardly even attempt toshew you how, beyond all other Platonic doctrines,it has made Platonism live throughout the ages, notonly in poetry, philosophy, and theology, but also,perhaps, in human lives. The most that I can dois to mention one or two different ways in whichPlato expresses his belief in man's affinity with thedivine, and to indicate a few of the principalimplications of the theory in Platonisip, with someremarks on its connexion with later religious andphilosophical thought.

The nearest analogy in Plato to the kind ofcosmic deity of earlier and later Greek philosophyis of course the soul of the world in the Philelms'and Timaeus'' : but in Plato, I need hardly say, theworld-soul differs from the immanent Godhead ofDiogenes and the Stoics, inasmuch as it is a purelyimmaterial or spiritual essence. In the PhilebusPlato derives the human soul from the soul of the

' 28 c ff. 34 c ff.


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6o The Divine Origin of the Soulworld ; and the train of reasoning by which hesupports this derivation is only a more developedand expanded form of the argument employed bySocrates in his conversation with Aristodemus\But the conception of a cosmic soul, at least in thisparticular shape, is absent from the earlier dialoguesof Plato ; and even in the Timaeiis the human soul,

I or rather the rational and noetic part of it, is not, asin the Philebus, dependent for its origin upon thesoul of the world, but, like the world-soul itself,comes directly from the supreme God or Demiurgus.'^As concerning the sovereign part of soul withinus," says Plato, " that which we say, and say truly,dwells at the top of the body and raises us fromearth towards our heavenly kindred, forasmuch aswe are a heavenly and not an earthly plant ^vtovovK iyyecov, dW ovpaviovwe ought to believe thatGod has given it to each of us as a dae7non-y' thatis, a genius or guardian angel to direct our lives, inthe beautiful phrase of Menander, as it were ourlkV(nojyoiyo% tov ^lov^. It is in this passage, Ibelieve, that we should seek the origin of the viewso much insisted upon by the later Stoics, that thefaculty of reason, to quote the words of MarcusAurelius, is just the Saifxajv, ov iKdcTco TrpocrTdT-qvKoX rjyefJLOva 6 Zev? iScoKev, aTTOcnracrixa iavTov, "thegenius, which Zeus has bestowed on every man, to

1 29 A ff. ^ T/m. 90 A.^ uTTavTL SatfxoiV dvSpi (rvfiirapia-raraL

vBv'5 yevojjievoi, /xvcrraytoyos toO (3lov.Meiiieke iv. p. 238,


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Fusion of religion and metaphysics in Plato 6ibe a ruler and guide, even a fragment of himself."In other Platonic dialogues the form of expressionis metaphysical rather than theological, though here,too, owing to the characteristically Platonic fusionof theology and metaphysics, there is still a certaincolouring of theology, or perhaps I had better say,religion. In the Republic the soul in its essential,that is, its rational nature, is said to be '' akin to thedivine and immortal and ever-existent'," that is tothe changeless and eternal essence which Plato callsthe Ideas ; and in the Phaedo we read that when-ever the souland by the soul in this dialogue hemeans z^ouswhenever the soul makes use of thebody and its senses in any investigation, "she isdragged by the body into the region of the change-able, and like the objects she is fain to grasp, thisway and that she wanders, confused and dizzy likea drunkard. But when she investigates a subjectby herself, away she soars into the realm beyond,to join the pure and eternal and immortal andunchangeable, and, because she is of their kindred,with them she ever dwells as often as it is permittedher to be alone; and then she no longer wanders,but changes not, because she is in contact with thechangeless'." You will see from this passage thatalthough the doctrine of the soul's celestial originhas now been intellectualised, its religious meaningis not yet lost. For the nearest parallel to suchpassages of Plato, and they are very numerous,we must look to the Paradiso of Dante. " Thou

' V. 27. - 611 E. ^ 79 C ff.

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the vitality of ism and other essays - adam, james, 1860-1907

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