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journal
The Textile Research Centre, CTF
Centrum för Textilforskning
University College of Borås The Swedish School of Textiles
Craft
Design
Textile- and Design Management
Textile Technology
The Nordic Textile
Dr Mohamed Mitwally
Contents
The Nordic Textile Journal
The Textile Research Centre, CTF
Hallnäs, Lars, Tornqvist, Clemens
Fashion design: world making - garment making.
Bergman, Marcus
Some notes on photograhy as fashion design
Mitwally Amer, Mohamed, Saleh Said Saleh, Tarek
Nature as a source of colors
and its use in Upholstery fabric design
Trebitsch, Barbara
The fashion design project and strategic boundaries
Creativity as freedom or brand as drive of creativity?
Berglin, Lena, Ellwanger, Marion, Hallnäs, Lars
Worbin, Linda, Zetterblom, Margareta
Smart Textiles - what for and why?
Worbin, Linda
Textile Disobedience. When textile patterns start to interact
Carbonaro, Simonetta, Votava, Christian
Paths to a new Prosperity
Hammarlund, Lena
Handicraft Knowledge Applied to Archaeological Textiles
3
4
8
24
31
40
46
51
70
86
2 Textile Journal
The Nordic Textile Journal
University College of Borås, HB
The Swedish School of Textiles, THS
The Textile Research Centre, CTF
SE-501 90 BORÅS
SWEDEN
Tel: +46 33 435 41 64
Fax: +46 33 435 40 09
E-mail [email protected]
URL: http://www.hb.se/ths/ctf
Publisher
Tekn. Dr. Kenneth Tingsvik
Editor
Tekn. Dr. Kenneth Tingsvik
Managing editor
Intendent Larsh Eriksson
Editorial advisors
Professor Lise Bender Jörgensen
Professor Hans Bertilsson
Professor Simonetta Carbonaro
Professor Marion Ellwanger
Professor Ulla E:son Bodin
Professor Lars Hallnäs
Professor Johan Huldt
Tekn. Dr. Kenneth Tingsvik
Professor Staffan Toll
Graphic design
Intendent Larsh Eriksson
Publication
ISSN 1404-2487
Prepress and printing house
Etcetera Offset AB, Borås
3Textile Journal
The Nordic Textile Journal
The Nordic Textile Journal collects and publishes articles of interest within the
fields of textile, design management, engineering and craft. Although the Journal
is mainly for Nordic readership, many articles are published in English, in order
to feature new and interesting research outside the Nordic countries.
Articles should cover subjects of wide interest within and between the fields
mentioned above. They can also be summaries of lectures and seminars.
All material is subject to consideration by the editorial Board.
Subscription
The issues of the Journal are available free of charge.
Guidelines for authors
All papers must comply as follows:
Manuscripts
Headings, paragraphs, captions, italics etc must be absolutely clear. Articles
should be submitted on disc or by e-mail, clearly marked with the name(s) and
address of the author(s), indicating the title of the article, and the software
used. (MS Word or WordPerfect is preferred.)
An abstract should be provided for each article. The abstract precedes the
main text and draws attention to its salient points. Authors writing in Swedish
may, if they wish, include an abstract in English.
References should indicate the author's name, the name of the publication and
the year of publication.
The Nordic Textile Journal includes illustrations in four-colour printing. Authors
should therefore indicate which pictures are required in colour. These can be
submitted as slides, photos, or sent on a disk or e-mail, preferably in TIF or EPS.
Final decisions on colour illustrations to be included are taken by the editors.
For further information, please contact: The Nordic Textile Journal,
University College of Borås, CTF/THS , SE-501 09 BORÅS, Sweden.
E-mail: [email protected], Fax: +46 33 435 40 09, Phone: +46 33 435 41 64
4 Textile Journal
Aims
The Objectives of the CTF are:
Design
Textile- and Design Management
Crafts
Textile Technology
The Textile Research Centre, CTF
The CTF was founded in 1998 and is based at The Swedish School of
Textiles at the University College of Borås.
The aims of the Centre are:
To give a research profile to the unique combination of subjects within
the School.
To strengthen the research capabilities in the subject areas of the School:
crafts, design, textile- and design management and textile technology.
To build up and strengthen research within the School's educational pro-
grammes, to attract national and international expertise, thus meeting the
requirements of subject-specific professors and postgraduate programmes.
To bring together all interested parties in crafts, design, textile- and design
management and textile technologyin order to create a Nordic centre for textile
research.
The Centre collects, assemble and process relevant information, to stimulate
research and make it available to all professional groups in the field of textiles.
Therefore, part of the Centre's reponsiblility is to arrange lectures, seminars and
conferences, and to report ongoing discussions and results of research in
publications and other media.
Areas of Interest and Research:
"The development of innovative design with the help of modern technology giving
consideration to environmental, estetic, financial and ethical requirements".
Design management, fashion logistics, humanistik marketing, design direction
Historic textiles
Environmental technology, technical textiles, fibre technology
5Textile Journal
The Research Board at the Swedisch School of Textiles
Kenneth Tingsvik Tekn. Dr, Director, The Swedish School of
Textiles at the University College of Borås
Ulla E:son Bodin Professor, The Swedish School of Textiles
at the University College of Borås
Hans Bertilsson Professor, The Swedish School of Textiles
at the University College of Borås
Lise Bender Jörgensen Professor, The Swedish School of Textiles
at the University College of Borås
Simonetta Carbonaro Professor, The Swedish School of Textiles
at the University College of Borås
Marion Ellwanger Professor, The Swedish School of Textiles
at the University College of Borås
Lars Hallnäs Professor, The Swedish School of Textiles
at the University College of Borås
lars.hallnä[email protected]
Johan Huldt Professor, The Swedish School of Textiles
at the University College of Borås
Staffan Toll Professor, Chalmers Institute of Technology,
The Swedish School of Textiles at the University
College of Borås. [email protected]
Clemens Thornquist Ph Dr / Student Representative,
The Swedish School of Textiles at the University
College of Borås. [email protected]
Larsh Eriksson Managing Director, CTF,
The Swedish School of Textiles at the University
College of Borås
Agneta Nordlund-Andersson Project administrator, CTF
The Swedish School of Textiles at the University
College of Borås
Members:
Additional Members:
6 Textile Journal
Textile Research Council, CTF
The aim of the membership of the Textle Research Council was to create close
links within the field of textiles relevant to the work of the CTF. The first board
meeting was held on 31 August 1998.
Kenneth Tingsvik Tekn. Dr, Director, The Swedish School of
Textiles at the University College of Borås
Textilhögskolan, Högskolan i Borås
Thommy Nilsson MD, JC AB
Ingrid Giertz-Mårtensson MD, Swedish Vision AB
Gunilla Lagnesjö Chief Textile Conservator, Studio of the Western
Sweden Conservators Trust,
Stiftelsen Västsvensk Konservatorsateljé
Lisbeth Svengren Ph Dr, Stockholm University,
Stockholms Universitet
Sven Cele MD, Swedish Textile & Clothing Industries
Association, TEKOindustrierna
Eva Ohlsson MD, The national Swedish handicraft Council,
Nämnden för Hemslöjdsfrågor
Margareta Van Den Bosch Chief of design, H&M
Roger Johansson Chalmers University of Technology,
Chalmers Tekniska Högskola
Chairperson:
Deputy:
Members:
7Textile Journal
Staffan Lööf Vice, Rector, University College of Borås,
Högskolan i Borås
Lars Engman Chief of design, IKEA of Sweden
Claes Frössén Marketing Direktor, Stiftelsen Svensk
Industridesign
Ewa Kumlin MD, The Swedish Society of Craft and Design,
Föreningen Svensk form
Tor Ahlbom MD, Almedahl-Kinna AB
Larsh Eriksson Managing Director, CTF,
The Swedish School of Textiles at the University
College of Borås
Agneta Nordlund-Andersson Project administrator, CTF
The Swedish School of Textiles at the University
College of Borås
[email protected]@hb.se
Maja Svensson Student Representative, The Swedish School of
Textiles at the University College of Borås
Textilhögskolan, Högskolan i Borås
Additional Members:
»Nenne ise«- Helene Kask
/MD3 2005
9Textile Journal
Fashion design: world making - garment making.
Lars Hallnäs
The Swedish School of Textiles, THS
University College of Borås
The Department of Computing Science
Chalmers University of Technology
Clemens Tornqvist
The Swedish School of Textiles, THS
University College of Borås
…intuition and theory
Fashion, on the contrary to how the concept is generally conceived, can readily
be accepted as one of the most conceptual and reflective disciplines housed
by academia, even alongside philosophy and mathematics. However, this inter-
pretation is only possible where theory still bears the meaning of its Greek con-
cept Θεωρια [image, vision], a kind of visioning that totally controls the creator
as a self-evident nature law to the one who once believed he created it. As
such, this visioning, which is no less than the creation of a liveable world,
becomes before its creator[s] to be as normative as any other enforced opus
magnum, requiring a complete surrendering to enjoy its benefits as a theory.
At a first glance this statement might seem to be a grave exaggeration, and a
long shot for the legitimatization for fashion as an academic discipline worthy
the label of science. But this is no so. Not only have archaeologists, sociologist
and historians - who put much of their faith in fashion as a scientific method
through out the western intellectual history, only then to turned their back to it
again in the court of scientific opinion for many decades - reawaken to the new
exotic tribes of urbanism, replacing the by now McDonalized tribes of far away
islands. Also the economists, managers and organizational theorist have over
the past decade devoted fashion an ever increasing attention in its role as a
mediator and diplomat, a translator and adapter, between business and art,
between bourgeois and bohemia, between creation and constructing, when
modelling believed theoretical realities.
Lars Hallnäs, professor in interaction
design at The Swedish School of Textiles,
THS, University College of Borås and
associate professor in computing science
at Chalmers University of Technology.
Clemens Thornqvist is Phd in Design
Management. He is edjucated at the
Swedish Shool of Textiles, THS, with
BA in design, technologi and business
administration.
He is Director of the Fashion Design
Program at THS.
10 Textile Journal
Just like the achievements of mathematics, as Poincaré
[Poincaré] points out, a theory is as much a creation of an
intuitive visioning, as is it a representative modelling. And it
is this intuitive vision, this central direction and idea,
around which Bergson [Bergson] sees the materialized
concept and philosophical construct, that elevates a
world-theory to a unique reflected vision - separating it
from its purely instrumental counterpart. However, the diff-
ference between the concepts created, the worldmaking
[Goodman], of fashion and that of scientific theories is that
the former makes no claim to be the faith of everyone as a
grand vision, but merely that what it is capable of being -
just as any scientific theory aught to be - a suggestion and
a proposal, liberated from it is normative pretensions.
Such recognition would ultimately place a fashion concept
and a scientific theory on the same philosophical level.
…garment making and world making
Fashion design has its foundation in the design and pro-
duction of garment. Textbooks speak about silhouette,
line, texture and rhythm, contrast, balance etc. respective-
ly as central elements and principles of garment design
(Cf. [Jenkyn Jones], [McKelvey, Munslow]). These notions
refer to basic formal and expressional aspects of garments
and clothing as such.
But fashion design is not only a matter of expressing the
functions of clothing or the form of garments, what we do,
in some sense, is also to express people, i.e. to define
the way in which they present themselves to us. Garment
making becomes world making as we define wearing
intentions (what we do dressing and wearing) through
wearing expressions (what garment does dressing and
expressing us).
As an empirical phenomenon - and problem - fashion has
been the subject for numerous sociological, psychological,
ethnographical, economical studies. Fashion is also cer-
tainly present in art history, cultural studies, there is critical
work in the areas of fashion aesthetics and fashion theory
(Cf. [Barthes], [Breward], [Carter], [Johnson et. al.][Lehmann])
etc. But research as to develop the practice of fashion
design itself in a systematic manner has a more weak
position in academia.
Experimental fashion design, i.e. the haute couture tradi-
tion, anti fashion, deconstruction fashion, techno fashion
etc. (Cf. [Breward], [Gill], [Hollander], [Kim] [Quinn]), is
practice based design research in some sense. But to fur-
ther this as an academic subject there is a clear need for
more work in the area of theoretical foundations; to envi-
sioning the theories that link world making and garment
making and to establish the methods that makes this a
strong force in practice.
The challenge is then not to introduce new theories about
fashion, but to further develop the foundational concepts
that establish fashion design as an academic subject in its
own right. This is basically a matter of design aesthetics
and can never be a derivative of empirical studies in psy-
chology, sociology, market analysis etc. To express peo-
ple; what does it mean from the perspective of design
aesthetics? What concepts do we use to explain this?
What is form and expression all about in this context?
These questions do not ask for the sociology, psychology
or history of dressing, but the logic of fashion design
expression. And central for these expressions are the
mysterious connections that link garment making and
world making; fashion expression is always a matter of
wearing expression.
…fashion design presentation EXIT2005
World making and garment making at EXIT2005 - the final
graduate show at The Swedish School of Textiles 2005.
Twelve fashion students presenting their graduate collec-
tions and graduate worlds. See the garment expressing
people and as conceptual gestalts of the world [making].
»Casual Friday« - Sofia Johansson
/MD3 2005
»Haute Route Couture« - Emma Hallgren
/MD3 2005
»Inferno« - Rickard Lindqvist
/MD3 2005
»Beyond Minimalism« - Anna Pettersson
/MD3 2005
»…yours forever, Nadjia« - Helena Larsson
/MD3 2005
»The secret's fairy tale« - Amy Bondesson
/MD3 2005
»Shadow of a doubt« - Camilla Jernmark
/MD3 2005
»Fragment« - Lotta Lindström
/MD3 2005
»Inside - Outside« - Ellen Haglund
/MD3 2005
»Business Chic« - Sophia Hedström
/MD3 2005
» English upper class with a twist «
- Kristin Andersson/MD3 2005
22 Textile Journal
References
[Barthes] Barthes, R. (1990), The Fashion System,
University of California Press
[Barthes] Bergson, H. (1903/2002) The Creative Mind.
New York: Citadel Press
[Breward] Breward, C. (2003), Fashion, Oxford History of
Art, Oxford University Press
[Carter] Carter M. (2003), Fashion Classics: From Carlyle
to Barthes, Berg
[Gill] Gill, A. (1998), Deconstruction Fashion, Fashion
Theory Volume 2 Issue 1 March
[Goodman] Goodman, N. (1978) Ways of Worldmaking.
Indianapolis: Hackett
[Hollander] Hollander, A. (1993), Seeing through Clothes,
University of California Press
[Jenkyn Jones] Jenkyn Jones, S. (2002), Fashion Design,
Laurence King Publishing
[Johnson et. al.] Johnson, K., Torntorpe, S. J., Eicher, J.
(eds.) (2003), Fashion Foundations - Early Writings on
Fashion and Dress, Berg
[Kim] Kim, S. B. (1998), Is Fashion Art?, Fashion Theory
Volume 2 Issue 1 March
[Lehmann] Lehmann U. (2000), Tigersprung: Fashion in
Modernity, MIT Press
[McKelvey, Munslow] McKelvey, K., Munslow, J. (2003),
Fashion Design - Process, Innovation & Practice, Blackwell
Publishing
[Poincaré] Poincaré, H. (1965) Matematiskt skapande in
Newman, J. R. (1965) Sigma: en matematikens kultur-
historia: Bd 5. Stockholm: Forum
[Quinn] Quinn, B.(2003), Techno Fashion, Berg
23Textile Journal
Photo
: C
lem
ens T
horn
qvi
st
25Textile Journal
Some notes on photograhy as fashion design
Marcus Bergman
The Swedish School of Textiles, THS
University College of Borås, Sweden
Architectural Department
Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden
Fashion, in its modernistic guise, is intricately linked to visual stimuli brought
about by photography. Fashion and photography influence each-other; what is
fashionable in clothes is visualised through the use of photography, and what is
fashionable in photography is influenced by expressions of clothes. One might
also argue that fashion photography today is impossible to distinguish from
other types of photography – documentary photography, still-life photography
and so forth – which means that we find yet another example of the all pervasi-
ve nature of fashion. The image as such becomes questioned – not because
of manipulation – but because of intent. A photograph that is intended to pro-
mote clothes can just as well take on the same guise as a photograph intended
to document an event. What distinguishes one photograph from another is the-
refore not the actual image, but that which goes into the image. Photography
becomes a matter of information and of context; why is the photograph taken,
and where is it displayed? This, of course, is as most interesting when the
image is spectacular in some sense, as is the case with the photographs of
Oliviero Toscani, but the discussion can be directed at a wide array of photo-
graphs. When images of suffering are used to promote luxury goods, morality
seems to be missing. But the same goes when photographs of suffering are
used exclusively to further the photographer’s career, and only that.
Photography much resembles working with clothes, in that the photographer
makes choices in the same way as the fashion designer does. Primarily, clot-
hes are about dressing the body, and in order for the body to dressed and not
merely covered, fabric needs to be sculpted. In essence, fabric must first be
chosen, then reduced in scale and drape. Photography means – and this is
where it is similar to clothes-making – to choose what goes into the picture and
what does not. This choice is primarily made at the moment of exposure. In
clothes-making, decisions of what parts of the fabric to choose and what parts
to omit are made at the cutting stage. Thereby, photography and clothes-
making both contain a crucial moment – and the values that influence this
moment are what dictates the outcome. Everything else is ornament.
Marcus Bergman is a Ph.D. student at The
Swedish School of Textiles, THS, University
College of Borås in cooperation with the
Department of Architecture at Chalmers
University of Technology. Marcus Bergman's
research deals with reforming design prac-
tice through the unification of ethics,
aesthetics and tradition. He is also a
lecturer at The Swedish School of Textiles.
26 Textile Journal
When Henri Cartier-Bresson spoke of a “decisive
moment”, he did not only mean that the photographer
should wait for some perfect moment; he included the
photographers’ ability to include himself/herself in the con-
text of the photograph. By being within the photograph,
the photographer can identify the moment among
moments, in which the motif becomes itself. This implies
participation, but only participation to the extent of the
camera. Motif and photographer join forces in creating the
photograph; this takes place inside the laterna magica.
This is a powerful analogy to fashion design. As the deci-
sive moment is present also in fashion design, one can
argue that the garment and the designer join forces in
identifying the moment in which a crucial decision must be
made; to include or to omit becomes a matter of the
designer being present in the situation in which the deci-
sion takes place. The designer should therefore be a part
of the moment of the decision and also be the one
making the decision; just as the photographer is present in
the situation he/she is documenting. There is, thus, a fine
line to be respected here – the one between empathy and
narcissism. The emphatic photographer/designer is able
to be present at the same time as the decisive moment,
without ruining it by influencing it. The narcissistic photo-
grapher/designer steps out of the camera/the design and
is left with only the option of documenting himself/herself.
This immorality is certainly worse than the one that permits
photographs of suffering being used to promote luxury goods.
The widespread use of digital imagery has left photograp-
hic practice in a state where the very image can be
questioned as such. A photograph, once an evidence of
this or that, is now little more than a representation of
something that might be real, or might as well belong be
construed in the digital realm. There are many desirable
things in regard to this development; advanced image
making is no longer reserved for professionals and new
ways of creating images are therefore likely to emerge.
Similar development occurred when hand-held cameras
became goods that ordinary people could buy and use;
not to mention the obvious joys of letting children playing
with brushes and paint, once the tools of skilled painters
only. But at the same time, the digital does mean the intro-
duction of programming into the system of bringing about
a photograph. These programs are present in the camera
that processes the information in order to create an image
file, the computer that handles the file that is the realm in
which the image exists and the tools used to display the
image file in a format that is recognisable to us a photo-
graph. In the semantic meaning of the word, the file is of
course a photograph, in essence a painting in light. But in
our understanding of what the photograph essentially is, I
dare to say that we do not include such things as image
bank programming for the determination of aperture and
shutter ratios, nor do we include the algorithms used to
determine colour and shade in computer representation of
imagery. And – foremost – we tend to think of the photo-
graph as a singular being, the print being a copy of the
original negative, meaning that there exists, somewhere,
an original file to each photograph, one that is also eviden-
ce of what really happened inside the magic box.
When American photographers in the 1910s and 20s
fought to make photography accepted by the public as an
art form on its own, it became apparent that photography
would always be considered inferior to painting if it could
not remain true to its own system of making images. Up
until then, photographers had generally tried to make pho-
tographs appear as close to paintings as possible. The
work carried out by individual photographers and in
groups brought about a new status for photography, and
greatly contributed to the way people at the time looked
on social phenomena (as is the case with the photo-
graphs by Paul Strand) and at nature (the photographs by
Ansel Adams). The explosive power of the photograph in
this regard could probably be attributed to the view of it as
being an image originating in something actually existing,
in essence a true art form and to the photographs them-
selves becoming of radically higher technical quality due to
exposure and development methods developed by the
likes of Ansel Adams and utilised in contexts such as the
f64 group. This way, the photograph as such went from an
inferior artistic object to one that was considered true art.
27Textile Journal
In this, there are similarities in reference to reforming
fashion design. If a garment is to be accepted in the same
category as art, it needs to come into being on its own
terms and not as merely some comment or critique. Still, it
needs to withhold some trueness in regard to its concep-
tion, meaning that if it is meant to be a comment or some
critique, it should retain these qualities. Therefore, critical
fashion design can not be a case of either/or. It should be
a question of this/and. This poses a great design chall-
lenge; that of retaining – throughout the production of an
object – some values that are linked to its conception.
One way of coming to terms with this challenge is to use
photography as a design method, rather than relying on
design by drawing, the preferred modus operandi in ortho-
dox design. Since photography – as referred to above –
deals with bringing the photographer and the motif toget-
her in some decisive moment, the designer of clothes
would be able to use photographic documentation to
obtain an artefact that not only depicts a garment, but
depicts the decisive moment that represents the basis for
decisions taken in the – likewise – decisive moment of
cutting the fabric. The photograph, then, becomes a way
of sketching that is goes beyond the trial of ideas and
moves towards documenting ideas. In order for this to
become meaningful, the photographs should retain narrati-
ve aspects in relation to their motifs, meaning that photo-
graphy as a design tool becomes something very different
from photography as a way of showing clothes.
A great advantage of using photography as a design met-
hod is that it contains an undeniable element of time; the
photograph is exposed in a specific fragment of time,
meaning that the decisive moment is specifically one
moment, and not several, as is the case in for example
painting or sketching. This brings the time factor into the
design process, meaning that the photographic sketch or
photographic design brief can serve as a manifest object
that transcends the gaps between sketch, prototype and
product that is apparent in fields like clothing design and
architecture, for example, due to the problems associated
with translating two-dimensional sketches into three-
dimensional objects. Naturally, these problems are treated
in the use of a wide plethora of design methods, origina-
ting in the art of drawing. But there is very little done on
the subject of providing alternative notions to design by
drawing. Still, this prevailing method of design can be
questioned by thinking of, for example, a writer that imagi-
nes a scene taking place in a house. If he, or she, is able
to imagine the house in sufficient detail, has he or she
then not in fact designed the house? By this, one can
argue that the poetic impulse is just as much design as is
the pen put to paper.
In orthodox design, this or that product relates conceptu-
ally to a system of choices in relation only to representa-
tions – a sketch, a model or any other visual mean of pre-
senting a design. These choices are based on questions;
should one do this or that, meaning that choice gives way
to dichotomy early on in the standard design process.
These dichotomies often form the base of debates on
design – meaning that design debate is often about
design process rather than about the actual objects .
Maybe this is the reason why so many design conferen-
ces end up in meaningless chatter on how to define the
word “design”.
This is a serious problem. If the dichotomies prevailing in
orthodox design by drawing are allowed to remain the basis
of debate on actual objects, we run the risk of letting repre-
sentations become foundational elements in in the process
of materialising the societal systems that stem from design/
objects, meaning that no true basis of debate or critique
can be found. This also means that designers can continue
to influence their clients to produce objects that are of cer-
tain qualities because of concepts based on representa-
tions rather than ideas. Since a representation can never be
clear or simple enough, design as an influence on society is
running a risk of becoming increasingly simplistic. This
especially so in the age of mechanised design within comp-
uterised systems. This needs to be addressed – and inde-
ed questioned. The way to do this, I believe, is through
examples of design that is thoughtful, complex and narrati-
ve as opposed to mechanised, simple and representative.
Including photography in the design process is one example
28 Textile Journal
of thoughtful and complex design practice.
Today, there is much talk of “excellent objects”. It is worth
to bear in mind, then, that the mystery of excellence
remains mysterious only as long as quantifiable qualities
are allowed to reign supreme in the process of generating
ideas and designs at the foundation of a project resulting
in a ready product. When story-telling is added after the
product is produced, then matters get even worse, as the
product enters the realm of one-sided mythology, where
marketers and designers join hands in creating products
that seldom invite to great concern. The poetic nature of
the photograph can easily serve as an introduction of
complexity in design practice – the very antidote to the
grave and macabre condition many designers suffer from
– that which results in the killing of darlings.
“Untit
led
”, 2
00
5
Photo
: C
lem
ens T
horn
qvi
st
30 Textile Journal
31Textile Journal
Nature as a source of colors
And its use in Upholstery fabric design
Mohamed Mitwally Amer
Department of Textile Faculty of Applied arts, Helwan University, Egypt
Tarek Saleh Said Saleh
Department of Textile Faculty of Applied arts, Helwan University, Egypt
Abstract
Jacquard weaving provides the opportunity to design complex pictorial and
other patterning effects
From the combination of warp and weft colors and /weaves. In the traditional
fabric design process, the resultant visual perception of the design, using diffe-
rent colored yarns, can be attained only through the production of actual physi-
cal fabric sample, and this is every time consuming process. No truly accurate
digital color methodology is yet available to assist designers in the initial deve-
lopment of product samples. Currently, there is very poor correlation between
the color that is shown on the screen and the actual weave structure.
On The following research we back to the nature as a main source of colors by
using digital photos of several nature sources such as water, grass, clouds,
sunrise, and sunset…..ECT.
And by analyzing colors for this natural sources by the computer processes to
implement color data base to be reference for the designer helping him to
select warp and weft colors also the mix between warp and weft from several
color verities and use the correct weaves to rich this color.
Experimental work:
The researchers select some patterns from nature sources to be an example
for the application directed to jacquard upholstery fabrics.
Colors selection:
- Select warp colors.
To select warp color from the data base established by the computer process-
ses designer should select (X) parameters based on the weaving technique
used for producing the upholstery fabric the number of warp colors should
match with the fabric specification and according to the weave construction.
Also the designer should specify the percentage of warp color appearance on
the fabric buy presenting suggested specification to implement the correct
fabric simulation in the warp direction.
- Select weft colors.
To select weft color from the data base established by the computer processes
designer should select (Y) parameters based on the weaving technique used
for producing the upholstery fabric the number of weft colors should match
Mohamed Mitwally Amer, PhD, is a
Associate Professor of Textile Design,
Textile Department (spinning, weaving and
knitting), Faculty of applied art at Helman
University, Egypt. Member of board Textile
Department. Industrial Consultant of the
textile sector and culture ministry in Egypt.
Tarek Saleh Said Saleh, PhD, is a
Associate Professor of Jacqard fabric
Design, Textile Department, Faculty of
applied art at Helman University, Egypt.
Member of board Textile Department.
Industrial Consultant of Foreign trade &
industry ministry in Egypt.
32 Textile Journal
with the fabric specification and according to the weave
construction. Also the designer should specify the percen-
tage of weft color appearance on the fabric buy presenting
suggested specification to implement the correct fabric
simulation in the weft direction.
Applications on some upholstery design samples:
Researches have selected 1 upholstery fabric design patt-
tern and implement the results of natural colors data base
which generated by computer processes selecting warp /
weft colors also selecting weave construction and applica-
tion methods [decorative regular warp and weft]
Produced on jacquard loom.
Jacquard weaving:
Selected patterns from nature:
• Sources of cool colors:
- Sky Clouds.
- Water Ice.
- Grass.
- Colors selection mechanism:
• Analyzing colors :
- Clouds:
Following tables analyses for the clouds color sources
Table 1 Table 2 Table 3
- Table 1 computer color analyses for Fig 1.
- Table 2 computer color analyses for Fig 2.
- Table 3 computer color analyses for Fig 3.Figure 3
Figure 2
Figure 1
33Textile Journal
• Sources of warm colors:
- Sand & Stones.
- Stones:
Following tables analyses for the Stones color sources
Table 4 Table 5
- Table 4 computer color analyses for Fig 4.
- Table 5 computer color analyses for Fig 5.
Figure 5
Figure 4
Figure 6
34 Textile Journal
• Foliage:
- Foliage:
Following tables analyses for the Foliage color sources
Table 6 Table 7 Table 8
- Table 6 computer color analyses for Fig 7.
- Table 7 computer color analyses for Fig 8.
- Table 8 computer color analyses for Fig 9.
Figure 7
Figure 8
Figure 9
35Textile Journal
• Sources of multi colors:
- Flowers.
- Fruits & Vegetables.
- Trees shrubs.
- Trees :
Following tables analyses for the Trees color sources
Table 9 Table 10 Table 11
- Table 9 computer color analyses for Fig 10.
- Table 10 computer color analyses for Fig 11.
- Table 11 computer color analyses for Fig 12.
Figure 10
Figure 11
Figure 12
• Colors varieties :
As per the basic low of color theory there was 3 basic
colors which this colors is the main base for all graded
colors this colors are:
- Cyan. [C]
- Magenta. [M]
- Yellow. [Y]
This 3 colors share on color cube which is virtual grading
system using white and Black for brightness or darkness
color value.
This graded colors implemented on (X) and (Y) axis
according to the selected axis from the color cube.
Brightness should be controlled on both (X) and (Y) axis
according to the percentage of white and black. (Table 12)
• Color Mix according to the basic low of color theory:
According to the basic low of color theory there was gra-
ded colors created on each slide of color cube based on
the selected axis primary colors from the basic 3 colors -
each time there was 1 color on each axe and by using
white and black we can control brightness and darkens
according the percentage of each of them and this can
control the color hue. (Table 13).
Table 12 Table 13
37Textile Journal
• Colors selection:
- Select warp colors.
To select warp color from the data base established by
the computer processes designer should select (X)
parameters based on the weaving technique used for
producing the upholstery fabric the number of warp colors
should match with the fabric specification and according
to the weave construction. Also the designer should
specify the percentage of warp color appearance on the
fabric buy presenting suggested specification to imple-
ment the correct fabric simulation in the warp direction.
- Select weft colors.
To select weft color from the data base established by the
computer processes designer should select (Y) parame-
ters based on the weaving technique used for producing
the upholstery fabric the number of weft colors should
match with the fabric specification and according to the
weave construction. Also the designer should specify the
percentage of weft color appearance on the fabric buy
presenting suggested specification to implement the
correct fabric simulation in the weft direction.
• Arranging color plan:
- Specifying weave constructions.
- Rolls of color mix between warp & weft.
- Constants [Fixed constants]
- Alternatives.
• Applications on some upholstery design samples:
Researches have selected 1 upholstery fabric design patt-
tern and implement the results of natural colors data base
which generated by computer processes selecting warp /
weft colors also selecting weave construction and applica-
tion methods [decorative regular warp and weft]
Produced on jacquard loom..
Following some practice for using natural colors data base:
Clouds:
Table 14
Figure 13
Weave construction
- Weft Satin 5.
- Weft Satin 5+1Mark
- Weft Satin 5+2Marks
- Warp Satin 5
- Plain 1/1
38 Textile Journal
- Stones: - Trees:
Table 16
Figure 15
Weave construction
- Weft Satin 5.
- Weft Satin 5+1Mark
- Weft Satin 5+2Marks
- Warp Satin 5
- Plain 1/1
Table 15
Figure 13
Weave construction
- Weft Satin 5.
- Weft Satin 5+1Mark
- Weft Satin 5+2Marks
- Warp Satin 5
- Plain 1/1
39Textile Journal
- Foliage: • Result and Discussions:
1- The researchers established computer analyzing
technique to analyze colors from natural sources.
2- Based on this technique they can present color data
base for some natural items which can use in all
product design fields.
3- Color data base implemented to use on upholstery
fabric design giving the designer unlimited source
of colors.
4- Based on color plan presented on this research we
transferred the selecting of warp and weft color using
(X) and (Y) axis and selecting visual color blind ratio
based on weave construction. (As a virtual selection)
5- The research can be applied in textile design education
as basic step before using Cad/Cam systems.
• References:
1- Harald Kueppers ; The basic law of color theory,
Barron's New York 1980
2- Harald Kueppers ; Color Atlas, Barron's New York 1982
3- William Watson ; Textile Design and colour, Ariel 1996
4- Alan Donaldson/NCSU - Jacquard Fabrics on Demand,
NTC Project , F03-NS03s.
http://www2.ncsu.edu/unity/lockers/project/ntcprojects/
projects/F03-NS03/
5- Tarek Saleh; Design principals - Colors - lecture's
chain -Faculty of applied arts 2002/2003.
Table 17
Figure 16
Weave construction
- Weft Satin 5.
- Weft Satin 5+1Mark
- Weft Satin 5+2Marks
- Warp Satin 5
- Plain 1/1
Maste
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eld
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ot
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urk
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41Textile Journal
The fashion design project and strategic boundaries
Creativity as freedom or brand as drive of creativity?
Barbara Trebitsch
Domus Academy, Milan, Italy
Premises
In Domus Academy the evolution of the professional path of a fashion designer
has always been a central point, together with a constant research on different
approaches to the field of project.
During the first years of experience at the beginning of the Eighties, the educa-
tional role of the school was intended to bring conceptual and wider views to
young designers looking for a development of their own approach, research
and style.
This innovative method - in a period in which the fashion designer was mostly
considered as a talented professional very targeted toward an easy market, in
which the young institutions dedicated to fashion were working upon very tech-
nical not cultural bases, in a Country as Italy symbol of an emerging fashion
phenomena, - was particularly brave and in some sense it produced many
interesting designers that were often misunderstood by companies still not
ready to accept their freedom approach.
The evolution of the Nineties and then of the new century led the fashion cour-
se to a second phase in which the balance between market and creativity
became the main object of our activity.
Barbara Trebitsch is a fashion designer and trend
searcher. She is director for mastercourse in
Fashion Design and mastercourse in Accessories
Design at Domus Academy, Milan, Italy
42 Textile Journal
Sketch by Angela Gilbert, student of the
fashion design Masters course 2003 and it
was part of a project held in collaboration with
Victor Victoria brand and Neil Barrett.
The new role of the fashion designer
Fashion design is becoming every season more and more
a matter of creativity emerging from boundaries, boundari-
es generated by market needs, timing and costs of pro-
duction, the need for innovation and the need of the
investors for warranties. Such a situation sounds negative
for young talents that are facing for the first time the field,
even though the space that many majors are lacking is
creating appealing intersections of intervention.
Considering what the last few years have shown, the short
breath of many companies in terms of imposing the sell
out to buyers already struggled by fixed budget of the
most prestigious international brands, we notice an evol-
ving situation in which the most interesting multi brand
stores are looking for innovative and not too published
designers in order to play a role of talent scouts and offer
their client, together with the renowned quality of the big
ones, the novelty and the freshness together with the
diversity of the youngsters. This does not obviously mean
that a young talented designer can think of producing his
own line immediately, without connections with the field
and particularly without having achieved a professional
experience on site, but it leaves open a good chance to
the ones that will be able to become manager of themsel-
ves. More and more the actual successful designers have
gone through this path and some of them are still mana-
ging consultancies for brands in order to sustain their own
lines, this situation is underlining one more time on how
many different approach should be part of the intellectual
and professional heritage of a designer for the future.
Trends are only a vague memory, research is driving the
most interesting and updated lines, a research that is ari-
sing from personal culture and interests as well as from
disciplines such as philosophy, anthropology, psychology
to arrive to the world of contemporary art and cinema as
well as social themes. The sensitivity of a designer is now
into the ability of perceiving these signs to reconstruct a
reality that has to have a meaning. Moreover management
capability within a globalised fashion system is imposing to
think at collections in which the seasonal aspect is someti-
mes a problem, in which sizes are different as well as the
weather from one continent to another. Price problems
and communication issues are as important as good
design along with all the aspects composing a brand.
Obviously, unless a designer is not intended to become
manager of himself, nobody will ask him/her to cover all
these roles in a company even though the designer will
always have to keep all this issues in mind while desig-
ning. These are the reasons why an advanced educational
path in this field cannot be considered exhaustive without
taking into serious consideration all these elements.
What fashion brands are looking for
According to these issues the course has developed in
the last few years an approach toward the project that, if
still and even more guaranteeing the freedom and the cre-
ativity of the designer and preserving the conceptual
aspects has found in the collaboration with companies
and designers an excellent path for the training of the
masters students. The idea of reconstructing the outside
model, with a specific link to the territory, has given life to
a series of interesting collaborations and seminars.
Projects in collaboration with companies have always seen
the participation of interesting designers as project lea-
ders, designers that have never collaborated with the
brand before they met in DA. The twin project held in this
way, is intended to support the personal growth of the stu-
dents asked to face different realities and opinions at one
time, to meet the opinion of the managing director of a
company with the opinion of the designer, and find
through these information their own path, approach and
philosophy. We have also realized that the contribution of
companies in terms of information and growth, gets more
and more important according to the internationality of the
participants of the course arrived in our country, to better
know and understand an Italian system that has deeply
changed and that results difficult to explain on a theoretical
basis. The balance between designers creativity and
expressed, and even more, unexpressed Brand needs is
the red line dividing good professionals from still immature
designers, their ability to express and communicate their
ideas, projects, products and prototypes is a very impor-
tant training in order to prepare them to run a successful
collaboration. The quality of brands referring to a school
44 Textile Journal
45Textile Journal
has also changed during the years; more and more, com-
panies and managers have understood that it is only
through the collaboration with the training system that they
will find the right people to renown their activity. Not only
are these brands, these companies looking for creative
ideas, they are not looking for a nice garment or accesso-
ry to be immediately produced: they are looking for people
they want to deal with in professional terms, getting to
know each others to built the success of the company
with them.
The request from brands - this might sound ironical consi-
dering the actual and long lasting crisis of the field - is to
find designers to integrate in their company: scouting the
good ones that are always the more free and advanced.
The development of a multifaceted design approach
According to this experience we can say that a multiface-
ted design approach is not simply a multi-disciplinary fac-
tor, but an issue related to a multi cultural expression in
terms of continuous updating of information and to a
developed process of method that is arising both from the
culture of project of the architectural field and from the
sensitivity, aerials to get all information and reinvent them in
creative and feasible terms. Many symposium and confe-
rences as well as books have been held on the theme of
fashion professions, the needs of companies and the
aspirations of young students. The problem is not easily
solved; many people in a naive way think the solution is to
convince the youngsters interested in being fashion desig-
ners to focus their attention and studies on more technical
professions as pattern maker. The problem that sounds
awkward in this particular moment of crisis, is that chang-
ing specialization, even offering more immediate opportuni-
ties will not satisfy the young aspirations and will not fulfil a
request for advanced design that, right because of the cri-
sis, is becoming more and more pressing. Obviously, par-
ticularly in Italy, the fashion system is starting to lack impor-
tant figures in technical know how with no heirs, but the
starting point, the way these professions are faced is still
old and it needs a deep reconstruction thinking that the
designer figure being important but not a soloist will need
more and more a team developing work in order to be
successful. The designer, as the drive for the collection
and the communication philosophy, will also have to
sustain and keep his/her preparation updated in technolo-
gies, from fabrics up until construction, in order to stimula-
te a work in progress in which discoveries can be driven
by all the actors.
Conclusions
This short text cannot obviously be exhaustive about a
theme that would need much more time and discussion in
order to be properly explored. What remains is the certitu-
de that these issues, too many times not properly taken
into consideration, are messages, messages we send
every day, that we receive every day from the medias in
which no hope for talent and creativity is visible. The
message - I do firmly believe this - is that the positive way
of facing such a complex reality, is to understand pro-
blems and face them without forgetting that a proper solu-
tion is rarely immediate. Our role, as designers and as
educators is still to open windows of open-minded creati-
vity building up models as well as future professionals
aware of the complexity in which they will operate, but
struggling to be the ones that will give their own answer
and proposal to the global context.
47Textile Journal
Smart Textiles - what for and why?
Lena Berglin 1, 2, Marion Ellwanger 1, Lars Hallnäs 1, 2
Linda Worbin 1, 2, Margareta Zetterblom 1, 2
1 The Swedish School of Textiles, THS
University College of Borås
2 Department of Computer Science and Engineering
Chalmers University of Technology
Progress in the area of Smart Textiles will to some extent depend on how
successful we are in combining theoretical and experimental work in several
rather different disciplines; from material sciences, electronics and computer
science to textile technology and textile design. It is possible to organize such
interdisciplinary research in an efficient and meaningful way by systematically
relating specific projects and research issues to the basic questions of what
(characterization), how (principles of construction), and why (functionality) with
respect to a given type of “smart” behaviour, i.e. dynamic, analytical, adaptive
behaviour etc. This is all somehow clear with respect to issues of technology,
but what does it mean from the perspective of design? In what way will the
introduction of Smart Textiles change the notion of a “textile” product? In what
way will the introduction of Smart Textiles change the textile- and fashion
design professions?
It is clear that experimental product design can link all the different aspects,
which appear in interdisciplinary Smart Textile projects, integrate them and
express them through a product, i.e. clothing for extreme working conditions,
textiles for technical applications and interior design, medical applications, tech-
no fashion and new types of sports wear etc. (Cf. [Van Langenhove]). Design
work in this context will then be situated in the intersection between textile- and
fashion design and interaction design. This will also have impact on the pro-
ducts themselves with respect to what they are. There is a need here to focus
on the basic questions of what, how and why also from a product and design
perspective; what is really a Smart Textiles product? What type of new design
methods do we need to develop? What are the basic needs and interests that
motivate such products?
Lena Berglin has a Master of Science in
Interaction design and also a degree from
Textile Design from the Swedish School of
Textiles, THS, University College of Borås.
She has been working for several companies
as a designer, mainly in the field of extreme
clothing. Lena is now a PhD student at the
Swedish School of textiles and the research
theme is smart textiles, the field were textile
technology is combined with computing
technology. The research is focused around
two areas: Gloves and Communication and
Medical Technology and Clothing.
Marion Ellwanger is a professor for smart
textile design research at The Swedish
School of Textiles, THS, University College
of Borås in since 2004 and also work as a
freelance textile designer in Germany.
Lars Hallnäs, professor in interaction
design at The Swedish School of Textiles,
THS, University College of Borås and
associate professor in computing science
at Chalmers University of Technology.
Linda Worbin is currently a PhD student in
Smart Textiles and Interaction Design at
the Swedish School of Textiles, University
College of Borås in cooperation with the
Department of Computer Science and
Engineering at Chalmers University of
Technology. She is developing working
prototypes of dynamically changing textile
patterns to extend understanding the
usage and aesthetics of textile patterns in
the area of Smart Textiles.
Margareta Zetterblom is a PhD student in
Smart Textiles and Interaction Design at
the Swedish School of Textiles, University
College of Borås in cooperation with the
Department of Computer Science and
Engineering at Chalmers University of
Technology. She is working with fabrics as
interactive acoustic absorbers.
…introducing the new textile products
The new Smart Textiles products introduce a shift from
passive functionality to active behaviour (Cf. [Berglin1,2],
[Jacobs, Worbin], [Landin, Worbin]). This means that the
dimension of time will be more important in textile- and
fashion design. Form is then no longer only a matter of
spatial shape, but it also concerns the temporal structures
of interactive behaviour. The basic issue here is how future
textile- and fashion design will answer to this call for inte-
gration and development and nourish the possibilities that
lie in this shift. A successful development implies that the
notion of textile materials and technology will change. But
along with that basic design aesthetics also have to chan-
ge; these new products will depend on a partly new type
of expressiveness (Cf. [Hallnäs, Redström]).
…transforming the textile- and fashion design professions
Smart Textiles will transform the craft- and profession of
textile- and fashion design. It is a new type of materials
that through computational technology makes the material
basis of the design process somewhat more abstract;
dynamic patterns, reaction behaviours etc that just like
music only “exists” in performance, through use, in time.
This will change the way we work and it asks for new
basic skills and new types of background knowledge. To
master the basic means of expression should textile- and
fashion designers study programming, mathematics and
more of technology in the future? Or are new types of
design teams a more natural and reasonable solution? A
basic obstacle here is what meaning we then should give
to the mastering of our basic means of design expression.
It is clear that design by drawing cannot retain its promi-
nent foundational role. The introduction of an explicit time
dimension will makes the design more abstract and more
complex (Cf. Jones discussion about complex design pro-
blems in [Jones]). Interaction design will probably be of
some importance also in the textile- and fashion design
process in the future, which also will imply a change in
teaching methods.
…making textile- and fashion design part of modern
high-tech industrial design
As we extend the notion of textile materials and technolo-
gy by developing new materials and techniques and by
the integration of for example digital functionality in textile
structures textile- and fashion design draws nearer to
high-tech industrial design. Does this mean that for exam-
ple fashion design to some extent also draws nearer to
product design? The introduction of new types of functio-
nalities and of an explicit notion of behaviour changes the
notion of a textile product and will most certainly also
change our behaviour with respect to use, re-use, manu-
facturing and trade.
References
[Berglin1] Berglin L., Wanted - A Textile Mobile Device,
IMTEX 2004
[Berglin2] L. Berglin L., Spookies: Combining Smart
Materials and Information Technology in an Interactive Toy,
IDC2005 4th International Conference for Interaction
Design and Children 2005
[Hallnäs, Redström] Hallnäs L., Redström J., From Use to
Presence; On the Expressions and Aesthetics of Everyday
Computational Things, ACM Transactions on Computer-
Human Interaction (TOCHI)- Special Issue on the New
Usability Vol. 9, No. 2, 2002
[Jacobs, Worbin] Jacobs M., Worbin L., Reach: Dynamic
Textile Patterns for Communication and Social Expression,
Proceedings of CHI2005, ACM Press
[Jones] J. C. Jones, Design Methods, Wiley 1992
[Landin, Worbin] H. Landin, L. Worbin, Fabrications by
Creative Dynamic Patterns. Proceedings Pixelraiders 2,
April 6-8 2004, Sheffield Hallan University, UK
[Van Langenhove] Van Langenhove L., Hertleer C., Smart
Clothing: A New Life, International Journal of Clothing
Science and Technology 2004
49Textile Journal
50 Textile Journal
51Textile Journal
Textile Disobedience
When textile patterns start to interact
Linda Worbin
The Swedish School of Textiles, THS
University College of Borås, Sweden
E-mail: [email protected]
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden
In this paper we look into the future of textile patterns in relation to so called
Smart Textiles; textiles with qualities adapting to the environment, change
colour, send signals, transform and change shape etc.
We show a series of experimental prototypes within the theme of Textile
Disobedience; textile patterns that do not really behave as we are used to.
In accompanying reflections we discuss technical and aesthetical issues of a
more general interest. These experiments include textile patterns that can
change from stripes into squares (depending on power on/off) and patterns
with hidden messages to search and reveal for the user. The materials used
are both Smart Textiles materials like thermo-chromic ink (a material reacting
with a change of colour when heated) and a different conductive and heat
emitting materials, as well as traditional textile techniques and materials.
By working with Smart textile and learn about their extended properties one
learn both about new material but also extend the knowledge about more
familiar material and use. The new material helps to think, re-think.
The intention of this work is to develop textile design where new types of
materials and techniques bring us to the border between traditional textile
design and the area of interaction design, Smart Textile materials open up for
a new way of creating and thus using the aesthetic pattern.
What happens when a decoration starts to interact?
The textile area is slowly changing due to the introduction of a new range of
textile materials, so called Smart Textiles. Within this area new types of textile
materials are presently introduced; it can be conductive textile materials, colour-
changing materials that react to environmental stimuli, or various shape memory
materials. This development of materials within the area of Smart Textiles opens
up for new ways of creating aesthetic patterns. This project deals with a strong
curiosity over designing with new materials. The intention is to raise questions
of how we may or may not use and design textile patterns and decorations
in the future.
Linda Worbin is currently a PhD student in
Smart Textiles and Interaction Design at
the Swedish School of Textiles, THS,
University College of Borås in cooperation
with the Department of Computer Science
and Engineering at Chalmers University of
Technology.
She is developing working prototypes of
dynamically changing textile patterns to
extend understanding the usage and
aesthetics of textile patterns in the area of
Smart Textiles.
52 Textile Journal
The types of experiments presented in this article are
experimental designs using methodological component in
a practice-based design research on textile design in the
area of Smart Textiles. We work with systematic creation
to exemplify different kinds of textile patterns where both
aesthetics and materiality are emphasized, in order to
make basic textile pattern characteristics even more
distinct and visible.
Traditional textile patterns made of well known designers
like William Morris, Josef Frank or Astrid Sampe were
made with the intention to stay “static”. The printed pattern
was meant to be in the same shape and colour as the ori-
ginal design drawing. Both now and then design did follow
trends and values in society. Morris is proposing that he
made textile as well as wallpaper designs to be able to
decorate his medieval inspired house. What he did was
creating retro inspired design to achieve an atmosphere
from an earlier time.
Projects concerning the development of Smart Textiles
have been going on for some years now and one of the
most important projects for the area of dynamic textile
patterns is the work E-broidery: Design and fabrication of
textile-based computing. (Post, 2000). The project investi-
gates conductivity in textiles by building a range of different
prototypes. To mention some of the prototypes there is
the Electronic Tablecloth. It is a tablecloth whit sensors on
the surface that invites users to interact with a computer,
and whit other people through an interactive piece of furni-
ture. Another is the Music Jacket whit embroidered butt-
tons and circuits onto the jacket fabric that allow the user
to play music. In this example the technology is applied
onto an already existing object. Other projects in the work
are called; Row and column fabric keyboard, Firefly Dress,
Music Balls and No Soap Radio. These projects are (from
a textile designers perspective) focusing on how to pick
up signals and transmit them into textile material. This
seems to be the first documented project not showing
how to build electronically circuits but how to fabricate
(weave or embroider) them.
There are nowadays some commercial companies building
on this knowledge. They are producing textiles with elec-
tronics integrated directly in the fabric. For example there
is a mobile phone made at the company Elexen (1), that is
a mobile phone made out of fabric (not totally) but the
phone contains a conductive textile keyboard. Another
project concerning dynamic textile pattern, is a project
made at International Fashion Machines (2), their product
Pending Electric Plaid is an art piece that “changes colour
like a computer display” made as wall hangings that can
change colour and pattern over time. There are also pro-
jects with dynamic textile patterns that never change back
to its origin look. One example is a bag made by Fashion
Victims (3) where the textile pattern is made from leaking
ink stored inside a bag.
So, what happens when decoration starts to interact? By
looking at the mentioned examples, a dynamic decoration
gets an extended use. Many existing dynamic patterns
change from one to another, and there is still a range of
unexplored ways in the making of dynamic textile pattern.
This will be further presented in a basic way, starting with a
look at the traditions of making textile patterns.
Is it always wrong to do wrong?
The textile industry (most often) strive for knowing exact
what colour and shape that will appear on the fabric, for
how long time the colour will stay and for how many was-
hes. This is important to know in advance. When making
sketches for an industrially made print or weave the design
already needs to be decided and planned in detail long
before making the actual item. But sometimes the fabric
does not turn out to be what the designer thought it would
be. Sometimes it can be an expensive mistakes or it can
turn out to be a fantastic development.
It is not always wrong to do the wrong thing. In being able
to take part during the production process and learn about
limitations, one can take part and develop. A common
way is unfortunately that a design for a fabric is draw by
hand on paper or using a computer. Then the design is
left to another person in the producing process. This can
be compared with the way to work in handcraft, when you
53Textile Journal
work with your design and can follow the material and the
tools that are used in a totally different way and take
advantage of a mistake. Because we have such an exten-
sive knowledge from the industry of screen printing it often
works rather well to translate a design from paper to
fabric, but what about new smart materials with unknown
properties? When it comes to a material that neither the
designers nor the manufacturer have knowledge of it does
not work in that way. Neither do we have knowledge about
what these materials can offer us that the more traditional
cant. To be able to develop new kinds of designs and
fabrics in smart textiles it is of great importance to work in
an experimental way and take advantage of the “mista-
kes”. The prototypes that will be presented in this article
are made in close conjunction with a handicraft studio work
and some parts are made close to industrial processes.
Today, it is of great importance to work with a more experi-
mental approach to the industry to be able to find a fitting
way of using our knowledge and development in a range
of different fields. We are just in the beginning of a new
era of textiles. The so-called Smart Textiles are to create a
new discipline. Textiles that formerly have been separated
from computational technology are now together opening
up for a new paradigm in textiles. Nowadays combinations
of textiles and computational technology are, in the making
of fabrics, a tool for design and way of speeding up pro-
duction. But now the computational technology is attemp-
ted to be an active part even after the production, it will be
a part of the fabric during use.
To be able to use and create fabrics in this new textile era
it is important to do basic research in the making of textile
patterns to be able to understand what new possibilities is
offered today, and extend these. Not to forget to take
advantages of mistakes.
Textile Disobedience
The project Textile Disobedience started with looking at the
obvious in decorations, and trying to understand what the
objects or/and decorations actually are doing. As well as
what we humans are doing with them. By making the invi-
sible visible, new ideas appeared. To give one example, a
tablecloth was made with an extreme decoration on top,
made in swell paint, so the use of a piece of fabric to
place porcelain on top was almost impossible. It turned
out to be a tablecloth that prohibits the placing of small
items that need to be standing up.
The theme Textile Disobedience gave inspiration to a certain
approach to handling and creating textile patterns. Questions
during the process have been about use, misuse and anti
use, to highlight specific details of how we use textiles and
these eventually decorations. The intention was to learn
about traditional decorations and textiles properties, to be able
to further extend the use of the new so-called Smart Textiles.
Our movements, impressions and feelings are in a way
programmed (learned). Our pre-understanding for objects
makes us use them in different ways, how you do
depends on many different aspects, social and cultural.
Thoughts and ideas about objects that do or do not do
what is expected are presented in Hertzial Tales (Dunne,
1999). It is in many ways fruitful to question how we use
different types of objects and services in a time like ours,
just like in all the past times. In our time the “new” techno-
logy is driven by computational technology. With that, all
other areas are further developed from our new perspecti-
ves, for better or worse, as always.
One source of inspiration is “do-it-yourself” pictures by
Andy Warhol and paint by number drawing books. The
idea with that kind of paintings is to engage the user to do
something by themselves, an invitation to engagement
and action. These are interesting properties to bring into
textiles, both in order to make people a part of creating a
textile pattern (after it is produced) and to add a non static
decoration to a textile. Today textiles are relatively cheap
and material used to quickly change an environment.
Cheap mass-produced textiles are unfortunately about to
make textile tradition loose its former status through
commercial interests in producing many different decora-
tions and encouraging consumers to buy something new,
to fulfil the need of a change.
54 Textile Journal
Textile design is often about function or an aesthetic deco-
ration. One need is placed in the first range of priorities.
When buying a curtain, first priorities is many times about
what kind of decoration to choose to your existing taste in
home decoration, you may even get a separate roller blind
just to block out the sun light. But happily this is to be a
passing trend, just like form and function became one, or
didn't it? Can we start to talk about “aesthetic expression
and computation” in the same way?
By making a number of design examples of both dynamic
and static textile patterns, both properties in the material
and in the design of the pattern has been investigated. A
decorative dynamic textile pattern involves more than a
static decoration. Its ability to change it will involve two or
more expressions.
What is a decoration and how do we act in relation to it?
By reflecting upon how we use and create textile patterns
and stirving to illustrate the “invisible obvious” knowledge,
some first experiment were made. In this first stage only
“traditional” materials were used. The intentions were to
learn more about the “invisible obvious” and then bring
that knowledge into new so called smart materials. All pro-
totypes were made in the context of a table, that was a
choice made because it is an area that many people have
a relation to, it is a historical object and used together with
other objects. Tables, tablecloths and porcelain form a
system that has been interesting to have as a frame for
the experiments.
The tablecloths are called; the FallingCloth, the
StructureCloth and the TraditionalCloth.
55Textile Journal
FallingCloth 2003 is an experiment in how we use deco-
ration to place an object on top of another. In this case it
is a tablecloth that is placed onto a table. The decoration
on the tablecloth is aesthetically made as an ordinary
decoration, and in this case as a decoration hanging as a
border around a tablecloth. The decorative border is
making/helping you to place the tablecloth in a specific
direction on the table, in a symmetrical way. And when
you do so with this FallingCloth it will fall to the ground. It is
not a very useful tablecloth in that sense. If you want to
keep it on the table it needs to be placed in an asymmetric
way. This experiment shows what a decoration can actually
do, in spite of being a decoration. Most often the decora-
tion makes the user place the tablecloth in a specific way.
Thus, the tablecloth informs us, in an unconscious way, to
interact with the table trough a decoration. This is of course
depending on cultural aspects; if you are familiar using a
tablecloth at all, as well as the size of the table in combi-
nation with the size of the table.
Material and techniques: A hand-made textile sketch,
using a ready made polyester fabric, silk screen print with
pigment and swell paint, textile glue and mosaic. The bor-
der is made in swell paint, except in some parts where
small mosaic is glued in the same pattern.
Figure 1 A FallingCloth placed symmetric on a table
Figure 1 B FallingCloth starts to slide
Figure 1 C FallingCloth falls to the floor
Figure 1 A
Figure 1 B
Figure 1 C
56 Textile Journal
StructureCloth 2003 is another experiment to investigate
a decoration. In the Structure cloth the decoration is
making the cloth hard to use. A non useful item, can that
have a purpose? Yes, I think so. In this example, the
decoration is made in swell-paint onto a cotton fabric and
gives a rough, plastic and bubbly texture. The decoration
is making the traditional use of a tablecloth (to protect a
table, or as a decoration) irrelevant. Instead it gives an
uncommon structure. This tablecloths decoration does not
invite the user to put items on top. Instead, it seams to
make people avoid putting stuff on top of the table cloth.
This experiment shows what an extended decoration
made in swell paint can do; it makes a surface that is
changing the use of a tablecloth. In this case, the decora-
tion makes the table cloth hard to use by its rough structure.
This tablecloth provides a surface that does not invite one
to place small objects that need to be standing up on top
of the table.
Material and techniques: A hand-made textile sketch using
a ready made cotton fabric, swell paint mixed with pigment.
Figure 2 A A cup balance on the StructureCloth
Figure 2 B StructureCloth seen from above
Figure 2 C StructureCloth close up
Figure 2 A
Figure 2 B
Figure 2 C
57Textile Journal
TraditionalCloth 2003 is an experiment about the relation
between old and new expressions. By using an old tradi-
tional tablecloth and make a hand-painted red cross on
top it gives a unexpected combination. This experiment
deals with what boundaries old object can predict a table-
cloth should be ironed and without stains and holes.
When adding a red cross on the surface, the old table-
cloths contain a gap between the old and the new. We
are not used to have unexpected decorations on our
tables. We are making a statement with the choice of
tablecloth we use, even not using one. By combining
more modern materials in traditional constructions or
aesthetical agreements a fruitful mixture is to be found.
Material and techniques: A hand-made textile sketch using
an old Swedish tablecloth woven in cotton with handpainted
pigment colour on top.
Figure 3 A TraditionalCloth close up seen from top
Figure 3 B TraditionalCloth seen from side
Figure 3 C TraditionalCloth seen from corner
Falling, Structure and TraditionCloth are examples
made for reflection over the use and signification of a
decoration. Design for reflection, over object and the use
of it more than for adding a static extra value. The exam-
ples are made using traditional material in a non traditional
way. This how material, context and shape of decoration
can be used. Today there are Smart Textiles with properti-
es to change depending on surrounding conditions. But it
is not only about what material is used, the out come is
also depending on the textile construction: if the fabric is
woven, knitted or non-woven and also depending of what
the fabric will be used for, and in what context. Further on
the mentioned examples were used as a starting point to
investigate how to develop dynamic textile patterns using
so-called Smart Textiles.
Figure 3 A
Figure 3 B
Figure 3 C
58 Textile Journal
Smart Textile
To be able to use smart textile materials in an extended
way it is important to understand the making of a fabric, in
order to use and develop the inner qualities in the combi-
nation of material and construction. It is hard to develop
and understand new possibilities in materials (as well as in
new techniques) if the two are divided, because the two
are so dependent upon each other. New qualities are
even created in the meeting between a specific materiality
and construction. But at the same time, the two are in a
first step developed in different disciplines. For example,
the fibre's tear strength gets stronger (or weaker) depen-
ding on construction of the final fabric.
Today there is a range of new materials, so-called Smart
Textiles, one of many different terms for materials with the
ability to adapt or change according to the environment.
For example, there are materials that can change colour
depending on sunlight, temperature or pressure. Other
materials can be conductive and thus used to transmit
signals, be used as a shelter for electromagnetic waves or
to create heat.These different material qualities can further
be divided into different groups depending on stimuli and
response. There is a group of materials called “Chromic
materials” that involves materials that can change colour
depending on external stimuli and depending on stimuli
they can further be divided into subgroups; electro chro-
mic where stimuli is electricity, piezo-chromic where stimuli
is pressure, solvate-chromic where stimuli is liquid, photo-
chromic where stimuli is ultra violet light and thermo-chromic
where stimuli is heat.
The smart textile materials used in this work are mainly
chromic materials and a conductive material. The chromic
material investigated in this work is a thermo-chromic ink
that change colour due to temperature and is suited for
screen printing. A reversible colour change is activated at
around 37*C (body temperature) and the colour change
last as long as the fabric is heated and then starts to slow-
ly fade away. After the ink is heated up it will stay for some
minutes and slowly turn back to its original colour, the time
it will take to fade away is depending on temperature. The
higher the temperature, the longer it will stay. High tempe-
rature during long time makes the fading even slower.
Printing thermo-chromic ink can be mixed with “ordinary”
textile pigment made for silk screen. There is a range of
thermo-chromic ink made for textiles available on the mar-
ket. Example of the colour range; Cyan, magenta, orange,
green and grey. These colours can also be mixed to crea-
te new colours. When they are heated up they seem to
disappear but leave a gentle shade (the different colours
leave a slightly different shade). One can think a bit of
different transparent layers when mixing the colours. If no
pigment colour is added to the thermo-chromic, the paint
will just seem to disappear. But when this thermo-chromic
is mixed with “ordinary” pigment that colour will be visible
when heated. This will be illustrated and explained further
on. This indicates that there is a range of ways to design
and mix colours when creating these kinds of textile pat-
terns. Thermo-chromic technique is also available to react
in other temperatures.
When screen printing a textile pattern made in thermo-
chromic ink and pigment one can either mix the colours
and make one print or make a print over another. When
mixing the two different pigments, it can be hard to mix
“two colours in one”, because the different colours are
affecting each other. Ordinary knowledge about how to
mix colours can thus be used to achieve different results
in the design. For example a blue thermo-chromic and a
yellow pigment will turn out to be a green colour, but when
heated it will turn into yellow. When mixing the colour the
two different possible colours are seen individually, but are
affecting one and other.
Screen printed thermo-chromic ink can be washed in 40
degrees and the colour changing affect is to last approxima-
tely 20 washes. The material was used a short period during
the 1980´s on for example t-shirts and skiers clothes.
Nowadays the material is mainly used for cheap commercial
products, plastic dolls with hair that changes colour when
washes, plastic spoons for children's food and so on. What
could this kind of material offer to textile patterns without
being addressed like a material used on gimmick products?
59Textile Journal
The conductive fibre used in this project is a carbon fibre.
The carbon is used because of its rather poor conductive
properties (compared to metals). Because of the high
resistance in carbon fibre heat is produced. Carbon fibre
is used in combination with thermo-chromic screen print.
Other conductive materials such as metal wire and film
have also been used in the experiments in order to create heat.
Experiment / Smart textile
By experimenting with objects closely connected to table-
cloths like, porcelain, computers, iron and more, the
making of dynamic textile patterns took off. The system of
a tablecloth, the act of drinking from a cup filled with hot
tea or coffee became important factors for creating a patt-
tern. A stronger connection between objects, how they
influence each other, the material in the tablecloth, and the
objects on top appeared. The hot objects left a mark on
the thermo-chromic treated fabrics.
Other ways of activating thermo-chromic textile pattern are
placing heat elements under the fabric and integrate it into
the fabric itself. Some experiments have also been made
using non-physical objects like hot air fans and hot liquid.
In these experiments the thermo-chromic material was
used both with and without a range of different colours.
Just to learn the material and what kind of colours and
patterns that could be made using these materials.
Material and techniques: A hand-made textile sketch using
thermo-chromic screen print on cotton fabric.
Figure 4 A A cup with hot water on pink tablecloth
Figure 4 B Hot water spilled out on tablecloth
Figure 4 C The hot water immediately makes a pattern
on the tablecloth
Figure 4 A
Figure 4 B
Figure 4 C
60 Textile Journal
Experiments were done looking at different ways of desig-
ning textile patterns with thermo-chromic ink. Structures
were put onto fabrics. Patterns have been printed on both
plain weave and onto already patterned fabric. Then the
design of different heat elements was taken into conside-
ration and further developed in the following categories;
placed on top, under or integrated in the fabric.
Using heat elements on top of the tablecloth.
“Do the pattern yourself” 2003. A single coloured
tablecloth was made out of thermo-chromic screen print
and the idea of using external objects to make patterns.
No pattern was made onto the fabric, just an over all print
was made. Now, the object (the bottom of the cup) is
what will make a decoration onto the tablecloth. Actually,
the textile decoration can be made on another object and
then “stamped” onto the fabric, for example different shapes
could be moulded in the bottom of porcelain to create the
textile pattern. This textile pattern allows designing one's
“own” pattern during usage. Instead of creating a ready-
made decoration, we encourage people to take part in the
creative process after the fabric is made. By making the
tablecloth “do it yourself” the textile pattern starts to do
something more than a traditional textile pattern does. The
textile pattern that will appear on the surface will look
much like a stain from having coffee or tea under your
cup. This kind of textile pattern also tells us about an
ongoing or earlier activity around the table.
Material and techniques: A hand-made prototype in textile,
the fabric is ready made cotton satin with a thermo chro-
mic screen print (using an open screen print frame) water
resistant treatment is made on the surface.
Figure 5 A Cups with hot water is placed on the
tablecloth “Do the pattern yourself”
Figure 5 B Moving around hot cups on the tablecloth
Figure 5 C “Do the pattern yourself” seen from above
when temporary pattern is made
Figure 5 A
Figure 5 B
Figure 5 C
61Textile Journal
Two coloured woven fabric. Making a single coloured
screen print in thermo-chromic onto two different fabrics
will of course make a big difference. Some patterns were
made onto a two coloured woven fabric, consisting of
white and red threads. When making a red thermo-chromic
print on top, a small weaving structure will appear in the
areas that have been heated. This gave a mixture between
old and new expressions that makes connections to, and
takes advantages from, old traditions and new materiality.
The idea was to keep the “big surprise” when making a
pattern with for example your cup but also make a more
beautiful fabric. By mixing white and red when weaving the
fabric and then print a dark red pattern on top, there will
be a mark of the cup but the construction in the fabric will
also be visible and be a decorative part.
When designing with this kind of colours one needs to
think about the different stages and the two together. This
is just like working with more traditional screen prints over-
lapping each other, but the extra aspect is that the colour
now even can change. This makes it even more inter-
esting to work with colours made by mixing different
ground colours.
Material and techniques: A woven fabric in read and white
with a hand-made thermo-chromic silk screen print on top.
Figure 6 A A fabric printed with thermo-chromic
Figure 6 B The fabric is heated with an iron
Figure 6 C A temporarily colour change take place
Figure 6 A
Figure 6 B
Figure 6 C
62 Textile Journal
Designing a pattern for screen printing. By making different
designs one can use the thermo-chromic qualities further.
In a pattern with nine squares, that may encourage people
around a table to play a tic-tac-toe game, it even gets a
time aspect introduced into the game if hot cups are used
as play markers. Thus time is an active part in both the
(new) rules of the game and in the time you can spend on
playing a game. These tablecloths were placed in a café
at an office, the intention were to encourage the workers
to play as long as their coffee was hot and then go back
to work. But what happened was that the tables where
much bigger than the tablecloths and people did not want
to stain the tablecloths and instead balance the cups on
the empty table space.
Material and techniques 2003: A hand-made textile sketch
on ready made white cotton fabric, silk screen print on top
made in thermo-chromic ink mixed with pigment.
Figure 7 A A tablecloth with a nine square design
Figure 7 B Hot cups are placed on the tablecloth
Figure 7 C When drinking and thus moving the cup a
temporarily pattern appears on the squares
Figure 7 A
Figure 7 B
Figure 7 C
63Textile Journal
Using heat elements under the tablecloth.
Structure. Pleats are made onto a fabric (using an open
frame silk screen print in thermo-chromic).The structure
opens up for a new perspective, the time. Since heat is
rising in the fabric it takes different times and temperatures
to activate the whole fabric.
Material and techniques: A hand-made textile made in silk
screen print on top of a white cotton fabric, thermo-chro-
mic and pigment colour.
Figure 8 A Pleats made on a cotton fabric with a
thermo-chromic screen print
Figure 8 B Under the fabric a heat blanket is placed
and turned on
Figure 8 C The heat slowly grows up in the pleats and
make a temporarily colour change
Figure 8 A
Figure 8 B
Figure 8 C
64 Textile Journal
Specially designed heat elements. Heat elements that
have been explored in this project are laser cut heat ele-
ments, which allows you to control the pattern in a more
specific way.
This technique was used in a project called Tic-tac-textile
(Ernevi, 2005) the textile pattern on a tablecloth can invite
the user to play a game over distance using this dynamic
textile pattern.
After making this kind of patterns where hot external
objects are used to either create a pattern or reveal a
hidden pattern from above, the next step was to hide it
underneath the tablecloth. A range of different solutions
were tried out. To begin with, a heat pad was placed
underneath the fabric. That gave thoughts to make the
design with a heat element. Next step was to create sim-
ple stripes using heat conductive threads and wires.
Material used is Kanthal (4) threads and carbon fibre yarn.
The yarn was added on the back of the fabric, embroide-
red or applied by bonding. Depending on what type of
textile pattern you want to make, different yarn/wire is pre-
ferable. By placing a specially designed heat element
under the fabric a totally invisible textile pattern can be
revealed from time to time, all depending of how the heat
element is designed.
Material and techniques: A hand-made sketch on an
industrial woven fabric, silk screen print with thermo-
chromic ink.
Figure 9 A A special designed heat element consisting
cross and circles
Figure 9 B The heat element is placed under a thermo-
chromic table cloth and power is turned on
Figure 9 C Slowly a cross is appearing on the tablecloth
Figure 9 A
Figure 9 B
Figure 9 C
65Textile Journal
Using heat integrated into a textile.
Weave out of heat elements. When trying different solu-
tions of making patterns with heat, first by external objects
and then by making specific shapes and place under the
fabric, next step was to integrate the heat element into the
fabric. If making a fabric with different patterns woven/knit-
ted into the fabric, one would not need external objects to
reveal a textile pattern. Or the two could be combined.
A fabric made out of cotton and carbon fibre was made
and on top a print with thermo chromic screen print was
made. When the power was turned on, the heat element
(the carbon yarn) revealed the paint in the area where the
carbon yarn was integrated.
Material and techniques: An industrially woven fabric in
cotton and carbon with a hand-made silk screen print out
of thermo-chromic ink. In the edges (of the carbon fibre
yarn) electricity is added (7 voltages). When the power is
turned on the carbon starts to emit heat that affects the
thermo-chromic print to change appearance 2004.
Figure 10 A Carbon fibre is integrated in the weave with
thermo-chromic screen print on top
Figure 10 B Power is turned on and heat is produced,
thus a colour change appears
Figure 10 C Close up on colour change and power supply
By making textile patterns that change dynamically we can
view the actual creation of patterns as inherent in the use
of textiles. Thus a range of different possible textile patterns
can be included in one fabric and changed from time to
time. Even after the fabric is made it can be given a range
of different textile patterns and expressions depending on
how the power is turned on or off, the programming. Thus
a new element becomes important; time.
The time the heat element will be programmed to be on is
how long time it will take to reveal a pattern (that is depen-
ding on, for example, material and construction of the fabric).
To better understand the properties in the thermo-chromic
ink, the usage and the aesthetic possibilities, the experi-
ments stayed in the area of tablecloths to take advantage
of thoughts from the first experimental tablecloths.
Figure 10 A
Figure 10 B
Figure 10 C
66 Textile Journal
Textile Disobedience / Smart textile
After making the mentioned experiment, next step was to
sum up the theme Textile Disobedience and Smart Textile.
Two concepts and prototypes will be presented here.
“Rather Boring” 2004. The tablecloth Rather Boring
looks like an ordinary, a bit boring, tablecloth. By using the
principles of having a hot object on top a textile pattern is
revealed. But when hot objects are placed on top the
pattern not only seems to disappear; some pattern will
actually appear. This experiment shows that by hiding a
pattern in another, there will be a feeling of revealing, sear-
ching a pattern within a pattern instead of only making a
mark with an external object. The design of this tablecloth
got inspiration from traditional embroidered tablecloths.
By mixing old and new traditions and designs, for example
new materials in a traditional construction, an “out standing”
look and feeling will not be necessary. Even the surprise in
the tablecloth's ability to hide a pattern will give an even a
bigger surprise when the design is a bit calm and not
screaming for attention. To hide a pattern within a pattern
is done by printing with two different pigments but mixed
in the same colours (in this case a grey thermo-chromic
and a grey pigment colour). It is important to mix the
colours perfectly, so the surprise would not be ruined in
advance, so the “hidden” pattern can be found before
heating some parts. That is a hard task, especially when
various light conditions will make the colours reflect diffe-
rently. Even perfection during screen printing is important
in order to get a good result.
Material and techniques: A hand-made prototype onto
ready made white cotton satin,
silk screen print made in two colours, one with thermo-
chromic and another with ordinary textile pigment.
Figure 11 A Close up on the textile pattern “Rather boring”
Figure 11 B The tablecloth with the textile pattern
“Rather boring”
Figure 11 C In the textile pattern a hidden message is
revealed using heat
Figure 11 A
Figure 11 B
Figure 11 C
67Textile Journal
“Being Squared” 2004. This is a textile pattern that can
change from striped into checks and back again. The pro-
totype is presented as an apron and a tablecloth, the
same fabric is used for the two different items, but with
different screen print on top. The tablecloth is given a
checked textile print that is static (and made to stay in the
same shape over time) and the apron is given a striped
pattern that is a dynamic textile pattern. The aprons patt-
tern has got the ability to change into checks when power
is turned on, and thus creates the same sized checks as
on the tablecloth. Two different (but similar) textile patterns
also show the ability to create a kind of camouflage possi-
bility by combining a dynamic textile pattern with a “static”
textile pattern.
The principles for creating dynamic textile patterns in this
example are by integrating the heat element in the fabric.
As shown in earlier examples the thermo- chromic ink will
give a feeling of just disappearing when no ordinary pig-
ment is added. This is a simple stated example showing
how a pattern can change expression within this technique.
Material and techniques: Industrial woven fabric (11) in
cotton and carbon with a hand-made silk screen print out
of thermo-chromic ink. In the edges (of the carbon fibre
yarn) electricity is added (7 voltages). When the power is
turned on, the carbon starts to emit heat that affects the
thermo-chromic print on to change appearance.
Figure 12 A The textile pattern “Being square”
Figure 12 B Power is turned on
Figure 12 C Slowly the stripes turns into squares
Figure 12 A
Figure 12 B
Figure 12 C
68 Textile Journal
Looking at the project “being square” one will get range
new possibilities when creating dynamically changing patt-
terns. In this case the conductive threads can be seen as
different systems with different combinations and intervals.
This open ups for a new way of creating different textile
patterns after the actual making of the textile. This also
brings some parameters that need to be considered in
advance. Depending on how many different patterns that
is requested to appear (in the same fabric), the making of
the pattern can be built up in different ways than is propo-
sed in this article. To clarify the complexity in the creation
of dynamic textile pattern one can divide the process in
this way;
- Construction of the fabric. If it is woven, knitted, non-
woven or i.e a plain fabric? The fabrics construction is the
first part of what possible decoration that will appear.
- What materials are the fabric made out of? And what
are the properties of the material?
- After treatments, in this case screen printed pattern on
the fabric and design of it.
- Time length for the power (sent out in the fabric) to be
turned on or off (programming)
- Context and eventually systems.
Using the textile pattern in the future
The title textile disobedience means textile patterns that do
not act as we expect them to. They are playing with us
and our pre-understanding of what a textile pattern is and
show what it can also be like. Dynamic textile patterns can
change according to surroundings, “spread” to other items
and appear when they are programmed to. This kind of
textile patterns with dynamical properties is something that
we usually do not connect with textile patterns and their
use. Thus it feels a bit like dynamic textile patterns is a bit
of disobedience, in a playful way.
The dynamic textile patterns presented in this article are
using thermo-chromic material and heat to reveal the patt-
tern. There are a range of other materials that can be used
using similar structures for designing dynamic textile patt-
terns. Other dynamic textile patterns have been made in
other materials during the making of the prototypes men-
tioned in this article, for example the Lamp-Curtain. This is
a fabric that can be used both as an ordinary curtain to
block out light during day and as a lamp when dark during
the night. But this dynamic textile pattern tended to be
more about a multi-functional tool, a lamp and a curtain,
than a dynamic changing pattern.
New smart materials with the ability to change, extend the
expressions and open up for a new way to both interact
and design with and for familiar objects. Technology com-
ponents can become the fabric in itself. Thus is no longer
a need for technology to be hidden in a shell. Objects can
express both technology and the aesthetic within the con-
struction. The intention with this project is to show possibi-
lities in textile materials and techniques, abilities to create a
dynamic changing textile patterns as well as to make
suggestions by making prototypes illustrating how dynamic
textile patterns can be designed. In the future, the pro-
gramming needs to be further considered and given a lar-
ger space in the making of a dynamic textile pattern.
When a decoration starts to interact one may look at texti-
les as a material with other properties than the ones men-
tioned earlier. New qualities open up for story telling,
expressing ideas, and messages. Dynamic textile pattern,
also open for a multi functional use of textiles. Areas for
applying dynamic textile pattern can be different, for exam-
ple camouflage, safety, health care, personal communica-
tions, just mention some.
This opens up a totally new area both for computational
technology and the textile area. Hopefully textiles will come
a bit closer to “aesthetic expression and computation”.
Thus the new area for textiles could fulfil the gap between
technical textiles and soft furnishings, so instead of being
produced as only decorative shells new textiles will contain
both aesthetic and communicative aspects.
69Textile Journal
Acknowledges
Vinnova (the Swedish agency for Innovation Systems) and
the Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research through
the project Textiles and Computational technology (IT &
Textiles) at the Interactive Institute. Thanks to Lars Hallnäs,
Mathias Worbin and Marcus Bergman for advice and
improvments.
Notes
1. Elexen
http://www.elexen.com
2. IFM International Fashion Machines
http://www.ifmachines.com/eplaid.html
3. Fashion Victims
http://www.fashionvictims.org
4. Kanthal is a metal wire used for example in
toasters, produced by Kanthal
http://www.kanthal.com
5. The fabric is made on a jacquard machine, but
used as a shaft machine. The construction is two
warp treads over one weft insertation.
References
Dunne, A. ( 1999) Hertzian Tales, Electronic products,
aesthetic experience and critical design. The Royal
College of Art and Anthony Dunne.
Ernevi, A., Eriksson, D., Jacobs, M., Löfgren, U., Mazé,
R., Redström, J.,
Thoresson, J. and Worbin, L. (2005). Tic Tac Textiles.
Proceedings of
CUMULUS Lisbon 2005, Pride and Pre-Design, The
Cultural Heritage and the Science of Design.
Post, E.R., Orth, M., Russo, P.R., Gershenfeld, N. (2000)
E-broidery: Design and fabrication of textile-based compu-
ting. IBM System Journal, vol 39, pp. 840-860.
70 Textile JournalA
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71Textile Journal
Paths to a new Prosperity
By Simonetta Carbonaro and Christian Votava
Let's speak plainly: It is fear of the future that's the actual trigger of our current
con-sumer crisis, and it's consumers' reticence to consume that is the cause
of growth weakness in our Western economies. The optimism and belief in
progress, which was once the motor of our affluent society have not been ful-
filling us for some time, now. Whereas once upon a time a simple worker could
actually imagine that his or her son or daughter might become a doctor, today
a lawyer is satisfied if his or her own children have a job at a call center after
finishing university rather than being unemployed.
The promise of continuously increasing material and social prosperity has lost
its credibility in our Western societies. It was a utopia that has moved on to the
emerging markets of the global economy, and which has left “memories of the
past“ here in its wake. This is why we cling with anxiety and mistrust to what
we know we have rather than taking off to new - unknown - shores.
In order for us in our Western societies to construct a new “vision of the future”,
a new ideal of prosperity, we can no longer rely on politics alone. Its ability to
play an influential role is becoming more and more limited in our globalizing
world. Now it is the turn of industry and retailing to take their fates into their own
hands and to develop a consumer culture which holds out to people the pro-
spects of a new con-sciousness of prosperity, or at least “memories of the
future”. This is about a kind of consumption that makes “sense” - that has its
reason - for consumers.
Simonetta Carbonaro is an expert in consumer
psychology, comfort science and strategic design
management. She does research in the area of
consumer behaviour and the social and cultural
change of our societies. She is a member of the
European Cultural Parliament, teaches at the
Domus Academy in Milan, where she is a member
of the Research Centre, and is also Professor for
Humanistic Marketing and Design Management
at the The Swedish School of Textiles, THS,
University Colleges of Borås, Sweden. For more
than 10 years Carbonaro worked as a consultant
on innovative branding strategies and is today a
Partner at REALISE, where she is actively involved
in Value Branding and Strategic Design.
Christian Votava is an expert in the areas of
marketing, innovation and organisational efficiency.
He helps make it possible for companies to
operate safely and successfully in today's rapidly
changing saturated markets. He holds a doctorate
in chemistry and an MBA, and was active for more
than 10 years in leading marketing and operating
positions in Europe and the USA. He was a con-
sultant at Logika AG and A.T. Karney. Today he is
a Partner at REALISE. In addition to project work,
he assists business manager and boards with their
strategic and tactical decisions, and publishes new
developments and methods in marketing.
Paradigm change: Back to needs
Marketing has not yet quite grasped how to properly deal
with “sense” as a new customer need. Indeed, marketing
continues to hold on tightly with nearly messianic convic-
tion to the dogma of customer orientation. It leaves no
stone unturned in attempting to read consumers wishes,
which are expressed through a variety of immaterial bene-
fits and manifold lifestyles. This leads to a range of seg-
mentspecific “dreamworlds” that by their nature implode
almost as soon as they appear, which leads to a new pro-
duct offensive in order to shore up the attraction of what is
being offered (Fig. 1).
72 Textile Journal
73Textile Journal
Markets structural change
Such a marketing orientation to customer desires is driving
a vicious circle of innovation pressure, information flood
and shorter product life cycles that has turned our already
saturated markets into something more and more com-
plex. This vicious circle also leads to an exponential
growth of the marketing costs which, in the meantime, can
barely be offset by increases in production efficiency. In
order to break through this circle, industry and retailing
must undertake a paradigm shift and rededicate themsel-
ves more conscientiously to customers' needs or, to put it
more precisely, their latent, not directly formulated needs.
This will take an active examination of people's priorities
rather than simply an easy answer to their wishes.
And yet, the classical market research, with its strength in
capturing conscious and known phenomena, is simply not
up to this challenge. It is hardly suitable to support strate-
gic farsightedness or to anticipate the new (Fig. 2a). To
understand consumers' latent needs, we need to rely
more strongly on qualitative methods such as “Grounded
Marketing“, which touches on the tried and true approa-
ches of social research*). This method makes it possible
to investigate social phenomena within the context of an
exploration process of induction and deduction - building
and examining hypotheses - which is oriented (“groun-
ded“) in a permanent observation of the real or actual (Fig.
2b). We work closely with humanistic researchers, artists,
designers or fashion designers, who bring their insights
and power of imagination into this process.
*Barney G. Glaser; Anselm L. Strauss: The Discovery of
Grounded Theory.
Strategies for Qualitative Research (1967)
Evert Gummesson: Are current research approaches in
marketing leading us astray? Marketing Theory, Vol. 1,
No. 1, 27-48 (2001)
74 Textile Journal
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Relation between Market Research Grounded Marketing
76 Textile Journal
Grounded Marketing Methodology
Quality: Paths to a new prosperity
Customers are no longer “consumers”. Today, they work
as enlightened market participants and are no longer
impressed by something as simple as a communication of
superlatives. The many colorful image and experience
worlds have made them perhaps even more distrustful of
everything they perceive as “marketing.” Rather, they are
much more seeking intuitively understood reference
points, which are in harmony with their own value system
and their individual life themes. Because consumption,
and we would like to restate this here very clearly, is very
closely connected with consumers' entirely individual
expectations of quality of life and selfactualisation.
The best approach to bridging the gap between products
and consumers is by paying attention to the quality factor.
Our own research work in the consumer sector reveals
quality to be a very strong and indeed, convincing subject.
But one must take care not to reduce it to its rational and
scientific dimensions, but to include the emotional and
subjective aspects which we all relate to as consumers.
We were able to identify four relevant values sites (each
one of them comprehending three further life themes defi-
ning the relevant fields of action) that covered the range of
meaning attributed to quality as a topic, and which define
the “socio-cultural model of consumption” (Fig. 3).
Our model illustrates the entire bandwidth of consumer
motivations today. It makes it quite clear that purchase
decisions in our saturated markets depend less on rational
arguments about use and benefit, or emotional seduction
arts, than they depend on their significance for consu-
mers. Thus the “socio-cultural model of consumption” de-
scribes a new understanding of prosperity, which allows
the generation of considerable competitive advantages.
The major potential of this “softer side” of marketing was
also recently recognized by proponents of the suddenly
very fashionable “multi-sensual marketing and branding”,
although the “multi-sensualists” only rely on one of the
socio-cultural categories for support and don't take all of
the others into account. For consumers, a brand only
achieves a sustainable significance when it reflects in its
identity all four value sites.
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78 Textile Journal
Socio-cultural model of consumption
Quality
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79Textile Journal
Excellence: The new luxury
The Italian Slow Food movement provides the ideal-typical
example for working with this “softer side” of marketing.
The Slow Food movement understood very early how to
activate tradition, region and culture as added values for
food, thus defining Excellence as an entirely new quality
category. The term - Excellence- can be applied across
the entire consumer goods sector if one is thus able to
designate products and shopping locations to which con-
sumers feel a strong affinity or cultural relationship. The
strong identification potential of those products of excell-
lence represents a real added value for which consumers
are prepared to pay an extra charge.
Throughout our Western countries, Mr. and Ms. Everyman
are today looking for unique and original products. You
only have to observe their shopping behavior outside the
supermarkets or department stores to understand that
they have become “truffle pigs” of excellence. The “search
for exclusivity by the masses”, as Umberto Eco calls the
new phenomenon of Excellence, specifies a growing mar-
ket segment that unites tradition with the Zeitgeist. It arises
from the consumers' need for things that extend beyond
simply products, but that also represent goods, whose
value creation can be grasped and experienced in a mani-
fold way-from the knowledge about their production, to the
atmosphere of their points of sale. Excellence is thus in
some way able to remove the gap between production
and marketing and represents a counter-trend to the cultu-
ral globalization that is affecting the market of industrially-
produced mass products.
The significance of products and shopping locations of
Excellence allows consumers to express their capability to
enjoy life, their cultural understanding, as well as their indi-
vidual uniqueness. In this sense, Excellence defines and
relates to an entirely new concept of luxury - not as a
symbol of “status” but as a symbol of “being”. The “new
luxury” is an expression of a nascent historic value shift of
our post-industrial affluent societies and their undergoing
utopia of constant upward social mobility.
80 Textile Journal
Mass and class complement each other
As it happens, the segment of mass produced products
itself is in the midst of a fundamental state of upheaval.
Consumers are increasingly finding the classical quality
designations of low, middle, high and premium to be artifi-
cial categories of an increasingly similar standard quality.
Consumers can no longer relate the various advertising
messages and brand promises to any actual quality
distinctions that would justify price differences in their
eyes. As a result, they are increasingly picking what's
cheapest (Fig. 4).
81Textile Journal
Consumers shifting quality perception
Yet we can't simply regard this often discussed market
polarization between an “Excellence” segment and a
“Cheap” segment as contradictory - or opposite develop-
ment. “Class” and “mass” are rather beginning to support
and supplement each other. The market for Excellence is
thus a sensitive seismograph for the latent needs of peo-
ple. It is the actual trendsetter of consumption and func-
tions as a model for the market of standard industrial pro-
ducts. In return, the discount sector is making it possible
for a broader segment of the population to save money in
order to afford something “special” every now and then
without exceeding their household budget (Fig. 5).
The ongoing success of the discounters is impressive evi-
dence for the very realistic behavior of customers today.
They know that the discounters have an entire system in
place geared to supply what they need at the best price.
They do not expect discount products or discount stores
to tell the story of their tradition and they are happy, not
having to listen to any fairy tales either.
Class and mass complement each other
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83Textile Journal
Real Quality: The revolution of the authentic
Nevertheless, it would be wrong to try to equate market
segments with customer segments in saturated markets.
Today's consumers transverse all market segments and
put together their own personal product mix. By so doing,
however, they prefer discount and Excellence products
and are increasingly avoiding products and shopping loca-
tions of the mid-range segment, whose substantial quality
got jeopardized by the gimmick of immaterial benefits.
Both the discount and Excellence segments are able to
persuade more and more people because their market
presence reflects their quality positioning in a coherent
way. They beam forth what they are and make quality
“real”, which is to say, rational and emotionally understan-
dable. It is just this disarming authenticity of both seg-
ments that deliver their power to convince: In an increa-
singly complex world of products and goods, authenticity
has the power of giving orientation, reliability, as well as
significance. Authenticity can radiate the confidence of a
“memory of the future” which represents an incalculable
added value (Fig. 6).
The Concept of Real Quality
“Real quality” describes a value added strategy from which
can be derived more than simply entirely new approaches
to brand management, product range and price policy,
and innovation management. It also leads to ground-brea-
king forms of consumption scenarios and exciting busi-
ness expansions based on a symbiosis of discount and
Excellence (Fig. 7). And yet, “real quality” is more than a
strategy for saturated markets. After “value for money” and
“value for time”, “value for sense” defines a new consump-
tion culture that represents a silver lining for industry and
retailing, but also for consumers in our crisis-ridden societies.
84 Textile Journal
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The Stratergy of Real Quality
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87Textile Journal
Handicraft Knowledge Applied to
Archaeological Textiles
Lena Hammarlund
Orangerigatan 22
412 66 Gothenburg, Sweden
Introduction Professor Lise Bender Jørgensen
The Swedish School of Textiles, THS
Craftsmanship and know-how is an integral part of any textiles. This certainly
applies to archaeological textiles, and experimental work on spinning and wea-
ving is an important aspect of research done in this field. In this, two major pro-
blems have been recurrent. Firstly, how to assess the craftsmanship of extinct
technologies, like hand spindles and the variety of looms that preceded the
horizontal treadle loom. Secondly, how to describe craftsmanship, i.e. to transmit
so-called tacit knowledge into an academic format. Hand-weaver Lena
Hammarlund is engaged in finding ways towards solving both these problems,
by producing test weaves, trying out a range of yarns, weaves and other varia-
bles, and by creating concepts and models to describe what she is doing.
Hammarlund became interested in the study of ancient textiles during her
sojourn at the University College Borås, The Swedish School of Textiles, and did
her exam project on reconstructions of two Roman fabrics excavated at Mons
Claudianus in Egypt (Hammarlund 1994). This led to an attempt to define what
was termed the fourth dimension of the Mons Claudianus textiles (Hammarlund
1997, 1998), and to a series of related projects such as Textiles of Seafaring on
the reconstruction of wool sails and other textiles for Viking ships (Bender
Jørgensen & Damgaard Sørensen 1999; Cooke, Christiansen & Hammarlund
2002; Bender Jørgensen 2005; Cooke & Christiansen 2005). Hammarlund's
contribution to this was based on studies of medieval textiles from Trondheim
and Lödöse. This paper summarizes some of Hammarlund's main results.
Lena Hammarlund is educated in handweaving
at The Swedish School of Textiles, THS,
University Colleges of Borås. She has worked
around 10 years with different project in
archaeological and historical textiles.
Mons Claudianus
First a few words to introduce Mons Claudianus. A Roman
quarry in Egypt's Eastern Desert, Mons Claudianus is situ-
ated between the modern Egyptian towns of Hurghada
and Qena, approximately 50 km from the Red Sea and
120 km from the Nile. Excavations by an international
team of scholars 1987-93 revealed rich finds, including
textiles that are counted in tens of thousands (Bender
Jørgensen 1991 b, 2000, 2004 a, b; Peacock & Maxfield
1997; Maxfield & Peacock 2001). Textual evidence shows
that activities at the quarry can be dated mainly to the first
half of the 2nd century AD, informs us on daily life at the
site, and on the social and ethnic composition of the
workforce (Bingen et al. 1992, 1997; Bülow-Jacobsen
1996; Cuvigny 2000).
Studying Textile Craftsmanship
The hand-weaver's primary role has been to find answers
to specific questions, often concerning textile properties.
One of the main questions concerning the wool tabby tex-
tiles from Mons Claudianus was why fragments with the
same technical registration look so different from one anot-
her. To answer this, the textiles' surface texture has been
studied, in an attempt to investigate the parameters that
created different appearances (Hammarlund 1997).
Visual Groups and the Pentagon
A first impression from the wealth of Mons Claudianus tex-
tiles was that many of them could be sorted visually into
distinctive types. Some were thin and sheer, and very
lightweight, while others were thin but with more substan-
ce. Some were of medium thickness and others rather
coarse. When, however, examined according to the stan-
dard methodology of the textile archaeologist (cf. Walton &
Eastwood 1988), many of the textiles resulted in almost
identical descriptions. Differences clearly visible to the
naked eye were not discernible through the standard ana-
lysis of archaeological textiles. They contained a fourth
dimension that eluded the established recording system.
This fourth dimension is concealed within the textile, impar-
ted by the craftsperson or persons through their handicraft
knowledge and skills during all steps in the making of the
fabric, from raw material to the finished cloth. How can these
elusive aspects be described? To answer that question we
have to know more about how these textiles have been
made and how different processes affect a fabric. What fac-
tors from the construction processes, besides those used in
standard analyses, are important to record?
The first step in the investigation was to weave a series of
test webs to rule out the effects of simple technical varia-
tions, such as combinations of twist directions, and com-
binations of twist and different thread density. This work
was followed by a study of detailed photos of 50 frag-
ments from Mons Claudianus, where the aim was to find
words to describe what characterised the fabrics' textures
purely from a visual point of view.
Subjective Description
Following test webs and photographic analysis, fieldwork
examination of more than 100 woollen tabby fragments
took place. Tabby is the simplest weave and as such, it is,
so to speak, an uncomplicated cloth. In spite of this fact,
the tabby textiles contained a broad variation of fabrics.
In this part of the study, the textile archaeologist's analysis
was supplemented by that of the craftsman's. This resulted
in a two-part analysis, with a technical and a subjective
description. The technical analysis was based on standard
methods (Walton & Eastwood, 1988), supplemented by
yarn diameter, twist, and thread movement (i.e. sideways
movement of thread or movement caused by thread con-
traction; see below). The subjective description was based
on visual impression and assessment of the fabric. It inclu-
ded data such as:
• Fibre character: finer or coarser, pigmented or
non-pigmented
• An estimation of fabric thickness and density
• Fabric character: 'ordinary', 'extraordinary' or 'special'
in some way, with an explanation of what factors this
assessment is based on
• Time and skill invested in the work, e.g. spinning,
weaving, with an explanation of what factors this
assessment is based on
88 Textile Journal
89Textile Journal
• Surface texture: the visual characteristics of the
fabric's surface
• Feeling: a description of properties that may suggest
the fabric's use. The word 'feeling' is used on
archaeological textiles where the modern textile
industry would employ the term 'handle'.
It is important to extract as much information as possible
during primary recording, because it became apparent
then, that in earlier work with photographs and other two-
dimensional documentation, these secondary recording
methods did not satisfactorily convey aspects of the texti-
les that were necessary for subjective recording, as listed
above. However, the resulting subjective description from
primary recording is of great importance and help when
later interpreting technical data and analysing photographic
material.
Of the analysed fragments, 92 were selected for grouping
according to visual similarities. They all were made of
wool, probably fabrics for clothing, and at first glance they
looked to be woven in tabby. When analysed, it was dis-
covered that a few were woven in basket or half basket
weaves but their visual appearance was that of tabby.
Visual Description of Tabby Groups
The 92 fragments resulted in seven different visual grou-
pings, with their characteristics listed below. During exami-
nation of each group it was important to put into specific
words the visual characteristics common to the group.
Some fragments were easily assigned to a specific group;
other textiles were more difficult to ascribe to one group,
since their characteristics varied by degree, and could be
common to more than one group.
On the basis of the characteristics of each group it has
been possible to construct a model, describing the rela-
tionships among the visual groups.
In the model, tabby 'character' is placed in the centre.
The characteristics of the three groups at the top of the
model are that warp and/or weft yarns have some sort of
movement and that the warp is not so spaced and the
weft is not so densely packed as in the three groups at
the bottom of the model. Fabrics in the three groups at
the bottom are mainly characterised by warp and weft
yarns that have no movement, and thread systems that
appear straight; these fabrics are densely woven but with
a more open spaced warp and a tight, or very tightly
packed, weft.
These groupings, based on the visual appearance of the
textile, are the starting point in finding a key that will explain
why a textile displays its particular appearance. What is it
that determines that a fragment woven in tabby will corres-
pond to a specific group or category?
90 Textile Journal
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'crepe' tabby
'movable' tabby 'crow's-feet' tabby
tabby 'character'
'flat' tabby 'slightly ribbed' tabby
'ribbed' tabby
Relationships between visual tabby groups
tabby 'character'
Appears as a distinct tabby weave,
looking balanced, and with thread
systems that appear straight.
MC 0133
92 Textile Journal
1 cm
'movable' tabby
Has a curving or undulating movement
in the yarn in one or both thread
systems and this movement is seen
as two-dimensional. There is a noti-
ceable space between the threads.
MC 0150
94 Textile Journal
1 cm
96 Textile Journal
'crow's-feet' tabby
Is characterised by lines on the fabric
surface that resemble a bird's foot-
print. These lines can be created both
by the warp and weft yarns, forming a
faint twill or diamond pattern. The lines
occur due to movement in the yarn;
twist determines how clearly the lines
are visible. This phenomenon is seen
as a three-dimensional movement.
MC 0070
1 cm
98 Textile Journal
'crepe' tabby
Has a more or less bubbly surface,
with thread movement that is seen
as three-dimensional. Both open
weave and dense textiles can be
found in this group.
MC 0579
1 cm
'flat' tabby
Is seen as a fabric with a very smooth,
flat surface where the binding texture
is more or less invisible. They have
often a weft-faced appearance, and
seem to have straight thread systems.
The weft yarn is loosely spun which
allows it to 'spread out'. They have a
fine warp and weft, which makes
them very thin or thin fabrics. If coar-
ser, the textile no longer looks smooth
and flat because the yarns' contours
will dominate and these textiles
cannot be grouped as “flat tabby”.
MC 0002
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1 cm
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'slightly ribbed' tabby
Is a fabric with faint ribs in the warp
direction. It is weft-faced, with
straight thread systems. The group
includes thin as well as slightly coar-
ser fabrics. The weft yarn is usually,
but not always, loosely spun.
MC 0742
1 cm
104 Textile Journal
'ribbed' tabby
Has distinct ribs in the warp direction
and straight thread systems. The
warp is well spaced and the weft
very densely packed. The weft yarn
usually is finer than the warp and
often, but not always, loosely spun.
Only one in five textiles listed in this
category is tabby; most are woven in
half-basket or basket weave.
MC 0741
1 cm
106 Textile Journal
The Pentagon
An initial attempt to answer this question was to examine
the similarities of the textiles placed in the same category,
by using a combination of traditional analysis and the sub-
jective description. The result was not very informative:
only very general tendencies could be established. The
reasons for this can be many: too few textiles in the sam-
ple, imprecise measuring methods, or incomplete know-
ledge about fibre qualities and weaving methods, tools,
and finishing methods and how they affect the textile.
Instead, it was necessary to establish an interpretation
based on theoretical and practical knowledge of handi-
craft, as well as information from traditional analytical met-
hods and subjective description.
In hand weaving, one learns that a fabric's type or quality
is determined by yarn, thread count, and binding or
weave. When describing the textiles from Mons
Claudianus, this was not enough. Something more could
be seen in the fabrics than what could be explained by
those factors. During the project, test weaving was done
on different early loom types. The test weaves on these
looms showed differences in texture, in comparison with
test pieces woven on the horizontal treadle loom. Different
types of finishing methods also were tested and showed
very clearly how they affected the fabric. As a result, two
more factors were added: weaving, which encompasses
loom type, tools for weaving, and how the weaver works;
and various final fabric processes under the heading,
finishing.
The Pentagon
The pentagon model is a simple way to illustrate the handi-
craft factors that form the foundation of a fabric's appearan-
ce and properties. To understand the complexity and inter-
action of these factors, their definitions first are explained.
Yarn: a continuous strand, single or compound, made
from any fibre or filament by reeling, spinning, twisting, or
throwing (Burnham 1981). Yarn properties can be divided
into two groups:
a) Those that originate from the fibre itself, such as length,
fineness or fibre diameter, crimp, absorbency, and abra-
sion resistance (Boutrup 1996; Collier & Tortora 2001;
Hantverkets bok 1940).
b) Properties that originate from the spinning process,
such as twist, twist direction, how the fibres are orientated
in the yarn, and yarn diameter (Boutrup 1996; Collier &
Tortora 2001; Hantverkets bok 1940).
Binding or Weave: the system of interlacing threads of
warp and weft according to defined rules in order to pro-
duce all or parts of a textile (Burnham 1981). In the first
part of the Mons Claudianus project, the examined textiles
primarily were tabby, the simplest binding. Tabby is a basic
binding methods based on a unit of two warp threads and
two weft threads, in which each warp thread, alternately,
passes over one and under one weft thread (Burnham 1981).
Yarn
Finishing Binding
Weaving Thread count
107Textile Journal
Thread count: the number of threads in warp and weft
per unit of measure (Burnham 1981).
Weaving: the effect of the interplay between the loom,
the weaving tools, and how the weaver works. Looms in
use during the Roman period were most probably the
horizontal ground loom, the vertical two-beam loom, and
the warp-weighted loom (Barber 1991; Broudy 1979;
Geijer 1980). Different looms require different types of
secondary tools, and weaving is performed in different
ways. This can affect a textile's appearance, and at times,
may be discernible.
Finishing: finishing processes are performed on the web
when taken off the loom. Finishing can include wetting,
stretching, application of dye, fulling the fabric, or a combi-
nation of these processes. When dealing with archaeologi-
cal textiles it can be difficult to ascertain what is the prima-
ry, deliberate textile finish and what has occurred through
wear and tear, or as a result of deposition and degradation
(Collier & Tortora 2001; Gohl & Vilensky 1983; Marsh
1947; Hantverkets bok 1940).
Two other important variables may determine to which
visual group a textile will belong: variability in thread
spacing and thread movement. These variables are
each the result of the interplay of several factors within the
Pentagon and therefore, are not included in the five basic
factors of the model.
Variability in thread spacing: fabrics produced on
looms without a reed and batten can show a marked vari-
ability in the spacing of warp and weft threads, due to the
fact that they are not subjected to strict spacing and
parallelism obtained by such looms. Looms without a reed
allow warp threads some room for sideways movement,
depending on thread density (Cooke et al 2002). Variability
in spacing of the weft can depend on how densely the
weft is packed and how the beating method and choice of
beating tool (sword, comb, etc.) influences the thread
systems. Variability in spacing is primarily assigned to
weaving in the Pentagon model but fabric density, a com-
bination of yarn diameter, thread count, and binding, can
also affect it.
Movement in one or both thread systems is caused by a
combination of torsion, friction, and the fabric's density.
a) Torsion is caused by the fibres' resistance to being
twisted, and works counter to the spin direction. Its
strength primarily depends on degree of twist in the yarn
but also the fibre type and fibre diameter.
b) Friction relates to the resistance created where yarn
surfaces touch; it depends on yarn factors such as fibre
type, fibre preparation, and degree of twist.
c) The fabric's density determines to what extent torsion
and friction can act, and what type of surface expression
the fabric will show.
Movement can be perceived as either two or three-dimen-
sional in nature. Primarily it is assigned to yarn in the
Pentagon but fabric density can also affect it.
Applying the Pentagon: re-examining the
visual groups
To obtain a clearer image of how the textiles in the visual
groups were constructed, it was necessary to apply theo-
retical and practical knowledge of craftsmanship and skill.
For this purpose, the Pentagon model described above
was used along with the concepts of variability in thread
spacing and movement.
Each textile fragment was reassessed in light of the crafts-
man's knowledge of what happens in a fabric during its
construction. New details were added to the descriptions
of the seven visual groups.
• tabby 'character' (page 95) appears as a distinct
tabby weave, looking balanced, and with thread
systems that appear straight. The balanced look is due
to the thread-count in conjunction with yarn diameter.
The straight thread systems arise from a dense sett,
which does not leave sufficient space between threads
to allow movement. This may be the result of construc-
tion on the loom and the weaving, or that the fabric has
been through a finishing process that prevents move-
ment and thereby keeps the threads straight.
108 Textile Journal
• 'movable' tabby (page 97) has a curving or undulating
movement in the yarn in one or both thread systems
and this movement is seen as two-dimensional. There
is noticeable space between the threads. Twist in the
yarn, combined with sufficient spacing between
threads, allows for movement. Here, torsion has a
mutual relationship with thread count and/or yarn
diameter that may create this type of movement, but
hinders the development of 'crow's-feet' or 'crepe'
tabby. To allow movement to take place, there also
must be enough space between the threads. This space
can be due to a more open sett, but space also can
occur due to the variability in thread spacing caused by
weaving. It is unlikely that the textile has
been through a hard finishing process, since shrinking
would be likely to occur and impede this type of
movement.
• 'crow's-feet' tabby (page 99) is characterised by
lines on the fabric surface that resemble a bird's foot-
print. The lines are created by warp and/or weft yarns
forming a faint twill or diamond pattern. This phenome-
non is seen as a three-dimensional movement. Lines
occur when the threads are relatively well balanced
both in thread count and diameter. Some space bet-
ween the threads also is necessary, but not as much
as in 'movable' tabby. The lines are caused by a com-
bination of torsion in the yarn and the fact that spacing
and yarn diameter allow movement. Twist determines
how clearly the lines are visible. When a yarn attempts
to untwist, tension occurs and the yarn will form small,
local elevations on the fabric's surface. In 'crow's-feet'
tabby, these appear with regularity and form diagonal
lines. It is important to note that twist direction does not
influence this phenomenon. The fabric has not been
through a hard finishing process.
• 'crepe' tabby (page 101) has a more or less bubbly
surface with thread movement that is seen as three-
dimensional. Both open weave and dense textiles can
be found in this group. They combine hard to very hard
twisted yarns in at least one system with open spacing,
or very hard twisted yarns in one or both systems with
higher thread density. If thread count and/or yarn dia-
meter is balanced, the textiles differ from 'crow's-feet'
tabby in having a more dense sett and/or a higher yarn
torsion, which creates a bubbly appearance instead of
lines. If thread count is unbalanced, with dense warp
sett and more spaced weft, or vice versa, the small,
local elevations that in 'crow's-feet' tabby create lines,
become, in 'crepe' tabby, so steep or flattened that the
eye does not perceive them as diagonal lines at all.
Instead, they merge with the warp or weft. Some
'crepe' tabbies have a torsion that is so high that the
bubbles appear to cover the surface totally. A crepe
look can appear in all twist combinations, s/s s/z, z/z,
z/s, but they give various textures to the fabric. The
denser fabrics in this group have probably been
through a hard finishing process.
• 'flat' tabby (page 103) is seen as a fabric with a very
smooth, flat surface, where the binding texture is more
or less invisible. They often have a weft-faced appea-
rance, and have straight thread systems. The weft yarn
is loosely spun which allows it to 'spread out'. They
have a fine warp and weft, which gives very thin or thin
fabrics. If coarser, the textile no longer looks smooth
and flat because the yarns' contours will dominate and
these textiles cannot be grouped as 'flat' tabby. The
more or less weft-faced sett, in combination with the
fine yarns in both systems and the loosely spun weft,
create this very smooth, flat surface. The relatively high
thread density, in combination with the loosely spun
weft yarn that tends to 'spread', leaves no room for
movement. This also causes the thread systems to
appear straight, even if the warp is not exactly evenly
spaced. The fabric probably has been through a rela-
tively hard finishing process.
• 'slightly ribbed' (page 105) tabby is a fabric with faint
ribs in the warp direction. It is weft-faced, with straight
thread systems. The group includes thin as well as
slightly coarser fabrics. The weft yarn is usually, but not
always, loosely spun. The faint ribs are due to a slightly
coarser or a more spaced warp than in 'flat' tabby and
they have such a dense weft that no movement is
allowed. The thread systems appear straight due to
weft density and possibly also because the fabric has
been through a hard finishing process, which may
straighten irregularities.
• 'ribbed' tabby (page 107) has distinct ribs in the warp
direction and straight thread systems. The warp is well
spaced and the weft is very densely packed. The weft
yarn usually is finer than the warp and often, but not
always, loosely spun. The distinct ribs are created by a
wellspaced warp that is clearly coarser than the weft,
together with very high weft density. The high density
prevents movement. As in 'slightly ribbed' tabby the
thread systems appear straight due to the weft density
and probably also a finishing process that may
straighten irregularities. It is most likely that these
fabrics have been through a hard finishing process.
Using traditional technical analyses, the Mons Claudianus
tabby textiles appeared to be a relatively homogenous
group. Visually, however, there were clear differences, and
through a more comprehensive technical analysis, together
with subjective analysis and using handicraft knowledge, it
was possible to understand and explain these differences.
Visual Groups: Twill and Damask
The approach of visual grouping was also applied to the
woolen twills and damasks from Mons Claudianus. At an
early stage the damask textiles were also included, as
they proved hard to separate from twills by the eye.
Five easily assigned visual groups were established. They
include most of the analysed textiles: 1; thinner, plain twills,
with a flat texture, connected, in some way, to 2; thinner
twills and damasks with a slightly barred texture and to 3;
thinner twills and damasks with a block or diamond patter-
ned texture.
Also 4; coarser, plain twills, with a balanced texture con-
nected to 5; with a balanced texture somewhat a little
thinner than group 4, with a block or diamond patterned
texture, including a few textiles in broken-reverse twill.
Further, these groups can be divided into two different
categories, A: the first three groups being thinner and
more or less weft-faced and B: the last two groups, being
often coarser and balanced.
The following model illustrates the relationship
between the established groups.
A: 1 2 3
B: 4 5
Model of visual twills and damask groups
Plain twill –
'Flat' texture
Patterned twill
and damask –
Barred texture
Patterned twill
and damask –
Block/diamond
texture
Plain twill –
Balanced texture
Patterned twill –
Balanced texture
109Textile Journal
110 Textile Journal
Description and characterisation
of the visual groups
Plain, 'flat' twill
Contains thinner twills, so tightly woven
that it is difficult to determine if the
binding is 2/1 or 2/2 twill. They give
a dense, stable expression without
being stiff. Many are brown. The
group shows affinity with the 'flat'
tabby textiles. As in the 'flat' tabby
group the weft yarn is loosely spun
which allows it to 'spread out', and
the more or less weft-faced sett, in
combination with fine yarns in both
systems and the loosely spun weft,
create its smooth, flat surface. The
high weft density, in combination with
the loosely spun weft yarn, leaves little
room for movement and causes the
thread systems to appear straight, even
if the warp is not exactly evenly spaced.
The fabric probably has been through a
relatively hard finishing process.
MC 1139: 2/1 twill
MC 1217: 2/2 twill
1 cm
1 cm
Barred patterned twill and damask
This group consists of barred
damasks and a few broken-reverse
twills. The fabrics are classified as
thinner and give an expression of
being densely woven, but they are
not as dense as some of the 'flat'
twills. Most of the textiles are dyed,
mainly blue. As the 'flat' twills they
give a stable expression without being
stiff and have a smooth surface. Both
the damask and the broken-reverse
binding give the textiles a striped or
barred texture in weft-direction, and
this together with similarities in thick-
ness, density and colour places the
textiles in the same visual group.
MC 1098: broken reverse twill
MC 0745: barred damask
1 cm
1 cm
112 Textile Journal
Block patterned twill and damask
This group also consists of damasks
and a few diamond twills. The bindings
give the textiles a block or sometimes
a diamond pattern. These, too, are
classified as thinner and with an
expression of being dense, but they
are in general not as dense as the
two groups described
above. They also give a more durable
or pliable feeling with a more woolly
surface texture than the two previous
groups. This may probably be due to
that fact that the fabrics are not so
densely woven. The fabrics are
generally dyed green or red. The
both bindings give the textiles
common pattern and this together
with similarities in thickness, density
and colour places the textiles in the
same visual group (cf. Roman
damasks see Ciszuk 2002).
MC 1088: diamond twill
MC 1097: block damask
1 cm
1 cm
Plain, balanced twill
This group contains both 2/1 twills
and 2/2 twills. Fabrics of this group
appear distinctly different from the
above types and also from the majo-
rity of tabbies. This is due to the well-
balanced appearance in combination
with the fact that it is, in most cases,
not possible to distinguish between
warp and weft yarns and that the tex-
tiles are coarse. The balanced look is
due to the threadcount in conjunction
with yarn diameter and this gives the
textiles a distinct twill character. Dyed
textiles are not so common.
MC 0531: 2/1 twill
MC 1132: 2/2 twill1 cm
1 cm
114 Textile Journal
Patterned, balanced twill
In this group the majority of the textiles
are diamond twills. Only a few are
woven in broken-reverse twill, and
some of them are so small that they
may have been diamond twills. The
textiles are thinner than the group
above but give the same impression
of being well balanced. It is striking
that the pattern unit is of so similar
size. Many of the textiles are dyed.
This group is closely related to the
balanced plain twills, the visual diffe-
rence lays only in thickness and pattern.
MC 1378: broken reverse twill
MC 1068: diamond twill
Normally, textiles are grouped accor-
ding to technical aspects such as
binding and twist- directions. The
visual groups outlined above do not
fit into this structuring principle.
Instead, aspects such as expression
of density, balance, and patterning
are decisive and these capture the
fabrics' character.
1 cm
1 cm
115Textile Journal
Fabric Thickness and Density: a method of
grouping textiles
One of the aims of the Textiles of Seafaring project was to
identify textiles that were suitable for use as sails, or gar-
ments appropriate for use at sea among medieval textiles
from Trondheim and Lödöse. Properties such as warmth,
wind- and water resistance, and strength were investiga-
ted, and related to relevant parameters in the fabrics'
structure. It became clear that fabric thickness and density
were important factors in understanding and comparing
textile texture and structure, for sailcloth as well as fabrics
for garments. This, combined with knowledge built up
during work with Mons Claudianus textiles, resulted in an
attempt to capture and classify fabric thickness and density.
Fabric Thickness and Density
The textile industry uses weight per square unit to classify
textiles into different qualities, such as light or heavy
weight fabrics. Thickness also can be measured by com-
pressing the fabric with a specific pressure between two
solid, parallel plates. The interval between the plates gives
the fabric's thickness. Neither method is easily applied to
archaeological textiles.
To describe fabric density the textile industry uses cover
factor (Russell 1965). The definition of cover factor is the
ratio of the area covered by the yarn, to the total area
covered by the fabric (Wynne 1997; Collier & Tortora 2001).
The cover factor is calculated by the following formula:
WA + WE - (WA x WE)
where WA and WE stand for thread count per cm x yarn
diameter (cm) in the warp and weft respectively. This for-
mula produces a number which represents the fabric's
density; the higher the number, the more dense is the
fabric. The theoretical maximum density is 1.0 and there-
fore, a measure of 0.9 represents a dense fabric (Kärrman
1996; Russell 1965). This calculating formula can be used
on archaeological textiles.
Fabric Thickness in Archaeological Textiles
To find a way to describe and quantify thickness in archa-
eological textiles was complicated, since methods used
by the textile industry were not applicable. A method used
by archaeologists to describe or group textiles is to use
the fabric's thread count, or the number of threads per cm
in warp and weft. In this method a low thread count corre-
sponds to a coarse quality textile and conversely, a high
thread count reflects a fine quality fabric (Tidow 1982;
Bender Jørgensen 1991 a). However, thread count is a
quantitative measure and thus it can be misleading to use
it as a qualitative description such as coarse, medium or
fine, without taking into account the diameter of the threads.
Instead, a system based on comparisons of visually per-
ceived thickness, noted when analysing textiles was deve-
loped. The Lödöse textiles offered an opportunity to apply
a very careful comparison. The room where the analysis
took place made it possible to display all of the textiles at
once, thereby allowing to sort them into groups by thick-
ness. The visually perceived fabrics' densities and how
that influenced perception of thickness was also noted.
Research on the Trondheim and Lödöse material resulted
in six different thickness groups based on visual observa-
tions and this gave a good basis for further work.
The next step in finding a way to classify a fabric's thick-
ness was to develop a method based on quantifiable
measures. This began with the Lödöse textiles because
they comprised the collection that had received the most
systematic examination. Subsequently, the textiles from
Trondheim and Mons Claudianus were included, allowing
a broader approach.
Theoretical studies in weaving, and experiences from
practical work with both reconstruction and test weaving,
show that yarn diameter is an important factor in a fabric's
thickness. Therefore, it was decided to test if it was
appropriate to use yarn diameter in warp and weft as a
measure of a textile's thickness.
116 Textile Journal
Yarn Diameter and Visually Perceived Thickness
In Diagram 1 the hypothesis - that yarn diameter in warp
and weft is a measure of approximate thickness was
tested. Each textile from the six visually perceived thick-
ness groups from Lödöse has been added to the diagram
according to its warp and weft yarn diameters.
Diagram 1 shows a correlation between yarn diameter and
visual thickness group. There is some overlapping,
although in these case notes from the original analysis
were carefully reviewed. In some cases it showed that the
textile was difficult to assess. For example, a medium-
coarse textile with the same yarn diameter as a medium
textile had a notation of 'medium-coarse towards medium'.
For other textiles it was clear that the fabric's density influ-
enced the visual perception. For example, a more open
weave textile was perceived as thinner than a more den-
sely woven textile with the same yarn diameter.
Diagram 1: Yarn Diameter in Relation to Perceived Textile
Thickness, Lödöse Textiles. (Number = 56. One symbol
in the diagram may represent more than one textile.)
As a comparison, Diagram 2 shows the same textiles
using thread count as a measure of fabric thickness. This
shows a weak correlation between thread count and visual
thickness group and here the overlapping is much greater.
Diagram 2: Thread Count in Warp and Weft in Relation to
Perceived Textile Thickness, Lödöse Textiles. (Number =
56. One symbol in the diagram may represent more than
one textile.)
The diagrams made it clear that it was feasible to continue
with yarn diameter as a parameter to describe thickness,
and this was tested on the textiles from Trondheim and
Mons Claudianus in the same way. The textiles from
these two collections also made it apparent that the fabric's
density affected how thickness was perceived visually.
When applying the method to textiles from Mons Claudianus,
it became clear that an additional category of 'very thin' was
required, because that material contained many thinner tex-
tiles than those from the Lödöse and Trondheim collections.
Since fabric density clearly affected the textile's thickness, it
was decided to include density in the work with thickness
classifications. Four groups based on the cover factor
were constructed:
Density Group Cover Factor
open: ≤ 0.74
medium dense: 0.75 - 0.94
dense: 0.95 - 1.09
very dense: 1.10 ≥
117Textile Journal
These divisions have been determined by assessments
made on both archaeological and modern hand- and
machine-woven fabrics. Some fabrics have a cover factor
higher than the theoretical maximum of 1.0. This can
occur because the formula is based on the assumption
that yarns are compact cylinders in the shape of a circle,
but in reality, a yarn may be more or less elliptical. A hard
spun yarn is more compact and circular relative to a loo-
sely spun yarn. As a result, the actual cover factor of a
fabric may not correspond to a theoretical value.
Classification Categories
The resulting system is comprised of both thickness and
density. It is important to note that only woollen textiles
have been analysed and that the classification system has
not been tested on textiles made of other fibres.
There are seven thickness groups, ranging from very thin
to very coarse. They are divided by a range equal to the
warp yarn diameter (wa yd) plus weft yarn diameter (we yd).
Thickness Group x where x = wa yd + we yd (mm)
very thin: ≤ 0.6
thin: 0.6 - 0.9
thin-medium: 0.9 - 1.2
medium: 1.2 - 1.6
medium-coarse: 1.6 - 2.0
coarse: 2.0 - 2.4
very coarse: 2.4 ≥
If a textile's measurement is on the borderline between
two groups then the fabric's density will be taken into
account to determine which group it belongs to. If the tex-
tile is denser and has a cover factor of 0.90 or higher, it
will be placed in the higher, or coarser, group. Conversely,
if the textile is less dense and has a cover factor of less
than 0.90, it will be placed in the lower, or thinner, group.
For example, a textile with a warp yarn diameter of 0.3mm
and a weft yarn diameter of 0.3mm, with a cover factor of
0.94, will be classified as thin:
wa yd 0.3mm + we yd 0.3mm = 0.6mm (very thin or thin
categories), but the high cover factor of 0.94 places this
fabric in the thin category
Taken together, the thickness and density groupings resul-
ted in 28 different categories, from very thin, open fabrics
(group 1a) to very coarse, very dense fabrics (group 7d).
Categories very thin thin- medium medium- coarse very
thin medium coarse coarse
open 1a 2a 3a 4a 5a 6a 7a
medium 1b 2b 3b 4b 5b 6b 7b
dense
dense 1c 2c 3c 4c 5c 6c 7c
very dense 1d 2d 3d 4d 5d 6d 7d
A weakness in the grouping system is that it does not take
into account the effect of different weaves on fabric thick-
ness and density. A fabric woven in half-basket, basket, or
twill weave will be slightly thicker than a tabby woven
fabric. As a result, this method will be most reliable when
textiles of the same weave are compared.
Textiles that have been heavily felted cannot be grouped
using this method. Such textiles could be treated as a
separate group and given only visual descriptions.
This method can be seen as a tool for describing and
interpreting large finds of textiles where the similarities, in
terms of technical description, are great, but where diffe-
rences in texture and properties are visually apparent. In
the Mons Claudianus material a majority of the textiles
share the same technical features (tabby with twist direc-
tion s/s). In Lödöse, to give another example, common
technical features are 2/1 twill, z/s. Here we need a more
suitable tool to distinguish between the textiles, and the
thickness and density grouping system can provide this.
118 Textile Journal
Conclusion
Classifying textiles into visual groups allows a more com-
plex description of each fabric's appearance and enables
an examination according to a range of parameters that
differ from those of traditional textile analysis. Handicraft
knowledge can supply an important set of data that is not
possible using technical analysis alone. The Pentagon
model illustrates this, and can be used to understand a
textile's complexity, how the different factors are related,
and how a textile is the sum of the phases of its construc-
tion. Traditional methods, coupled with subjective analysis
and handicraft knowledge, provide a holistic approach to
understanding the textile, and insights into the skill and
knowledge applied by early craftspeople.
The proposed classification of thickness and density
makes it possible to describe and interpret textiles with
similar technical descriptions but apparent differences in
texture and properties. It also opens possibilities for cate-
gorising properties that are reflected by a fabric's thick-
ness and density, and thus for further interpretation and
fields of application.
This way, handicraft knowledge provides a useful tool
towards the description and interpretation of archaeologi-
cal and historical textiles.
Acknowledgements
A grateful acknowledgement to the Swedish Research
Council for the Humanities and Social Sciences (HSFR),
the Joint Committee of the Research Councils for the
Humanities (NOS-H) and the European Union through its
Raphael programme for their generous support.
Special thanks are due to Carol Christiansen, who put in a
major and essential job in editing my text into English; and
to W. D. Cooke for supporting my work on a classification
of thickness and density. Finally I owe a debt of gratitude
to all members of the Mons Claudianus Textile Project for
their support and participation as discussion partners.
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