the tibet-china conflict-history and polemics, by elliot sperling

Policy Studies 7

The Tibet-China Conflict:History and Polemics

Elliot Sperling

East-West Center Washington

Policy StudiesA Publication of the East-West Center Washington

Editor: Dr. Muthiah AlagappaThe aim of Policy Studies is to present scholarly analysis of key contemporary domesticand international political, economic, and strategic issues affecting Asia in a policy rel-evant manner. Written for the policy community, academics, journalists, and theinformed public, the peer-reviewed publications in this series will provide new policyinsights and perspectives based on extensive fieldwork and rigorous scholarship.

Each publication in the series presents a 15,000 to 25,000 investigation of a singletopic. Often publications in this series will appear in conjunction with East-WestCenter research projects; stand-alone investigations of pertinent issues will also appearin the series.

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Proposal. A three to five page proposal should indicate the issue, problem, or puzzle tobe analyzed, its policy significance, the novel perspective to be provided, and date bywhich the manuscript will be ready. The editor and two relevant experts will reviewproposals to determine their suitability for the series. The manuscript when completedwill be peer-reviewed in line with the double blind process.

Complete Manuscript. Submission of complete manuscript should be accompanied by atwo page abstract that sets out the issue, problem, or puzzle analyzed, its policy signifi-cance, and the novel perspective provided by the paper. The editor and two relevantexperts will review the abstract. If considered suitable for the series, the manuscript willbe peer reviewed in line with the double blind process.

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Notes to Contributors

Manuscripts should be typed and double-spaced. Citations should be inserted in thetext with notes double-spaced at the end. The manuscript should be accompanied by acompleted bibliography. All artwork should be camera ready. Authors should refrainfrom identifying themselves in their proposals and manuscripts and should follow thePolicy Studies stylesheet, available from the series editorial office. Submissions shouldbe sent to:

Editor, Policy StudiesEast-West Center Washington1819 L Street NW, Suite 200

Washington, D.C. 20036

Submissions can also be forwarded by Email to [email protected]

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4HE1UESTIONOF4IBETS(ISTORICAL3TATUS

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0ROJECT)NFORMATION4HE$YNAMICSAND-ANAGEMENTOF)NTERNAL#ONmICTSIN!SIA s0ROJECT0URPOSEAND/UTLINE s0ROJECT0ARTICIPANTS,IST s"ACKGROUNDOFTHE4IBETCONmICT s-APOFTHE4IBETAN0LATEAU

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4HE1UESTIONOF4IBETS(ISTORICAL3TATUS

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4HE%VOLUTIONOFTHE#HINESE0OSITION

!S STATEDABOVE THEPRIMARYBATTLEGROUND FOR THEARGUMENTOVER4IBETSSTATUS IS HISTORY AND THAT HISTORY IS OFTEN PRESENTED FROM THE #HINESEPERSPECTIVEAS SELFEVIDENTLY SUPPORTIVEOF#HINESEASSERTIONS!RGUMENTSHAVEBEENMADEFORATLEASTACENTURYABOUT4IBETSSTATUSASAPARTOF#HINA!LTHOUGH BRIEF ASSERTIONS OF THE RIGHTNESS OF4IBETS PLACE WITHIN#HINACAN BE TRACED BACK THIS FAR HOWEVER A RELATIVELY INTENSE DOCUMENTARYCASE HAS BEEN PRESENTED BY #HINA ONLY OVER THE LAST TWO DECADES WITHTHEPUBLICATIONOFSEVERALCOLLECTIONSOFDOCUMENTSMEANTTOBUTTRESSAND

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CLEARLYPROVETHEPOINT

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4IBETS HISTORICAL RELATIONSHIP TO #HINA WAS CAST IN ITS PRESENTFORMULATIONONLYAFTERTHE0EOPLES2EPUBLICOF#HINAHADBEENESTABLISHED"UTTHE2EPUBLICOF#HINAHADALSODEALTWITHTHEISSUEDURINGTHETIMETHAT IT HELD SWAY ON THE #HINESE MAINLAND n )N FACT WHENNEGOTIATIONSTORESOLVETHE4IBETISSUEWEREATTEMPTEDIN3IMLAINn THE#HINESE DELEGATION CAMEWITH A CLEAR STATEMENT OFWHAT IT HELDTO BE THE HISTORICAL STATUS OF4IBET !CCORDINGLY THE#HINESE DELEGATIONSUBMITTEDTOTHECONFERENCEON/CTOBERITSPOSITIONTHAT4IBETHADBEENINCORPORATEDINTOTHE-ONGOL%MPIREINANDREMAINEDINTHISRELATIONSHIPIETHATOFANIMPERIALDOMINIONTO#HINADURINGTHE-INGPERIODn3IGNIlCANTLYTHE#HINESESTATEMENTELABORATESONTHEAFTERMATHOFTHE'URKHAINVASIONOF4IBETWHICHRESULTEDINTHE4IBETO.EPALESE7AROFn

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THAT#HINASCENTRALGOVERNMENTSENJOYEDPRIMACYIN4IBETANAFFAIRSFROMTHE9UANPERIODUPTOTHEPRESENT4HENOTIONTHAT4IBETSOMEHOWWARRANTSTHERESTORATIONOFTHISELEMENTOF1INGRULEISBESTVIEWEDASPARTOFALARGERSTRUGGLETOBRINGHISTORYANDHISTORICALPRECEDENTTOBEARONTHELEGITIMACYOF02#POLICIESANDRULEIN4IBETTODAY

4HE)NVASION1UESTIONOR7HAT#ONSTITUTES4IBET4IBETWASNOTINVADEDBY#HINAINNORWERE4IBETANSIGNORANTOFTHENAMEOF THEIR COUNTRY4HESE LAST TWOPOINTSPURPOSELYPHRASED SOASTORAISEEYEBROWSARECONNECTEDONCEMOREWITHTHEATTEMPTTODElNEASPECIlCVISIONOFANATION4HEYAREUSEFULINPOINTINGOUTTHEDEGREEOFAMBIGUITY CONTRADICTION AND EVEN STRAINED ILLOGICAL INVENTION THAT GOESINTOSUCHANENTERPRISE

4HElRSTPOINT RELATES TO THE IDEAOFWHAT4IBET IS EXACTLY7EHAVEALREADY NOTED THAT IN WHEN THE 0,! ATTACKED ACROSS THE FRONTIERSEPARATING THE TERRITORIESUNDER THE$ALAI,AMAS JURISDICTION FROMOTHERPARTSOFTHE4IBETAN0LATEAUTHE4IBETANGOVERNMENTCLAIMEDTHAT#HINAHAD LAUNCHEDAN INVASIONOF4IBET/NLY INTHESWAS ITDECIDEDTOSET AS THE YEAR OF THE INVASION4HE REASON VERYOBVIOUSLYWAS TOASSERTAPOLITICALCLAIMTOALLOF THECONTIGUOUSTERRITORIESONTHE4IBETAN0LATEAUINHABITEDBY4IBETANS4HISELICITSTHENATURALQUESTIONOFWHYTHE4IBETANGOVERNMENTDIDNOTMAKETHECLAIMOFINVASIONIN/NEISHARDPRESSEDTOIMAGINE4IBETSBEINGINVADEDINWHILEITSPOPULATIONREMAINEDOBLIVIOUSOFTHEEVENT)NFACTTHETERRITORIESINVOLVEDGENERALLYSPEAKING THE 4IBETANINHABITED REGIONS OUTSIDE THE MODERN 4IBET

;THE'OLDEN5RNS=REVIVALASAPRESENTDAYDEVICECANNOTBESEENASANYTHINGBUTCYNICAL


!UTONOMOUS2EGIONHADBEENREMOVEDBYTHE1INGFROMTHEJURISDICTIONOFTHE4IBETANGOVERNMENTINTHEEARLYEIGHTEENTHCENTURY)NTHElRSTHALFOF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY THEY HAD BECOME PARTS OF #HINESE PROVINCESSOMETHINGTHE1INGHADNOTDONEWITHTHEMANDWEREGENERALLYUNDERTHEDOMINATIONOFPROVINCIALWARLORDS4HETIESOFCULTURELANGUAGEANDRELIGION BETWEEN THESE AREAS AND ,HASA REMAINED LARGELY UNIMPEDED)NDEED THE PRESENT $ALAI ,AMA AND THE PREVIOUS 0ANCHEN ,AMA WEREBOTHBORNINTHESEREGIONS4HUSANACCOMMODATIONWITHTHISSITUATIONOFDIVIDEDPOLITICALREGIMESONTHE4IBETAN0LATEAUWASINPLACE-ANYPEOPLEINTHE4IBETANGOVERNMENTWERELARGELYIGNORANTOFWHATTHEIMPLICATIONSOF THIS WERE IN TERMS OF MODERN NATIONALIST ASPIRATIONS #LEARLY IT WASTHE COMING TO TERMSWITH THAT SENTIMENT IN THE AFTERMATHOF THATDISABUSEDCERTAINlGURESINTHEEXILECOMMUNITYOFTHEVIABILITYOFA4IBETWITHIMPRECISEBORDERSANDSTATUS

%SSENTIALLY THE VAGARIES OF THE SITUATION ON THE 4IBETAN 0LATEAUBEFORE WERE SUCH THAT THE4IBETAN GOVERNMENT ACCOMMODATED ANARRANGEMENTWITH#HINESEPROVINCIALPOWERSINWHICHMUCHWASINFORMALANDLEFTUNARTICULATEDINOFlCIALAGREEMENTS4HE4IBETANGOVERNMENTHADLONGBEENACCUSTOMEDTOTHISSTATEOFAFFAIRSANDDISCRETIONWASOFTENPARTOFIT.OTTHATTHE4IBETANGOVERNMENTHADWRITTENOFFTHEEASTERNPORTIONSOF THE4IBETAN 0LATEAU THEIR STATUS HAD BEEN PART OF THE BRIEF BROUGHTBY THE4IBETAN DELEGATION AT THE 3IMLA CONFERENCE AND EARLIER DECADESHADSEENSERIOUSCONmICTTHERE"UTTHEREWASNOURGENTSENSETHAT4IBETHADBEEN INVADEDWHEN INCIVILANDMILITARYOFlCIALSOF THE02#REPLACEDTHERULERSINTHEAREAWHOHADBEENPARTOFTHE#HINESE2EPUBLICANPRESENCETHERE3OOBTUSEWASTHE4IBETANGOVERNMENTINTHOSEYEARSABOUTQUESTIONSOF SOVEREIGNTY THAT ITHAD EVENBEENABLE TOPERSUADE SOME IN,HASATHATITSSIGNINGOFTHE3EVENTEEN0OINT!GREEMENTINSTILLLEFT4IBETINDEPENDENT4HUSTHEREWASNOCLAIMOFAINVASIONUNTILTHESEVENTHOUGHTHEBACKBONEOFTHEUPRISINGCOMPRISED4IBETANSFROMTHEVERYAREASINQUESTIONTHOSETHATLAYOUTSIDETHEJURISDICTIONOFTHE$ALAI,AMASGOVERNMENTCERTAINLYONECANNOTDISPUTETHEIRIDENTITYAS4IBETANS

)NDUECOURSETHE4IBETANGOVERNMENTINEXILEBEGANTOBACKTRACKINORDERTOBUILDAVISIONOF4IBETTHATREmECTEDTHENEWSENSEOFNATIONALISMTHATGREWOUTOFTHEREVOLTANDTHEYEARSOFEXILETHATFOLLOWED9ETAPAMPHLETON4IBETSSTATUSPUBLISHEDBYTHE$ALAI,AMAS.EW$ELHIOFlCENOTLONGAFTERTHEUPRISINGGAVEASTHEDATEOFTHEINVASION

%LLIOT3PERLING

7HEN REPRINTED IN THE DATE HAD BEEN CHANGED TO 4HEINTRODUCTIONBY THE4IBETANGOVERNMENTINEXILES/FlCEOF )NFORMATION

AND)NTERNATIONAL2ELATIONSTOTHESURVEYOF3INO4IBETANRELATIONSBY4ASHI4SERINGSPEAKSOFhTHE#HINESEINVASIONANDOCCUPATIONINvWITHhINVASIONANDvWHITEDOUT

)F THIS SHOWS SOME RATHER SLOPPY STITCHINGIN THE 4IBETAN CONSTRUCTION OF WHAT 4IBET ISTHEINCLUSIONOF4IBETWITHINTHE#HINESEVISIONOF#HINA HAS ALSO PRODUCED SOMEBIZARRE TWISTSOF LOGIC/NESUCHTWIST RELATES TO LANGUAGEANDSTEMSFROMTHESAMEMOTIVATIONTHATISATWORKINTHE#HINESEREVISIONOFTHETERM(ANASYNONYM FOR #HINESE NOW MARSHALED IN ORDERTHATh#HINESEvANOTHERWISEETHNOLINGUISTICALLY

SPECIlC DESIGNATION CAN BE APPLIED TO -ONGOLS 4IBETANS AND OTHERNATIONALMINORITIES4HE4IBETANLANGUAGEHASNEVERTREATEDTHETERMFOR#HINA2GYANAGASMEANINGANYTHINGOTHERTHANTHECOUNTRYNEIGHBORING4IBETTOTHEEAST)TSlELDOFMEANINGDOESNOTENCOMPASS4IBETMUCHASTHE4IBETANNAME FOR4IBET"ODDOESNOTENCOMPASS#HINA!NARTICLEFROM #HINAS 4IBET PUBLISHED IN TO COMMEMORATE THE SIGNINGOF THE 3EVENTEEN0OINT !GREEMENT DESCRIBED SOME OF THE TRANSLATIONPROBLEMS THAT AROSE DURING THE AGREEMENTS NEGOTIATION )T CONTAINED ATELLING COMMENT h)N ;THE=4IBETAN LANGUAGE THEREWAS NOWORDWHICHMEANT @#HINAv 4HE AUTHOR WHO WORKED AS A TRANSLATOR DURING THENEGOTIATIONS THEN NOTES THAT THE #HINESE NAME FOR #HINA HAD TO BETRANSLITERATEDTOPROVIDEAUSABLETERM)NEFFECTSINCETHE#HINESEPOSITIONWASTHAT4IBETHADBEENANINTEGRALPARTOF#HINAFORCENTURIESTHEONLYPOSSIBLEINTERPRETATIONFORTHISANECDOTEIFONETAKESITATFACEVALUEISTHATTHEAUTHORCONSIDERED4IBETANS TOBE IGNORANTOF THENAMEOF THEIROWNCOUNTRY/FCOURSETHATIGNORANCEISANINVENTIONWHATTHE4IBETANSWEREUNAWAREOFWASTHEBEGINNINGOFAPROCESSOFMOLDINGANDMANIPULATINGANEW4IBETANIDENTITY

"UTTHISPROCESSWASPARTOFTHECONSTRUCTIONOF#HINAANDTHE#HINESEIDENTITY"ECAUSEOFTHEAUTHORITARIANUNDERPINNINGSOFTHATCONSTRUCTIONQUESTIONS ABOUT THE VALIDITY OF THE HISTORICAL CASE BEHIND 4IBETSINCORPORATION IN THE 02# BECOME FRAUGHTWITH EXISTENTIAL OVERTONES )F4IBETISPRESENTEDASANhINTEGRALvPARTOF#HINATHEIMPLICATIONSFORTHE

4IBETANGOVERNMENTACCOMMODATEDANARRANGEMENTWITH#HINESEPROVINCIALPOWERSINWHICHMUCHWASINFORMALANDLEFTUNARTICULATEDINOFlCIALAGREEMENTS


INTEGRITYOFA#HINASOCONSTRUCTEDARE FUNDAMENTALONCE THE LEGITIMACYOF THATPOSITION ISUNDERMINED4HUS THE SIMPLE REALIZATION THATCERTAINELEMENTS IN THE CONTEMPORARY VISION OF#HINA AREMODERN CONTRIVANCESANDHARDLYALEGACYHANDEDDOWNFROMTIMEIMMEMORIALHASVERYSERIOUSRAMIlCATIONS/NEMIGHTCARRYTHETHOUGHTFURTHERCALLINGTHISVISIONINTOQUESTIONALSORAISESISSUESABOUTTHEPOLITICALSTRUCTURESTHATDERIVEFROMAlXEDNOTIONOF#HINAANDTHE#HINESEIDENTITYINITSOWNWAYTHISRAISESISSUES ABOUT A GOVERNMENT THAT STAKES SOMUCH OF ITS LEGITIMACY ON ITSPERCEIVEDABILITYTODELIVERASPECIlCVISIONOF#HINA

#ONCLUSION

4HEHISTORICAL STATUSOF4IBET ISHARDLYA SMALLMATTEROFCLARIFYING SOMETEXTUAL MISUNDERSTANDINGS WERE THAT THE CASE THIS PAPER MIGHT INDEEDBE WELCOME TO ALL PARTIES4HE ISSUE HAS A RESONANCE WELL BEYOND THATTHEPOSITIONSOF THEPARTIES TOTHE4IBET ISSUEARE IMBUEDWITHQUESTIONSOFPOLITICAL ANDNATIONAL IDENTITYANDGROUNDED INDECADESOFPOLEMICALDIPLOMATICANDMILITARYSTRUGGLE4HEFACTSASESTABLISHEDBYRECOURSETOTHEHISTORICAL RECORD AREWONT TOBE SUBJECT TODIVERGENT INTERPRETATIONSSOME ELEMENTS ARE EMPHASIZED OTHERS IGNORED7HY THEN ACKNOWLEDGETHESEFACTS

&ORONETHINGTHEREISTHESHEERNECESSITYANDNATURALIMPETUSTOKNOWASMUCHASCANBEKNOWNOFTHEPATHTHATHAS LEADTOTHECURRENTSITUATION4HISUNDERSTANDINGISCENTRALTOANYATTEMPTTOGAINCONTROLOVERTHEISSUEEVENIFTHEPARTIESTOITHAVEDIFFERENTVIEWSOFTHEHISTORICALFACTSWESTILLNEEDTOKNOWWHATTHOSEFACTSAREASWELLASTHEMANNERINWHICHTHEYAREBEINGDISPUTED

4HENTHEREISTHEREALITYTHATTHEFUNDAMENTALPLACEOFHISTORYINTHE4IBETISSUEISNOTSOMETHINGIMPOSEDBYOUTSIDEPARTIES%VENTHOUGHTHE$ALAI,AMAANDHISEXILEGOVERNMENTAPPEARQUITEATEASEWITHACCEPTING4IBETASAPARTOF#HINATHE02#HASPOINTEDLYACCUSEDTHE$ALAI,AMAOF DUPLICITY STATING THAT HIS UNWILLINGNESS TO RECOGNIZE4IBET AS HAVINGBEEN AN INTEGRAL PART OF #HINA FOR CENTURIES RENDERS HIS ACQUIESCENCEUNACCEPTABLE4HECENTRALITYOFHISTORY INTHEQUESTIONOF4IBETS STATUSCOULDNOTBEMADECLEARER

4HEREFOREITDOESMATTERWHETHERTHE9UANDYNASTYMADE4IBETAPARTOF#HINAINTHETHIRTEENTHCENTURY4HE$ALAI,AMASREFUSALTOACCEDETOTHISPROPOSITIONHASONTHEFACEOFITBECOMEONEOF#HINASPRIMARYSTATEDREASONSFORTHEIMPASSEOVERTHE4IBETISSUE)NTHISCONTEXTITMATTERSTOO

%LLIOT3PERLING

THAT #HINESE COMMENTATORS INTO THE S HELD THAT4IBET HAD BEEN AVASSALSTATEOFTHE1ING

3IMILARLY THE USE OF THE 'OLDEN 5RN IN RECOGNIZING 4IBETANINCARNATIONSISASIGNIlCANTISSUE)TISCLEARLYMEANTTOIMPARTLEGITIMACYTO#HINESECONTROLOVERTHEINCARNATIONOFHIGHLAMASWITHAPARTICULAREYE

TOTHE$ALAI,AMASNEXTINCARNATIONTHROUGHTHEESTABLISHMENTOFHISTORICALCONTINUITY4HE02#INEXCORIATINGTHE$ALAI,AMAFORNOTACCEPTINGITS USE OF THIS 1ING PROCEDURE IS CONSCIOUSLYMANIPULATINGAHISTORICALELEMENTIN3INO4IBETANRELATIONS)TISIMPOSSIBLETOIGNORE#HINASDESIREFOR HISTORICAL PRECEDENT HERE AS A LEGITIMIZING

ELEMENTFORITSADMINISTRATIONOF4IBET"OTHTHEQUESTIONOFTHEPRIESTPATRONRELATIONSHIPASONEEXCLUSIVEOF

POLITICALSUBORDINATIONANDTHESTATUSOFTERRITORIESOUTSIDETHECONTROLOFTHE$ALAI,AMASGOVERNMENTONTHEEVEOF4IBETSINCORPORATIONINTOTHE02#ARE LIKEWISE QUESTIONS THAT STILL PROVOKE STRONG OFlCIAL PRONOUNCEMENTSMEANT TO ASSERT HISTORICAL ANTECEDENTS TO LEGITIMIZE OR CONTEST CURRENTCIRCUMSTANCES !S WE HAVE SEEN THE PRESENTATION OF4IBETS RELATIONSHIPWITHIMPERIAL#HINAASARELIGIOUSONEWITHNOACKNOWLEDGEMENTACCORDEDTHEATTESTEDSUBORDINATIONOF4IBETTOTHEEMPERORSOFTHE-ONGOL9UANAND-ANCHU1INGDYNASTIESISAMISREPRESENTATIONOFTHEHISTORICALRECORD4HEREISABITMOREAMBIGUITYABOUTTHETERRITORIALIDENTITYOF4IBETANAREASOUTSIDETHEJURISDICTIONOFTHE$ALAI,AMASGOVERNMENTBUTITREMAINSAFACTTHATINWHENTHOSEAREASWERETAKENUNDERTHEADMINISTRATIONOFTHE02#THE4IBETANGOVERNMENTDIDNOTCLAIMITSTERRITORYHADBEENINVADED

)NSPITEOFALLTHISONEMIGHTSTILLSAYTHESTATUSOF4IBETWHATEVERITWASINTHEPASTISNOWSETTLEDANDTHEINCORPORATIONOF4IBETINTO#HINAHASLONGSINCEBEENAFAITACCOMPLI"UTSETTLEDISSUESHAVETHECAPACITYTOREARUPUNEXPECTEDLYANDCATCHTHEPOLITICALSTATEOFAFFAIRSUNAWARE!NDITISTHENTHATHISTORYBECOMESVITAL)TWOULDBESENSIBLETOHAVEAGRASPOFTHATHISTORYBEFORETHEFACT

4HECENTRALITYOFHISTORYINTHEQUESTIONOF4IBETSSTATUSCOULDNOTBEMADECLEARER

'PFPQVGU 4IBET)TS/WNERSHIPAND(UMAN2IGHTS3ITUATIONP 4IBET0ROVING4RUTH&ROM&ACTSP 0APERS2ELATINGTO4IBETn4HISEARLYTWENTIETHCENTURYASSESSMENTDID

NOTPRECLUDE"RITAINFROMAVOWINGINWHENITNOLONGERWANTEDTOBEPARTYTOTHE4IBETISSUETHAT4IBETSSTATUSVISVIS#HINAWASACTUALLYUNCLEAR4HEJUDGMENTSOFOTHERTHIRDPARTIESREGARDING4IBETSRELATIONSWITH#HINAHAVEALSOmUCTUATEDDURINGTHETWENTIETHCENTURY

7HAT02#PUBLICATIONSRENDERINTHEIR%NGLISHVERSIONSAShINTEGRALvORhINALIENABLEvISA#HINESETERMTHATHASTHEMORELITERALMEANINGOFhINSEPARABLEv#HBUKEFENGE

4HEREAREINNUMERABLEEXAMPLESOFTHESESORTSOFWRITINGSTHATCANBEADDUCEDTWOWELLKNOWNEXAMPLESARE1UESTIONSAND4IBET)TS/WNERSHIP

%PSTEIN 8IZANGSHEHUIKEXUEYUANETAL !GAINTHEREISAVARIETYOFEXAMPLESTHATCANBECITEDBUTONEMAYSEETYPICALLY

4IBET0ROVING4RUTHFROM&ACTS h/N@4IBETAN0EOPLES2IGHTTO3ELF$ETERMINATIONv#Fh7HAT)S

)Tvnh%VERYONEWITHSOMEKNOWLEDGEOF#HINESEHISTORYKNOWSTHAT#HINAISAUNIlEDMULTINATIONALCOUNTRYANDWASCREATEDBYTHECONCERTEDEFFORTSOFALLITSETHNICGROUPS4IBETANSINCLUDEDOVERALONGTERMHISTORICALDEVELOPMENT!SEARLYASTHETHCENTURYx4IBETWASINCORPORATEDINTOTHETERRITORYOF#HINAxv

!NUMBEROFVOLUMESHAVEBEENPUBLISHEDINTHE02#AIMEDATPROVIDINGDOCUMENTATIONFOR#HINASPOSITIONSUCHAS8IZANGSHEHUIKEXUEYUANETAL"ODRANGSKYONGLJONGSYIGTSHAGSKHANGANDTHEIMPORTANTSEVENVOLUMECOLLECTION:HONGGUO:ANGXUEYANJIUZHONGXINETAL/THERWORKSPRESENT

%LLIOT3PERLING

AWIDEARRAYOFMATERIALSTHATIFNOTCLEARLYSUPPORTIVEOFACASEFOR#HINESESOVEREIGNTYOVER4IBETFROMTHETHIRTEENTHCENTURYONDOPROVIDEAWEALTHOFMATERIALSON4IBETSINTERACTIONSANDDEALINGSWITH#HINASDYNASTICGOVERNMENTS!MONGTHESEAREWORKSINBOTH#HINESEAND4IBETANINCLUDINGTHEFOURVOLUMECOLLECTIONOF4IBETRELATEDEXTRACTSFROMTHESTANDARD#HINESEDYNASTICHISTORIES#HEN8IEZHANGETALnASWELLAS'U:UCHENGETALAND"ODLJONGSYIGTSHAGSKHANGDANGKRUNGGOI"ODKYISHESRIGZHIBJUGLTEGNAS"KRASHISDBANGDUSANDTWODIFFERENTCOLLECTIONSBEARINGTHESAMETITLE"ODRANGSKYONGLJONGSSPYITSHOGSTSHANRIGKHANGAND+RUNGDBYANGSMIRIGSSLOBGRWAI"ODRIGPAIZHIBJUGKHANGAND+RUNGDBYANGSMIRIGSSLOBGRWAI"ODRIGPAIZHIBJUGTSHOGSCHUNG

&ORTHETEXTSOFTHESEVARIOUSAGREEMENTSSEE,AMBn 3EE7ANG'UIETALn "OUNDARY1UESTIONn)NADDITIONTOTHENONHISTORICALSUBJUGATIONOF

4IBETINBY#HINGGIS1AANONElNDSINTHESAMESTATEMENTTHEFANCIFULNOTIONOFA#HINESEEXPEDITIONENTERING,HASAINTHESEVENTHCENTURY

$REYERn 'OLDSTEINn 4HISVAGUENESSISREmECTEDMOSTCLEARLYATTHEBEGINNINGOFTHETEXTOFTHE

h3EVENTEEN0OINT!GREEMENTON-EASURESFORTHE0EACEFUL,IBERATIONOF4IBETvSIGNEDBYREPRESENTATIVESOFTHE$ALAI,AMASGOVERNMENTANDTHECENTRALG

the tibet-china conflict-history and polemics, by elliot sperling

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