The Vietnam War

C. Cullen revised 2014

Indochina (Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia) came under French influence as early as the 1700’s, as traders came to the region looking for resources andmissionaries hoped to convert the mainly Buddhist population to Christianity. Later, France made Indochina a protectorate.

The purple regionshows French Indo-China in 1950. The landconsisted of present-dayVietnam, Laos, and Cambodia.

Large tracts of land were owned by absentee French landlords and the peasants were heavily taxed and forced to export much of their rice crop which led to famine.Nationalistic feelings began to emerge and an independence movement gainedmomentum.

In 1925, the French crowned 12 year old Bao Dai as the new “puppet emperor” and sent him to Paris to be educated. He was an ineffective leader who was more interestedin gambling, hunting, and womanizing than in helping his people, and he left governingmatters to the French. Meanwhile, peasant revolts were becoming widespread in Vietnamese as the French increased the rubber and rice quotas to respond tofalling world prices.

Ho Chi Minh (Bringer of Light) led the Vietnamese independence movement.He spent 30 years abroad living in places such as Bombay, New York, Paris, Moscow, Beijing, Bangkok, and Hong Kong before returning to Vietnam in 1941. He had become a communist and hoped to help free his homeland from French colonial rule.

During WW2, Japan invaded and occupied Vietnam from 1940-1945. As France had surrendered to Germany in 1940, the Vichy government cooperated with the Japanesetroops in Indochina. In 1941, Ho Chi Minh and Giap created the Viet Minh (League for the Independence of Vietnam). In March 1945, the Japanese expelled French officials from Vietnam and appointed Bao Dai emperor. The Viet Minh continued to resist the Japanese occupation and received support from the USA and China (which wasstill led by non-communist Chiang Kai Shek.)

EarlyViet Minhtroops

In the summer of 1945, the Japanese confiscated the entire rice crop and about 20% of the population died from starvation. The Vietminh seized this opportunityto organize a full-scale revolt and gained further popular support. In July, 1945, Giap’s Viet Minh forces received training and weapons from a small group of American OSS troops who were parachuted into North Vietnam to help the Viet Minhattack the Japanese occupying soldiers.

After the defeat of Germany, the Allied leaders decided at the July, 1945Potsdam Conference that once Japan had been defeated, British and French troopswould temporarily occupy the southern half of the country to disarm the Japanese soldiers, while Chinese nationalists would do the same in the north.

Potsdam conferenceJuly, 1945

Before the Allied troops arrived in Vietnam, Ho Chi Minh seized the opportunity totry to gain independence for his nation. On September 2, 1945, Bao Dai handed over power and Ho Chi Minh declared North Vietnam an independent republicwith himself as president. He quoted the American Declaration of Independence inhis speech. In South Vietnam, a provisional government was also established, but itlacked the appeal and support of Ho Chi Minh’s North Vietnamese government. Aweaker provisional government was set up in South Vietnam.

In 1946, Britain withdrew from Vietnam and passed on their supervisoryresponsibilities to France. On September 21, 1946, the French declared martial law and their troops attacked Viet Minh forces around Saigon. The French gained control of the cities, but the Viet Minh continued to be strong in the countryside and terrorized citizens who supported the French rulers.

French troops in Vietnam

China was involved in its own internal struggles and decided to withdraw from NorthVietnam in 1946. That same year, Ho Chi Minh and French agreed that the Frenchcould bring 25,000 troops into North Vietnam for five years, as long as they promised to hold a referendum after that time to let the people decide on their own government. The French agreed but these elections never took place.

Soon fighting resumed between the French and Vietminh in a conflict Ho Chi Minh named “The Elephant vs the Grasshopper.” France reinstated Bao Daias emperor. In 1949, Mao became leader of China and brought in his communistregime. Both China and the Soviet Union recognized Ho Chi Minh as the legitimate ruler of Vietnam and provided aid to the Vietminh. The Americans beganto provide massive aid to Bao Dai, who deposited $4 million dollars a year in his personal Swiss and Moroccan bank accounts. The Viet Minh grew stronger and recruited women to bolster their ranks.

The decisive battle was fought at Dien Bien Phu, where the Vietminh defeated theFrench in a shocking result. At the 1954 Geneva Peace Conference, it was decided that Vietnam would be temporarily divided into two separate countries: North Vietnam to be headed by Ho Chi Minh and South Vietnam to be ruled by Diem, a Catholic who had American backing. Elections would later be held to re-unite thecountry, but as Diem, Boa Dai and the US government were all opposed to the idea of a national election, this never occurred. The border was temporarily opened anda million Catholics fled south while 50,000 others moved north.

Dien Bien Phu,1954

American president Eisenhower worried about the Domino Theory and suggested if Vietnam became communist, surrounding countries would follow. For this reason, the USA remained heavily involved in Vietnam’s affairs. In 1956, elections were heldheld in both countries. Ho Chi Minh remained ruler in the north. In the south, Diem (aCatholic who had approval of the American government) defeated Bao Dai in a rigged election. Diem’s ballots were red (good luck) while Bao Dai’s ballots were green (bad luck). Diem refused to recognize the terms of the Geneva Accord and refused to negotiate with the North Vietnamese government.

Both new governments were used violence to pursue their goals. The Vietminhenacted drastic land reforms that included the killing of many landlords and violentoppression of those who resisted the changes. In the South, Diem tortured andexecuted people suspected of having Vietminh sympathies. He also persecuted Buddhists, Chinese and anyone he perceived as a threat to his regime. At first, the Americans supported Diem as a strong anti-Catholic leader, but becameIncreasingly concerned by his oppressive policies.

Diem shaking handswith presidentEisenhower

In 1960, civil war broke out between South and North Vietnam. The Americansprovided military aid to the South Vietnamese army (ARVN), while the USSR and China supported the Viet Minh (also known as the North Vietnamese Army or NVA).this point, the Americans had no official troops in Vietnam, only military advisors.

Viet Minh (NVA) soldiers

Violent attacks escalated between Diem’s regime and communist supporters in theSouth (termed Viet Cong). Communist guerrillas assassinated South Vietnamese officials and weapons were brought in from the North to arm rebels. Some NVA soldiers were also dispatched to the region to support the Viet Cong. Diem responded with harsh reprisals against suspected dissidents. US President Kennedy sent a large number of military advisors into South Vietnam (11,000 by 1963) and also deployed a number of Green Berets to try to “win the hearts and minds” of the Vietnamese people as well as train South Vietnamese forces.

Green Berets

Diem increasing relied on his brother-in-law Nhu and his manipulative wife, MadameNhu, more often referred to as the Dragon Lady. When Buddhist monks burned themselves alive in public protests against the Diem government, she clappedher hands and publicly stated she would love to see more barbecues. The monks’actions were instrumental in fueling the American anti-war movement.

This photo of a monkcommitting suicideto protest Diem’santi-Buddhist policiescaused international attention.

In 1962, the Americans introduced the Strategic Hamlet Program. Four millionSouth Vietnamese peasants were moved from 12,000 villages in the countrysideand relocated to barbed wire enclosures to protect them from Viet Cong influence.The VC built tunnels to get in and out of the villages and sometimes assassinatedhamlet leaders who cooperated with the Americans. This program was very unpopularwith most South Vietnamese civilians who greatly resented being moved from theirancestral homelands. In addition, the South Vietnamese sometimes bombed hamletsthey suspected of having strong Viet Cong ties, which caused further outrage.

Some of the Viet Cong tunnels have been preserved. The Cu Chi tunnel complex in Ho Chi Minh City (formerly Saigon) is a popular tourist attraction today.

Some of the tunnel complexes were large and intricate, with enough room and supplies for people to live for weeks underground. Many were booby-trapped.

In 1963, both Diem and Nhu were murdered in an army coup. Although Diem had been popular with the American government in his early days in office (Kennedy even compared him to Winston Churchill) due to his strong anti-communist stance,he had fallen out of favour for his brutal policies and some historians believed that the US supported the coup. His death created a leadership void and politicalinstability in South Vietnam for the next several years. A few weeks after Diem’sassassination, JFK was killed and Vice-President Lyndon Johnson replaced him.

Bullet-ridden and blood-spattered wall show evidenceof army coup

In 1964, President Johnson announced that a North Vietnamese torpedo boat had attacked an American destroyer in the Gulf of Tonkin. Johnson used this aggressive act to convince the US Congress to support increased intervention against the communist North Vietnamese. This was the incident that triggered direct USmilitary involvement in the Vietnam War. Some skeptics have suggested the Gulf of Tonkin attack was exaggerated and used as an excuse to justify the Americanbombing of North Vietnam and the deployment of troops to the South.

American destroyer in the Gulf of Tonkin

In 1965, America officially entered the Vietnam War and Operation Rolling Thunder began: the American bombing of North Vietnam using the powerful B-52 bombers.More bombs would be dropped on Vietnam than were dropped during the entire World War 2, and the small country of Laos received even more bombs than Vietnam.

B-52 Stratofortress

The first American troops landed in Danang on March 8, 1965. Although theiroriginal instructions were merely to defend American bases, the mission soonchanged to a “search and destroy” tactic. About 25% of the American troops in the entire Vietnam war had been drafted or conscripted. Many of these drafteeswere young men from lower middle class working families. Over half a million draftees served in the war, with over 17,000 combat deaths.

One of the most famous American draftees was world championboxer Cassius Clay (who changed his name to Muhammed Ali). In 1967he received his draft notice and refused to serve in Vietnam due to his religious beliefs. He was sentenced to a five year prison term for draft evasion, and although he managed to stay out on bail and not serve jail time, he was stripped of his heavyweight title and was unable to compete for over 3 years.

Tens of thousands of young American draft dodgers fled to Canada and receivedasylum.

1965: Cassius Clay knocksout Sonny Liston to become heavyweight champion of theworld

The Vietminh used guerrilla tactics very effectively. They blended in with the civilian population, and often ambushed American soldiers in the jungle. Theyalso constructed creative booby traps that would inflict terror upon the invaders.

Concealed punji pits that contained sharp spikes (sometimes smeared withfeces or other substances designed to cause infection) were used in the jungle.

Grenades that wouldbe triggered by tripwireswere often used.

The North Vietnamese transported supplies and soldiers along the Ho Chi Minh Trail, along the Laotian border. This became a prime target of the Americans,who tried to defoliate the entire region with chemicals such as Agent Orange). The natural vegetation was destroyed and left contaminated for future generations. Herbicides were also used to destroy the rice paddies which hurt peasant farmers.

Many Vietnamese children were bornwith horrific birth defects after theirparents were exposed to Agent Orange.In some cases, these genetic mutations were passed down to multiple generations.

The Americans used napalm, a jelly-like explosive, in their bombs, that was firstused during World War 2 in flame throwers and firebombs. These bombs causedtremendous human and environmental suffering.

This Pulitzer-prize winning photo shows young Vietnamese napalm victims fleeing in pain and terror and helped to fuel the anti-war movement. South Vietnamese planes had mistakingly bombed innocent civilians.

Many traditional farming hamlets were destroyed to reduce the Viet Cong influencewhich left millions of farming families homeless. As a result, 25%of South Vietnam’s population (4 million people) fled to the big cities such as Saigon. This led to many social problems such as poverty, crime, disease, and sanitation issues.

Countrysidedevastatedby bombingcampaign

In 1968, the VC troops attacked over 100 cities and military bases in SouthVietnam in the surprise Tet Offensive. The Americans held off the attacks andwon every military battle, but the offensive was a public relations success for the VietCong as it created public backlash in the US. President Johnson had assured the American people that the VC had been virtually eliminated in South Vietnam and that the war was almost over. The call for the removal of American forces grew stronger.

In 1969, President Nixon (who had defeated Johnson in the election) began a secret bombing campaign against Cambodia. When news leaked out, the anti-war protests intensified. As well, news broke of the massacre of MyLai, where women and children had been gunned down by a small number ofAmerican soldiers.

In 1969, President Nixon announced a new Vietnamisation program, wherebyAmerican troops would reduce their active combat duties and would hand over fighting duties to the South Vietnamese. This would pave the way for the eventual US withdrawal from Vietnam.

In 1970, Nixon announced that the Americans had invaded Cambodia to try todestroy the communist supply depots and bases along the border with Vietnam. The Viet Cong and Cambodian communist Khmer Rouge rebels both provided resistance.American troop morale was at its lowest point. Hundreds of fraggings were reported(the grenading of officers). “Grenades leave no fingerprints. Nobody’s going tojail.” (anonymous soldier). Once again the anti-war movement grew stronger, as Nixonhad promised the war was ending and this seemed like an escalation.

In 1970, four unarmed students at Kent State University were shot by the NationalGuard during a peaceful protest against the American invasion of Cambodia, which caused more backlash against the war.

In 1973, a formal ceasefire was announced and the Americans pulled out all troops.Fighting resumed soon after and the North Vietnamese Communist troopstook control of the entire country by April 1975. The largest helicopter airliftin history took place in Saigon as 1000 Americans and 6000 South Vietnamesewere evacuated. Many others fled the country and ended up in refugee camps in Thailand and other nearby countries.

Some of the Vietnam War civilian refugees fled by small ships to neighboringcountries such as Thailand and Malaysia and became known as the “boat people.”International news agencies covered their stories and many countries, includingCanada, accepted tens of thousands of these refugees.

Small vessel approaches Singapore

Many of these vessels were very crowded and unsafe and many capsized.Pirates also roamed the seas and robbed refugees .

After the communist victory, the country was reunited and Saigon was renamed Ho Chi Minh City. Although mass executions did not occur, many South Vietnameseresidents were sent to re-education camps and relocated to the countryside. Vietnamremained communist with close ties to the Soviets.

The cost of the Vietnam War was devastating for both sides. The Americanssuffered 55,000 deaths and spent approximately $100 billion. The Vietnamesehad 2 million deaths and saw their country devastated. After the Vietnam War,Nixon announced the end of the Truman Doctrine.

Vietnam WarMemorial inWashington