the stormy sixties, 1963–1973 - mr....

Chapter37TheStormySixties,

1963–1973

I.TheLBJBrandonthePresidency

• LyndonBainesJohnson(LBJ):– BecamepresidentuponJFK'sassassination– SenttoCongressin1937atage29– FDRwashispolitical“Daddy,”Johnsonclaimed• LBJstronglysupportedNewDealmeasures• WhenhelostabidforSenate(1941),LBJlearnedthatliberalpoliticsdidnotwinelectionsinTexas• WonaSenateseatin1948byshiftinghispoliciestorightandbyaquestionable87-votemargin—hencenickname“LandsideLyndon”

I.TheLBJBrandonthePresidency(cont.)

• InSenate,Johnsondevelopedintomasterwheeler-dealer:– BecameDemocraticmajorityleaderin1954• Usedwhatwascalledthe“Johnsontreatment”—intimidatingdisplayofbackslapping,flesh-pressing,andarm-twistingthatoverborefriendsandfoesalike• Hisegoandvanitywerelegendary• Aspresident,heshreddedconservativecolorationofhisSenateyearstoreveallatentliberalunderneath


• CongresspassedCivilRightsActof1964:– Bannedracialdiscriminationinmostprivatefacilitiesopentopublic• Includingtheaters,hospitals,restaurants

– Strengthenedfederalgovernment'spowertoendsegregationinschoolsandpublicplaces

– TitleVIIbarredemployersfromdiscriminatingonraceornationalorigininhiring

– EmpoweredEqualEmploymentOpportunityCommission(EEOC)toenforcelaw


– TitleVIIpassedwithgenderclauseintact• Provedtobepowerfulinstrumentoffederally-enforcedgenderequality

– Johnson(1965)issuedexecutiveorderrequiringallfederalcontractorstotakeaffirmativeactionagainstdiscrimination

• JohnsonalsopushedthroughCongress:– Kennedy'sstalledtaxbill– Proposalsforbillion-dollar“WaronPoverty”


• ConcernsaboutpovertyraisedbyMichaelHarrington'sTheOtherAmerica(1962):– Revealedthat20%ofpopulation,andover40%ofblackpopulation,sufferedpoverty

• WaronPovertypartofLBJ'sGreatSociety:– SweepingNewDeal-styledomesticreforms• Targetedremainingpocketsofpoverty• Majornewinvestmentsineducationandarts

II.JohnsonBattlesGoldwaterin1964

• Electionof1964:– Johnson'snominationaforegoneconclusion• ChosenbyacclamationinAtlanticCity• DemocratsstoodfoursquareonmostliberalplatformsinceTruman'sFairDealdays

– Republicans• MetinSanFrancisco,nominatedSenatorBarryGoldwater,arock-ribbedconservative• Stagesetforhistoricclashofpoliticalprinciples

II.JohnsonBattlesGoldwaterin1964(cont.)

• Goldwater'sforcestrouncedmoderate“easternestablishment”• Goldwaterattacked:

– Federalincometax,socialsecuritysystem,TVA– Civilrightslegislation,nucleartest-bantreaty– Mostloudly,theGreatSociety

• Hisnominationreflectedgrowingconservativemovement– Gatheredstrengthinmushroomingmiddle-classsuburbsofSunbelt– LedbyWilliamF.BuckleyandYoungAmericansforFreedom– Well-receivedbywhitesouthernersangryatCivilRightsActof1964

• Democrats'attackonGoldwater:– ExploitedimageofGoldwaterastrigger-happycowboy


– Johnson'simageasresolutestatesman• SeizeduponTonkinGulfepisodeinAugust1964:

– CovertU.S.helptoSouthVietnameseraidsonN.Vietnam– LBJpublicallycalledallegedattacks“unprovoked”– Ordered“limited”retaliatoryairraid– Claimedhesought“nowiderwar”– GotCongresstopassall-purposeTonkinGulfResolution:

» Congressabdicatedwar-declaringpowers» HandedpresidentablankchecktousefurtherforceinSoutheastAsia


• Electionresults:– VotersflockedtoJohnsonbecause:• FondnessforKennedylegacy• FaithinGreatSocietypromises• FearofGoldwater

– Count:• Popularvote:

– Johnson—43,129,566;Goldwater—27,178,188• Electoralcount:

– Johnson's486to52forGoldwater(seeMap37.1)

Map 37-1 p886


• Goldwater:• CarriedonlyhisnativeArizonaandfivestatesinSouth• SouthtraditionallyDemocraticbutnowraciallyrestless

• Johnson:• Recordbreaking61%ofpopularvotesweptlopsidedDemocraticmajoritiesintobothhousesofCongress

III.TheGreatSocietyCongress– Johnson'swintemporarilysmashedconservativecongressionalcoalitionofsouthernDemocratsandnorthernRepublicans

– RoadopenforGreatSocietyreforms:• LBJhelpedbygrowingeconomy• WaronPoverty:

– DoubledappropriationofOfficeofEconomicOpportunityto$2billion

– Grantedmorethan$1billiontoredevelopAppalachia• Createdtwonewdepartments:

» DepartmentofTransportation» DepartmentofHousingandUrbanDevelopment(HUD)

III.TheGreatSocietyCongress(cont.)

– Namedfirstblackcabinetsecretaryinnation'shistory—respectedeconomistRobertC.Weaver—toHUD

• EstablishedNationalEndowmentsfortheArtsandfortheHumanities:– DesignedtoliftlevelofAmericanculturallife

– BigFourlegislativeachievementscrownedLBJ'sGreatSocietyprograms:• Aidtoeducation

– Toavoidseparationofchurchandstateissue,LBJawardedaiddirectlytostudents» Signedbillinhumbleone-roomTexasschool-househeattendedasachild


• MedicareforelderlyandMedicaidforpoor:– Created“entitlements”

» RightsforcertaincategoriesofAmericansinperpetuity» Withoutneedforrepeatedcongressionalapproval

– Partofspreading“rightsrevolution”thathelpedmillions,butalsocreatedlong-termfinancialproblemsforfederalgovernment

• Immigrationreform:– ImmigrationandNationalityActof1965abolished“national-origins”quotasysteminplacesince1921(seeChap.30)

– Doublednumberofimmigrantsallowedtoenterannuallyto290,000– Forfirsttime,setlimitsonimmigrantsfromWesternHemisphere(120,000)


– ProvidedforadmissionofcloserelativesofU.S.citizens,outsidenumericallimits» 100,000peopleperyeartookadvantageof“familyunification”provisionindecadesafter1965

– SourceofimmigrationshiftedfromEuropetoLatinAmericaandAsia

– GreatSocietyprogramscameinforpoliticalattacksinlateryears:• Conservativeschargedbillionsspentfor“socialengineering”wasted• Yetpovertyleveldeclinedinensuringdecade(seeFigure37.1)


• Medicaredramaticallyreducedpovertyamongelderly• ProjectHeadStart—sharplyimprovededucationalperformanceofunderprivilegedyouth• GreatSocietyprogramsreducedinfantmortalityratesinminoritycommunities

Figure 37-1 p888

IV.BattlingforBlackRights

• VotingRightsActof1965:– OneofAmerica'smostpersistentevils—racialdiscrimination• CivilRightsActof1964:

– Gavefederalgovernmentmoremuscletoenforceschool-desegregationorders

– Andtoprohibitracialdiscriminationinpublicaccommodationsandemployment

• Problemofvotingremained:– Mississippi:only5%ofeligibleblacksregisteredtovote– SimilarthroughoutSouth

IV.BattlingforBlackRights(cont.)

– Ballot-denyingdevices:polltax,literacytests,barefacedintimidation

– Mississippirequirednamesofprospectiveblackregistrantsbepublishedfortwoweeksinlocalnewspapers—virtuallyguaranteedeconomicreprisals,orworse

• 1964:votingbecomechiefgoalofblackmovement– Twenty-fourthAmendment,ratifiedJanuary1964,abolishedpolltaxinfederalelections(seeAppendix)

– FreedomSummer1964:blacksjoinedwithwhitesinmassivevoter-registrationdriveinMississippi» InJune,oneblackandtwowhitecivilrightsworkersmurdered» Mississippiofficialsrefusedtoprosecutethoseresponsible


• August:integratedMississippiFreedomDemocraticpartydelegationdeniedseatsatDemocraticconvention• Early1965,MartinLutherKing,Jr.,resumedvoter-registrationcampaigninSelma,Alabama:– 50%ofcity'spopulationblack,butonly1%ofitsvoters– AUnitarianministerkilled– Fewdayslater,awhiteDetroitwomanmurderedbyKlansmen


– JohnsonshepherdedthroughCongresslandmarkVotingRightsActof1965;signedintolawAugust6• Outlawedliteracytests• Sentfederalvoterregistrarsintoseveralsouthernstates• Overtimebroughtdramaticchangetosouthernpoliticsandbusinesses• SoonblacksbegantomigrateintoSouthforfirsttimesinceemancipation

V.BlackPower

• VotingRightsActof1965:– Lastmajorlegislativevictoryofsouthern-focused,integrationist,nonviolentcivilrightsmovement

– IncreasedfocusonstrugglesinurbanNorthagainstdiscriminationandpolicebrutality• FivedaysafterLBJsignedVotingRightsAct,bloodyrioteruptedinWatts,ablackghettoinLosAngeles– 31blacksand3whiteskilled;morethanathousandpeopleinjured;hundredsofbuildingscharredandgutted

• Heraldedshifttomilitancy,radicalism,andseparatism

V.BlackPower(cont.)

• LeadershipofMalcolmX:– BornMalcolmLittle,hewasinspiredbymilitantblacknationalistsinNationofIslam• LikeNation'sfounder—ElijahMuhammed(bornElijahPoole),MalcolmchangedhissurnametoadvertiselostAfricanidentityinwhiteAmerica• MalcolmXtrumpetedblackseparatism• LaterbrokewithElijahMuhammed'sseparatism;movedtowardmainstreamIslam• Early1965,killedbyNationofIslamgunmen

V.BlackPower(cont.)• SocialistBlackPantherpartyused“citizens'patrols”toresistpolicebrutality

• In1966,StokelyCarmichael,SNCCleader:• BegantopreachdoctrineofBlackPower• LikeGarveyof1920s(seeChap.30),CarmichaelbreathedseparatistmeaningintoconceptofBlackPower– EmphasizedAfricanAmericandistinctiveness– Promoted“Afro”hairstylesanddress– Shed“white”namesfornewAfricanidentities– Demandedblackstudiesprogramsineducation

V.BlackPower(cont.)• 1967:moreriotsinblackurbanghettos– Newark,NewJersey(killed25people)– Detroit,Michigan(killed43people)• AsinWatts(1965),rioterstorchedneighborhoods• Attackedpoliceofficersandevenfirefighters

– RiotsangeredmanywhiteAmericans,whothreatenedtoretaliate

– Riotsbafflednorthernerswhoconsideredracialproblemsa“southern”question

V.BlackPower(cont.)

– Blacksmovednorthover1900s– Facedresidentialdiscrimination,whiteoutmigrationtosuburbs,anddeindustrialization• Blackunemploymentnearlydoublethatofwhites

– DespairdeepenedwhenMartinLutherKing,Jr.,murderedonApril4,1968• Triggeredmoreriots

– Riotersmadenews,butthousandsofotherblacksquietlymadehistory• BlackvoterregistrationinSouthshotupward

V.BlackPower(cont.)

• Bylate1960s,severalhundredblacksheldelectedofficeinOldSouth• Cleveland,OhioandGary,Indianaelectedblackmayors• By1972,nearlyhalfofsouthernblackchildreninintegratedschools– MoreschoolsintegratedinSouththanNorth

• Aboutathirdofblackshadrisenintomiddleclass• Kingleftshininglegacyofracialprogress,buthewascutdownwhenjobfarfromdone

VI.VietnamVexations

– VietCong(guerillasloyaltoNorthVietnamesecommunists)attackedU.S.airbaseatPleiku,SouthVietnam,February1965

– JohnsonorderedretaliatorybombingraidsagainstmilitaryinstallationsinNorthVietnam

– Forfirsttime,orderedU.S.combattroopstoSouthVietnam• Bymid-March,“OperationRollingThunder”infullswing—regularbombingagainstNorthVietnam• Before1965ended,184,000Americantroopsinvolved

VI.VietnamVexations(cont.)• Johnsonhadtakenslipperypathtoward“escalation”ofU.S.troopstodriveenemytodefeat• GuerrillaenemymatchedeveryAmericanincrease• SouthVietnamesebecamespectatorsaswarbecameAmericanized• CorruptandcollapsiblegovernmentsinSaigonsucceededeachother• YetU.S.A.claimedtobedefendingademocratically• “Hawks”defendedwarasnecessarytoshowU.S.“commitment”tofulfillnumeroustreatypledgestoresistcommunistencroachment

VI.VietnamVexations(cont.)

• JohnsonsteadilyraisedmilitarystakesinVietnam– By1968,ahalfmilliontroopsthereandannualbillforwarexceeded$30billion

– Stillendnowhereinsight

• U.S.A.couldnotdefeatenemyinVietnam,butitseemedtobebringingdefeatuponitself–Worldreactions:• SeveralnationsexpelledPeaceCorpsvolunteers• deGaullewithdrewFrancefromNATOin1966

– OrderedallAmericantroopsoutofFrance


– OvercommitmenttiedAmerica'shandselsewhere– InSix-DayWar(1967),Israel:• DefeatedEgypt,Jordan,andSyria• GainedterritoriesinSinaiPeninsula,GolanHeights,GazaStrip,andWestBankofJordanRiver,includingJerusalem(seeMap39.2)

– VictorybroughtonemillionresentfulPalestinianArabsunderdirectIsraelicontrol

– Another350,000PalestinianrefugeesfledtoneighboringJordan


• IsraellateragreedtowithdrawfromSinaiaftersigningapeacetreatywithEgypt• Israelrefusedtorelinquishotherareaswithoutatreaty• BeganmovingJewishsettlersintoheavilyArabdistrictofWestBank

– Six-DayWarintensifiedproblemsofvolatileMiddleEast• IntractablestandoffbetweenIsraelisandPalestinians


– DomesticdiscontentfesteredoverVietnam:• Campus“teach-ins”in1965• Graduallyprotestsgrewtotidal-waveproportions• Draftclaimedmoreandmoreyoungmen• ThousandsofdraftregistrantsfledtoCanada• Otherspubliclyburneddraftcards• Hundredsofthousandsmarchedinprotest• ManyAmericansfeltpangsofconscienceatburningpeasanthutsandusingdestructiveweapons


– Congress'soppositiontoVietnam:• CenteredinSenateCommitteeonForeignRelations,headedbySenatorWilliamFulbright– Heldseriesoftelevisedhearingsin1966and1967– Publiccametofeeltheyhadbeendeceivedaboutcausesand“winnability”ofwar

• “Credibilitygap”openedbetweengovernmentandpublic

–Withinadministrationitself:• DoubtsdeepenedaboutwisdomofwarinVietnam

– WhenDefenseSecretaryMcNamaraexpressedmisgivingsaboutwar,hewaseasedoutofoffice


• By1968,brutalandfutilestrugglehadbecomelongestandmostunpopularforeignwartodateforU.S.A.• Casualties(killedandwounded)alreadyexceeded100,000• MorebombsdroppedonVietnam,thanonallenemyterritoryinWWII• GovernmentutterlyfailedtoexplaintothepeoplewhatwassupposedtobeatstakeinVietnam


• Johnson:• OrderedCIA,inclearviolationofitscharter,tospyondomesticantiwaractivists• EncouragedFBItoturnitscounterintelligenceprogram,“Cointelpro,”againstpeacemovement– “Cointelpro”falselylabeledleading“doves”ascommunistsympathizers

– TacticsmadeFBIlookliketotalitarianstate'ssecretpoliceratherthanguardianofAmericandemocracy


• EvidencemountedthatUSAtrappedinacivilwar(motivatedrebelsvs.brutalgovernment)– YetLBJclungtostrategyofratchetinguppressurebitbybit

– StubbornlyassuredAmericansthathecouldsee“thelightattheendofthetunnel”

– TogrowingnumbersofAmericans,itseemedLBJbenton“saving”Vietnambydestroyingit

VII.VietnamTopplesJohnson

• January1968,communistoffensivelaunchedonTet,VietnameseNewYear

• VietCongattacked27SouthVietnamesecities,includingcapitalSaigon• ShowedJohnson'sstrategyofcontinualescalationnotworking• TetoffensiveendedinmilitarydefeatbutpoliticalvictoryforVietCong– U.S.publicopinionincreasinglydemandedendtowar

VII.VietnamTopplesJohnson (cont.)

– AmericanmilitaryleadersrespondedtoTetwithrequestfor200,000moretroops• Requeststaggeredmanypolicymakers

– LBJchallengedwithinhisownparty:• EugeneMcCarthyreceived41.4%ofvoteinNewHampshireprimaryonMarch12,1968• Johnson'sstarfellfurtherfourdayslaterwhenRobertF.Kennedyenteredracefornomination– Kennedystirredpassionateresponseamongworkers,AfricanAmericans,Latinos,andyoungpeople

VII.VietnamTopplesJohnson (cont.)

– Mar.31:Johnsonannouncedhewouldfreezetroopslevelsandscalebackbombing• Declaredhewouldnotbeacandidatein1968election

– Johnson's“abdication”hadeffectofpreservingmilitarystatusquo• Heheld“hawks”incheck,whileofferinghimselfasasacrificetomilitant“doves”• U.S.A.couldmaintainmaximumacceptablelevelofmilitaryactivityinVietnam,whiletryingtonegotiateasettlement

VIII.ThePresidentialSweepstakesof1968

– 1968oneofhottestpoliticalseasonsinU.S.history• VicepresidentHubertH.HumphreywasLBJ'sheirapparentforDemocraticnomination• MeanwhileMcCarthyandKennedydueledinprimaries

– OnJune5,1968,KennedykilledbyArabimmigrantresentfulofRFK'spro-Israelviews

• AntiwargroupsconvergedonDemocraticconventioninChicago,August1968• Exasperatedbysomemilitantdemonstrators,policebrokeintoa“policeriot”onguiltyandinnocentalike• Humphreygainednominationonfirstballotbecauseprocessprivilegedpartyofficialsoverprimaryresults

VIII.ThePresidentialSweepstakesof1968(cont.)

– Republicanconvention,MiamiBeach• RichardM.NixonbecamecandidateacceptabletoGoldwaterconservativesaswellaspartymoderates• TappedMaryland'sGovernorSpiroT.Agnewasrunningmatetoappealtowhitesoutherners– Agnewtoughondissidentsandblackmilitants

• PlatformcalledforvictoryinVietnamandstronganticrimepolicy• “Spoiler”thirdpartyticket—AmericanIndependentparty—headedbyGeorgeC.Wallace– GainedfamewithhisoppositiontoCivilRightsMovement


– BetweenpositionsofRepublicansandDemocratsonVietnam,therewaslittlechoice:• Bothcandidatescommittedtocontinuewaruntilenemysettledfor“honorablepeace”(i.e.,U.S.win)• Millionsof“doves”hadnoplacetoroost

– Manyrefusedtovoteatall• Humphrey,scorchedbyLBJbrand,wentdowntodefeatasloyalprisonerofhischief'spolicies


– Nixonwon:• 301electoralvotes,43.4%ofpopulartally(31,785,480)• Humphrey:191electoralvotes,42.7ofpopularvotes(31,275,166)(seeMap37.2)• HoweverNixon

– FacedDemocraticmajoritiesinbothhousesofCongress– Carriednotasinglemajorcity– Receivednoclearmandatetodoanything– Aminoritypresidentwhoowedhiselectiontodivisionsoverwarandprotestagainstunfairdraft,crime,andrioting

Map 37-2 p895


–Wallace:• Wonimpressive9,906,473popularvotes• 46electoralvotes,allfromfivestatesofDeepSouth

– fourofwhichGoldwaterhadcarriedin1964• Wallaceamassedlargestthird-partypopularvoteinU.S.historytothatpoint• Lastthird-partycandidatetowinanyelectoralvotes

– RossPerotin1992enjoyedagreaterpopularvotemarginbutwonnostates(seeMap40.1)

• Wallacedemonstratedcontinuingpowerof“populist”politics—appealtovoters'fearsandresentments


– JohnsonreturnedtoTexasinJanuary1969,onlytodiefouryearslater:• Hadsignificantachievementsincivilrightsandhelptopoor• By1966LBJsinkingintoVietnamquicksand• Soaringwarcostsconsumedtaxdollars• WaronPovertymetresistanceandwouldeventuallygodownindefeat


• JohnsoncrucifiedhimselfoncrossofVietnam• ChosetodefendU.S.footholdandenlargeconflictratherthanwithdraw• Decisionnottoescalatefightingfurtherin1968offended“hawks,”andhisrefusaltobackoffaltogetherantagonized“doves”

IX.TheCulturalUpheavalofthe1960s

– Strugglesof1960sagainstracism,poverty,andwarinVietnamhadmomentousculturalconsequences:

– Negativeattitudestowardallkindsofauthoritytookhold– Manyyoungpeoplelosttraditionalmoralrudders– Conventionalwisdomandinheritedideascameunderfire

–MainlineProtestantdenominationsweakened• Weeklychurchgoingdeclinedfrom48%inlate1950sto41%in1970s• LiberalProtestantchurchessufferedmost

– Increasinglycededreligiousauthoritytoconservativeevangelicals– Whilesurrenderingculturalauthoritytosecularprofessionalsandacademicsocialscientists

IX.TheCulturalUpheavalofthe1960s(cont.)

• AseducatedAmericansbecameincreasinglysecular,lesseducatedbecamemorereligious• Religiousupheavaloccurredintradition-boundRomanCatholicChurchaftersecondVaticanCouncil• SkepticismaboutauthorityhaddeephistoricalrootsinAmericanculture,includingin1950s:– “Beat”movementrejectedcultureandpoliticsofdecade– MovieslikeRebelWithoutaCause(1955)withyoungactorJamesDeanexpressedrestlessfrustrationofmanyyoungpeople


– Disaffectionofyoungcrescendoedin1960sasBabyBoomreachedcollegeage:• 1offirstprotestsagainstauthoritybrokeoutatUniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeleyin1964– FreeSpeechMovement—studentsobjectedtoadministrativebanonuseofcampusspaceforpoliticaldebate

• ProtestsblossomedoverVietnamandsoonsawriseofself-conscious“counterculture”opposedtotraditionalways• SocialupheavalfarfromAmerican-onlyphenomenon

– Acrossglobe,youth-drivenpoliticalandsocialconflictroiled– Helpedbyglobalreachofyouthpopculture,especiallymusic


• 1960switnessed“sexualrevolution”:– Introductionofbirthcontrolpill(1960)madepregnancieseasiertoavoidandsexualappetiteseasiertosatisfy

– MattachineSociety,foundedinLosAngelesin1951,apioneeringsocietyadvocatinggayrights

– StonewallRebellionatNewYorkCity'sStonewallInn(1969)provedturningpointasvictimsofpolicebrutalityfoughtback

– In1980s,worriesaboutsexuallytransmitteddiseaseslikegenitalherpesandAIDS(acquiredimmunodeficiencysyndrome)slowed,butdidnotreverse,sexualrevolution


• Launchedinyouthfulidealism,manyofdecade's“revolutions”sputteredoutinviolenceandcynicism• StudentsforaDemocraticSociety(SDS):

– Onceatforefrontofantipovertyandantiwarcampaigns– SpawnedundergroundterroristgroupcalledWeathermen

• Peacefulcivilrightsdemonstrationsgavewaytourbanriots• ExperimentswithmarijuanaandLSDspawnedunderworldofdruglordsandaddicts• Criticsdenouncedself-indulgentromanticismof“flowerchildren”

IX.TheCultureUpheavalofthe1960s(cont.)

– Supportershailed“greening”ofAmerica• Materialismandimperialismreplacedbynewconsciousnessofhumanvalues

– Upheavalsof1960scanbeattributedtothreeP's:• Youthfulpopulationbulge• ProtestsagainstracismandVietnamWar• Prosperitythatseemedpermanentfixtureofpostwarera

– “Counterculture”maynothavereplacedoldervalues,butitweakenedtheirgrip,perhapspermanently

X.Nixon“Vietnamizes”theWar– InauguratedonJan.20,1969,Nixonwas:• AnunlikelyconciliatorofclashingforcesrippingAmericansocietyapart– Solitaryandsuspicious– Brittleandtestyinfaceofopposition– Bitterlyresented“liberalestablishment”

• Yet,hebroughtonehugevaluableassettoWhiteHouse:– Broadknowledgeandthoughtfulexpertiseinforeignaffairs– AppliedhimselftoputAmerica'sforeign-policyinorder

• Firstgoal:quietuproaroverVietnam

X.Nixon“Vietnamizes”theWar(cont.)

• Vietnamizationpolicy:• Withdrawthe540,000troopsinSouthVietnamoveranextendedperiod• SouthernVietnamese—withU.S.money,weapons,training,andadvice—wouldgraduallytakeoverwar

• NixonDoctrinethusevolved:• ProclaimedU.S.A.wouldhonoritsexistingdefensecommitments• Infuture,allieswouldhavetofighttheirownwarswithoutsupportoflargebodiesofU.S.troops


• NixonsoughttowinVietnamwarbyothermeans– WithoutfurtherspillingAmericanblood

• Advocatingimmediatewithdrawal,antiwarprotestersstagedbignationalVietnammoratoriuminOct.1969• Nixonlaunchedcounteroffensivebyappealingtosilentmajoritywhopresumablysupportedwar– Hisappealdeeplydivisive– VPAgnewattacked“natteringnabobsofnegativism”whodemandedquickendtowar

– In1970,Nixonsneeredatstudentprotestersas“bums”


– ByJan.1970,Vietnamhadbecameveryunpopular,evenamongU.S.troopsinfield

– ArmedforcesinVietnamlargelycomposedofleastprivilegedyoungAmericans

– Earlyinwar,AfricanAmericans:• Disproportionatelyrepresentedinarmy• Accountedforhighestshareofcombatfatalities


– U.S.soldiers:• FoughtVietnameseaswellasbooby-trappedswampsandsteamingjungles• Unabletotellfriendfromfoeamongpeasants• Drugabuse,mutiny,andsabotagedulledfightingedge• Moraleplummetedfurtherwithrumorsthatsoldiers“fragged”theirofficers—murderedthemwithfragmentationgrenades• Revelationsin1970about1968slaughterinMyLaideepeneddomesticdisgustwithwar

XI.CambodianizingtheVietnamWar

– OnApr.29,1970Nixon,withoutconsultingCongress,orderedU.S.troopstocleanoutenemysanctuariesinofficiallyneutralCambodia

– Massivecampusriotsoverthisnewestescalation:• AtKentStateUniversityinOhio,jumpyNationalGuardfiredintonoisycrowd,killingfourandwoundingmanymore• AthistoricallyblackJacksonStateCollege,Mississippi,highwaypatroldischargedvolleys,killingtwostudents

XI.CambodianizingtheVietnamWar(cont.)

– NixonwithdrewtroopsfromCambodiaonJune29,1970,afteronlytwomonths

– ResultsofCambodianinvasion:• Amplifiedbitternessbetween“hawks”and“doves”• Disillusionmentwith“whitey'swar”increasedamongAfricanAmericansinarmedforces• Senate(butnotHouse)repealedGulfofTonkinblankcheckthatCongressgaveJohnsonin1964• Youthonlyslightlymollifiedwhengovernmentreduceddraftcallsandshortenedperiodofdraftability– Onalotterybasis,fromeightyearstooneyear

XI.CambodianizingtheVietnam(cont.)

• Youthpleased,thoughnotpacified,in1971when26thAmendmentloweredvotingageto18(seeAppendix)• NewcombustiblesfueledfiresofantiwardiscontentinJune1971:– FormerPentagonofficialleakedtoNewYorkTimesthePentagonPapers,atop-secretPentagonstudy

– Documentedwar'sblundersanddeceptions,especiallyprovokingof1964NorthVietnameseattackinGulfofTonkin

XII.Nixon'sDétentewithBeijing(Peking)andMoscow

• DramaticinitiativesinBeijingandMoscow:• TwomajorCommunistpowersclashedoverinterpretationofMarxismaswellasborderbetweenthem• NixonrealizedChinese-SoviettensionaffordedU.S.A.opportunitytoplayoneantagonistagainsttheother• AndenlistaidofbothinpressuringNorthVietnamintopeace• HenryKissingerhadbeenmeetingsecretlywithNorthVietnameseofficialsinParistonegotiateendtowar• Hewasmeanwhilepreparingpresident'spathtoBeijingandMoscow

XII.Nixon'sDétentewithBeijing(Peking)andMoscow(cont.)

– July1971:NixonannouncedhehadacceptedinvitationtovisitCommunistChinathefollowingyear

– MadehishistoricjourneyinFebruary1972– CappedvisitwithShanghaiCommuniqué:

» Inwhichtwonationsagreedto“normalize”relationship» ImportantpartofaccordwasAmerica'sacceptanceof“one-China”policy

» ImpliedlessenedAmericancommitmenttoindependenceofTaiwan


– NixonnexttraveledtoMoscowinMay1972:» Toplay“Chinacard”ingameofhigh-stakesdiplomacywithKremlin

» SovietsreadytodealwithUnitedStates• Nixon'svisitusheredineraofdétente:

– Relaxedtension—withmajorcommunistpowers• Andproducedseveralsignificantagreementsin1972

– Mostimportant,USAandUSSRagreedtoanti-ballisticmissile(ABM)treatyandtoseriesofarms-reductionnegotiationsknownasSALT(StrategicArmsLimitationTalks)» Aimedatfreezingnumbersoflong-rangemissilesforfiveyears


– ABMandSALTaccordsafirststeptowardslowingarmsrace– Yetbothforgedaheadwithdevelopmentof“MIRVs”(multipleindependentlytargetedreentryvehicles)» Putanumberofwarheadsonasinglemissile

• Nixon'sdétentediplomacydid,tosomeextent,de-iceColdWar


• Nixonremainedstaunchlyanticommunist• OpposedelectionofMarxistSalvadorAllendetopresidencyofChilein1970

• Allendediedduringanarmyattackonhisheadquartersin1973

• NixonwarmlyembracedAllende'ssuccessor,militarydictatorGeneralAugustoPinochet

XIII.ANewTeamontheSupremeBench

• NixonandSupremeCourt• In1968,Nixonlashedoutagainst“permissiveness”and“judicialactivism”ofWarrenCourt• WarrenCourtaffectedsexualfreedom,criminalrights,practiceofreligion,civilrights,andrepresentation• Griswoldv.Connecticut(1965):Courtvoidedstatelawthatbanneduseofcontraceptives,evenamongmarriedcouples,becauseof“rightofprivacy”• Gideonv.Wainwright(1963):Courtheldthatallcriminaldefendantsentitledtolegalcounsel,eveniftoopoortoaffordit

XIII.ANewTermontheSupremeBench(cont.)

• Escobedo(1964)andMiranda(1966)ensuredrightofaccusedtoremainsilentandenjoyprotections• Mirandawarning–policemustreadtosuspects

– Rulingssoughttopreventabusivepolicetactics• Toconservativesseemedtocoddlecriminalsandsubvertlawandorder

– ConservativesalsoobjectedtoCourt'sviewsonreligion:


– InEngelv.Vitale(1962)andSchoolDistrictofAbingdonTownshipv.Schempp(1963):• JusticesarguedFirstAmendment'sseparationofchurchandstatemeantpublicschoolscouldnotrequireprayerorBiblereading• Socialconservativesraisedanewbattlecry“ImpeachEarlWarren”(seeChap.36)

– From1954,Courtcameunderrelentlesscriticism,bitterestsinceNewDealdays• Grappledwithproblemslegislaturesfailedtoaddress


• Fulfillingcampaignpromise,NixontriedtochangeCourt'sphilosophicalcomplexion:

• Soughtappointeeswhowould:– StrictlyinterpretConstitution– Cease“meddling”insocialandpoliticalquestions– Notcoddleradicalsorcriminals

• AppointedWarrenE.BurgertosucceedEarlWarren• Beforeendof1971,NixonhadappointedfourconservativestoCourt


• Nixonlearnedthatonceseated,justicesdecideaccordingtoconscience,notaccordingtopresident'sexpectations

• BurgerCourtprovedreluctanttodismantle“liberal”rulingsofWarrenCourt– ControversialandmomentousRoev.Wade(1973)whichlegalizedabortion(seeChap.38)

XIV.NixonontheHomeFront

• OversawbigexpansionofwelfareprogramsthatconservativeRepublicansdenounced:

• IncreasedappropriationsforFoodStamps,Medicaid,andAidtoFamilieswithDependentChildren(AFDC)• Addednewprogram:SupplementalSecurityIncome(SSI)toassistindigent,aged,blind,anddisabled• AutomaticSocialSecuritycost-of-livingincreases• Implementedso-calledPhiladelphiaPlan(1969):

– Requiredtradeunionstoestablish“goalsandtime-tables”forhiringblackapprentices

XIV.NixonontheHomeFront (cont.)

• PhiladelphiaPlan:• Required1,000sofemployerstomeethiringquotasorestablish“set-asides”forminoritysubcontractors• Alteredmeaningof“affirmativeaction”

– Fromprotectindividualsagainstdiscrimination– Toprogramthatconferredprivilegesoncertaingroups

• SupremeCourtwentalongwithNixon'sapproach– Griggsv.DukePowerCo.(1971):Courtbannedintelligencetestsorotherdevicesthathadeffectofexcludingminoritiesorwomenfromcertainjobs


• Onlysureprotectionagainstchargeofdiscriminationwastohireminoritiesoradmitminoritystudents– Inproportiontotheirpresenceinpopulation

• NixonandCourtopenednewemploymentandeducationalopportunitiesforminoritiesandwomen• Criticsprotestedchangesas“reversediscrimination”

– AnotherNixonlegacy:• 1970creationofEnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA)• RachelCarson'sSilentSpring(1962)exposedpoisonouseffectsofpesticides


• April22,1970,millionsaroundworldcelebratedfirstEarthDay:– Toraiseawarenessandtoencourageleaderstoact– CongresspassedCleanAirAct(1970)andEndangeredSpeciesAct(1973)

– EPAmadeprogressinreducingautomobileemissionsandcleaningupbefouledwaterwaysandtoxicwastesites

• Federalgovernmentexpandedregulatoryreachonbehalfofworkersandconsumers– 1970NixonsignedOccupationalSafetyandHealthAdministration(OSHA)intolaw


– Createdagencydedicatedtoimprovingworkingconditions» Preventwork-relatedaccidentsanddeath» Issuesafetystandards

• ConsumerProductSafetyCommission(CPSC):– Heldcompaniesaccountableforsellingdangerousproducts

• Businesscriticsdecried“nannystate”• 1971:Nixonimposed90-daywageandpricefreeze• HethentookU.S.A.offgoldstandardanddevalueddollar

– Twoactionsended“BrettonWoods”systemofinternationalcurrencystabilizationthathadfunctionedsinceendofWWII(seeChap.35)


– Devisedplan—calledsouthernstrategy—togainreelectionin1972

– AppointedconservativeSupremeCourtjustices– Soft-pedaledcivilrights– Opposedschoolbusingtoachieveracialbalance

– Goal:convertdisillusionedwhitesouthernDemocratstoRepublicans

– Setinmotionsweepingpoliticalrealignmentthateventuallytransformedpartysystem

XV.TheNixonLandslideof1972

• FouryearssinceNixonpromisedtoendVietnamwarand“win”peace

• 1972:whenNorthVietnamburstthroughdemilitarizedzoneseparatingtwoVietnams,Nixonlaunchedmassivebombingattacks• ContinuingVietnamconflictspurredriseofSouthDakotasenatorGeorgeMcGovernto1972Democraticnomination• Helpedbychangesinnominationsystemthatincreasedimportanceofprimaryelections– Newsystememphasizedmediapolitickingandactivistbase

XV.TheNixonLandslideof1972(cont.)

• McGovernusednewpopulistprocess– PromisedtopullremainingtroopsoutofVietnaminninetydays:• Earnedhimbackingoflargeantiwarelementinparty• Hisappealtoracialminorities,feminists,leftists,andyouthalienatedtraditionalworking-classDemocrats

• Nixonemphasizedhehadwounddown“Democraticwar”inVietnam– From540,000toabout30,000troops

XV.TheNixonLandslideof1972(cont.)

• HiscandidacyreceivedaddedboosttwelvedaysbeforeelectionwhenKissingerannounced– “Peaceisathand”andanagreementwouldbereachedinafewdays

• Nixonwonlandslide:– WoneverystateexceptMassachusettsandnonstateDistrictofColumbia(seeAppendix)

– Received520electoralvotesto17forMcGovern– Popularmajorityof47,169,911to29,170,383votes

• McGoverncountedonyoungvote,butlessthanhalf18-20agegroupevenbotheredtoregistertovote

XVI.TheSecretBombingofCambodiaandtheWarPowersAct

– Doveofpeace“athand”justbeforeballoting,tookflightafterelection:• Nixonlaunchedfurioustwo-weekbombing• NorthVietnamagreedtocease-fireinTreatyofParis(Jan.23,1973)nearlythreemonthsafterpeaceprematurelyproclaimed• Nixonhailedcease-fireas“peacewithhonor,”butboastranghallowas“peace”littlemorethanU.S.retreat– UnitedStateswouldwithdrawitsremaining27,000troopsandreclaim560Americanprisonersofwar

– NorthVietnamallowedtokeep145,000troopsinSouthVietnam

XVI.TheSecretBombingofCambodiaandtheWarPowersAct(cont.)

• ConstitutionalityofU.S.warinCambodia:– July1973:publiclearnedAirForcehadsecretlybombedCambodia3,500timessinceMar.1969• Whileforaysgoingon,U.S.officials,includingNixon,hadswornCambodianneutralitybeingrespected• Defiancefollowedsecretiveness:

– NixoncontinuedbombingCambodiaevenafterVietnamcease-fire

– Repeatedlyvetoedcongressionaleffortstostopbombing


– YearsofbombingwoundedCambodia:• Blasteditspeople• Shreddeditseconomy• Revolutionizeditspolitics

– CambodianssufferedsadisticheelofPolPot:• Twomilliondied• Potforcedfromofficeby1978Vietnameseinvasion


• 1973WarPowersActoverNixon'sveto:• RequiredpresidentreporttoCongresswithin48hoursaftercommittingtroopstoforeignconflictor“substantially”enlargingcombatunitsabroad• Suchalimitedauthorizationwouldendwithin60daysunlessextendedbyCongressfor30days• Actmanifestationof“NewIsolationism,”moodofcautionandrestraintabroad• DraftendedinJanuary1973

– Futuremembersofarmedforceswouldbevolunteers

XVII.TheArabOilEmbargoandtheEnergyCrisis

• YomKippurWareruptedOctober1973• SyriaandEgyptattackedIsraeltoregainlandlostduringSix-DayWar(1967)• KissingerflewtoMoscowtorestrainSoviets,whowerearmingattackers• Nixonplacednuclearforcesonalertandorderedairliftof$2billioninwarmaterialstoIsrael• IsraelisturnedtideandthreatenedCairobeforeU.S.A.brokereduneasycease-fire

XVII.TheArabOilEmbargoandtheEnergyCrisis(cont.)

– U.S.policyofbackingIsraelagainstitsoil-richneighborsexactedheavypenalty:• Oct.1973,OPECannouncedoilembargotoU.S.A.andthoseEuropeanalliessupportingIsrael• Oil-richArabstatesalsocutoilproduction• Oilshortagetriggeredmajoreconomicrecession,notonlyinUnitedStates,butalsoFranceandBritain• Inincreasinglyglobalized,interconnectedworld,allnationsfeltcrunchof“energycrisis”

XVII.TheArabOilEmbargoandtheEnergyCrisis(cont.)

– Fivemonthsofembargoendederaofcheapandabundantenergy

– Since1948,U.S.A.hadbeennetoilimporter• U.S.oilproductionpeakedin1970,thandeclined• YetAmericanstripledtheiroilusagesinceWWII• Automobilesincreased250%between1949and1972• By1974,Americaoil-addictedandvulnerabletoanyinterruptioninsupplies• MiddleEastattainednewimportancetoU.S.interests

IVII.TheArabOilEmbargoandtheEnergyCrisis(cont.)

• OPECquadrupledpriceforcrudeoilafterliftingembargoin1974– Results:• HugeoilbillsdisruptedU.S.balanceofinternationaltradeandfurtherfueledragingfireofinflation• U.S.tookleadtoformInternationalEnergyAgencyin1974ascounterweighttoOPEC• VarioussectorsofU.S.economy,includingautos,begantoadjusttodawningageofenergydependency• E.g.,nationalspeedlimit(55)toconservefuel

the stormy sixties, 1963–1973 - mr....

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