The Use of Isaiah 45:23 in Philippians 2:10-11The Use of Isaiah 45:23 in Philippians 2:10-11

David HerringThe Old Testament in the New

Dr. Roy CiampaNT 693

Introduction

The majority of the research that has sought to undertake an interpretation of Philippians

2:5-11 over the last century has greatly focused on the first half of the Christ-hymn, 2:6-8. This

is certainly reasonable and appropriate given the density and difficulty of the terminology and

theological implications resident in the text. Terms like arpagmo.n, morfh/| qeou/, to. ei=nai i;sa

qew/, and evke,nwsen beggar serious investigation as do the implications for Adamic Christology,

Servant Christology, and the pre-existence of Jesus.1 However, with so much focus on the first

half of the hymn, the second half, 2:9-11, is often lost in the shuffle. The issue that particularly

slips under the radar is the significance of the citation/adaptation of Isaiah 45:23 in Phil.2:10-11.

The citation is universally recognized by commentators and researchers, but the function and

import of this citation in the context of Philippians 2 is seldom explored.2 Therefore, we will

attempt below to understand Isa.45:23 in its context, analyze the use of this text in the antiquated

Jewish literature, look at the use of the text elsewhere in the New Testament, and examine the

significance of the text in the context of Phil.2:10-11 to see if or how it nuances Phil.2.

1 Cf. E. Lohemeyer, Kyrios Jesus: Eine Untersuchung Zu Phil. 2,5-11 (SHAW; Heidelberg: Carl Winter Universitatsverlag, 1927, 1961), Ernst Käsemann, “A Critical Analysis of Philippians 2:5-11” in God and Christ: Existence and Province, ed. by Robert W. Funk (JCT 5; New York: Harper & Row, 1968, originally published in German in 1950), Ralph P. Martin, Carmen Christi: Philippians 2:5-11 in Recent Interpretations and in the Setting of Early Christian Worship (SBLMS 4; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1967), I. Howard Marshall, “The Christ-Hymn in Philippians,” Tyndale Bulletin 19 (1968): 104-127, C.F.D. Moule, “Further Reflections on Philippians 2:5-11” in Apostolic History and the Gospel, ed. by W. Ward Gasque and Ralph P. Martin (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1970), Roy W. Hoover, “The Harpogmos Enigma: A Philological Solution,” Harvard Theological Review 64 (1971): 95-119, Robert E. Wilson, “‘He Emptied Himself,’” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 19 (1976): 279-281, George Howard, “Phil.2:6-11 and the Human Christ,” Catholic Biblical Quarterly 40 (1978): 368-87, N.T. Wright, “arpagmo,j and the Meaning of Philippians 2:5-11,” Journal of Theological Studies 37 (1986): 321-52, L.D. Hurst, “Re-enter the Pre-Existent Christ in Philippians 2.5-11,” New Testament Studies 32 (1986): 449-57, and Brendan Byrne, “Christ’s Pre-Existence in Pauline Soteriology,” Theological Studies 58 (1997): 308-30.2 For instance, many recognize allusions to Isa.52:13-53:12 in 2:7, Isa.45:23 in 2:10-11, Deut.32:5 in 2:15, Dan.12:3 in 2:15, but almost nothing has been done to find out how all these allusions fit together. Moreover, there is no work we have seen in English that attempts to probe the use of the Old Testament in Philippians. Bruce L. Fields wrote his dissertation on “Paul as Model: The Rhetoric and Old Testament Background of Philippians 3:1-4:1” at Marquette University in 1995, but this work’s look at the Old Testament background is limited to Isaiah and Jeremiah as “prophetical models” for Paul and does not focus on any textual allusions. Richard Bauckham seems to be one of the rare exceptions, cf. “The Worship of Jesus in Philippians 2:9-11” in Where Christology Began: Essays on Philippians 2 ed. by Ralph P. Martin and Brian J. Dodd (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 1998).

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Original Context of Isaiah 45:23

Place of Isaiah 45 in Isaiah 40-66. As Isaiah prophetically anticipates the inevitable

judgment Judah will face at the hands of the Babylonians,3 God is quick to give comfort to his

people (40:1-2). In lieu of the comfort God seeks to give to his people, God is concerned that

they are thoroughly convinced that He is able and willing to restore them. They had sought after

false gods of those nations around them (which is evident from corresponding historical texts,

compare Isa.1:1 with 2 Kgs.15:1-7; 32-38; 16:1-20, and Isa.3:1-3; 17:7-9; 30:19-22; 31:6-7,

et.al.) and have broken their covenant with the Lord. Thus, He launches into a polemical

interrogation of these gods, to set forth their case if they are “gods” (41:21ff.). This “case”

consists of describing the past (“former things;” 41:22) so that they might describe the outcome

in the future (“things to come;” 41:22). Since, obviously, they can’t respond (41:28), God

quickly concludes, “Behold, you are nothing, and your work is less than nothing; an abomination

is he who chooses you” (41:24).4 He asserts, “I was the first to say to Zion, ‘Behold, here they

are!’ and I give to Jerusalem a herald of good news. But when I look there is no one. (41:27-

28a). God then proves his sovereignty by declaring new things. It is this polemic that sets the

stage for God to declare future grace to his people in the person of his servant (42:1-9;

anticipating 49:1-13; 50:4-11; 52:13-53:12; 61:1-9) and in the person of Cyrus (44:28;

anticipating 45:1-48:22). Both the servant and Cyrus will be used by God to subdue nations

3 Assuming the Isaianic authorship of the entire prophetic anthology circa 740-680 BCE, following F. Delitzsch, The Prophecies of Isaiah (COT Vol.7; Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1996, series first published from 1866-91), p.384-90, Roland K. Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1969), p.764-95, E.J. Young, The Book of Isaiah: The English Text, with Introduction, Exposition, and Notes (NICOT; Vol.2, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1972), p.17, Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton, A Survey of the Old Testament (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1991), p.319-20 J. Alec Motyer, The Prophecy of Isaiah: An Introduction and Commentary (Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 1993), p.25-33, and John N. Oswalt, The Book of Isaiah: Chapters 40-66 (NICOT; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998), p.3-6.4 He goes to mock them quite heavily in 44:9-20 noting the irony that these “gods” are the ones that are created (vs.10-11) and not doing the creating, and that the same wood which they are made from is burned in the fire (vs.14-17); they are only blocks of wood (vs.19).

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(comp. 42:1 and 45:1) and provide release for Israel (comp.42:7 and 45:13).5 Cyrus, in

particular, would be raised up to judge Babylon for her idolatry and wicked treatment of Israel

(47:6) as they would occupy Jerusalem (44:28) and hold Israel captive in exile (48:20),

according to 39:1-8 (invoking the need for comfort in 40:1ff). Chapter 45 introduces Cyrus6 and

his mission, that, although he does not know God (45:5), he will build Jerusalem (“My city”) and

let the exiles free (45:13) to demonstrate that God “is the Lord, and there is no other; Beside

[him] there is no other” (45:5). The whole chapter captures this strongly (45:6,9,11-13,14-

15,18,21-24) and recapitulates the interrogation with a strong appeal for people from all nations

to come and be saved along with Israel (45:20,22-24).

Immediate Context of Isaiah 45:20-25. The crescendo of Isaiah 45 is most certainly

vs.20-25. After declaring that he will cause nations to subdue to him in the first portion of the

chapter (vs.1-14), God declares in the last portion that He will ultimately cause all nations to

subdue to Him (vs.20-25). This is alluded to in vs.9-10, 15-17, but is fully realized in vs.23-25.

Cyrus serves as a type of what will be fulfilled in the eschaton, namely, that God will cause all to

5 The releases, both through Cyrus, and the Servant of the Lord, are viewed in terms of a “Second-Exodus” in Isaiah (cf. 40:3-5; 41:4,9,17-20; 42:13-16; 43:1-3,14-21; 44:2,7,27; 46:3ff.; 48:8,20-21; 49:8-12; 51:9-10; 52:4,11-12; 54:3; 55:12-13; 58:8; 60:2,19; 63:1ff). See G. von Rad, Old Testament Theology (Vol.2, New York: Harper & Row, 1960), 239ff., B.W. Anderson, “Exodus Typology in Second Isaiah” in Israel’s Prophetic Heritage, ed. by B.W. Anderson and W. Harrelson (New York: Harper and Bros., 1962), 177-95; idem, “Exodus and Covenant in Second Isaiah and Prophetic Tradition” in Magnalia Dei: The Mighty Acts of God, ed. by F.M. Cross et al. (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1976), 339-360, J. Blenkinsopp, “Scope and Depth of the Exodus Tradition in Deutero-Isaiah, 40-55,” Concilium 20 (1966): 41-50, C. Stuhlmueller, Creative Redemption in Deutero-Isaiah (An.Bib. 43; Rome: Biblical Institute, 1970) chapter 4, J.D.W. Watts, Isaiah 34-66 (WBC; Waco, TX: Word, 1987), 80f., H.M. Barstad, A Way in the Wilderness: The ‘Second Exodus’ in the Message of Second Isaiah (JSSM 12; Manchester: University of Manchester Press, 1989), and G.P. Hugenberger, “The Servant of the Lord in the ‘Servant Songs’ of Isaiah: A Second Moses Figure” in The Lord’s Anointed: Interpretation of Old Testament Messianic Texts ed. by P.E. Satterthwaite, R.S. Hess, and G.J. Wenham (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1995).6 A very interesting thing that we see in 45:1 is that Cyrus called the “anointed” (Axyvim.), a term normally reserved for kings of Israel (1 Sam.2:10,35; 10:1, 12:3,5; 15:17; 26:9,11; 2 Sam.23:1; Ps.18:50, et al.), other special consecrated servants (Lev.4:5,5,16; 6:22; Ps.105:15, et al.), and of the “coming Messiah” (Isa.61:1ff.) For a very helpful discussion of the Lord’s “anointed” or “Messiah” in biblical theology see Charles H.H. Scobie, The Ways of Our God: An Approach to Biblical Theology (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2003), p.301-34. He comments: “‘Messiah’ thus refers in the first instance to specific historical persons chosen by God as his instruments: David is God’s messiah, the high priest is God’s messiah, Cyrus is God’s messiah. These and other similar persons are chosen by God in the present, in history, and not as an ideal future figure. That development came later...” (p.302).

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bow to him (comp.vs.14 and vs.23)7 while saving some (comp.vs.13 and vs.25) and judging

others (comp.vs.14 and vs.24). Verses 20-21 recapitulates in miniature the interrogation scene in

41:22ff. so as to confirm the verdict as though it has already taken place (45:14), only it is

directed at the “survivors (jyliP') of the nations” (vs.20). Evidently, these are the “would be”

survivors of Babylon after they are conquered by Cyrus (vs.14)8 which God chooses to address

eschatologically.9 J. Alec Motyer comments,10

In the central chapters of the section (45:9-46:13) Cyrus has dropped into the background and Isaiah’s concern is that Israel should be enabled to see the Cyrus-event in the context of the Lord’s world-wide and eternal purposes. The immediate context focuses on these purposes as they touch the salvation of the Gentiles. As we have seen, verses 14-17 and 18-25 share this theme but from differing perspectives. The former being written from Israel’s point of view..., and the latter from the point of view of the Gentiles.11

Although judgment of these survivors might be expected since the Lord had proven his case

(vs.21), he offers salvation instead: “Turn to me and be saved, all the ends of the earth!”

(vs.22).12 This offer is grounded (yKi) in the concept that God is the only God, saying essentially,

“If you want a God, I am the only real God”. Having already established that what he speaks is

7 The lexical parallels here are not precise, but are effective nonetheless as both hx'v' (vs.14) and [r;K' (vs.23) are translated throughout the LXX with proskune,w (Gen.23:7,12; 24:26,48; Ps.21:30; 2 Chr.29:29). They are even brought together in synonymous parallelism in Ps.95:6: Wnfe[ hw"hy>-ynEp.li hk'r>b.nI h['r'k.nIw> hw<x]T;v.nI WaB.8 So Klaus Blatzer, Deutero-Isaiah (Hermeneia; Minneapolis: Fortress, 2001), p.249. However, he sees them here in “unfavorable terms,” which is certainly clear in the context (“they have no knowledge,” vs.20), but that is precisely the point. As Israel will experience judgment (spoken of in “unfavorable terms,” see above) and be restored, so the nations will experience judgment and be offered restoration.9 “[O]ur prophet here takes his stand not at the close of any particular victory of Cyrus, but at the close of all his victories; and, in his view, these terminate the whole series of catastrophes, which are outlived by a remnant of the heathen, who are converted to Jehovah, and thus complete the final glory of the restored people of God” (F. Delitzsch, The Prophecies of Isaiah [OTC Vol.7; Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1996, originally 1866-91], p.450).10 The Prophecy of Isaiah, p.36511 Watts (Isaiah 34-66, p.160ff.) sees the “perspectives” here as a dialog between God and Cyrus, which is convincing at face value. However, he sees vs.20-25 as Cyrus judging and offering salvation which runs against the grain of every fiber in this text. Every indication is given that God is talking (cf. “Was it not I, the Lord?” vs.21, “I am God and there is no other,” vs.22, “Only in the Lord, it will be said of me...,” vs.24).12 So Christopher R. Seitz, “The Book of Isaiah 40-66: Introduction, Commentary, and Reflections” in The New Interpreter’s Bible: A Commentary in Twelve Volumes (Vol.6; Nashville: Abington, 2001), p.401, Claus Westermann, Isaiah 40-66: A Commentary (OTL; Philadelphia: Westminster, 1969), p.176, and Brevard S. Childs, Isaiah (OTL; Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2001), p.355ff. Childs notes: “What now occurs in vv.22-25 is astonishing and unexpected, going beyond anything so far seen in Second Isaiah” (p.355).

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true and righteous (qd,c,, vs.19), he amplifies this support by declaring another righteous word

(“going out in righteousness[hq'd'c.]”): “To me every knee shall bow, every tongue shall

confess” (vs.23). The content of this confession seems to be found in vs.24: “It shall be said of

me, ‘Only in the Lord are righteousness (tAqd'c .) and strength’”. This will result in shame for

those who come to him in anger (vs.24a) and glory for the offspring of Israel who are justified

(WqïD>c.yI) in the Lord (vs.25). The subsequent context applies this in inaugurated form (46:1ff.).

Meaning of Isaiah 45:23. The phrase, “By myself I have sworn” (yTi[.B;v.nI yBi) appears

to have been lifted from Gen.22:16 in the context of the Abrahamic covenant:13

By myself I have sworn, declares the LORD, because you have done this and have not withheld your son, your only son, I will surely bless you, and I will surely multiply your offspring as the stars of heaven and as the sand that is on the seashore. And your offspring shall possess the gate of his enemies, and in your offspring shall all the nations of the earth be blessed, because you have obeyed my voice. (vs.16-18 ESV)

This synapse of the Abrahamic covenant rehearses and reaffirms the first promise to Abraham

(Gen.12:1-3), the ratifying event (Gen.15:1-21), and the perennial oath-sign (Gen.17:1-26).

Abraham receives due mention in Isaiah (29:22; 41:8; 51:2, 63:16) and the covenant with him

provides the warrant and previous demonstration of God’s mercy to the nations/Gentiles. The

parallels of Isa.45:20-25 with Gen.22:16-18 point to its eschatological application:14

Assemble yourselves and draw near together, you survivors of the nations (~yIAGh; yjeyliP)...Turn to me and be saved, all the ends of the earth (#r,a'-ysep.a;-lK')...By

13 Motyer, p.366, Delitzsch, p.450, and Baltzer, Deutero-Isaiah, p.250 all point to Gen.22:16 as a parallel but do not explore a connection any further. Walter Brueggemann, although not pointing out the connection to Gen.22, unwittingly points to Gen.12 in his comments for vs.24-25: “There can be no doubt that exilic Isaiah is singularly focused on the future well-being of Israel. Of course, since Genesis 12:3 the well-being of Israel had at its center the additional affirmation, ‘in you all the families of the earth shall be blessed.’ That counterpoint that reaches beyond Israel seems to be reiterated in these verses. The poet knows that the horizon of creation extends to all creatures.” (Isaiah 40-66 [WBC; Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 1998], p.86).14 There is also a strong connection of Isa.45:25 with Gen.15:6 as both speak of a benefactor being justified (WqïD>c.yI, and hq"d'c. AL h'b,v.x.Y:w: respectively).

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myself I have sworn (yTi[.B;v.nI yBi)...In the LORD all the offspring of Israel (laer'f.yI [r;z<-lK') shall be justified and shall glory. (Isa.45:20-25)

By myself I have sworn (yTi[.B;v.nI yBi)...I will surely multiply your offspring (^[]r.z:)...and in your offspring (^ê[]r.z:b .) all the nations of the earth (#r,a'h' yyEAG lKo) be blessed. (Gen.22:16-18)

What might account for the submission language (“every knee shall bow...every tongue shall

confess”) in Isa.45:23 in association with the Abrahamic covenant is the lexical link of %rB,

which can mean “bless” as it does in Gen.22:17-18 or “to kneel down” as it does in Ps.95:6.15 In

fact the alternate meaning of %r;B', which normally means “bless,” is “praise, adore”.16 Thus,

there is the likelihood of a wordplay on %r;B' (“bless”) in Gen.22:17-18 with %r,B, (“knee”) in

Isa.45:23 since there were no vowel pointings in the original text.

In the context, then, a lesser to the greater contrast is made between Cyrus and God. If

nations will bow to Cyrus on account of what the Lord will do through him, so every nation will

bow and confess that He alone is God. The very evidence that points to God being the only God

with no gods beside Him, namely the declaration that Cyrus will return Israel in the future

(45:13), is the same evidence that bears witness to God restoring Israel in the eschaton (45:25)

and causing all to bow and confess him as the only God (45:23). All of these things will

transpire under the umbrella of the Abrahamic covenant.

Isaiah 45:23 in Jewish Literature

Second Temple Literature. Isaiah 45:23 is not cited explicitly by any literature of the

Second Temple period, nor is there any combination of “bowing” and “confessing” to God found

together in any context. There are, however, texts that do include either “bowing” or

15 See The Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament (Vol.1. st. ed.; ed. by Ludwig Koehler and Walter Baumgartner; rev. by. Baumgartner and Johann Jakob Stamm; trans. under M.E.J. Richardson; Leiden: Brill, 2001), p.159.16 ibid.

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“confessing” to God both at that present time, or in the eschaton. “Bowing” and “confessing” to

God was something common place in the Ancient Near East and in antiquity as can be seen in

worship, psalms, hymns, and prayers. When Mordecai prays to God he says,

Thou knowest all things; thou knowest, O Lord, that it was not in insolence or pride or for any love of glory that I did this, and refused to bow down to Haman. For I would have been willing to kiss the soles of his feet, to save Israel! But I did this, that I might not set the glory of man above the glory of God, and I will not bow down to any one but to thee, who art my Lord; and I will not do these things in pride. (Additions to the Book of Esther 13:12-14 RSV)

In Sirach 39:15, the author says, “Magnify his name, and confess him with praise, with songs on

your lips and with lyres, and this is what you are to say in your thanksgiving” (Godspeed). The

author of 2 Maccabees explains his faithfulness:

I, like my brothers, give up body and life for the laws of our fathers, appealing to God to show mercy soon to our nation and by afflictions and plagues to make you confess that he alone is God, and through me and my brothers to bring to an end the wrath of the Almighty which has justly fallen on our whole nation. (7:37-38)

In the context of idolatry, we read in Jubilees, “Do not worship them and do not bow down to

them. But worship the Most High God, and bow down to him continually” (20:8b-9a). Before

she died, Eve is said to have “stretched out her hands to heaven, praying, and bent her knees to

the ground and worshiped the Lord, giving thanks” (Life of Adam and Eve 50:3). Philo surmised

that Abraham’s falling on his face (Gen.17:17) was “an act of adoration on account of the excess

of his divine ecstasy...” and that “...it corresponds to and is suitable to the aforesaid harmony, by

which the intellect has confessed that God alone exists in a continual and unvarying existence”

(Questions and Answers on Genesis, III 55). Philo considered it an “act of sober reason, both to

confess that God is the Creator and the Father of the universe; and the conduct of one utterly

fallen in intoxication and drunkenness, to fancy that he himself is the bringer about of each of

human affairs” (On the Posterity of Cain and His Exile 175).

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In the apocalyptic and eschatological context, “bowing” and “confessing” to the

sovereign God was inevitable. In a polemic against idolatry and idolaters, the Sibylline Oracles

declare, “Then they will bend a white knee on the fertile ground to God the great immortal king

but all handmade works will fall in a flame of fire” (3:615). A similar polemic is found against

Israel’s enemies in the Testament of Moses: “And recognizing them, you will rejoice. And you

will give thanks. Yea, you will confess your creator” (10:10). Qumran concurred that “[e]very

[creature?] will bless him, and every man will bow down before Him, [and they will have] a

single heart. For he [knows?] their actions before they were created, and [makes] of the service

of justice the division of their frontiers...” (4 Q215 2:6a-8). In the Martyrdom and Ascension of

Isaiah we find similar themes as in Isa.45:23-25 as the worship in heaven is described:

And when they all heard the voice of the Holy Spirit, they all worshiped on their knees, and they praised the God of righteousness, the Most High, the One who (dwells) in the upper world and who sits on high, the Holy One, the One who rests among the holy ones, and they ascribed glory to the One who had thus graciously given a door in an alien world, had graciously given it to a man. (7:8-10a)

The writer of 1 Enoch pictured the Son of Man reigning on the earth: “All those who dwell upon

the earth shall fall and worship before him; they shall glorify, bless, and sing the name of the

Lord of the Spirits” (48:6) Drawing from the content of Isaiah (esp.Isa.11), the Qumran

community also anticipated the Messiah’s rule: “over the rulers; bef[ore you peoples shall bow

down, and all nations serve you. He shall make mighty his holy name...” (1Q28b 5:28 Abegg).

Thus there is a link between the one and only God and the Messiah both receiving worship and

allegiance from all the nations.

Rabbinic Literature. The rabbinic material focuses mostly on the first part of

Isa.45:23: “By myself I have sworn, a word has gone from my mouth in righteousness and will

not return”. The first part is normally cited as support that what God swears is steadfast and

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irrevocable. Commenting on the events preceding the Golden Calf incident, the first part of our

text is chosen to support the surety of God’s promise to Moses:

“Sovereign of all the worlds! Swear to me that all things which I desire to do, Though wilt do, so that I should not speak words before Pharaoh, and Thou wilt not fulfill them, for then will he slay me.” And He swore unto him that “whatsoever thou desirest to do, I will do, except with reference to two things,” (namely) to let him enter the land (of Canaan), and (to postpone) the day of (his) death. Whence do we know that He swore unto him? Because it is said, “By myself I have sworn, said the Lord, the word is gone out from my mouth in righteousness”. (Pirke de Rabbi Eliezer 62b.ii)

In defense of an interpretation of the phrase “like a stone,” Rabbi Ishmael says,

Because they made their heart hard like a stone. But Thou, O God, Thy goodness and many kindnesses and Thy mercies are upon us, and Thy right hand is stretch out to all who into the world, as it is said: “Thy right hand, O Lord...Thy right hand, O Lord” (v.6)-two times. “But Thy hand, and Thine arm, and the light of Thy countenance, because Thou was favourable unto them” (Ps.44.4). And it is written, “By Myself I have sworn, the word is gone forth from my mouth in righteousness and shall not come back” (Isa.45.23). (Tractate Shirata 5:35)

In the Minor Tractates of the Talmud, Rabbi Judah [the Prince] said: “The way of the disciples of

the wise is to be meek and lowly of spirit” (Kallah Rabbathi 3.1). In the Gemara, the question is

asked, “Whence is this derived?” The first text that is quoted is Zeph.2:3, “Seek the Lord, all

you humble of the land, who do his just commands; seek righteousness; seek humility; perhaps

you may be hidden on the day of the anger of the Lord”. From this the subject of death arises

and a number of rabbis and sages are quoted along with their biblical texts. It is in this line of

thinking that we find support from Isa.45:23.

[Speaking of the Lord] For men shall not see Me and live, [meaning,] in their lifetime they do not see Me, but at their death they do see Me, as it is stated, All they that go down to the dust shall kneel before Him (Ps.22:30). Forthwith man testifies against himself all that he had done in this world. His mouth testifies and the Holy One, blessed be He, seals [his testimony], as it is stated, By myself I have sworn, the word is gone forth from My mouth in righteousness, and shall not come back. Therefore it is necessary that a man should reflect upon his latter end.

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Here, Ps.22:30 (MT) is connected to Isa.45:23, as both speak of all the nations bowing before the

Lord, invoking the gezerah shewah principle.17 The context of Zeph.2:3 recounts a similar

invitation that we see in Isa.45:22.

There are only two occasions where the latter part of our verse is cited in the rabbinic

literature. In The Midrash on Psalms, the meaning of “avowel” in Ps.100 is discussed:

R. Jacob taught in the name of R. Abbahu who taught in the name of R Aha: The words A Psalm of avowel, etc., mean that the Holy One, blessed be He, declared: Let all the lands of the earth avow Me, and I shall receive them, as is said Look unto Me, and be ye saved, all the ends of the earth; for I am God, and there is none else. By Myself I have sworn, the word is gone forth from My mouth in righteousness, and shall not come back, that unto Me every knee shall bow, every tongue shall swear (Isa.45:22-23)-that is, “When every knee bows to Me and every tongue swears, I will receive them”. (100.1)

Again, gezerah shewah is used here as “confess” or “avow” is the operative term. In quite a

different environment, the Babylonian Talmud interprets this texts in the light of birth:

As soon as it [a child] sees the light, an angel approaches, slaps it on its mouth and causes it to forget all the Torah completely, as it is said, Sin coucheth at the door. It does not emerge from there before it is made to take an oath, as it is said, That unto Me every knee shall bow, every tongue swear; ‘That unto Me every knee shall bow’ refers to the day of dying of which it is said, All they that go down to dust shall kneel down before Him (Ps.22:30); ‘Every tongue shall swear’ refers to the day of birth of which it is said, He that hath clean hands, and a pure heart, who hath not taken My name in vain, and hath not sworn deceitfully. (Niddah 30b)

This passage also looks to Ps.22:30 (MT) as an interpretive text, which may represent a

standardized tradition of its meaning.

Isaiah 45:23 Elsewhere in New Testament

Romans 14. The only other time in the New Testament where Isa.45:23 is quoted is in

Rom.14:11. Paul begins this chapter by segmenting to a discussion on “quarreling”

17 Ps.22:27-29 reads, “All the ends of the earth shall remember and turn to the LORD, and all the families of the nations shall worship before you. For kingship belongs to the LORD, and he rules over the nations. All the prosperous of the earth eat and worship; before him shall bow all who go down to the dust, even the one who could not keep himself alive” (ESV).

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(dialogismw/n) over opinions with those who are weak in faith. He builds a series of contrasts as

what these quarrels are about in 14:2-6, whether it’s about dietary matters or Sabbath

observance, and he questions how they can be questioning others who are serving another master

(vs.4): “Who are you to be passing judgment?”. So here he begins to establish that they will all

be judged by their master, namely the Lord, and that they are living to the Lord. This is because

“none of us lives to himself, and none of dies to himself” (vs.7). It is at the point where he

mentions “living” and “dying” that Christ enters the discussion, since Christ died and rose again

in order to be Lord of the living and the dead (vs.9), implying that Christ achieved Lordship over

all realms. This again raises the question: “Why do you pass judgment on your brother?”

(vs.10). Paul supports his question by making the indisputable point that “we will all stand

before the judgment seat of God,” citing Isa.45:23 as his biblical basis: “For it is written, ‘As I

live, says the Lord, every knee shall bow to me (o[ti evmoi. ka,myei pa/n go,nu), and every tongue

shall confess to God (kai. pa/sa glw/ssa evxomologh,setai tw/| qew/)’” (vs.11). It is uncertain where

“As I live, says the Lord” (zw/ evgw,( le,gei ku,rioj) came from. This is a formula used elsewhere

in Isaiah (49:18) and in a number of other places (Num.14:28; Jer.22:24; Eze.5:11), and may just

be “an appropriation of biblical language”18 as he was quoting from memory19 or a paraphrase of

“By myself I have sworn” (katV evmautou/ ovmnu,w) from the opening of Isa.45:23. Either way, he

quotes the latter part of Isa.45:23 LXX word for word. The only disagreement the LXX has with

the Masoretic text is the addition of tw/| qew/ (“to God”), which Paul does include.

Much could be said about the implications of this citation in the context, but for our

purposes we will only make three observations. First, 15:1ff. doesn’t break from 14:1ff as they

18 C.D. Stanley, Paul and the Language of Scripture: Citation Technique in the Pauline Epistles and Contemporary Literature (SNTSMS 74; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), p.177, so Thomas R. Schreiner, Romans (BECNT; Grand Rapids: Baker, 1998), p.722-23.19 Peter Stuhlmacher, Paul’s Letter to the Romans: A Commentary (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 1994), p.255. So Douglas J. Moo, Romans (NICNT; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1996), p.847

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both address the issue of dealing with those who are “weaker” (comp. avsqenou/nta in 14:1 to

avsqenh,mata in 15:1). So it is reasonable to assume that implications of Isa.45:23 trickle into

15:1ff. Second, Paul quotes Isa.45:23 to address his concerns he has about quarreling and

personal judgment in the church. He wants them to “pursue the things which make for peace and

the building up of one another” (14:19). The strong shouldn’t judge the weak, but they should

seek to serve them (15:1-3). So unity and serving others (douleu,wn tw/| Cristw/) is germane to

the context, as he had previously established in 12:3ff. Third, and lastly, Christ died and was

resurrected for the very purpose of assuming Lordship over the living and the death (vs.9).20

This point surfaces three more times in the subsequent discussion (14:15; 15:3; 15:8-9) to

undergird his argument from different angles. Since Christ died and rose from the dead, He has

become the judge of all. Thus, judging others tears down what He himself accomplished

(14:15). Christ, in His death, exemplified focusing on others because he did not please Himself

but bore our reproaches (15:3) and serves as a model for us. Also, Christ died and rose again (or

“has become a servant [dia,konon] to the circumcision”) to unify all peoples to glorify God

(15:9). The link of 14:11 and 15:6 is particularly strong: “so that with one accord you may with

one voice glorify the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ”.

Context of Philippians 2:10-11

Schema of Philippians.21 Although some may contend that “Joy from the Jailhouse” is

the theme of Philippians, we are convinced that “Striving for Unity in the Gospel” best brings

coherence to the letter. It is true that cara, (“joy”) and its cognates are predominant (14 times),

20 Although some may think that the reference to Isa.45:23 in Rom.14:11 doesn’t apply to Jesus because it says “confess to God” and not “to Jesus”, the context simply will not tolerate such a thought. The entire argument hinges on the fact that Jesus died and rose again in order that He might be Lord of the living and the dead (14:9). Therefore, if “every knee” is not “bowing and confessing” to Jesus the Lord, then it would be worthless to even mention why Jesus died and rose again. The very fact that the “judgment seat (bh,mati) of God” (Rom.14:10) and “judgment seat (bh,matoj) of Christ” (2 Cor.5:10) is interchangeable confirms this.21 Much of this material has been adapted and modified from the author’s “A Discourse Analysis of Philippians”.

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but this does not necessitate that this is the theme.22 The key to unlocking the overarching theme

of Philippians is found, we believe, by following the semantical relationship from phrase to

phrase, pericope to pericope, and argument to argument.23 Thus, in this method, lexical

frequency is only part of the picture. In 1:12, Paul opens the body with “I want you to know”

(Ginw,skein de uma/j bou,lomai). This disclosure formula at the beginning of a letter

communicates that the following information is crucial to the rest of letter. He wanted the

Philippians to know that the suffering he was undergoing was resulting “in the furtherance of the

gospel” (eivj prokoph.n tou/ euvaggeli,ou).24 He talks about this for the next five verses noting the

division in attitudes (tine.j me.n…, tine.j de..…). Then he presents his attitude (1:18-26) that he

rejoices (cai,rw) in the fact that Christ is preached (Cristo.j katagge,lletai) regardless of how he

is preached (ei;te profa,sei ei;te avlhqei,a). He is single-minded in his pursuit of the glory of

God both in life and imminent death (1:20-21), acknowledging that he has a greater desire to be

22 “It is more accurate to maintain that joy is the prevailing mood of the epistle, not its central theme” (Robert C. Swift, “The Theme and Structure of Philippians”, p.234). If overall word frequency dictated themes, then we could suppose that “Unity” is the theme because of the frequency of the words kai and de. However, this is not the case. This kind of thinking maybe why past commentators such as Adolf Deissman and J.B. Lightfoot regarded Philippians as having no real structure or “art” (Peter O’Brien, The Epistle of Paul to the Philippians, [NIGTC; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing, 1991], p.35). For alternative approaches, see also Ronald Russell, “Pauline Letter Structure in Philippians,” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 25 (1982): 295-102, Robert C. Swift, “The Theme and Structure of Philippians,” Bibliotheca Sacra 141 (1984): 234-54, David Alan Black, “Discourse Structure of Philippians: A Study in Textlinguistics,” Novum Testamentum 37 (1995): 16-49, John Banker, A Semantical and Structural Analysis of Philippians (Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics, 1996), Jeffrey T. Reed, A Discourse Analysis of Philippians: Method and Rhetoric in the Debate over Literary Integrity (JSNTSS 136; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1997), Casey Wayne Davis, Oral Biblical Criticism: The Influence of the Principles of Orality on the Literary Structure of Paul's Epistle to the Philippians (JSNTSS 172; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1999), Paul A. Holloway, Consolation in Philippians: Philosophical Sources and Rhetorical Strategy (SNTSMS 112; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), and the collection of articles in Discourse Analysis and Other Topics in Biblical Greek, ed. by Stanley E. Porter and D.A. Carson (JSNTSS 113; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1995) which include George H. Guthrie, “Cohesion Shifts and Stitches in Philippians,” Stephen H. Levinsohn, “A Discourse Study of Constituent Order and the Article in Philippians,” Jeffrey Reed, “Indentifying Theme in the New Testament: Insights from Discourse Analysis,” and Moisés Silva, “Discourse Analysis and Philippians”.23 Cf. John Beekman, John Callow, and Michael Kopesec, The Semantic Structure of Written Communication (fifth rev.; Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics, 1981)24 This section is marked out by an inclusio with the word “advancement” (prokoph.n) being used in both 1:12 and 1:25. So the advancement of the gospel resulting from his imprisonment is his topic of discussion for the rest of this section. First he talks about how it has affected others (1:12-17) and then he talks about how it has affected himself (1:18-26).

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with Christ than to live on (1:23). Yet he reveals his belief that they are still in need of his care

(1:24) and that his coming to them will result in their further exultation in God (1:25-26). Since

it is uncertain whether he will ever see them again, he expresses his concern clearly: “Only

(mo,non) conduct yourselves worthy of the gospel of Christ”. He defines what he means by what

he would like to hear about them (avkou,w ta. peri. umw/n), that they are “standing firm in one spirit

with one soul”. Thus, “standing unified in the gospel” is the heartbeat and organizing theme of

this letter, gaining support lexically by the sprinkling of such words as koinwni,a (“fellowship”; 6

times), frone,w (“think”; 10 times), h`ge,omai (“consider”; 6 times) and euvagge,lion (“gospel”; 9

times). He sheds further light on this with two coordinating participles of manner:

sunaqlou/ntej (“striving”) th/| pi,stei (“for the faith”) tou/ euvaggeli,ou (“of the gospel”) kai. mh. pturo,menoi (“not being frightened”) evn mhdeni. (“in anything”) upo. tw/n avntikeime,nwn (“by those who oppose”)

These coordinating participial clauses, one positive and one negative, provide structure for the

rest of the body, so that chapter two is an exposition of “striving together for the faith of the

gospel” and chapter three is an exposition of “not being frightened in anything by those who

oppose”. Paul expands on the latter of the two clauses by saying that their bravery is a sign of

their opponents’ destruction (avpwlei,aj) but of the Philippians’ salvation (swthri,aj). This

parallels Paul’s rejoicing in the preaching of the gospel even if some were seeking to add

affliction to his chains because he knew that it would result in his salvation (swthri,an; 1:19). He

supports this fact with the reason that it has been given to them by God not just to believe but

also to suffer for His sake (1:29). Belief and suffering are a package so that if you have faith

through the suffering, you are showing yourself to possess salvation. Paul identifies with them

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by noting that they have the same struggle that they saw in him (Acts 16:18-24) and now here in

him (Phil.1:12-26).

Argument of Philippians 2:1-11.25 In view of the suffering that has been allotted to

both he and the Philippians (“therefore;” ou=n, 2:1), Paul reaches out, as it were, for

encouragement from them:26 “If there is any encouragement in Christ, if any consolation of love,

if any fellowship in the Spirit, if any affection and compassion, fulfill my joy...” (2:1-2). The

whole of 2:1 serves as the protasis in the first class conditional sentence (“since…”) and 2:2

serves as the apodosis in the imperative (plhrw,sate, “fulfill my joy”), which is the only

imperative in the entire exhortation from 2:1-4. Normally i[na and a subjunctive indicate

purpose, but this does not follow in this context with i[na to. auvto. fronh/te (v.2). The NASB

translates it accurately as means or epexegetically as to how they can fulfill his joy (“by having

the same mind”) and both e;contej and fronou/ntej as participles of manner.27 In verses 3 and 4

he contrasts what it is to have the same mind with what it isn’t using similar particles (mhde. and

mh .) and conjunctions (avlla.):28

A mhde. kata. kenodoxi,an mhde.n katV evriqei,an B avlla. th/| tapeinofrosu,nh| avllh,louj h`gou,menoi upere,contaj eautw/n(

A1 mh. skopou/ntej ta. eautw/n e[kastoj B1 avlla. ta. ete,rwn e[kastoiÅ

25 Much of this material has been adapted and modified from the author’s “A Discourse Analysis of Philippians”. 26 He opens this section with an anaphora using ei; tij four times (“if there is any...”) with each having a subject and a subordinate feature (either a prepositional phrase or a genitive). These are set in a parallel form with the first and third lines referring to the Godhead and the second and fourth lines referring to love:

A ei; tij para,klhsij evn Cristw/|( B ei; ti paramu,qion avga,phj( A1 ei; tij koinwni,a pneu,matoj( B1 ei; tij spla,gcna kai. oivktirmoi, 27 Verse 2 fits the structure of a chiasm with the corresponding use of frone,w and the idea of “sameness” in th.n auvth.n avga,phn and su,myucoi: A i[na to. auvto. fronh/te B th.n auvth.n avga,phn e;contej B1 su,myucoi A1 to. e]n fronou/ntej. So David Alan Black, “Paul and Christian Unity: A Formal Analysis of Philippians 2:1-4,” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 28 (1985): 301.28 Ibid. In the last contrast he uses alliteration with e: ta. eautw/n e[kastoj…avlla ta. ete,rwn e[kastoi.

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Although Paul could have gone ahead and given the Philippians commands in the same way that

he commanded other churches, he didn’t. Rather, he appealed to them with a subtler, personal

exhortation by saying “fulfill my joy”. He tells them that they could fulfill his joy by having

unity in mind (“being intent on one purpose”) and unity of heart (“having the same love”). His

point is that good things (like preaching the gospel) can be done with selfish hearts (evriqei,an is

the same word he uses in 1:17) that have no regard for others. But one can have a regard for

others and still be selfish, so he adds the element “in humility, regarding others as better than

yourselves”(2:3).29 This is a love for others that is self-sacrificing rather than self-esteeming, and

therefore reflects the love of Christ.

Paul’s second command in this chapter is “have the same mind in you which was also in

Christ Jesus” (2:5). In this command he has a twofold purpose: to describe Christ as the ultimate

example of humility by regarding others and to tie in with that the heart of the message in which

they are to strive for unity. He therefore draws structure from the preceding exhortation by first

giving the negative side (what He did not do) and then the positive side (what He did do):

A ouvc arpagmo.n h`gh,sato to. ei=nai i;sa qew/

B avlla. eauto.n evke,nwsen

He also strategically used cognates from the preceding passage (h`gh,sato, vs.6, and evtapei,nwsen,

vs.8) weaving them into his message. The whole section also fits a conceptual chiasm:30

A Jesus Christ is God B He humbled Himself C He died on a cross B1 God exalted Him A1 He will be worship as God

29 So Moisés Silva, Philippians (WEC; Chicago: Moody, 1988), p.101. We are generally convinced by the work of Ralph Martin that Phil.2:6-11 does have the characteristics of en early Christian hymn (Carmen Christi: Philippians 2:5-11 in Recent Interpretations and in the Setting of Early Christian Worship).30 Black, Linguistics, p.187

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Contrast should be noted with the present active participle upa,rcwn and the subsequent aorists

that follow (h`gh,sato, evke,nwsen, labw,n, geno,menoj, eureqei.j, evtapei,nwsen, geno,menoj). This,

along with the concessive use of the particle, points to the fact that although He exists in the evn

morfh/| qeou/ (“in the form of God), and thus is God, He used that as a platform to serve others

(morfh.n dou,lou labw,n, vs.7).31 He “emptied” (evke,nwsen) himself of glory by adding (labw,n,

“taking”) the veil of human flesh (evn omoiw,mati avnqrw,pwn geno,menoj) and humbled himself by

being submissive to the most humiliating death at the time (qana,tou de. staurou/).

It is disputed as to whether the reference to Jesus as “taking the form of a servant”

(morfh.n dou,lou labw,n) in 2:7 should be understood as an application of the “Servant Songs” in

Isaiah, particularly Isa.52:13-53:12, the song of the “Suffering Servant”. This has been doubted

by many since the word normally translated for db,[, (“servant”) in Isaiah is pai/j in the LXX and

there are really no other verbal parallels.32 Lucien Cerfaux argued that the verbal and conceptual

links exist and point to the Isaianic “Servant” as the background here.33 L.Gregory Bloomquist 31 “Possessed of the Divine Attributes, He did not treat His co-equality as a prize, to be held only for Himself, but rather made it occasion for an infinite act of self-sacrifice for others…His majesty is sufficiently (for the purpose) given in the words evn morfh/| qeou/ upa,rcwn: the point now is that He made an infinitely generous use of His majesty” (Moule, H.C.G., The Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the Philippians [London: Cambridge University Press, 1936], p.37-38). For the best understanding of the term arpagmo.n, see Hoover, “The Harpogmos Enigma: A Philosophical Solution,” p.95-119 and Wright, “arpagmo,j and the Meaning of Philippians 2:5-11,” p.321-52.32 Cf. O’Brien, The Epistle of Paul to the Philippians, p.194,268-71, Gerald Hawthorne, Philippians (WBC; Waco, TX: Word, 1983), p.86-87, Morna D. Hooker, Jesus and the Servant: The Influence of the Servant Concept of Deutero-Isaiah in the New Testament (London: SPCK, 1959), p.120ff., and Martin, Carmen Christi, p.182-90.33 Christ in the Theology of St. Paul (New York: Herder and Herder, 1959), p.374-97. See also Gordon Fee, Paul’s Letter to the Philippians (NICNT; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1995), p.212, N.T. Wright, The Climax of the Covenant: Christ and the Law in Pauline Theology (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1992), p.60, and Richard Bauckham, God Crucified: Monotheism and Christology in the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998), p.56-61. We are certainly sympathetic to the Adamic parallels that have been proposed and thoroughly explored by many in recent times. Cf. Wright, The Climax of the Covenant, p.56-98, James Dunn, Christology in the Making: New Testament Inquiry into the Origins of the Doctrine of the Incarnation (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1980), p.114-21, Seyoon Kim, The Origin of Paul’s Gospel (WUNT 2,4; Tübingen: J.C.B. Mohr [Paul Siebeck], 1981), p.151-56, 193-205,265, and Morna Hooker, “Philippians 2.6-11” in Jesus und Paulus: Festschrift Für Werner Georg Kümmel Zum 70 Geburtstag, ed. by E.E. Ellis and E. Grässer (Göttingen: Vandenhoek & Ruprecht, 1975). However, this view does compromise the strong language of divine equality that is present in 2:6. If one is going to argue that morfh/| qeou is synonymous with eivko,na qeou/ (Gen.1:26), then its meaning of the pre-existence of Christ is stripped of its correspondence to to. ei=nai i;sa qew and the parallel of morfh.n dou,lou also loses flavor. Cf. O’Brien, p.263-68, Silva, p.115-16, C.A. Wanamaker, “Philippians 2.6-11: Son of God or Adamic Christology?” New Testament Studies 33 (1987): 179-93, and Bauckham, God Crucified, p.57. Silva comes to a good balance: “[T]he parallel

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has summarized the correspondences in his work on the function of suffering in the epistle to the

Philippians:34

morfh, (2:6,7) Isa.52:14 and 53:2ouvc arpagmo.n hgh,sato (2:6) Isa.53:12 LXX; 49:24 or Isa.53:12 Aquiladou,loj (2:7) dou,loj (Isa.49:3,5 LXX) or douleu,onta (Isa.53:11 LXX) or pai/j (Isa.53:13 LXX) or dou,loj as found in

Aquilla and Symmachus text variants (Isa.41:3-5; 53:11; 52:13)eauto.n evke,nwsen (2:7) Isa.53:12, or 49:4: kenw/j evkopi,asa kai. eivj ma,taion kai. eivj ouvde.n e;dwka th.n ivscu,n mouevn omoiw,mati avnqrw,pwn geno,menoj Isa.53:3 LXX; to. ei=doj auvtou/ a;timon evklei/pon para. kai. sch,mati eureqei.j wj a;nqrwpoj (2:7) pa,ntaj avnqrw,pouj a;nqrwpoj evn plhgh/| w'nevtapei,nwsen eauto.n (2:8) Isa.53:7-8 LXX: evn th/| tapeinw,sei (auvtou)me,cri qana,tou (2:8) Isa.53:8 LXX: eivj qa,naton: Isa.53:12 LXX: paredo,qh eivj qa,natondio. kai. (2:9) Isa.53:12uperu,ywsen (2:9) Isa.52:13 LXX: uywqh,setai

This appeal to the “Servant” of Isaiah is appropriate because the people of God (Israel) are also

addressed as “my servant” in Isaiah (41:8-9; 43:10; 44:1-2,21; 45:4; 48:20; 49:3).

Because Jesus, as the Servant, made the maximum sacrifice, He has received maximum

glory. On the basis of what Christ took upon himself (dio.), God exalted Him just as He Himself

said would happen about those who humble themselves (Matt.23:12). Because He “exalted”

others, God exalted Him to the extent that He will receive all worship from all realms. Again,

there seems to be a conceptual chiastic structure in vs.9-11:35

A God has exalted Him to the highest place B by bestowing on Him “the name” above other names C at which name every knee shall bow C1 and every tongue confess (the name) B1 namely that the Lord is Jesus Christ A1 all to the glory of God the Father

with Adam has been illegitimately pressed by some writers, but there is an undeniable network of associations between Philippians 2 and Genesis 1-3” (p.116).34 The Function of Suffering in Philippians (JSNTSS 78; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1993), p.16235 Fee, Philippians, p.219 fn 6

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Jesus’ exaltation as the result of His humility serves as an inspiration to be humble.36 Thus, the

message (the gospel) serves as the motivator.

Isaiah 45:23 in Philippians 2:10-11. Although it lacks any introductory formula, there

is really no dispute that Paul is citing or adapting Isa.45:23 in Phil.2:10-11. He maintains

exactness in vocabulary as found in the LXX, but he changes three things. First, he doesn’t

maintain the word order, changing ka,myei pa/n go,nu and evxomologh,setai pa/sa glw/ssa to pa/n

go,nu ka,myh| and pa/sa glw/ssa evxomologh,shtai. Frontloading each phrase with “every” (pa/n/

pa/sa) is obviously intended to place the emphasis on the universality of the “bowing” and

“confessing”. Second, the tenses of both verbs were changed from futures (ka,myei and

evxomologh,setai) to subjunctives (ka,myh| and evxomologh,shtai).37 This change is also significant in

that the death and resurrection of Christ have brought about everyone bowing and confessing that

He is Lord. Thus, the oath that God swore in Isa.45:23 has been inaugurated and is being

fulfilled in Jesus. The third modification that Paul has made with this text is the insertion of the

phrase, “of those who are in heaven and on earth and under the earth” (evpourani,wn kai. evpigei,wn

kai. katacqoni,wn) in between the two phrases. This phrase, again, emphasizes the universality of

allegiance given to Him.

The use of Isa.45:23 in Rom.14:11 and its surrounding context give us some helpful clues

as to how Isa.45:23 influences Phil.2:1ff. As we observed above, Rom.14:1ff. and Rom.15:1ff

are essentially on the same plain. The unifying term “weakness” (avsqe,nhma/avsqene,w) links

36 A subtle, yet crucial feature in this pericope to notice is God exalting Himself among the Godhead. It is within the context of God’s own God-centeredness that Christ sacrificed Himself. This fits with the Pauline theology, that God, in the cross, demonstrated both His righteousness (a love for His holiness) and His love for us (Rom.3:21-26; 5:6-8).37 The future textual variant evxomologh,setai is certainly well distributed but seems to have been changed to match Isa.45:23 or just misheard (contra Larry J. Kreitzer, “‘When He at Last is First:’ Philippians 2:9-11 and the Exaltation of the Lord.” Where Christology Began: Essays on Philippians 2, p.120). The evidence for the aorist subjunctive is old and strong with P46, a, and B, which seems to be the deciding factor.

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Paul’s exhortations so as to exchange judging weaker brethren for serving them by bearing their

burdens. Another crucial word connection that Paul makes by gezerah shewah to bridge together

these chapters is that of the word “confess/praise” (evxomologe,w) in the Old Testament citations of

Isa.45:23 in 14:11 and Ps.18:49 in 15:9: “Therefore, I will confess you (evxomologh,somai, soi) to

the nations (evn e;qnesin) and sing to your name (tw/| ovno,mati, sou yalw/)”. He also quotes

Ps.117:1 (116:1 LXX) in 15:11 which is two verses removed from Ps.118:1 (117:1 LXX) that

begins evxomologei/sqe tw/| kuri,w| in the LXX (“Confess to the Lord”). In fact, these texts are in a

series of texts that are being used to support the notion that “Christ has become a servant to the

circumcision on behalf of the truth of God to confirm the promises to the fathers” (15:8). They

as well are strung together by gezerah shewah with the term “nations” (e;qnh; Ps.18:49;

Deut.32:43; Ps.117:1; Isa.11:10), implying that Jesus came to fulfill the promise given to

Abraham (the first patriarch) concerning the nations. This understanding is what seems to

warrant the application of Isa.45:23 to Jesus Christ, since, as we demonstrated above, Isa.45:20-

25 is the eschatological realization of the Abrahamic covenant.

The parallels in Rom.14-15 and Phil.2 are remarkable; particularly, those which deal with

the matters of servings other and unity. This is evident in the verbal links that can be found in

Rom.15:1-9 and Phil.2:1-11:

Let each of us please his neighbor for his good (e[kastoj h`mw/n tw/| plhsi,on avreske,tw eivj to. avgaqo.n)...May the God of endurance and encouragement (paraklh,sewj) grant you to live in such harmony with one another (to. auvto. fronei/n evn avllh,loij), in accord with Christ Jesus (kata. Cristo.n VIhsou/n), that together you may with one voice (evn eni. sto,mati) glorify the God and Father (doxa,zhte to.n qeo.n kai. pate,ra) of our Lord Jesus Christ (tou/ kuri,ou h`mw/n VIhsou/ Cristou)...For I tell you that Christ became a servant (dia,konon) to the circumcised to show God's truthfulness, in order to confirm the promises given to the patriarchs, and in order that the Gentiles might glorify God (doxa,sai to.n qeo,n) for his mercy. (Rom.5:1-9)

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So if there is any encouragement (para,klhsij) in Christ...complete my joy by being of the same mind (i[na to. auvto. fronh/te), having the same love, being in full accord and of one mind (to. e]n fronou/ntej)...consider others as better than yourselves (avllh,louj h`gou,menoi upere,contaj eautw/n)... Let each of you look not only to his own interests (mh. ta. eautw/n e[kastoj skopou/ntej)...Have this mind among yourselves (tou/to fronei/te evn umi/n), which was also in Christ Jesus (o] kai. evn Cristw/| VIhsou)...taking the form of a servant (morfh.n dou,lou)...and every tongue confess (kai. pa/sa glw/ssa evxomologh,shtai) that Jesus Christ is Lord (o[ti ku,rioj VIhsou/j Cristo.j), to the glory of God the Father (eivj do,xan qeou/ patro,j). (Phil.2:1-11)

With such similarities and the association of Isa.45:23 looming in the context, we can reasonably

conclude that Isa.45:23 was a text that Paul interpreted and used as one to foster humility and

unity. We have already seen that this was used to inspire humility by Rabbi Judah in The Minor

Tractates of the Talmud (Kallah Rabbathi 3.1), so it is not out of the ordinary in this respect in

ancient Judaism. However, no where have we seen this text, besides in Paul, to be used in

regards to unity. We noticed before that he even rearranged the passage so as to emphasize that

“every knee shall bow” and “every tongue shall confess”. Therefore, as we come to understand

Phil.2 in this light, it reveals some different implications than what might be seen as face value.

Jesus humbled himself so that He might humble everybody and unify the nations in His

exaltation for the glory of God. Paul’s earlier consideration in Rom.14:1ff. of the “disputing

over arguments (dialogismw/n)” and its effect of tearing down this work that Jesus accomplished

is echoed in Phil.2:14: “Do all things without grumbling or complaining (dialogismw/n)” because

“all who were angry at Him will be put to shame” (Isa.45:24). This informs the manner in which

we should approach our walk with God: “Therefore...work out your salvation with fear and

trembling” (2:12). The mention of “salvation” (swthri,an) corresponds with Isa.45:20-25 as God

called himself “a righteous God and Savior (swth.r; vs.21),” and He urged the nations to look to

him and “be saved” (swqh,sesqe; vs.22). Likewise, the grounds of this exhortation, “for (ga,r) it is

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God who works in you both the willing (to. qe,lein) and working (to. evnergei/n) for His good

pleasure (upe.r th/j euvdoki,aj)” (2:13), is related to God working in Cyrus to “perform all [His]

pleasure” (pa,nta ta. qelh,mata, mou poih,sei; Isa.44:28).

Having established the Isaianic “Servant” as the background to the Christ-hymn of

Phil.2:5-11, the question arises as to how this fits with the quotation of Isa.45:23. In the catena

of Old Testament citations in Rom.15:9ff. which were webbed with Isa.45:23, Paul gives the

reason that he was preaching to unreached peoples, supporting it with Isa.52:15: “They who had

not been told of him shall see, and they who have not heard will understand” (Rom.15:20-21).

This text is in the middle of the song of the “Suffering Servant” in 52:13-53:12 and it hints at an

implicit connection to Isa.45:23. Richard Bauckham describes how this connection is made:38

[S]ince the terminology describing the servant’s exaltation in Isa.52:13 also describes the exalted position of God on his throne in Isa.6:1 and 57:15, Isa.52:13 can easily (by means of the Jewish exegetical principle of gezerah shewa, according to which passages with striking resemblances serve to interpret each other) to mean that the suffering servant is exalted to share the divine throne in heaven, as early Christian interpretation also took Ps.110:1 to mean.

The terminology which he is referring to is the combination of the Hebrew words ~Wr and af'n"

(often translated together “high and lifted up”) which is introduced in Isaiah’s vision of God

when he saw the Lord sitting on His throne “high and lifted up” (6:1). The ultimate expression

of the Lord’s exaltation and loftiness is all bowing and confessing to Him (45:23), providing a

38 “The Worship of Jesus in Philippians 2:9-11,” p.134-35. He goes on to say in the next paragraph: “What has not been noticed, even by those who agree that Phil.2:7-9 has the suffering servant of Isaiah 52-53 in view, is the way the allusions to Isaiah 52-53 and to Isaiah 45 cohere. Early Christians, for whom Isaiah 40-66 was the scriptural account of the meaning of the events of Jesus Christ and his future, the influence of which can be traced throughout the New Testament, did not read the so-called servant passages in isolation from the overall themes of eschatological salvation and eschatological monotheism that dominate these chapters. The servant of the Lord is the one through whom God accomplishes the new exodus, the eschatological act of salvation, in the sight of the nations, thereby manifesting his glory and demonstrating his unique deity to the nations. Thus Phil.2:6-11 reads Deutero-Isaiah to mean that the career of the servant of the Lord, his suffering, humiliation, death, and exaltation, is the way in which the sovereignty of the one true God comes to be acknowledged by all. God’s unique rule receives universal acclaim when it is exercised by the one who humiliated himself in obedience to God to the point of death and was therefore exalted to the divine throne. God’s sole deity receives universal worship when the crucified and exalted Jesus reveals the unique divine identity to which he himself belongs” (p.135)

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conceptual coherence to these passages. Verbal similarities also exist with Isa.52:13-53:12 and

Isa.45:20-25. The Lord calls himself the “righteous (qyDIc ;) God” in 45:21 and the servant is

called the “righteous one” (qyDIc ;) in 53:11. The offspring of Israel will be “justified” (WqD>c.yI) in

45:25 and the Servant will “make many righteous” (qyDIc.y:) in 53:11. The Lord will justify all the

“offspring ([r;z<) of Israel” in 45:25 and the Servant will see his “offspring” ([r;z<) in 53:10.39 The

identification of the throne of the Messiah with the throne of God and bowing of the nations is

attested to in Second Temple literature (1 Enoch 48:6 and 1Q28b 5:2) and we have also seen the

association of Isa.45:23 with Psalm 22 in the Minor Tractates (Kallah Rabbathi 3.1) and the

Babylonian Talmud (Niddah 30b). Psalm 22 is a Messianic Psalm (Matt.27:46; John 19:24;

Heb.2:12) that carries the theme of suffering identical with Isa.52:13-53:12 (cf. Ps.22:7 with

Isa.53:3, Ps.22:14 with Isa.53:12).

Paul’s desire to “boast (kau,chma) in the day of Christ” (Phi.2:16) seems to be affected by

Isa.45:25 (“In the Lord all the offspring of Israel shall be justified and glory/boast [Wll.h;t.yIw>]).

The words ll;h' (“praise/boast”) and hL'hiT. (“praise/song of praise”) are translated in the LXX

with both kauca,omai/kau,chma (Deut.10:21; 26:19; 1 Kgs.21:11; Ps.49:7; Prov.25:14; 27:1;

Jer.9:22-23; 13:11; 17:14; 28:41; Zeph.3:19-20) and evxomologe,w (“confess;” 1 Chr.16:4; 22:30;

25:3; 29:13; 2 Chr.5:13; 7:6; 20:21; 23:12; 31:2; Ps.34:18; 105:1; 106:1; 110:1; 117:1; 135:1)

which evidences that these terms may be synonymous and that Paul might have seen “boasting in

the day of Christ” as his “bowing and confessing” to Jesus Christ in the eschaton.40 Paul’s desire

not to “labor in vain” (2:16; eivj keno.n evkopi,asa) shadows God’s statement that He had “labored

39 Paul’s conflation of these Isaianic texts may reveal a Isaianic background for the whole of Philippians that has seldom been recognized.40 The fact that Isa.45:23 is quoted in the Christ-hymn of Phil.2:5-11 signals its “already” application.

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in vain” (Isa.49:4, kenw/j evkopi,asa; cf. 45:19) with Israel. The language of the Abrahamic

covenant that we have discovered in Isa.45:20-25 also finds itself in the context of Phil.2. The

most obvious is the allusion to Dan.12:3 in 2:15, “shine as lights in the word” (comp. fai,nesqe

wj fwsth/rej evn ko,smw| in 2:15 with fanou/sin wj fwsth/rej tou/ ouvranou/ in Dan.12:3). Daniel

12:2 is similar in terminology to Ps.22:30 MT as both speak of “sleepers”41 in “dust” (rp'[ '). In

Dan.12:3 the phrase “numerous as the stars” (~ybik'AKK; ~yBir;h') echoes the promise to Abraham

in Gen.22:17 that his offspring will be multiplied as “the stars of heaven” (~yIm;V'h;

ybek.AkK....hB,r>a; hB'r>h;w>).

Conclusion

It is beyond the scope of this study to explore every facet of the connections Philippians

has with Isa.45:23. We aimed only to show that Isa.45:23 and its context do shape some of the

elements surrounding Phil.2:10-11. But, our findings do open the door wider to investigating

more allusions and influence of Isaiah in Philippians, as well as the Old Testament in general.

There is still a gaping whole in research on the use of the Old Testament in Philippians.

Exploring Isa.45:23, as the clearest of Old Testament references in Philippians, seems to be the

best way to start plugging this hole. Perhaps the tides will shift in this direction so that we may

see specific studies on the use this passage in Phil.2:10-11, or on the use of Job 13:15 in

Phil.1:19, the use of Isa.53 in Phil.2:6-11, the use of Deut.32:5 in Phil.2:15, the use of Dan.12:3

in Phil.2:15, the use of Gen.15:6 or Hab.2:4 in Phil.3:8-9, or even more general studies of the

Old Testament in Philippians.42

41 Craig C. Broyles prefers the reading “all who sleep in the earth shall bow down” in Ps.22:29 (22:30 MT) as opposed to “all who go down to dust” drawing on Dan.12:2 as the closest parallel (Psalms [NIBC; Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1999], p.119,122).42 Silva does well to point out some of the allusions of the Old Testament in Philippians in his “Old Testament in Paul” in Dictionary of Paul and His Letters, ed. by Gerald Hawthorne, Ralph Martin, and Daniel G. Reid (Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1993), p.634-35.

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Semantic Structure of Isaiah 45:20-25

ocsn HD GEN Assemble yourselves and come

Specdraw near you survivors of the nations

CH 1They who carry their wooden idols have no knowledge

cmnt CH 2and keep praying to a god that cannot save

ocsn HDDeclare and present your case

Amplet them then take counsel together

que 1Who told this long ago?

que2Who declared it of old?

grnds Outc Outc HD CntrWas it not I, the Lord?

amp HDAnd there is no god beside me

ampa righteous God and a Savior there is none besides me

EXH EXHTurn to me and be saved all the ends of the earth!

grnds HD grndsFor I am God and there is no other

orntr HDBy myself I have sworn

ampin righteousness a word has gone out from my mouth that will not return

step‘To me every knee shall bow

amp Cntnt HD GLevery tongue shall confess’

orntrIt shall be said of me

amp1 Cntnt‘Only in the Lord are righteousness and strength”

contrall who were angry at him shall come to him and be ashamed

amp2 HDAll the offspring of Israel shall be justified and glory

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Semantic Structure of Philippians 2:5-11

orntr Have this mind in you which was also in Christ Jesus

cncsnwho although being in the form of God

cntrst CEhe did not consider being equal with God something to take advantage of

step Rsltbut emptied himself

mnnr HDby taking the form of a servant

ampcoming in the likeness of men

circand being found in appearance as a man

reasn HD GL HD Rslthe humbled himself

mnnr Gnrcby becoming obedient to the point of death

speceven death of the cross

mns GENTherefore God also exalted him

specand gave him the name above all names

step 1 GENso that at the name of Jesus every knee might bow

specin heaven, on earth, and under the earth

orntrand every tongue might confess

step 2 Cntntthat Jesus Christ is Lord

HD Rslt Prpse GLto the glory of God the Father

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Bibliography

I. Ancient LiteratureThe Dead Sea Scrolls Translated: The Qumran Texts in English. sec. ed. ed. by Florentino García Martínez. Leiden: Brill, 1996The Isaiah Targum: Introduction, Translation, Apparatus and Notes. The Aramaic Bible Vol.11. trans. by Bruce D. Chilton. Wilmington, DE: Michael Glazier, 1987Mekilta de-Rabbi Ishmael. Vol.2. trans. by Jacob Z. Lauterbach. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1933The Midrash on Psalms: Translated from the Hebrew and Aramaic. Vol.2. Yale Judaica Series 13. trans. by William G. Braude. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1959The Minor Tractates of the Talmud: Translated in English with Notes, Glossary, and Indices. Vol.2. ed. by A. Cohen. London: Soncino Press, 1965Niddah: Translated into English with Notes, Glossary, and Indices. The Babylonian Talmud. trans. by Israel W. Slotki. London: Soncino Press, 1948The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha. 2 Vols. Anchor Bible Reference Library. ed. by James H. Charlesworth. New York: Doubleday, 1983-85Pirke de Rabbi Eliezer: Translated and Annotated with Introduction and Indices. trans. by Gerald Friedlander. New York: Hermon Press, 1970

II. ReferenceBauer, Walter. A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature. third. ed. rev. and ed. by Frederick W. Danker. trans. by William Arndt and F. Wilbur Ginrich. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000Louw, Johannes P. and Nida, Eugene A.(eds.). A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament based on Semantic Domains. 2 Vols. New York: United Bible Society, 1989Moule, C.F.D. An Idiom Book of New Testament Greek. sec. ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1959Moulton, J.H. A Grammar of New Testament Greek. 4 Vols. Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1908-76Wallace, Daniel B. Greek Grammar Beyond the Basics: An Exegetical Syntax of the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996

I. Commentaries and Monographs on PhilippiansBanker, John. A Semantical and Structural Analysis of Philippians. Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics, 1996Bloomquist, L. Gregory. The Function of Suffering in Philippians. Journal for the Study of the New Testament Supplement Series 78. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1993Fee, Gordon. Paul’s Letter to the Philippians. New International Commentary on the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1995Fields, Bruce L. “Paul as Model: The Rhetoric and Old Testament Background of Philippians 3:1-4:1.” Ph.D. dissertation, Marquette University, 1995Hawthorne, Gerald. Philippians. Word Biblical Commentary. Waco, TX: Word, 1983Lightfoot, J.B. St. Paul’s Epistle to the Philippians. repr. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing, 1965 (original London, 1881)Martin, Ralph P. Carmen Christi: Philippians 2:5-11 in Recent Interpretations and in the Setting of Early Christian Worship. Society of Biblical Literature Monograph Series 4.

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Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1967Moule, H.C.G. The Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the Philippians. Cambridge Greek Testament for Schools and Colleges. London: Cambridge University Press, 1936O’Brien, Peter T. The Epistle to the Philippians. New International Greek Testament Commentary. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1991Reed, Jeffrey T. A Discourse Analysis of Philippians: Method and Rhetoric in the Debate over Literary Integrity. Journal for the Study of the New Testament Supplement Series 136. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1997Silva, Moises. Philippians. Wycliffe Exegetical Commentary. Chicago: Moody, 1988

III. Ancient Hermeneutics and Old Testament in the NewBeale, G.K. (ed.). The Right Doctrine from the Wrong Texts: Essays on the Use of the Old Testament in the New. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1994Ellis, Earle E. Paul’s Use of the Old Testament. Edinburgh: Oliver & Boyd, 1957Hays, Richard B. Echoes of Scripture in the Letters of Paul. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989Longenecker, Richard N. Biblical Exegesis in the Apostolic Period. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1975Silva, Moises. “Old Testament in Paul.” Dictionary of Paul and His Letters. ed. by Gerald F. Hawthorne, Ralph P. Martin, and Daniel G. Reid. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1993Stanley, C.D. Paul and the Language of Scripture: Citation Technique in the Pauline Epistles and Contemporary Literature. Supplements for New Testament Studies Monograph

Series 74. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992

IV. Works on IsaiahBaltzer, Klaus. Deutero-Isaiah. Hermeneia. trans. by Margaret Kohl. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2001Brueggemann, Walter. Isaiah 40-66. Westminster Bible Companion. Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 1998Childs, Brevard S. Isaiah. Old Testament Library. Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2001Delitzsch, F. The Prophecies of Isaiah. Commentary on the Old Testament Vol.7. trans. by James Martin. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1996 (originally published 1866-91)Motyer, J. Alec. The Prophecy of Isaiah: An Introduction and Commentary. Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 1993Oswalt, John N. The Book of Isaiah: Chapters 40-66. New International Commentary on the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998Seitz, Christopher R. “The Book of Isaiah 40-66: Introduction, Commentary, and Reflections.” The New Interpreter’s Bible: A Commentary in Twelve Volumes. Vol.6. Nashville: Abingdon, 2001Watts, John D.W. Isaiah 34-66. Word Biblical Commentary. Waco, TX: Word, 1987Westermann, Claus. Isaiah 40-66: A Commentary. Old Testament Library. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1969

V. Works on RomansCranfield, C.E.B. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans. 2 Vols. International Critical Commentary. Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1979

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Dunn, James D.G. Romans 9-16. Word Biblical Commentary. Dallas, TX: Word, 1988Moo, Douglas J. The Epistle to the Romans. New International Commentary on the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1996Schreiner, Thomas R. Romans. Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1998Stuhlmacher, Peter. Paul’s Letter to the Romans: A Commentary. trans. by Scott J. Hafemann. Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 1994

VI. Other WorksBauckham, Richard. “The Worship of Jesus in Philippians 2:9-11.” Where Christology Began: Essays on Philippians 2. ed. by Ralph P. Martin and Brian J. Dodd. Louisville: Westminster/John Knox, 1998-------------. God Crucified: Monotheism and Christology in the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998Black, David Alan. Linguistics for Students of New Testament Greek: A Survey of Basic Concepts and Applications. sec.ed. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1995 (Chapter 7 adapts his essay “Discourse Structure of Philippians: A Study in Textlinguistics.” Novum Testamentum 37 [1995]: 16-49)Cerfaux, Lucien. Christ in the Theology of St. Paul. New York: Herder and Herder, 1959Dunn, James D.G. “Christ, Adam, and Pre-existence.” Where Christology Began: Essays on Philippians 2. ed. by Ralph P. Martin and Brian J. Dodd. Louisville: Westminster/John Knox, 1998 (reproduces material from Theology of Paul the Apostle. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998)Hooker, Morna D. “Philippians 2.6-11.” Jesus und Paulus: Festschrift Für Werner Georg Kümmel Zum 70 Geburtstag. ed. by E.E. Ellis and E. Grässer. Göttingen: Vandenhoek & Ruprecht, 1975Hurst, L.D. “Christ, Adam, and Pre-existence Revisited.” Where Christology Began: Essays on Philippians 2. ed. by Ralph P. Martin and Brian J. Dodd. Louisville: Westminster/John Knox, 1998 (revised and expanded version of “Re-Enter the Pre-Existent Christ in Philippians.” New Testament Studies 32 [1986]: 449-57)Hurtado, L.W. “Jesus as Lordly Example in Phil.2:5-11.” From Jesus to Paul: Studies in Honour of Francis Wright Beare. ed. by Peter Richardson and John C. Hurd. Waterloo, On: Wilfred Laurier University Press, 1984Käsemann, Ernst. “A Critical Analysis of Philippians 2:5-11.” God and Christ: Existence and Province. Journal for Church and Theology 5. ed. by Robert W. Funk. New York: Harper & Row, 1968Kreitzer, L. Joseph. “‘When He at Last is First:’ Philippians 2:9-11 and the Exaltation of the Lord.” Where Christology Began: Essays on Philippians 2. ed. by Ralph P. Martin and Brian J. Dodd. Louisville: Westminster/John Knox, 1998 Moule, C.F.D. “Further Reflections on Philippians 2:5-11.” Apostolic History and the Gospel: Biblical and Historical Essays Presented to F.F. Bruce on His 60th Birthday. ed. by W. Ward Gasque and Ralph P. Martin. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1970Wanamaker, C.A. “Philippians 2.6-11: Son of God or Adamic Christology?” New Testament Studies 33 (1987): 179-93Wright, N.T. The Climax of the Covenant: Christ and the Law in Pauline Theology. Minneapolis: Fortress, 1992

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