the toulmin model
DESCRIPTION
The Toulmin Model. A tool for diagramming “ informal ” arguments. Here are three claims. Rate them. Issue: What car should we buy. Claim 1: We should buy the Chevy Metro because it is very economical. Claim 2: We should buy the Volvo station wagon because it is very safe. - PowerPoint PPT PresentationTRANSCRIPT
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The Toulmin Model
A tool for diagramming“informal” arguments
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Here are three claims. Rate them.
Issue: What car should we buy.
Claim 1: We should buy the Chevy Metro because it is very economical.Claim 2: We should buy the Volvo station wagon because it is very safe.Claim 3: We should buy the Ford Falcon because it was red.
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What assumptions need to be true for the claim to be true?
Claim 1: The Chevy MetroClaim 2: The VolvoClaim 3: The Ford Falcon
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How can you support or refute each claim?
• Claim 1: We should buy the Chevy Metro because it is economical.
• Claim 2: We should buy the Volvo station wagon because it was safe.
• Claim 3: We should buy the Ford Falcon because it was red.
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Valid claims
• What is the underlying problem with claim 3?
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Toulmin Model:
• Arguments need three things to be viable: – Grounds– Warrants– Backing
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Stephen Toulmin
• Stephen Toulmin, originally a British logician, is now a professor at USC. He became frustrated with the inability of formal logic to explain everyday arguments, which prompted him to develop his own model of practical reasoning.
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The three basic elements:
• Claim (assertion or proposition)
• Grounds (proof, grounds, support)
• Warrant (inferential leap)
To make these arguments, a writer could decide to use: relevance to the argument (backing), address opposing viewpoints (rebuttal)AND qualify your argument were it is logical to do so.
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Claims
• A claim is the point an arguer is trying to make. The claim is the conclusion, proposition, or assertion an arguer wants another to accept.
• The claim answers the question, "So what is your point?”– example: “Rosario is an American citizenRosario is an American citizen,
because she was born in the United States.”– example: “Because the groundhog saw his
shadow, there will be six more weeks of winter.there will be six more weeks of winter.””
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More about claims...
• There are four basic types of claims:• fact: claims which focus on empirically
verifiable phenomena
• judgment/value: claims involving opinions, attitudes, and subjective evaluations of things
• policy: claims advocating courses of action that should be undertaken
• definition/classification: indicates what criteria are being used to to define a term or what category something falls into
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Grounds (proof or data)
• Grounds refers to the proof or evidence an arguer offers.
• Grounds can consist of statistics, quotations, reports, findings, physical evidence, or various forms of reasoning– example: “I’m a vegetarian. One reason is One reason is
that I feel sorry for the animals. Another that I feel sorry for the animals. Another reason is for my own health.reason is for my own health.””
– example: ““I made the dinner, I made the dinner, so you can do the dishes.
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More about grounds...
• Grounds are the support the arguer offers on behalf of his/her claim. The grounds answer questions such as:– "What is your proof?“– "How do you know?“– "Why?”– example: “It looks like rain. The barometer is The barometer is
fallingfalling.” – example: "The other Ritz Carlton hotels I've The other Ritz Carlton hotels I've
stayed at had great poolsstayed at had great pools, so I'll bet this one has a great pool too."
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Still more about grounds...
• grounds can be based on:– evidence: facts, statistics, reports, or
physical proof – source credibility: authorities, experts,
celebrity endorsers, a close friend, or someone's say-so
– analysis and reasoning: reasons may be offered as proof
– premises already held by the listener
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Clue words for identifying grounds
• The grounds for an argument often follow words such as “because,” “since,” “given that…”– example: “Airports should x-ray all
luggage because a bomb could be placed in a checked baggage.”
– example: “I expect to do well on the test, since I studied all night for it.”
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Warrants
• The warrant is the inferential leap that connects the claim with the grounds.
• The warrant is typically implicit (unstated) and requires the listener to recognize the connection between the claim and grounds
• The implicit nature of warrants means the “meaning” of an argument is as much a part of the receiver as it is a part of the message.
• Some arguments are “multi-warranted,” e.g., based on more than one inferential leap
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More about warrants...
• The warrant performs a "linking" function by establishing a mental connection between the grounds and the claim– example: “Muffin is running a temperature. I’ll bet
she has an infection.”
– example: "That dog is probably friendly. It is a Golden Retriever.”
(warrant: sign reasoning; a fever is a reliable sign (warrant: sign reasoning; a fever is a reliable sign of an infection)of an infection)
(warrant: generalization; most or all Golden (warrant: generalization; most or all Golden Retrievers are friendly)Retrievers are friendly)
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Still more about warrants...
• warrants can be based on:
• ethos: source credibility, authority
• logos: reason-giving, induction, deduction
• pathos: emotional or motivational appeals
• value premises: values shared by, or presumed to be shared by, the receiver(s)
• note: these categories aren't mutually exclusive, there is considerable overlap among the three
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the first triadsample argument 1
Claim Grounds
Warrant
The Indians are likely The Indians are likely to win the ballgame to win the ballgame tonighttonight
They are playingThey are playingat homeat home
(unstated) Generalization: (unstated) Generalization: The home team enjoys an The home team enjoys an advantage in baseballadvantage in baseball
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the first triadsample argument 2
Claim Grounds
Warrant
““JunoJuno”” is a wonderful is a wonderful movie.movie.
It was nominated It was nominated for 4 Academy for 4 Academy AwardsAwards
(unstated) Sign: a movie(unstated) Sign: a movie’’s s greatness can be measured in greatness can be measured in the number of Oscar the number of Oscar nominations it receivesnominations it receives
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the first triadsample argument 3
Claim Grounds
Warrant
Biff was probably in a Biff was probably in a fightfight
He has a black eyeHe has a black eye
(unstated) Sign: A black eye (unstated) Sign: A black eye is a reliable indicator that a is a reliable indicator that a person has been in a fightperson has been in a fight
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the first triadsample argument 4
Claim Grounds
Warrant
If you surf at If you surf at Huntington Beach Huntington Beach right after it rains you right after it rains you risk getting a bacterial risk getting a bacterial infectioninfection
Runoff from the Runoff from the rain washes bacteria rain washes bacteria into the oceaninto the ocean
(unstated) Cause-effect: (unstated) Cause-effect: bacteria in the water causes bacteria in the water causes surfers to get ill.surfers to get ill.
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Begin your arguments: How do I know if I need to use backings, rebuttals and qualifiers?
Ask yourself these questions when attempting to argue in this model:
1. What position do I want my reader to take?2. Where must my audience begin so that they can take the step I want them to take and agree with my claimM?
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Begin your arguments
3. What is the linking idea between my grounds and claim? (Question 2 to 1)4. Is the move from Question 2 to 1 safe and reliable?5. What possibilities might upset the arguments (an exception that could invalidate my claim)6. Should I use qualifiers on my claim?
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So, let’s go through an argument question by question
1.I want restaurant owners to agree with me that they would benefit from adding a service charge and do away with tipping so I will argue:-- A 15 percent service charge should be added to restaurant bills in lieu of tipping.This is the claim.
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So, let’s go through an argument question by question
2. I believe restaurant owners will value a stable work force and argument, so I will argue:
Waitresses making a reliable income will be less likely to leave AND a service fee will eliminate inequity that results from patrons being unsure how much to tip. These are the grounds
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So, let’s go through an argument question by question
3. The bottom line is that owners want maximum profit, so I should argue that a more stable and fairly treated staff will result in better profits. Therefore, I will argue:A high turnover of servers is costly in the industry.This is the warrant.
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So, let’s go through an argument question by question
4. I need to show that there is an economic benefit to making a staff happy, so I will argue:Paperwork and training involved in new hires is costly and time consuming.
This is the backing of my argument.
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So, let’s go through an argument question by question
5. I need to consider what rebuttals one could make about my claim. In this case, I could argue:Initially servers might resent the new policy and give poor service in protest to the limit on their earning potential.
I could respond to this rebuttal by including a claim targeted at servers and suggesting this policy could bring them a stable income.
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So, let’s go through an argument question by question
6.Given my rebuttal, I would definitely want to qualify my argument to suggest the benefits for both employee and employer:In restaurants that have seen high turn-over and unstable income potential for servers, owners should adopt a 15 percent service fee to patron’s bills.