the universal basic education programme and female trafficking in south

8/10/2019 The Universal Basic Education Programme and Female Trafficking in South

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THE UNIVERSAL BASIC EDUCATION PROGRAMME AND FEMALE TRAFFICKING IN SOUTH-SOUTH, NIGERIA

B.O.OGNONOR and A.U.OSUNDE

University of Benin, Africa

The study investigated the impact of the Universal Basic Education (UBE) programme on thephenomenon of female trafficking in South-South Nigeria. To this end, six research questionswere raised. These revolved around:

(i) resource situation and adequacy of training provided for repatriated traffickedvictims in the service provider centre;

(ii) efforts in the formal education sector of the UBE to curb female trafficking; and

(iii) parents and female students disposition toward female trafficking.

The design of the study was descriptive survey.

The sample was 420 female students and their parents as well as 100 teachers in theformal segment of the UBE programme and 130 repatriated trafficked victims in aservice provider centre. Four sets of instruments were utilized to generate data for thestudy. The first was quantitative designed

- to elicit information on the resource situation of the service provider centre and theadequacy of the training given to the repatriated victims for employment purposes.

- The other instruments were qualitative and they generated information on theother foci of the study. The findings of the study were: available resources at theservice provider centre for repatriated victims were inadequate; no aspect of thecontent of the UBE programme were targeted at the curbing of female trafficking; amajority of the female students and a few parents were disposed toward femaletrafficking.

The challenges experienced by the management of the trafficking service providercentre were : inadequate funding, and willingness to be re-trafficked by repatriatedtrafficked victims as well as pressure from parents in trainees to be re-trafficked. Theconclusion that can be drawn from the study is that the Universal Basic Educationprogramme has not made significant impact on the community in the issue of femaletrafficking. The implication of the finding is that female trafficking will continueincreasing in South-South Nigeria unless a concerted effort is made in the UBEprogramme to address the issue.

Introduction


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Education has consistently been a priority in the national development plans of Nigeria sinceindependence in 1960. This is because of the belief that it is the tool for nationaldevelopment and technological advancement. Similarly it is stated in the National Policy oneducation (Federal Republic of Nigerian 2004) that the philosophy of education in Nigeria ishinged on utilizing education as an instrument for national development. It is of significantimportance that the Nigerian National Policy on Education also states that education shall beaccessible to both males and females. Section 1:5C states, as follows:

the provision of equal access to educational opportunities for all citizens of thecountry at the primary, secondary and tertiary levels both inside and outside the formalschool system.

Unfortunately, educational access to the female segment of the population has beenshort of equality in both quantity and quality. For example the percentage of females inprimary schools from 1990 to 1998 were 43.2%, 46.6% 44.1%, 43.7%,44.1%,44.5%,43.4%

and 43.4% as compared with the figures for males, which were56.8%,53.4%,55.9%,56.3%,55.9%,56.5% ,56.6% and 56.6% (Federal Republic of Nigeria1995,1998) even when females constitute 49% of the total population in Nigeria (FederalRepublic of Nigeria 1998).

The factors which contribute to inequality of access to education by females havebeen listed as negative traditional attitudes, economic factors, religious factor (Abala 1995,Ogonor 2003a), and female trafficking (Igbinedion 2001).

Female trafficking has been increasing at an alarming rate in Nigeria over the last

two decades. Females, particularly those of school age, are trafficked from their homes toplaces within and outside Nigeria for labour and prostitution, thereby depriving the victimsof access to education. The victims are usually lured into the trade by family friends who arecontact persons to the agents of traffickers (ex-Nigerian prostitutes abroad). They aretransported through the Saharan desert tracks under dehumanizing conditions in trolleys bythe smugglers to Morocco, where they eventually gain entry illegally to Europe throughSpain. On arrival, they are handed over to their sponsors to whom they remit the proceedsfrom prostitution until they fully pay off the supposed fee (between US$40,000 toUs$100,000) for transportation from Nigeria to Europe (Okojie et al. 201). For example,UNICEF estimated that between 60-80% of girls in the sex trade in Italy were Nigerians. The

average age was given as 15-years-old. Futhermore, Hinshua News Agency(2003) reportedthat in the year 2000, 250,000 Nigerians were deported from European and Asian countriesand most of them were women. The United Nations Organisation has identified Nigeria as amajor source of supply of trafficked humans in the world. In view of the notoriety of Nigeriain human trafficking, the International Human Rights organization called on the FederalGovernment to pass a bill on human trafficking as a crime.

The Nigerian Governments response to the issue has been threefold: prevention,rehabilitation and prosecution. Strategies adopted by Government to curb the menacethrough the latter response range from the passing of bills on human trafficking and child

rights, and signing bilateral agreements with some American, European and Africancountries.


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Literature review / conceptual framework

Nigerian culture is patriarchal, ith great emphasis on gendered power relations.Males and females are gendered from birth into social roles. Bennet (2002a,Gaid-zanwa (2001) and Britwum (2005) pointed out that patriarchy and

gendered power relations pervasively determine the framework within whichmen and women interact in all arenas of life. This is the case in Nigeria, asgendered power relations permeate the whole gamut of societal norms andalues which ascribe to males superior and assertive power and rights over andabove females. Guffre and Williams (1994) explain that in a situation wherepower is vested in the male, the subordinate position of the female, coupledwith the potential of her body, tend to make her vulnerable to sexual violence(e.g. trafficking). Futhermore, the gender power concept protends unequalaccess to economic opportunities and wealth between males and females.Societal values and norms tend to thrust economic power upon men whilewomen are deprived and are socialized to believe that their success is hinged onthe success of the other sex. Hence at tender age, females are charged with theresponsibility of caring for younger siblings and engaging in economic activitiesto ensure that male siblings acquire some level of education and/or economicempowerment even if it is at their (the females expense.

Educational institutions as sites for socialization of students are expected topositively influence the larger society by promoting alternative understandingsof social issues such as patriarchy, gendered power relations and femaletrafficking by teaching concepts, ideas and practices from the classroom to outof class cognition and action. This study is hinged on the conceptual frameworkof overlapping influence of social organisations.

The thesis of transformative pedagogy according to Nagda et al. (2003) isthat: if the right content and pedagogy are adopted in the teaching of socialissues that pose dilemmas to students, they will be able to develop the personalagency to resolve social dilemmas in their favour and society as a whole. Insupport of the statd view, Sleeter (1996) recommended that educationalpractices that help students to look at issues in broad social contexts and taptheir abilities for deep and critical enquiry, so as to take socially just actions,should be adopted in schools to prepare a new citizenry.

On the other hand, Epstein conceptualized the influence of the school andthe larger society on the pupils as overlapping. The thesis is that pupils tend tobe more willing to drop negative values from the larger society as a result ofschool-initiated behaviours, if the larger community is negatively disposedtoward such values. In other word, students are best supported when familiesand school have shared goals and work collaboratively, as childrensdevelopment is greatly influenced by family, schools and communities. Themodel conceptualizes the community as an important arena of child andadolescent learning. Epstein and Sanders (2000) and simon (2000) point to the


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Four sets of instruments were used to generate data for the study. The firstset was an interview guide adapted from the interview guide on issues ontrafficking by Macdonald et al. (2000) to reflect local situation. The instrumentwas in two sections. The first section was a checklist and ot elicited informationon types of courses and the quantity and quality of human resources as well asavailable hardware materials in the non-formal educational centre. The secondsegment was targeted at repatriated trafficked females. It was qualitative andgenerated information on the adequacy of the training they received at theservice provider service centre for the world of work.

The second instrument elicited information on the curricular and co-curricular contents of the syllabi of the UBE programme to determine if therewere aspects targeted at dissuading potential victims from being trafficked. Thefoci were on efforts to equip pupils with the personal agency to probe anti-female cultural values, sex education, female dignity and trafficking. The thirdset of instrument was qualitative, designed to elicit information from femalepupils in the UBE programme to determine their disposition toward trafficking.The fourth set of instrument which was also qualitative elicited information onparents attitude regarding the issue of female trafficking. The fifth and lastinstrument of the trafficking service provider centre.

All the instruments were personally administered with the aid of trainedresearch assistant who were versatile in the use of the listed instruments for thecollection of data.

Data analysis

Research Question 1. What are the available human and material resources inthe human trafficking service provider centre?

Table 1. Available human resource personnel in providers service centres

Type of programme

No. ofstudents

No.instructors

Ratio ofinstructors to

studentsstandard

periodComputer/secretarialstudies 40 2 1:10

Catering/homeeconomics

40 2 1:10

Hairdressing/cosmetology 20 1 1:30Fashion design 30 2 1:15Counselling 130 1 1:130

Table 1 indicates that the ratio of instructors to adult learners was 1:10 for

computer/secretarial studies and catering/home economics. Fashion design had


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the ratio of 1:15 while hairdressing/cosmetology 1:30. All the 130 learners werecounseled by one guidance counselor.

As can seen in Table 2, the ratio of learners to facilities at the serviceprovider centre was 3:1,4:1,5:1,and 6:1 for gas cookers,typing machines, sewing

machines and hair dryer. The ratio 8:1,13:1 and 30:1 were recorded for facilitiessuch refrigerators/freezers, computer set, and pedicure set.

Research Question 2. Are the available facilities considered adequate for theacquisition of the desired skill ?

To determine the adequacy of the available instructors and facilities to the number of

learners, in the different courses, the learners were asked to comment on their experiences.Their views are reflected according to the course of study on Table 3.

Table 3. Students perception of the adequacy of available instructors and facilities

Course of study No. of respondents Adequacy of facilitiesYes No

Computer secretarialstudies

40 2 (30%) 28(70%)

Catering/homeeconomics

40 6(40%) 24(60%)

Hairdressing/cosmetology

20 8(40%) 12(60%)

Fashion design 30 15(50%) 15(50%)

In Table 3, it can be observed that 50% of the learners in fashion design indicatedthat the instructors and facilities at their disposal were adequate. Sixty per cent of thelearners in hairdressing/cosmetology, catering/home economics were of the perception thatthe available facilities they had for studies were inadequate while 70% of the learners incomputer/secretarial studies shared a similar opinion.

Research Question 3. How equipped are the students of the service providercentre for the world of work ?

Table 4. Learners perception of proficiency for the world of work


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Course of study Skills acquired Total no. ofstudents

No. ofstudents whoconsiderthemselvesproficient

Bo. Ofstudents whoare did notconsiderthemselves

equippedComputer sevretarialstudies

Production ofhandbills,weddings card,invitationcards, andstickers

40 28(70%) 12(30%)

Catering/homemanagement

Baking ofcakes, tastyfoods, cookingand

entertainmenton occasions

40 18 (45%) 22 (55%)

Hairdressing/cosmetology Fixing of weaveon, braiding,tonguing ofhair, washingand setting ofhair

30 13(43.3%) 17(56.7%)

Fashion design Handmadeclothing, e.g.wedding gowns

curtains, tablecovers, dresses

30 22(73.3%) 8(26.7%)

Table 4 shoes that only 43.3% and 45% of the graduating learners in hairdressing/cosmetology and catering/home management respectively indicated that theyconsidered themselves proficient in the skills they were required to have acquired. And 73.3%of the learners in computer/secretarial studies and fashion design opined that they wereequipped with the skills they were expected to acquire. However, 56.7%,55%and 30% of thelearners in hairdressing/cosmetology, catering/home management, and secretarial studies

respectively, considered themselves as not proficient.

Research Question 4. Are there aspects of the UBE curriculum targeted at educatingfemale students on the dangers of being trafficked ?

Evaluation of teachers regarding the relatedness of the UBE curricular to thediscouragement of female students from trafficking are summarized under the followingsubheadings:

Content to equip pupils with the personal agency to probe pro-traffickingcultural values.


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Content regarding sex education. Content regarding female dignity. Content regarding female trafficking.

Content to equip pupils with the personal agency to probe pro-trafficking cultural values

An overview of the teachers responses indicated that the culture of the immediatecommunity is taught in the schools but aspects inimical to female trafficking are notdiscussed. The impression created is that aspects of the culture that make femalesvulnerable to being trafficked are good and the status quo should be maintained. Forexample, a male teacher expressed the following view:

I personally have no problem with women being encouraged to go to school.However, they should continue to respect and uphold our tradition. Women mustcontinue to realize that they are inferior to males. We can never regard them as our

equals. It is against our tradition to accord them equal status as us. Do we have toencourage them to disregard out tradition? Are we training our women to becomeoyinbos(Europeans)? From the time of our forefathers, bride price is paid on

women because of their economic value.

Content regarding sex education

The teachers said that a programme on sex education is just being designed but it is not yetimplemented in schools. However, the content of what seems to be sex education in schoolsfor now is aptly summarized by a respondent as follows:

You know that issues about sex cannot be mentioned in public without peoplefeeling that you are very immoral. We only concentrate on the biological differencesbetween males and females when we dare to mention sex education. That is howfar we can go for now.

Content regarding female dignity

The teachers said that there is nothing in the curriculum that has bearing with female dignity.Female teachers observed that such provision would have been a welcome development tothem. The position was succinctly expressed by a female teacher as follows :

Women are treated as nobody in the society, and they too feel that they are nobody.They are easily intimidated by their male counterparts. Most often they withdrawinto their shelves and allow themselves to be manipulated and used. Nothing in theUBE programme is designed to change this situation. We the female teacher arehandicapped because if we attempt to introduce such topics we would be accusedof teaching what is not in the syllabus and turning the females against their brothers,fathers and husbands. Do you not know that curses are hurled at the proprietor ofthe anti-female trafficking non-Governmental organization by many people in thecommunity? She is regarded as an enemy because she advices females not to allow

themselves to be trafficked.


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Content regarding female trafficking

The respondents indicated that moral studies has just been introduced as a subject but thecontent of the course is determined by the teacher. However, no aspect of the schoolcurriculum relates to the evil of female trafficking. Rather, the role models of success are

some female dropouts who occasionally visit home and the schools, to showcase theirwealth from trafficking.

Research question 5. What is females students disposition towa rd trafficking?

Of the 420 female students, who were the respondents, 95.2% of them indicated that theywere willing to be trafficked. Only 23.8% stated that they were aware of the consequeces ofbeing trafficked, and 11.9% indicated that they had actually been approached by traffickers.The position of the majority of female students regarding willingness to be trafficked wassuccinctly put as follows by some of the respondents.

Osasus response

My sister wants to take me abroad to weave hair. Is there anything wrong in that ? theymake a lot of money. If I go I shall be able to help my family. Can u imagine that my brothersand I are often sent out of classes for lack of writing materials. Even if I stop schooling mybrothers will be able to continue.

Erhahons response

My parents always compare me with some girls who have traveld abroad because theirparents now live in bery large houses and their daugthers always remit money to them. Theyfeel that I am wicked and a disagrace to the family for remaining here and going to school asI have no means of helping them at all. Well, I dont know however . I may go some day sothat I can help my family.

Ivies response

My parents have warned me never to ask them for money again as my mates are thosesustaining their families. Anyway it is good to help your family. I was just waiting to hearfrom one of my friends who went last year before I know what to do.

Research question 6. What are parents attitudes to the trafficking of female

children?


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Table 5 shows that 88.1% of the parents are aware of the dangers of trafficking and haveattended campaign rallies against trafficking.

However 26.2% have had children who have been trafficked and 23.8% of the parents arestill willing to give support to their children being trafficked. Reasons why parents are willing

to approve the trafficking of female children can be deduced from comment of somerespondents as stated below:

Table 5. Female students disposition toward trafficking

Students disposition Yes NoWillingness of femalesstudents to be trafficked

400(95.2%) 20(4.8%)

Awareness of theconsequences of trafficking

100(23.8%) 320(76%)

Approached by traffickers 50(11.9%) 390(88.1%)

I have no reservation about my daughters travelling because I have suffered too much. Thecountry is too hard. Just imagine my daughter only traveled last year and she has been ableto purchase two cars for the family. When a girl gets married she is no more useful to hernatal family. She starts to help her husband. But if she travels abroad she will continue tosupport us. This of course is better for us.

Research question 7. What are the challenges experienced by the management ofthe service provide centre to rehabilitate the victims of trafficking ?

From an interview, instructors revealed that the barriers to the successful rehabilitation oftrafficked victims were as follows :

- Lack of fund to provide the desired learning facilities for training.- Preparedness of the trafficked victims to be re-trafficked.- Pressure from parents of the repatriated victims to be re-trafficked.

Table 6. Parental attitude to the trafficking of female children

Items No. of respondents ResponsesYes No

Awareness of thedangers of trafficking

420 370(88.1%) 50(11.9%)

Attendance ofcampaign ralliesagainst trafficking

420 370(88.1%) 50(11.9%)

Parents whosechildren have beenpreviously trafficked

420 110(26.2%) 310(73.8%)

Parental support tochildren to be 420 100(23.8%) 320(76.2%)


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trafficked

Discussion of findingsThe major crux of the study was to assess the human and material resources available at thetrafficking service provider centre in South-South Nigeria. The finding was that the ratio ofinstructors to pupils was higher in all the programmes than the recommended standard,meaning there are not sufficient instructors. The same situation for the ratio of facilities tolearners. The observed pattern was an indication that the human and material resources atthe disposal of the trafficking service provider centre are not adequate to train the learnersin the various programmes;Alily(2000) found in her study that there is a correlation betweenthe availability of human and material resources and students achievement. The question is :

what meaningful contribution can the service provider centre make toward therehabilitation of the repatriated victims with the shortage of both human and materialresources in the training of learners? Is it ironic that this is the situation at the centre,whereas Igbinedion (2006, the proprietress of the service provider centre) had attributedthe high rate of female trafficking to females who drop out from ill-equipped schools.

The survival of the trainees of trafficking service provider centre in the world of work,was another concern of the study. More than 70% of the graduates considered themselvesproficient in programmes as secretarial studies and fashion design while more than 50 %considered themselves unprepared for the world of work. Regarding catering/home

management and hair dressing/cosmetology the finding is not unexpected as respondentshad earlier indicated that majority of them could not perform elementary tasks in cateringsuch as baking, preparation of fast foods and rendering of catering services at occasions(95.5%). Menwhile, 56.75% of those in the hair dressing and cosmetology programme canneither fi weave-on, braid, wash nor set hair, etc. The implication is that half-baked products,unprepared for the world of work, are turned out from the centre. It would have beenexpected that the learners should be trained to be well rounded in skills that would equipthem for financial independence as Orakwue (2006) found in his study among traffickedvictims that a reason for being involved is the desire to be financially independent. Similarly,Igbinedion (2006) implicated unemployment as a reason for involvement in being trafficked.

No wonder Orakwue (2006) noted that although the girls, when repatriated, come backwith a lot of frustration and pain, they want to go back to Europe as soon as possible,because their backgrounds are very poor. Therefore, they seek to be re-trafficked at theleast opportunity.

An analysis of the formal curriculum segment of the Universal Basic Educationindicated that neither the curriculum content nor educational practices were designed toequip pupils with the personal agency to probe anti-female cultural values or dissuadefemale students from accepting to be trafficked. The implication is that though the issues istopical in the area, no attempt is made by the formal school segment to address the issue

thought its clienteles are the victims of the vice. It would have been expected that the UBEprogramme, should incorporate some transformative content and pedagogy aimed at


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reorienting students to change their values and equip them with the where withal to resistsexual trafficking. Such provisions in the formal school segment could have greatly stemmedthe tide of female trafficking in the immediate environment where the schools are situated.Presently, it appears that that the school which ought to be an agent of change of negativepractices in the larger society is apathetical to needs of the immediate environment. This isbecause no attempt has been made to change the values and attitudes of the students whoare well positioned to positively influence members of the larger society toward in the largercommunity, especially as female trafficking has become prevalent in the region even at theinternational arena.

A probe of the disposition of female pupils toward trafficking indicated that the 95%of the former were very well disposed. The finding, though alarming, was not unexpected asthe prevalent patriarchal system with the attendant gender power relations in the area,tends to equate the usefulness of the female child with the financial benefit that can bederived from her by her natal family. Consequently the girl child is socialized into believingthat her worth is in terms of the financial benefit that can be derived by the natal family onher behalf. It is not unlikely therefore, that the girl child desires to be trafficked so that shewill be better positioned to make financial contribution to the well being of her family. Nowonder very many female students indicated that they desired to travel so that they canhelp their families. This point was well buttressed by Guffre and Williams (1994) whoexplained that in a situation where power is vested in the male, the subordinate position ofthe female coupled with the potential of her body tend to make her vulnerable to sexualviolence (e.g. trafficking). The gravity of the issue is further exacerbated by a very largeproportion of pupils (76%) and parents (88.1%) who indicated that they were unaware of the

dangers of female trafficking. The finding corroborates Orakwue (2006), who found thattrafficked victims overseas do not seem to appreciate the gravity of their situation. The issuethen is: is it not necessary to enlighten the victims of female trafficking who are dropouts orgraduates of the UBE programe before they fall prey to traffickers again ? This questionremains very pertinent because it is an established fact that the region is notorious forfemale trafficking and the UBE programme is intended to equip the citizenry with theknowledge, values, attitudes and skills for useful living in the society.

Only very few (21.9%) of the parents had attended rallies and campaigns againsttrafficking, a very large proportion of them (93.6%) had children who had previously been

trafficked. As much as 23.8% are still willing to support their daughters being trafficked.These expressions by parents all indicative of the beliefs regarding the female child in apatriarchal society, where the she is seen as a commodity to be disposed off, for financialgains whereas the male child should be preserved to carry on the family name. The questionthat comes to mind therefore is : should the non-formal segment of the UBE not reorient thepublic on such issues, since many parents are oblivious of the dangers of female trafficking ?these are pertinent aspects where a transformative pedagogy of the UBE programme couldpositively influence the larger society by promoting alternative understanding of socialissues such as patriarchy, gendered power relations and sexual trafficking.

As regard the challenges experienced by the management of service providercentres to rehabilitate the victims of trafficking, lack of funds to provide the desired learning


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facilities for training, readiness of the trafficked victims to be re-trafficked and pressure fromthe parents of repatriated victims to be re-trafficked were prominent. These finding are notunexpected as it had been earlier revealed that the available facilities and instructors areinadequate to provide life skills to trafficked victims.

Conclusion

Human and material resources at the disposal of the trafficking service provider s centre arenot adequate to train learners in the various programmes. Consequently, many of thegraduates were of the opinion that they were not proficient in the programmesimplemented, except secretarial studies and fashion design, Similarly, no aspect of theformal school curriculum addressed female trafficking, so when female pupils were willing tobe trafficked, the majority of the parents give their support. The pressure of repatriated

victims to be re-trafficked and inadequate funding were perceived as the barriers to theattainment of the objectives of the trafficking service provider centre.

Implication to educational administration

Educational policies are designed to affect the day-to-day lives and activities of the largersociety. Hence it was stated in the National Policy of Education (Federal Republic of Nigeria1981,1988,2004) that education should be a tool for social transformation. The UBEprogramme was intended to provide the Nigerian citizenry from primary school age with thebasic education required for useful living in society. However, it appears that no attentionwas given to the need to equip pupils with the capacity to address social problems such asfemale trafficking, as the content, practices and pedagogy adopted in the implementation ofthe programme did not in anyway take cognizance of such issues.

Presently, female trafficking is a vice which is preventing a large segment of thefemale population from benefiting from the UBE programme in South-South Nigeria.Consequently, the outcome of the UBE programme is likely to be at variance with intendedobjectives. It is imperative therefore that educational mangers should as a matter of urgencyrevie and incorporate definite aspects in the content, pedagogy and practices in the UBEprogramme targeted at combating social vices as female trafficking.

the universal basic education programme and female trafficking in south

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