the symbol-system of

THE SYMBOL-SYSTEM OF

SHINGON BUDDHISM (I)

by

Shozui Makoto Toganoo

INTRODUCTION

Shingon Buddhism, founded in the ninth century A. D. by Kukai

(774-835), posthumously known as Kobo Daishi, has been one of the most

influential Buddhist denominations in Japan. Recent census figures show(1)

eleven million adherents and some twelve thousand temples.

The theory and practice of shingon Buddhism are generally based

on tWO Buddhist scriptures that are commonly called the Mahwai-rocana-(2) (3)

sutra and the Vajrasekhara-sutra. These two Buddhist scriptures, not-

(1) These census figures are based on the investigation by the Government of

Japan. The exact numbers of temples, priests, a:nd adherents in comparison with

other Buddhist denomations are:

(temples) (priests) (adherents)

Jodo line 30,925 44, 606 19, 053, 798

Nichiren line 6, 503 23,365 16, 356, 685

Shingon Sect 12,355 24,358 11,436,822

Zen line 2103 2%452 8,910,129

See, Asahi Nenlcan, or Asahi Year-book (Tokyo: Asahi Shimbun Sha, 1969), P. 555.

(2) The full title is the Mahd-vairocandbhisambodhi-vikacrvitddhisthdna-vaipulya-

sfitrendra-raja-ndrna-dharma-parydya. This sutra was translated into Chinese by

Subhakara-simha (637-735) in 724-725 A. D. It is assumed by Japanese scholars

that this sutra was compiled in the early seventh century in the western part of

India. It consists of seven volumes and thirty-six chapters, of which the first six

volumes are the text and the seventh gives concrete instructions for worship. It is

collected in the Taisho Jripitaka Vol. 18, No. 848. In India and Tibet, this sutra is

classified into the group of Carya-tantra, in which both external ritualistic practices

and internal yoga practices are regarded equally in importance.

(3) The full title is the Sarva-tathagata-tattva-sa hgraham ndma Mahdydna-sutra

THE SYMBOL-SYSTEM OF SHINGON BUDDHISM (I)

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withstanding that they are called sutras in the Sanskrt version, are firmly

classified as tantras (Tibetan. rqyud) by the Tibetans because these sutras(4)

have distinctively tantric feautres.

The Buddhism based on these two tantric scriptures is generally

called Mantra-ydna, which, according to Shashibusan Dasgupta, "seems to

be the introductory stage of Tdntric Buddhism, from which all other

offshoots, like Vajra-ydna, Kdlacakra-ydna, Sahaja-ydna, etc., arose in(5)

later times."

This Mantra-yana was introduced to Japan by way of China, and

through the genius of Kukai, it was systematically organized as the

"secret" Buddhism in contrast to the other forms of Buddhism existing

during the Nara Period (710-784 A. D.) of Japan, and was termed "Shingon

Mikkyo (Shingon, the 'secret' doctrine)."

Shingon Buddhism thus historically formulated has three distinctive(6)

features, i. e., buddhistic, tantric, and "Sino-Nipponie." All Japanese

(The Mahayana sutra called "Symposium of Truth of all the tathagatas). This sutra

is usually called the Tattva-sarhgraha by European and Indian scholars; however, in

Japan, it is commonly called the Kongo-cho-gyo (the Vajra-sekhara-sutra) (Chinese. Chin-

kang-ting-thing) or the "First Meeting of Kongo-cho-gyo. In this paper, we shall call

it the Va jrasekhara-sutra. This sutra was translated into Chinese by Amoghavajra

(705-774 A. D.), and collected in the Taisho Tripitaka vol. 18, No. 865. It is assumed

by Japanese scholars that this sutra was compiled in the latter half of the seventh

century A. D., in South India. In India and Tibet, it is classified in the group of

Yoga-tantra, in which the internal yoga practices are more essential than the externalritualistic practices.

(4) Among the various definitions or interpretations of tantra and tantric made

by European and Indian scholars, that of Snellgrove is thought adequate and will be

a good guide to our coming inquiry. On tantra and sutra, see, D. L. Snelllgrove,

Buddhist Himndlaya (Oxford: Bruno Cassirer, 1957), p. 55. On tantric, see ibid., p. 51.

n. a.

(5) Shashibusan Dasgupta, Obscure Religious Cults as Background of BengaliLiterature (Calcutta: Calcutta University press, 1946), p. 17.

(6) The term is the adjectival form of "Sino-Nippon" meaning "Chinese-Japan:

By the usage of the term "Sino-Nipponic" we emphasize some modification made in

China and Japan.

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Buddhist denominations have buddhistic and "Sill o-INTipponic" features, but

the tanti-ic feature is peculiar to Shingon Buddhism.

The idiosyncrasy of Shingon Buddhism as a form of Japanese

Buddhism is mainly due to this distinctive tantric feature, and on this

account, Shingon Buddhism, being regarded as heretical or as having a

superstitious nature, has been treated like a stepchild by Buddhist scholars

other than those of Singon Buddhism. In other words, Shingon Buddhism

has been interpreted or validated by the "norm" of what Buddha's teaching

ought to be or ought not be.

The study of Shinggon Mikkyo in Japan has a long history of over one

thousand years; however a large percentage of the studies were restricted

to the exegetics of the writings of Kukai; and they were, more or less,

self-defense against the criticism of other Buddhist scholars.

Within the last thirty years, the philological studies based on Sanskrt

and Tibetan sources have rendered great service to the understanding of

Shingon ilfikkyo. But now, unfortunately, there is a tendency toward

specialization. It may safely be said that the main concern of contemporary

Shingon scholars is pure philological. research, and that it is doubtful

whether or not they have oriented themselves to the understanding of

Shingon Mikkyo.

We, the students of religion, being as objective and fair-minded as

possible, should orient ourselves to the genuine understanding of Shingon

Buddhism as a religion, because the purely philological study of religion

without pursuing a genuine under standing of it is nothing but a pure art

or an empty fantasy, and because Shingon Buddhism is unquestionably a

religion which is more than one of the forms of Japanese Buddhism;

it is also a "Sino-Nipponic" and buddho-tantric religion.

To understand this religion adequately, we shall pursue its several

particular symbols or symbol-systems, because, as Dr. Hutchison says,

... religious experience demands and receives symbolic

THE SYMBOL-SYSTEM OF SHINGON BUDDHISM (H)

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expression for itself. In any specific situation these symbols

are not symbols in general, but certain altogether concrete,

particular symbols, around whichh gathers a community of(7)

people who express theirr ultimate concern through them.

Shingon Buddhism has several particular symbols or symbol-systems.

The symbols in which Shingon Buddhism finds expression are not

symbols-in-general, not just any symbols. Rather, they are altogether

specific or particular symbols. Truly the particularity of the symbol-

system of Shingon Buddhism is an excellent way of pointing to the

particularity of Shingon Buddhism.

In the first place, we shall take "Shingon" of Shingon Mikyo, and

inquire into the formation of the particular symbol Shingon in the history

of India and in East Asia.

In the second place, we shall choose several other particular symbols,

such as "Mudrd," "Samaya," "Sam-mitsu," "Roku-dai," and "Mandala,"

and examine the structure of these symbol-systems, then elucidate the

symbol-system of Shingon Buddhism as a whole.

We are convinced that the study of the symbol-systems of Shingon

Buddhism will lead the way to understanding Shingon Buddhism as a whole.

PART I

HISTORICAL FORMATION OF THE

PARTICULAR SYMBOL "SHINGON"

CHAPTER I. IN INDIA

(1)1. General Remarks on "Shingon and sjzingons"

(7) John A. Hutchison, Paths of Faith, (New York: McGraw-Hill. Book Co.,

1969), P. 16.

(1) There is no apparent differencation of the term Shingon when we say

"Sliingon of Amitabha" and "Shingon Jlilclcgo.'' However, the former signifies a

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Shingon which literally means "true word" is, as its use as name

of the Shingon Sect reflects, one of the most important symbols in the

Sect. It is generally agreed that the term "Shingon Sect" is an abbreviation

of "mantra-dharani sect" and Shingon (and shingons) corresponds to Mantra(2)

(and mantras). The term mantra is translated in Chinese Buddhist scriptures

as then-yen (in Japanese shingon); however, it would be too hasty to

conclude from this that Shingon and shingons can be identified with

Mantra and mantras.

In the history of Buddhism, shingon has been called different

names such as vidya, paritra (Pali. paritta) and dharani, and also "Shomyo-

nembutsu" (invocation of the name of Amida) in the Jodo Sects, and

"Odai -moku" (utterance of the sacred title of the Hoke-kyo) in the

Nichiren Sect are related to shingon in its broad sense. Furthermore,

it is an essential symbol called Mandala in Sanskrt by Kukai, the

founder of Shingon Buddhism. In other words, shingon contains the

mantras (holy or mgic spell) of Brahmanism and Hinduism as well as the

Buddhistic magico-religious formulas adapted in China and Japan. In

contrast with the development from mantra to Mantra which had been

done in India concurrent with the syncretic process from Vedic mantra

to Tantric mantra, the development from mantra to Shingon has been

formulated in the acculturation process of Buddhism from India to

Japan by way of China.

countable and concrete shingon and the latter an uncountable and abstract Shingon

which is the essential and particular symbol of Shingon Buddhism. Therefore, we

need a preliminary agreement: i) to use an initial capital letter on some words other

than proper nouns, ii) by doing so, distinguish the words with an initial capital

letter from the words without it, and iii) to signify that the former is a word for

a religious symbol and the latter is its subordinate symbol. This agreement will

apply correspondingly to the following cases: Mantra and mantras, Mandala and

mandalas, Samaya and samayas, and so forth.

(2) E. g., cf. Minoru Kiyota, "Shingon Mikkyo Mandala," History of Religions,

(Chicago: The University of Chicago Press) vol. 8 no. 1 (August 1968) p. 31.


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The long and the short of it is that shingon called differently in

Buddhism becomes a core and particular symbol as Shingon on the one

hand, and on the other shingons remain as they are and become symbols

as an approach (updya) towards Shingon. This historical process from

Shingon to Shingon is an aspect of the religious formation of Shingon

Buddhism, and the intention of Part I is this religo-historical formation

of Shingon.

2. Mantra of Pre-Buddhism

The appearance of mantras which were translated chou (incantations),

shen-chou (divine spell), chin-yen (true words) in Chinese tri-pitaka and

gSan-snags (secret spell) in Tibetan tri-pitaka can be traced back to the(3)

Vedic Period, which began with the Age of the mantras. The mantras in

the four Vedas have their own distinctive features: Roughly speaking,

the mantras of the Rg-veda are properly called hymns, or verses of

hymns, those of the Sama-veda songs, those of Yajur-veda prayers, and

those of the Atharva-veda magical formulas. The R g-veda contains about

a thousand hymns and about thirty of them are the magico-religious hymns

from which people expect worldly benefits, such as the cure of disease,

dislodgement of enemy, removal of danger, benefits of rain and for(4)

victory. The Rg-veda also mentions the existence of spells among the

aboriginal Indians in the invocation by Vasistha, who is considered to

(5)

be the versifier of the seventh portion of the R g-veda. In the Atharva-

veda, dating by about the sixth century B. C. the magico-religious spells

based on aboriginal belief increased markedly and

... the mantras, ceasing to be prayers couched in intelligible

(3) Cf. K. W. Morgan (ed.) The Religion of the Hindus (New York: The Ronald

Press Co., 1953), pp. 28-30.

(4) Cf. Yukei Matsunaga, Mikkyo no Rekishi, or The History of Esoteric Buddhism

(Kyoto: Heirakuji Shoten, 1969), p. 17.

(5) Cf. L. A. Waddell, "The Dharani Cult in Buddhism, its Origin, Deified

Literaure and Images," Ostasiatische Zeitschri f t (1912) p. 161.

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language, became incantations of cabalistic stereo-typed(6)

formulas.

This tendency continued and the usage of mantras multiplied in the next

Period. of Sutra (Aphorisms). The mantras of the twelve devas which

occupy quite important positions in Shingon Buddhiism. were found here(7)

and there in the Grhya-sutra (the Domestic Aphorisms). Many domestic

rites and ceremonies such as birth-day, naming, grown, initiation, marriage,(8)

etc. were performed with certain mnantras.

On the other hand, the idea of mantra, especially of bija-mantra,(9)

developed allegorically, symbolically, and philosophically. In the

Aranyakas, or "Forest Books,"

... even arbitrary alphabets Cof mantraj were taken up and

it was believed that the meditation of these as the highest(10)

and the greatest was productive of great beneficial results.

In the Chandogya Upanisad dating from the sixth to the(11)

fifth century B. C.

The essence of the Samaveda in the Udgita (which is OM)

That Udgita is the best of all essence, the highest,(12)

Deserving the highest place, the eighth.

(6) Ibid., p. 162.

(7) The twelve devas are: Brahma, earth,znoon, sun, Indra, fire, Yama, raksas,

water, wind, Vai sramana (wealth), and Mahesvara (Siva). Cf. Max F. Miiller, (ed.)

The Sacred Books of the East, XXIX, (Oxford University Press, Impression of 1927),

p. 159 ff.

(8) Cf. Shown Toganoo, Afandara no Kenlvyu,or The Study of Mandala (Kyoto:

Naigai Shuppan-sha, 1958), pp. 436-437.

(9) Cf. Hakuji Ui, Indo Tetsugalru-shi, or The History of Indian Philosophies

(Tokyo: Iwanami, 1941), p. 10.

(10) Surendranath Dasgupta, A 11istory of Indian Philosophy (Cambridge: UniversityPress, 1963), vol. 1, p. 35.

(11) Cf. ibid., p. 39 n. 1. also cf. L. Renou (ed.) Ifi ii d uis m (New York: George

Braziller,lnc.1961), p. 21.

(12) L. A. Govinda, Foititdattons of Tibetan Mysticism (New York: E.P.Dutton &

Co.) Inc., 1960), p. 21.


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In the Maitrayana Upanisad which belongs to the latter Upanisad:

... OM is compared to an arrow with manas (thought) as its

point, which. is laid upon the bow of the human. body, andwhich, after penetrating the darkness of ignorance, reaches

(13)

the light of the Supreme State.

(14)

In the Mdndukya Upanisad dating between 300 B. C. and 200 B. C., Om is

explained in this manner: Om is the whole of this visible universe. This

universe is Brahman and Brahman is Atman, the Self. The Self has four

feet (pada): the first is Vaisvanara, "The Common-to-all-men," whose

field is the waking state (jagrat), and whose sound is A. The second is

Taijasa, "The Shining One," whose field is the dream state (svapna), and

whose sound is U. The third is Pra jl a, "The Knower, " whose field is deep

sleep (susupti), and whose sound is Al. The fourth (turiya) is Silence(15)

(amatra). This fourth state resembles the state of unqualified emptiness

(sunyata) in Buddhism and therefore, Gaudapada (ca. 600-700 B. C.) made

the IV-karika, which is considered to be the formulation of the

(16)

theory of Yajnavalkya based, on Buddhist theory.

3. Mantra of the Early Buddhism

The recitation of mantras performed for mundane purposes was

(17)

strictly prohibited by the Buddha Gotama (568-483 B. C.) for his followers.

According to the Buddha, it is quite reasonable for the public to pursue

worldly benefits, but not for his followers, because the primary purpose(18)

of the people who entered Sah.gha should be a supra-mundane one. The

(13) Ibid., p. 22.

(14) Cf. Dasgu.pta, op. cit., p.39 n. 1 and Ui, op. cit., p. 148.

15 Cf. HIeinrich Zimmer, Philosophies of India ed. Joseph Campbell (New York:

Meridian Book, 1958), pp. 372-377, also cf. Govinda, op. cit., pp. 23-24 and Ui, op.

cit., pp. 148-152.

16 Cf. Ui, op. cit., p. 521, pp. 524-532.

17 Or (558-478) or (566-486)

18 Cf. Madhyamagama, vol. 47 and Taisho., vol. 1. p. 724a.

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statements of the prohibition are found everywhere in earlier Buddhist

canons. The practice of mantra was regarded with contempt as a tiracchdna

vijja (literally meaning the art or practice of animals) and which(19)

constituted a minor offense such as pdcittika, dukkata. The expansion of

Sangha, however, gradually brought about permission for some mantras

for the purpose of protection, such as the mantras for tooth-aches, for(20)

stomach aches, and against snake bite. Because these mantras were not

prohibited by the Buddha, soon they were practiced extensively among

the followers. What is called paritta in the Cullavagga, Anguttara Nikaya(21)

or in KhadavattaJdtaka, is this kind of spell. Parittd (Skt. paritra) is

the functional name of mantra.

In the Questions o f King Milinda (Milinda-panha), King Milinda(22)

and Nagasena held a dialogue on the six parittds: Ratna-sutta (spell for

good spirits on earth and heaven), Khandha-parittd (spell against snake),

Mora-parittd (spell of the King Peacock), Dhajagga-parittd (spell for

removing fear by the power of Indra), Atanatiya-parittd (spell of the

King Yaksa, Vaisranaya entitled Atanatiya), and Angulimdla-parttd (spell

preached to Angulimdla by the Buddha). Nagasena explained their raison

d'etre.

Before long, in the Southern Buddhism, there were collected about

thirty small sutras, such as the Mahdsamaya-suttam (Great Meeting sutra),

(19) Cf. Matsunaga, op. cit., p. 27 n. 2, also cf. Shoun Toganoo, flimitsu

Bukkyd-shi, or The History of Esoteric Buddhism (Kyoto: Naigai shuppan-sha), 2nd

edition. 1940. p. 6 p. 12.

(20) E. g. Taisho., vol. 23 p. 337 c. Taisho is the abbre-viation of: Takakusu and

Watanabe, edited. TaishO Shinshu DaizokyO, or The Chinese Tripitaka Newly Compiled

in the Taisho Age (Tokyo, 1922-1934) 85 volumes.

(21) Cf. Toganoo, Madnara no Kenkyu pp. 444-445; Waddell, op. cit., pp. 163-164;

Shoren Ihara, "Shojyo-ju to Mikkyo-keiten", or Paritta and Esoteric Buddhist Canon,

The Chizan Gakuho, or Journal of Chizan Studies, no. 21 (April, 1957) (University of

Taisho: Chizan Kangakukai 1957), pp. 24-37.

(22) Cf. Sacred Books of the East, XXXV. pp. 213-216.


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the Atanatiya-suttan, the Sarana-gamanam (Three formulas of refuge),

the Metta-sutta h (Compassion sutra), the Da a-dharma-suttarn (Ten(23)

dharma-sutra), etc. and were named Parittaln, the Protective Basket. Even

now the name of parit remains in Ceylon and these spells are practiced

extensively among the people for protection against evil spirits and(24)

poisonous snakes.

Concurrent with the term paritta, the term vidyabegan to be used.

The term vidyd (Pali. vijja) derived from the root vid (to know) means

primarily "knowledge." The supernatural knowledge to cure disease or

to catch snakes or to please the gods, etc. was vidya. And the man who

has such knowledge was called Vidyadhara, the Holder of knowledge. The(25)

images of Vidyadharas carved in relief on the gates of Bharhut which

were constructed in the period of Asoka (ca. 250 B. C.) are, according to

Basham:

... heavenly magicians, mysterious beings who lived in magic

cities in the high Himalayas. Like the Vedic munis ... they

could fly through the air and transformt hemselves at will,(26)

and they were generally favourable to men.

To the people in those days, mantra was a holy or magical formula and

the practitioner of mantra was the Holder of supernatural power or

knowledge, i. e. Vidyadhara. Therefore, it is quite natural that mantra

was identified with vidyd. Vidyddhara used in Ceylon, according to

Waddel, denotes 'man performing wonders by the aid of mantras'. In

addition to this, the term vidyd had special significance to Buddhists,

because avidya (unenlightenment) -was a important teaching of the

(23) Cf. Toganoo, Himitsu Bukkyo-shi, pp. 8-9 and Waddell, op. cit., p. 159.

(24) Ibid., p. 159.

(25) Cf. Waddell, op. cit., p. 171: also Toganoo, Mandala no Kenlcyu, pp. 431-432.

(26) A. L. Basham, The Wonder That Was India (New York: Grove Press, 1959),

P. 318.

(27) Waddell, op. cit., p. 171

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Buddha, and relief from avidya(enlighten ment). was vidyq(enlightenment).

In the Prajnd-id-hrdaya-suta, a famous Mahaydna text, the

mantra of "gate gate paragate parasafiigate bodhi svchd" is that of Prajna-

paramita and at the same time that of vidyrz. I have already stated that the(28)

Saran.a-gamanarn. (Three formulas of refuge) was compiled. in Parittarh.

Sarana-gainanamn consists in repeating the words: Bu ddhat saranaihz

gacchanzi (I put my faith in Buddha), Dhammain saran-a,in gacchdmi (I put

my faith in Dliarma), and Sanghain saranaTiz gacchO7ii (I put my faith in

sangha). These three refuges are paritta and vidya as well. Waddell says:

The recital of the Trividya formula frequently repeated on

the rosary by Hinayanists, also the categories of attributes

of Buddha are supposed to exert a certain magical efficacy(29)

which makes these practically spells.

Vidya is the qualitative name of inantra.

From about three hundred years after the death of the Buddha

onwards, Vidyadhara-pitaka is considered to have been collected in Dharma-

guptaka. This school of Buddhisn is belived to belong to the line of

Sthavira (Theravada); however, it has five Pitakas, that is, Tri-pitaka

(three baskets of sutra, vinaya and adhidhar7na), Vidyadhara-pitaka, and(30)

Bodhisattva-pitaka; therefore, its teaching is more Mahdydziistic.

4. DhaT,ani in Mahayana Buddhism

Around the first century B. C. the term dhdrani began to be

applied to spells. the term dharani derived from the root dhn (to hold)(31)

literally means "that by which something is held." This term. usually is

(28) See Part I. p. 10

(29) Waddell, op. cit., p. 171.

(30) Cf. Watanabe, Jyodai Indo bPilclcyo-shi, or The History of the Early

Buddhist Thought in India (Tokyo: Aoyama Gakuen, 1956), p. 98; Nlatsunaga, op.

cit., p. 32 and n. 5; Toganoo, 1ilandara no Iienkyu, p. 441; Toganoo, Hinnitsu Bukkyo-ski,

p. 8; and Waddell, op. cit., pp. 169-170.

(31) Shashibhusan Dasgupta, Obscure Religious Cults as huckgrounc of Bengali

Literature (University of Calcutta, 1946), p. 21.


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(32)

translated into Chinese as tswng-chih, which means "entire support."

According to Nagarjuna's Mahapiajita-paranita-sasti a translated in Chinese

by Kurnarajiva in 405 A. D., the term dlzarai is defined as nt ng-chili

and ning-ehe. Mug-chip (ning=able to; power. chip-to hold, support) is

to hold the collection of various good teachings and does not allow them

to disperse and get lost. Metaphorically speaking, when water is poured

into a perfect vessel, it does not leak out. Wickedness is caused by an

evil mind. Neng-chi (che=to protect) protects man form such causation.

In short, the term dharagi means to hold good dharma and by doing so

to protect oneself from evil.

The term dhaiani is used in Hinayana already. According to Waddell,

... The first occurence Csic) of this name, ...is in the epic

of the Lalita Vistara properly a Hinayana work...There

amongst the great metaphysical Bodhisattvas is mentioned

The king of Dharani Lords' (Dharanzsvara-raja). This is a

Brahmanist title of Siva as Lord of the World' and Dharani(34)

is Laksmi as the Earth goddess,…

Alld in Adhidhdharaz, one of the Tri-pitaka of Hinayana Buddhisnn, it

indicates the mailltellance of one teaching, such as dhar-ayamza (olle

(35)

of twelve dyatatca, sense-data), saThskai'a (one of the five skandhas).

In M_ahayana Buddhism, one chapter of the Abbreviated Version of

Jlahaprajnaparamitd-sutra, the earliest Mahdyana text, is called by the(36)

name of dizaraia. In Ajatasatru-sutra translated by Lokaraksa into Chinese(37)

around 180 A. D., the term dhdrani indicates the foundation (yilan) of

(32) Cf. Ry6zaburo Sakaki, Mahd-vyutpatti (Kyoto: Rokudai, 1916), No. 4239

(33) Cf. Taisho., vol. 25, p. 269b.


(35) Cf. Nagarjuna's Mahdpiajtaparaottd-saslra, vol. 5, Taisho., vol. 25, p. 269.

(36) Cf. Ryujo Yamada, Bongo-Bunten no Shobunken, or Various Bibliography of

Buddhist Sanskrt Texts (Kyoto: Heirakuji Shoten, 1959), p. 151, and Matsunaga, op.cit., pp. 32-33.

(37) Shinko Mochizuki, Bulckyo Kydten Seiritsu-shi Ron, or An Essay on the

Historical Formation of Buddhist Canons (Kyoto: Hozo-kan, 1.946), p. 86.

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(38)

Tao, and that of the maintenance of Buddha, Dharma, and Sanbha. In

the Hai-lung-wan cling translated by Indu-Dharmaraksa in 285 A. D. the

term dharaia is the conclusion of whole teaching, practices and samddhi

of Buddhism; and the dhdrani called "Limitless" is the foundation of

(39)all eighty-four-thousand dlhaas-Here we can see a concrete dharani.

The exact reason why the term dhdrani was applied to spells is

beyond our knowledge. However, it is very covincing that the term

dhdrani was used identically with the term vidya-dhara and it is a

particular term of Buddhism. Waddell says:

... The term in this religious sense is not current in

Brahmanism and seem to have been coined by the Buddhists

as was their wont to distinguish their terminology from

their parent rival. Nor is there definite evidence of its

use in primitive Buddhism, where its recognized synonym(40)

Vidya-dhara was employed.

The appearance of dharaii is considered to have a close relationship

with the rise of Mahayana Buddhism. Nagarjtzna (ca. 150-250 A. D.) states

in this manner: In Sravaka-yana there are no dharanis but only in

Mahayarla are they used, because Sravaka (the Hearers) do not hold

various merits by using dhdra) as. Figuratively speaking, when man is

thirsty, he contents himself with a cup of water and does not keep water(41)

In a pitcher.

The "Limitless dhdrani" in the Hai-lung-uang thing consists of the

arrangement of sixty-two topics (ship) such as "destiny responds to mind

(hetu-niati)," "follow the mind (lama-rnati)," "please the foot-step (prasada-

mati)," "straight mind (ujju-mati)," "glorious face," "bright eye,"

"nirvdna," "moon -light" and so forth. Indu-Dharmaraksa translated the

(38) Cf. Shinko Mochizuki, Bukkyo-dai-jiten, or the Great Dictionary of Buddhism,

3rd ed. (Tokyo: Sekai Seiten Kanko-kyokai, 1960), vol. 4, p. 3532.

(39) Taisho., vol. 15, p. 141b.


(41) Mahaprajndparamitd-sastra, vol. 28, Taisho., vol. 269b.


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dhdrani into Chinese instead of transcribing the sound. At any rate, this

dharani consists of the chaotic arrangement of sixty-two important

(42)Buddhistt terminologies. Dharais tranSliterated in the Dhara chaper

and the Exhortation Chapter of the Lotus Sutra (Saddharma-pundarika-

sutra)follow the same pattern of the above. The Fuler Edou of Maha-(44) (45)

prajnapardmita-sutra or in the Avatannsaka-sutra, dharanis, ceasing the

disordered arrangements of the words, use the forty-two letters

(namadheya), through which their hidden significances are approached,

for instance, "a" represents "adi-anutpdda (primacy of no birth)," "ra"

"rajas (dust, passions)," etc.

(46) (47)

In the Mahaparuaua-sra or in lthe Gayazrsa-stra, fifty

letters of the Sanskrt Alphabet were used, and through the gates of

these letters the contents of the sutra were apprehended. In the

(48)

Mahayana-karuna-putadarika-sutra (translated in 265-316), the basic teach-

ings of the earlier Buddhism, such as catvari sinnityupasthana (the

fourfold practice of kaya, vedana,citta and dharma), saptabodhyanga

(seven characteristics of bodhi), dvadasanga-pratityasamutpada (twelve(49)

principles), etc, aredenoted dy dhanis. In the Mahasamupa-sutra

translated by Dharmaraksa (T'an wu-ch'an), the study of dliarani ranks

equally with the three studies of Buddhism, i. e., sila, sarnddhi and

(42) Cf. Toganoo, Hiritsu Bukkyo-shi, p. 15, n. 31 and Toganoo, Mandara no

Kenkyu, p. 447; also Chou Yi-Liang, "Tantrism in China", Harvard Journal of

Asiatic Studies, vol. 8 (1944-1945), (Harvard-Yenching Institute), p. 242.

(43) Cf. Toganoo, Mandara no Kenkyu, p. 447.

(44) Taisho., vol. 8, p. 256a.

(45) Taisho., vol. 9, p. 765b.

(46) Taisho., vol. 12, p. 413a.

(47) Taisho., vol. 14, p. 498.

48) Cf. Seigai Omura, Mikkyo Hattatsu-shi, or The Historical Development of

Esoteric Buddhism, Tokyo, 1918, vol. 5, Appendix p. 3.

(49) Taisho., vol. 3, pp. 239-241,

(50) Taisho., vo1. 13, pp. 5c-6a, Cf. Chou Yi-Liang, oP. oit. P. 243.

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(50)

Prajna, and thus beeonle another orllaln.ellt of Bodllisattva. Ill the

JIaharatnakutaa-sutra translated by Bodhiruci in the T'ang dynasty, even

the ten stages of Mahdyana Bodhisattva have their respective gates of(51)

dhaauis, by which the eontents of eaeh stage iS shown. Thus darani

stepped up to a higher position and became one of the important

constituents of Mahayana Buddhism.

Dhci ani of Mahayana Buddhism is classified by the Madhyaznika

(52)

school(in Nagarjunla's Mahaprajnaparamita-sastra), by thle Yogacara(53)

school(in Maitreyana, s Yogaca-bhumi, and by Malltra-Yana (in(54)

Amoghavajra's Tsung-shik t'o-lo-ui I-tsau)respeetively into four classes:

(i) Madhyamika's classification

1) "Keeping What is Heard" dtiaragi

2) "The Knowledge of Discrimination (vivelca)" or "Entering

Through the Gates of Letters" dharani

3) "Entering Through Sound" dharani

4) Five Hundred Dharani Gate

(ii) Yogacara's

1) Dliagna-(Adran i

2) Artha (Significance)-dharaii

3) "The Dhaianzi For the Attainment of Forbearance of

Bodhisattva"

4) Mantra dharani

(iii) Mantrayana's

1) Varna-dhara (dharani)

(51) Taisho, vol. 11, p. 650a.

(52) Taisho., vol. 25, p. 268, pp. 408b-409b, p. 657a.

(53) Taisho., vol. 30, p. 543a Cf. U. Wogihala, Asga's Bodhsatabhmi,

Leipzig, 1908, pp. 272-273. Mochizuki, Dictionary, vol. 4, pp. 3533-3534 Dasgupta

S, op. cit., pp. 21-22; Toganoo, Mandara no Kenkyu, pp. 448-449; Matsunaga, op.

cit., pp. 35, 36.

(54)Mochizuki, op. cit., p. 3534; Tlogalloo, Ｍaudara uo Keuhyu, pp. 435, 462.


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2) Artha-dhara (dharaia)

3) Dharma-dhara (dharani)

4) Samddhi-dhara (dharani)

These classifibations made by three great masters distinctly show

historical process of d hdrani in Mahayan.a Buddhism. The following is a

study of this process focusing on Ndgarjuna's classification.

To explain the first class of dhdrani, Nagarjuna refers to the story(55)

of Cuda-panthaka. The story, according to the Chinese version, runs as

f ollows

Because of his stupidity, Cuda-panthaka could not memorize even

one phrase of Buddha's teaching. The Buddha, handing him a broom,

ordered him to sweep a room, and let him recite the words of sao (to

sweep) and chow (a broom). It was not easy to memorize the words,

but, day by day he became acquainted with the words, and after several

days, he memorized the words, then after several days, lie noticed these

words were related ch'u (to remove) of kou (dirt). He recited everyday,

"What is ch'u? What is kou ?" Finally, he recognized ch'u as Wisdom

and kou as sarhsdxa (transmigration) and ch'u of kou is Enlightenment.

Words of the type used above are designated as the "Keeping What

is Heard" dharan2 by Nagdrjuna.

In the Yogacara school, this class of dhdraiii is called Dharrna-

dharani. Through the hearing of d hartnas (teachings), whether they are

written or not, man attains memory (srnrti), perfect knowledge (prajna)

and power (bala). This class of dharanii is Dharina-dharani. In Mantra-

Yana, this kind of dharaiiI is called "Holding Letters" (Zvar)ia-dhara)-

dharannt. "Letters" (varna) refers to all (real and unreal) sutras. We

notice that the term dharina shifts to a more concrete term, Letters.

To keep Letters is to keep what is heard; therefore, if one achieves

this dharani of Letters, he never forgets what he has heard, even

(55) Cf. Tasho, vo1. 2, P. 601b.

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innumerable sutras.

The second class of dharani by Nagarjuna is "Knowledge of

Discrimination," and "Entering Through the Gates of Letters" dhdranis.

The former is explained thus

If man attains this dharani, he can apprehend true discrimination

of reality. Elephants, horses, gold, woods, stone, clothing, man, woman,

and water, they are different things and have different names. Even

if the name is the same, the differentiations such as between rich and

poor, beauty and ugliness, etc., exist. If man achieves this dh.drani, he

can have the perfect "Knowledge of Discrimination" (viveka). The latter

is the "Gates of Forty-two Letters," such as a, ra, pa, ca, na, etc. 1

represents adi, primacy, and anutpada, no birth. Bodhisattva who practice

this gate of dhdrani, hearing the sound of A, immediately realize "All

dharmas are primarily no birth." Ra, pa, ca, etc. can be interpreted in

a similar manner. Nagarjuna calls this type of didrari "Entering Through

the Gates of Letters."

According to Yogacara and Mantra-Ydna, this sort of dharani is

called Artha-dharani. Artha is the true significance which is behind

phenomenal appearances; therefore, the above two kinds of dharani which

Nagarjuna called "Knowledge of Discrimination" and "Entering Through

the Gates of Letters" are applied here. In the Yogacara school,

... Artha-dharani is that type of Mantras through the

mystic power of which the correct significance. (artha) of

the Dharma (which significance is never explained in any

sastra or by a(ny preacher)is revealed to the follower inan(56)

lntultlve way.

In Mantra-Yana, Amoghavajra says that if man achieves this artha-

dhara, he realizes in a single letter the practices of innumerable sutra

and can explain them freely.

The third class of dhdrani, "Entering Through Sound," is explained

(56) Dasgupta, op. cit., p. 21.

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thus: When a Bodhisattva hears a sound, he, discriminating between its

root and twigs, contemplating its real appearances, realizes that sound

represents a brief cycle of birth and death. On the contrary, ordinary

man, even though the sound has disappeared, remembers it, because of

its association to himself. For instance, he becomes angry because

someone abused him, or he rejoices at praise he is given. A Bodhisattva

does not get angry even if he is abused a million times, because he

knows those sounds are but repetition of birth and death. Sound itself is

sunyata; therefore, the phenomenon of sound is but the manifestation of

nothingness (sunyatd). This is called "Entering Through sound" dhdrani.

In the Yogacara school, this sort of dhdrani is called the "Dhdrani

For the Attainment of Forbearance of Bodhisattva (Bodhisattva-ksdnti

tabhaya ca dhdrani)," It is the dhdrani through which real significance

of reality (svabadva-artha) is revealed to the reciter and through which

he attains the merit of forbearance. The dhdrani of "iti mniti kiti bhiksdfizti

paddni svdhd, is this dhdrani. These syllables

... have got no meaning whatsoever, and the followers

through concentration should realize the truth that these

Mantras can have no meaning at all, -this unmeaningness

is their real meaning. Through this absolute negative of

all possible meanings to the Mantra, the real meaning of

the Mantra as pure void is intuitively revealed to a man.

Thus this realization of the meaning of the Mantras (as

pure negation) helps the man to realize in pure intuition

the nature of the Dharmas as essenceless. But through this

negation of all meanings to the Mantras a unique

transcendental immutable meaning is revealed to the

heart of the Sadhaka; this immutable nature is the(57)

realnature of all things.

In short, through this sort of dhdrani, the reciter apprehends the

true significance of reality (svabhava-artha) through which, far beyond

(57) Ibid., p. 22.

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verbal expression, he attains the forbearance (ksdti) of Bodhisattva.

This sort of dh.drani is classified as the last stage (the fourth class)

in Yogacdra school.

To Mantra-yana, this sort of dhai aiu is named "Dharma-dhara"

dharanni. Through this dhara (support), man, destroying all dharnas

caused by transmigration, realizes the doctrine flowing out of the Pure

Dhar ma-kaya.

Ndgdrjuna's fourth class of dharana is "Five Hundred dharani

Gates." In Buddhism, by the time of Nagarjuiia, abundant dharartis such

as Avataihsa (Garland)-dhdian.i, Akasagarbha (Empty womb)-dhdralti,

Sdgarakosa (Ocean store) -dhdranni, etc. had existed. NagdrjunaI names

them altogetheras "Five Hundred Dharaw Gates." He says in the volume

five of his book that roughly speaking there are five hundred dlidrai(58)

gates, strictly speaking, they are innumerable. Why were and why are

these innumerable dhararais produced? In the volume twenty-eight of his

book, he explains thusly: Bodhisattva attain various samadhii such as

apratikata-wide (tunhindered wisdom), through the power of the above

three types of dhdrarn, and at sam dhi Bodhisattva acquire asahikhya

(innumerable) dhdrayiis. putting these numberless dharaeis together gives

it the name "Five Hundred Dhgrani Gate." This is the store of the(59)

Bodhisattva's Merit.

This fourth class of dhdrannis is called "Mantra-dharani" in the

Yogacara school. According to the Chinese version of Yogacdra-bhunn,

every Bodhisattva attains such unrestricted power (isvara) of same dhi,

and thus is able to lend additional force (adhisthdnna) so all mantras which

would remove the sufferings of sentient beings, and enable all mavlras(60)

to alleviate many sufferings rather than a single type of suffering.

(58) Taisho., vol. 25, p. 269b.

(59) Taisho., vol. 25, p. 268a.

(60) Taisho., vol. 30, P. 543a.

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This "Mantra-dharani" is normally classified as the third type

preceding the ksanti dharani, therefore, the phrase, "such (evam)

unrestricted power (isvara) of samddhi," in the above translation of the

Chinese refers to the unrestricted power of samddhi attained through

the previous two types of dharani, that is, Dharma and Artha-dhdrani.

Mantras which were able to remove the sufferings of sentient beings

had already existed. Dhdrani (the possessor of power) makes them more

effective. This is Mantra-dhdrani.

The fourth class of dhdrani classified by Amoghavajra is called

Samddhi-dhara-dharani, because by the supporting (dhara) power, the mind

does not wander, By this samddhi-dhara, concentration (samddhi) is not

disturbed by impairments (klesa and upakl esa); therefore, Bodhisattva,

attaining the five supernatural powers (paincdbhijna), can benefit all sen-

tient beings.

We have no intention to discuss in detail the philosophies of the

three schools. However, it is necessary to outline their basic attitude

toward dhdrani.

The four classifications of dhdranis in the Madhyamika school are

the conceptional explanations of dhdranis. Dhdrani is the doctrine of

"supporting," and abundant dhdranis are necessarily products of its

doctrine.

The Four kinds of dhdranis in. the Yogacara school are based on

the psycho-yogic approach. The Commentary of Ybhumi by K'uei-

chi, the founder of Fa-hsing school, interprets these four classes of

dhdran i through ti (psycho-yogic subject) and thing (psycho-yogic(61)

objeet). This can be clarified by the following ilhlstration:

1st class

Psycho-yogic object..................dharma

Dharma-dharani..................supporting

(61) Cf. Toganoo, Maudara uo Keuhyi, p. 449.

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Psycho-yogic subject.............smrti and prajna

2nd class

Psycho-yogic object..................artha

Artha-dhdrani...................supporting

Psycho-yogic subject...............smrti and prajna

3rd class

Psycho-yogic object..................tathata (such-ness)

The dhdrani for the

attainment of ksdnti......supporting

of Bodhisattva

Psycho-yogie subject...............nirvikalpa (unconditioned mind)

4th class

Psycho-yogic object..................mantra

Mantra-dhdrani...............supporting

Psycho-yogie subject...............samddhi

Yogacara's classification is established upon a theoretical base,

contrarily, that of Mantra-ydna is the practical classification of concrete

and actual dhdrani, because at the time of Amoghavajra (705-774 A. D.)

dhdrani was not the the theory or doctrine of "supporting," but an actual

spell which was in use.

As to the historical process of actual dharanis, the fourth types

classified by the three great masters are most significant. By the time

of Nagarjuna, numerous dhdranis had existed. In the period of the

Yogacara school, mantra was endowed with the function of dhdrani and

was called mantra-dhdrani, then by Amoghavajra's time, the actual

differentation between mantra and dhdrani had disappeared, and it was

called samddhi-dhdrani.

5. Paritta, dhdrani, vidna, and mantra

Parittd (Skt) paritra) was a comfort and an attraction to the ancient

people. It was a protection and a defense by which man could escape a

calamity. Thus it can be thought of as a negative power. Dhdrani, on the

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other hand, appeared as a possessor of a positive power which brings

happiness to man. Consequently, in the history of Buddhism, the term

paritt, being overpowered by the term dhdrani, disappeared completely(62)

by the time of Mantra-yana.

The terms mantra and vidyd, however, have not disappeared. The

term mantra is described as

... "an instrument for evoking or producing something in our

mind, "specif icaliy"a holy formula or magic spell for evoking

or bringing to mind the vision and inner presence of a god,"

Therefore, its function is in the mind's (manasah) protection (trdiza)(64)

against the bondage of samsdra(transmigration). The term vidyd has

survived because, on the one hand, the spell is a skillful art, and an

effective practice, and on the other hand, it is a possessor of wisdom(65)

(vidya-dharczni).

The term vidya is used as an epithet for spell, and when it is used

as vidyd-dhara it is a functional name of spell. By the time of Mantra-

ydna, vidya had been deified as Vidya-raja (King of vidya) and Vidya-raja

or Vidya-rajni(Queen of vidya). The guardian-gods of Buddha called Myo-o(66)

in the pantheon of Shingon Buddhism are these kinds of deities.

There is a saying of Amoghavaja: "There is a spell consisting

of one letter, two letters, three letters, or of ten thousand letters. And

also there are innnumerable spells. They are named as mantra, dhdrani,

(62) Cf. Yamada, op. cit., p. 150.

(63) Heinrich Zimmer, Myths and Symbols in Indian Art and Civiliation (Harper

Torchbook, 1962), ed. Joseph Campbell, pp. 140-141.

(64) Cf. Bharati Agehananda. Thez Tantric Tradition (London: Rider and Co.,

1965), P. 105; also cf. Woodroff, S. The Garland of Letters, 2nd ed. Madras, 1951,

p. 258.

(65) Cf. Matsunaga, op, cit., pp. 23-24

(66) Cf. Ryuken Sawa, Butsuzo Zuten, or The Illustrated Book of Buddhist Images

(Tokyo: Kobun-do, 1962), p. 103 ff.

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(67)

and vidya." The terms mantra, dharani, and vidya are used to indicate

that the spell or spells have different aspects. It will be clearer in their

Tibetan translations. The Tibetan versions of mantra, dharani, and vidya

are respectively gsan-sfrags (secret spell). gzvns-shags (holding spell),(68)

and Rig-shags(knowledge spell).

Among these three terms forr spell, the term mantra is connected

with the authority of Veda and it is Hinduistic (Pan-Indian); the term

dhdrani is Buddhistic; and the term vidya is both Hinduistic and

Buddhistic. Although the term dhdrani is the particular Buddhist

terminology for spell, it did- not replace the term mantra. The term

mantra endured in Buddhism, and in the Mahdvairocana-sutra (the Great

Sun Sutra) it appeared as Mantra.

6. Mantra and mantras

The Mahdvairocana-sutra, classified in the group of Carya-tantra,

is the sutra, of dialogues between Vairocana, (Illuminating) Buddha and

the Lord of Secrets (Va jradhara, Va jrapd ni, or Va jrasattva). In the sutra,

Vairocana Buddha, answering the questions of the Lord of secrets, explains

the theoretical basis of the Perfect Wisdom (sarvajndna) and the practical(69)

and concrete methods f_or its attainment.

Vairocana Buddha explains Mantra thus: Mantra of various mantras

is not produced by all enlightened one, it's not that which has been

produced by anyone, and it is not that which are rejoiced by all

enlightened ones. Because Mantra is Dharmata of various dharmas. Whether

various tathagatas appear or not, Dharmata of various dharmas exists.

Thus, Mantra is Mantra-dharmatc of various mantras.

Vairocana Buddha further says: The entire knower and viewer of

the complete perfect enlightenment (samyak-sannbodhi), appearing in the

(67) Cf. Toganoo, Maudara uo Keuhy, p. 435.

(68) sakaki, op. cit., nos. 4237, 4238,, 4239.

(69) Taisho., vol. 18, no. 848 Cf. Matsuluga, op. cit., pp. 55, 60.

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world, explains the Dharmata in various ways, and by various actions of

giving (ddna), and in comformity to various pleasing desires of all the

living, blessing (adhisthana) the Dharmata in various words, letters,

dialects and sounds, preaches the way of Mantra. What is the way of(70)Mantra? It is to bless (adhisthdna) the written letters.

Mantratd (Mantra itself, Mantra-ness) is Dharm-ata (Dh.arma itself,

Dharma-ness). "Mantra itself is Devata, that is, the supreme Consciousness(71)

(citsakti) manifesting in that form."

... Every Mantra, be it Vaidik or Tantrik, is an appearance

Crupa) of Brahman. Veda or Tantra, consisting of Mantras,is only a manifestation of Brahman. Therefore, it cannot be

saidt hat Mantra has been created by Brahman. Rather is it

that the Para-brahman appear as Mantra. For, although

Brahman is the Creator of the world, He is not the Creatorr

of Himself. Creation of Brahman is impossible, for He is(72)

without beginning and ever-existent....

Although this is a Hindu-tantric interpretation of Mantra, there

exist some affinities with the Buddho-tantric interpretation. It is

impossible for us to neglect the influence of the tantric (Pan-Indian)(73)

movement onto hudahiszn around the seventh century A. D. Shashibhusan

Dasgupta says,

... Tantrism is neither Buddhist nor Hindu in origin : it seems to be

a religious under-current, originally independent of any abstruse

metaphyshcal speculation, flowing on from an obscure point of

(74)

time in the religious history of India....

The term adhisthana derived from adhi (beside, over) stha (to stand)

literally means that which stands beside or over. It is a "position,"

(70) Taisho., vo1. 18, p. 10a.

(71) Woodroff, op. oi., p. 263.

(72) Wood off, Priuciples of Taura (London: Luzac & Co., 1916), Part II, p. 24(73) C Dasgupta, op. cit., p. 20-21.

(74) Ibid., p. 27.

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specifically an "authoritative position" which stands over, and the power'

associated with such a position. In this sense it comes near the grace'

or blessing' of Christianity. Sambhoga-kdya (the Body of Bliss) is

sometimes called Adhisthdna-kayd. In the- Tibetan translation, it is(75)

Byin-(gyis)-brLabs-pa (the wave of power). In Chinese it is translated

chia-ch'ih. (chia=to add, to increase; ch'ih=to hold, support) meaning

"to add a power and hold it." Therefore, the term adhisthana used in

this sutra, can be defined as enpowerment by the blessing of the

enlightened one.

Mantras (spells) as such are nothing but words and letters.

Through adhisthana of Buddha, they become the symbol through which

Mantra is pursued. In other words, when Mantratd is identified with

Dharmata, mantra function as a symbol. One who approaches Mantra

through -the gate of this mantra is called a "Bodhitattva who practices

the discipline of the Bodhisattva through the gate of mantra." This

name had never been used in the group of Kriyd-tantra which is considered(76)

to have been compiled before the Vahavairocana-sutra.

In the sutra, the Lord of Secrets asks of Vairocana Buddha the

cause, root, and the ultilmate of "perfect wisdom (sarvajhana)." The

Buddha answers, "Bodhicitta is the cause (hetu), Illahakaruna is the root(77)

(mula) and upaya is its ultimate (paryavasana)." Both Bodhicitta (Mind

of Enlightenment) and Mahdkarund (Great Compassion) are the most

important symbols of Buddhism in general however, the purase,

"upaya is its ultimate" reflects a singuar trait of Mantra -yana.

The term updya derived from upa-i (to approach) signifies an

approach' and a means' used as an approach. In Kautilya's Arthasdstra,

(75) Cf. Snellgrove, D. L. The Hevajra Tantra: A Critical Study (London:

Oxford University Peress, reprinted 1964), Part I, P. 133.

(76) Cf. Shinten Sakai, Dainichi-Kyo no Seiritsu ni kansuru Kenkyu, or An

Essay on the Completion of Mahdvairocana-sutra, (Koyasan: Henjyokoin, 1962), p. 151

(77) Taisho., vol. 18, p. 1b-c.

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upaya is a political approach and at the same it is a political means, that

(78)

is, a policy. Upaya, in the religious sense, is, on the one hahd, an approach

to Buddha and a means used for the approach by man, and on the other

hand, it is an approach to man by Buddha and a means used for that.

In the case of Mantra and mantras, mantras are a means to approach

Mantra and a means of approach by man through the blessing (adhistana)(79)

of Buddha. This approach and a means were regarded as ultimate in

Mantra-ydna. Both adhisthdna and upaya are the basic constituent

elements of the symbol-system of Shingon Buddhism, which will be fully

discussed in Part II.

(78) Cf. Heinrich Zimmer, Philosophiee of India (New York: Meridian Book, Inc.,

3rd printing, 1958), p. 120 ff.

(79) Cf. Daishi, vol. p. 28.

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the symbol-system of

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