the state of the marine environment – trends and processes state of the marine environment... ·...

The State of the Marine EnvironmentTrends and processes

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This report was commissioned by the Coordination Office of the Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-based Activities (gpa) of the United NationsEnvironment Programme (unep).

unep/gpa Coordination Officepo Box 162272500 be The HagueThe Netherlandst +31 (0)70 311 44 72f +31 (0)70 345 66 48e [email protected] www.gpa.unep.org

AcknowledgementsThe unep/gpa Coordination Office gratefully acknowledges the financial contribution to this publicationfrom the Governments of Belgium, Ireland, the Netherlands and Norway.

Research and compilationDr. Ljubomir Jeftic Much of the draft material for the unep/gpa regional assessment of the State of the Marine Environmenthas been used as input for this report.

Research assistants Jennifer Laughlin and Prem Vanrompay

External reviewersJosef M. Pacyna and Prof. Felino P. Lansigan; the draft report was also discussed in June 2005, during theloicz/unep workshop on the State of the Environment in the Regional Seas that unep/gpa is preparing

Editing Andrea Matte-Baker and Mirjam Schomaker

Design and typesetting Mijke Wondergem: Graphic designer (bno), Baarn, the Netherlands

Cover photoSecret Sea Visions/Lineair

PrintingArtoos Drukkerijen, Rijswijk, the NetherlandsPrinted on wood-free paper

The contents of this publication do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of unep or the editor, nor are they an official record.

This publication may be reproduced in whole or in part and in any form of educational or non-profit services without special permission from the copyright holder, provided acknowledgement of the sourceis made. unep would appreciate receiving a copy of any publication that uses this publication as a source.

No use of this publication may be made for resale or for other commercial purposes whatsoever withoutthe prior permission in writing from unep.

For bibliographical purposes this document may be cited as:unep/gpa (2006). The State of the Marine Environment: Trends and processes. unep/gpa, The Hague

isbn 92-807-2708-7

© United Nations Environment Programme, 2006

OmslagR2 18-07-2006 12:11 Pagina 2

The State of the Marine Environment Trends and processes

United Nations Environment Programme (unep)Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-based Activities (gpa)

i f o r e w o r d

Foreword

Recognising the significance of the risks posed by human development activities on

the coastal and marine environment, 108 governments and the European Commission

adopted the Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment

from Land-based Activities (gpa) in 1995. They made a commitment to deal with nine land-

based threats to the marine environment, namely sewage, persistent organic pollutants

(pops), radioactive substances, heavy metals, oils (hydrocarbons), nutrients, sediment

mobilization, marine litter and the physical alteration and destruction of habitats.

The gpa calls for periodic reviews and in response to this mandate the unep/gpa

Coordination Office commissioned this report: The State of the Marine Environment:

Trends and processes. Its purpose is to give a broad global perspective on the situation,

providing regional and sometimes national examples. The report provides an overview of

the current state of the coastal and marine environment in relation to the nine categories

of threats outlined by the gpa.

The report often relies on information that dates back farther than the adoption of the gpa,

largely because of limited contemporary data. At the same time, there exists a considerable

time lag between the pressures imposed on the environment, the subsequent development

of policies, the implementation of measures and, eventually, the visible manifestation of the

impact of such responses. While the findings of the report may not be based on as current

information as we would like, the resulting analysis is indicative of trends in the state of the

marine environment as they relate to the gpa.

The report indicates that legal and institutional arrangements have been strengthened

and now cover most regions of the world. In addition, ongoing programmes, including gef

supported large marine ecosystems (lme) programmes, contribute to the implementation

of the gpa. Despite these heightened efforts globally, coastal and marine ecosystems

continue to deteriorate mainly because of pressures by human development. Progress in

dealing with the nine gpa source categories has been uneven: progress has been made in

Persistent Organic Pollutants, Radioactive Substances and Oils (Hydrocarbons), results

are mixed in Heavy Metals and Sediment mobilization and conditions have worsened in

Sewage, Nutrients, Marine Litter, and Physical Alteration and Destruction of Habitats.

This report informs and compliments the other studies we have produced for the Second

Intergovernmental Review Meeting, and it provides a basis for some of the new strategic

directions proposed in the Programme of Work for the unep/gpa Coordination Office

(2007-2011). The report also aims to contribute to the Global Assessment of the

Marine Environment.

The unep/gpa Coordination office and its partners are pleased to present this report and

it is our hope that the findings presented here will further support global, regional and

national efforts in implementing the Global Programme of Action.

Dr. Veerle VandeweerdCoordinator, unep / gpa Coordination Office

i i i acr o n y ms a nd a b b r e v i at i o ns

Acronyms and abbreviations

amap Arctic Monitoring and Assessment ProgrammeBillion 1000 x million cep Caspian Environment Programmeco2 Carbon dioxidecsd Commission on Sustainable Development of the unddt Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethanedpsir Driver-Pressure-State-Impact-Response frameworkeea European Environment Agencyemap Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Programme of the usescap Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacificg giga = 109 = billion = 1000 x milliongems Global Environmental Monitoring Systemgeo Global Environment Outlook gesamp Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Environmental Protection

(imo/fao/unesco-ioc/wmo/who/iaea/un/unep)giwa Global International Waters Assessment gma Global Assessment of the Marine Environmentgpa Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment

from Land-based Activities hcb Hexachlorobenzenehch Hexachlorocyclohexanehelcom Helsinki Commission/The Baltic Marine Environment Protection Commissioniaea International Atomic Energy Agencyicarm Integrated Coastal Area and River Basin Management ices International Council for Exploration of the Seasihe–Delft International Institute for Infrastructural, Hydraulic, & Environmental Engineeringiucn World Conservation Unionloicz Land-Ocean Interactions in the Coastal Zone map Mediterranean Action Planmdg Millennium Development Goalsngo non-governmental organizationoecd Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Developmentospar Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlanticpadh Physical Alteration and Destruction of Habitatspah Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon pb Leadpbq pétabequerel pcb Polychlorinated biphenylpo Poloniumpop Persistent Organic Pollutant ppm parts per millionpts Persistent Toxic Substancesramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance, especially as Waterfowl Habitatropme Sea Area Regional Organization for the Protection of the Marine Environment of

the sea area surrounded by Bahrain, I.R. Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates

soe State of the Environmentt tonne (1000 kg)t tera = 1012 = trilliontbt tributyltin uk United Kingdomun United Nationsunep United Nations Development Programmeusa United States of Americausda/nrcs us Department of Agriculture/Natural Resourcesusepa us Environmental Protection Agencywet-wash Wastewater Emission Targets – Water, Sanitation and Hygienewri World Resources Institutewsscc Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Councilwssd World Summit on Sustainable Developmentwcmc World Conservation Monitoring Centre

i i t he s tat e o f t he m a r ine en v ir o nmen t : t r end s a nd p r o ce s s e s

Table of contents

Foreword. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i

Acronyms and abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii

Executive summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv

1 The framework for action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Legal and institutional framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.2 Implementation and international and regional cooperation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2 The current status of action within the framework of the gpa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

2.1 Sewage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

2.2 Persistent Organic Pollutants (pops) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

2.3 Radioactive substances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

2.4 Heavy metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

2.5 Oils (hydrocarbons) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

2.6 Nutrients. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

2.7 Sediment mobilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

2.8 Marine litter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

2.9 Physical alteration and destruction of habitats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

3 Problems identified for priority action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

3.1 The issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

3.2 Emerging challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

3.3 Important management responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

4 Overall assessment and conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

v e x ecu t i v e summ a r y

the iaea and imo, with the aim of improving mutual understanding, confidence building

and enhanced communications in relation to safe maritime transport of radioactive

materials

· Heavy metals are essential to life in minute quantities, but become toxic in higher

concentrations; mercury, lead and cadmium are considered the most dangerous. These

pollutants are by-products of industrial and mining activities, and from burning of fossil

fuels for energy and transport. The current situation is not clear-cut. Most developed

regions have instituted control measures, but this progress is offset by new sources of

pollution in emerging economies. Overall, growing awareness of the danger is having

a positive effect on putting control measures in place.

· Significant amounts of oil and oil by-products are released into the environment,

mainly as a result of activities related to energy production and use. Oil contamination

damages habitats and wildlife as well as posing a threat to human health. There has been

significant improvement since 1985, mainly in marine transportation of oil, although

the danger of an oil-spill remains. However, because of growth in population and

industrialization, it is expected that land-based oil runoff will increase.

· Imbalances in nutrient ratios cause widespread changes in the structure and functioning

of ecosystems, which, in turn, have generally negative impacts on habitats, food webs

and species diversity, including economically important ones. The potential seriousness

of the problem was not foreseen some decades ago when it first emerged. Both the

frequency and intensity of so-called ‘coastal dead zones’ are rapidly increasing. Control

of land-based sources of nutrients has been uneven. Relative success has been achieved

with point sources but diffuse sources are proving more difficult to curtail.

· Increase or decrease in sediment flows seriously disrupts coastal ecosystems and

habitats, including wetlands, coastal lagoons, estuaries, sea grass beds and mangroves.

These changes results from modifying land-use and/or the hydrological regime. Overall,

the situation appears to be worsening, with progress in some areas being offset by

deterioration in others. In the future, growing populations and increased development

can only make current trends more pronounced.

· Ecosystems and wildlife, human health and safety, cultural and aesthetic values and

economic activities all suffer as a result of litter. Since most of this litter is non-degra-

dable, or only breaks down very slowly, it inevitably accumulates over time. Thus, the

problem is continually worsening, in spite of both national and international efforts to

control it. As the problem has largely cultural roots (current attitudes and behaviour

demonstrate that people do not feel responsible), building awareness and providing

information offers some hope for the future.

Heavy metals

Oils (hydrocarbons)

Nutrients

Sediment mobilization

Marine litter

i v t he s tat e o f t he m a r ine en v ir o nmen t : t r end s a nd p r o ce s s e s

Executive summary

1 Thirty-eight per cent of the world’s population live within a narrow fringe of coastal

land, only 7.6 per cent of the Earth’s total land area (unep 2006) and largely depend on

coastal resources for their livelihoods. As a result, coastal and marine ecosystems are

rapidly deteriorating because of human pressure, almost 80 per cent of which originate

on land. In recognition of this, governments adopted the Global Programme of Action for

the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-based Activities (gpa) in 1995. This

report provides an overview of the current situation and of progress in the protection of

the marine environment in the gpa framework. Although the information presented here

may not be comprehensive, it is indicative of the present State of the Marine Environment.

2 Since the adoption of the gpa, the legal and institutional arrangements that support

action have been expanded and strengthened and now cover most regions of the world.

The implementation of plans and programmes is underway and is increasingly seen as a

contribution to the achievement of the targets set by the international community, such as

the Millennium Development Goals and the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation (wssd).

Cooperation both within the framework of the gpa as well as with other conventions and

programmes is also well established.

3 The current status of action for the nine source categories within the framework

of the gpa has been reviewed. Current trends vary for each category, as does progress in

controlling deterioration. The picture that emerges shows that although much has been

achieved, still more needs to be done. Briefly, the situation is as follows:

· Discharge of untreated domestic wastes is a major source of marine pollution, and

perhaps the most serious problem within the framework of the gpa. Globally, in spite of

action, the problem is growing worse, mainly because of growth in population and rapid

urbanization. The problems are worse in developing regions, where only a fraction of

sewage is treated; the main constraint to progress there is not technical but financial.

· These highly toxic and stable organic chemical substances (pesticides, industrial

chemicals and associated by-products) can accumulate in organisms and persist for years

and even decades in the environment. In the two decades since international controls

were instituted, the situation has improved considerably, although problems still remain

in developing regions dependent on agriculture and in fragile ecosystems such as the

Arctic. Even in these areas steady improvements are likely, in view of the regulatory

system currently in place.

· Energy generation and other civilian and military activities that could possibly release

radioactive substances are highly regulated. Some countries feel there is cause for

concern about the danger posed by nuclear accidents; however, the iaea Safety has

concluded that there is no support for the contention that maritime shipments of radio-

active materials, as currently carried out, are unsafe. The 2005 Mauritius Strategy notes

that States should maintain dialogue and consultation, in particular under the aegis of

Progress has been made in the framework of thegpa in…

…legal and institutionalarrangements, implementation and cooperation…

…covering nine degradation source categories:

Sewage

Persistent OrganicPollutants

Radioactive substances

1 t he fr a me w o r k f o r ac t i o n

The framework for action

1 The adoption of the gpa in 1995 signalled the beginning of the first global

programme for the protection of the marine environment that focussed on the

effects of land-based activities from nine specific categories. It reconfirmed general

principles already contained in various global or regional agreements, either in

the form of broad conventions or more restricted protocols, and stimulated the

development of more comprehensive agreements, cooperation and partnerships.

1.1 Legal and institutional frameworkA first generation of regional agreements, developed before the 1995 adoption of the gpa,

concern conventions applying to a specific jurisdictional area of the marine environment

as well as a land area determined by the contracting parties (such as the freshwater limit,

inter-tidal zones and salt-water marshes). Agreements existing prior to 1995 include those

for the North-East Atlantic; the South-East Pacific; the Baltic Sea; the Mediterranean Sea;

the Black Sea and the ropme Sea Area.

The recommendations of the 1995 gpa, among others resulted in revisions of various

agreements, or adoption of new ones, including for the Mediterranean Sea, the Wider

Caribbean, the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden. Revisions and/or new agreements are in

progress, including those for the Black Sea, the Caspian Sea and the Western Indian Ocean,

under the Nairobi Convention. Action plans and programmes have been developed for East

Asia; South Asia, the South Pacific; the Upper South-West and North-East Atlantic; East

Africa; West and Central Africa; ropme; the Mediterranean; the Artic; the Baltic; the Red

Sea and the Gulf of Aden. These second generation agreements are more comprehensive

in terms of jurisdiction and more specific in terms of the activities and polluting substances

included. They typically contain provisions for national plans and programmes as well as

regional or sub-regional cooperation.

Regional and national legislation is also contributing significantly to the improvement of

the state of the coastal and marine environment, and includes, among others, the Water

Framework Directive (wfd) of the European Union, the Clean Water Act in the usa and

equivalent legislation in Canada.

Assessment:

In the past decade both the legal and institutional arrangements have been strengthened

and considerably expanded, and now cover most regions. They are functioning

satisfactorily, with the Secretariats to the Conventions playing an important role.

1.2 Implementation and international and regional cooperationThe gpa recommends modalities for identifying priorities as well as the steps necessary

for developing the most appropriate sequence of actions for dealing with problems.

In the past decade, a clear trend towards a holistic approach to implementation has

emerged, moving from coastal area management towards a more complex one that

also includes the management of entire river basins (Integrated Coastal Area and River

Basin Management – icarm).

First generation regionalagreements typically concern conventions

Second generation regional agreements alsoprovide for action plansand programmes

In addition relevant regional and national legislation was adopted

Overall, legal and insti-tutional arrangementshave been strengthenedand expanded

A holistic approach

v i t he s tat e o f t he m a r ine en v ir o nmen t : t r end s a nd p r o ce s s e s

· Damage to coastal habitats and wildlife is increasingly becoming more severe as a

result of human population growth and increased economic and development activities.

The most affected coastal systems include wetlands, mangroves and coral reefs. While

deterioration is worse in regions that have faster growth in population, no area is spared.

Overall, the situation is worsening and will most likely continue to worsen in future.

4 An overall assessment of the situation concerning land-based sources of pollution and

progress in implementation of the gpa shows that while the framework for action is solid,

progress in dealing with the nine source categories has been uneven. There are three areas

were good progress has been made (Persistent Organic Pollutants, Radioactive Substances,

Oils (Hydrocarbons), two areas where results are mixed (Heavy Metals and Sediment

mobilization) and yet a third group where conditions have worsened (Sewage, Nutrients,

Marine Litter, Physical Alteration and Destruction of Habitats). On the one hand success is

directly related to factors such as the regulatory system, institutional structures, techno-

logy or funding, all areas of concern to the gpa. On the other hand there are factors that are

outside the scope of the gpa but that nevertheless have a determining influence, as is the

case of population growth and development. The conclusion is that, while progress has

undoubtedly been made and continues to be feasible, there is still a long way to go. Bearing

the framework of the gpa in mind, it is important to realise that these processes often take

15 to 20 years before meaningful commitments to joint management can be secured, and

an even longer time before the environment actually begins to respond.

Four priority problems were identified from within the source categories of the gpa, namely

sewage and management of municipal wastewater, nutrient over-enrichment, marine litter

and physical alteration and destruction of habitats. These problems have been designated

as an area for priority attention in most regions, and are the subject of novel approaches.

Six emerging challenges deserve special attention: nutrient over-enrichment in relation to

coastal dead zones, depletion of freshwater flows, the importance of coastal and freshwater

wetlands, the abundant stream of new chemicals, the importance of resilient coastal

habitats for coastal protection, and sea level rise. Two topics were recommended as

being of major importance for the way forward: the coordination with other international

indicator efforts in the development of a set of indicators to assess changes in the state of

the environment relevant to the gpa, and the need for integrated management approaches

for river basins and coastal areas.

Physical alteration anddestruction of habitats

Progress has been uneven, but real impactswill only show in the longer term

Four priority problems, six emerging challenges,two important manage-ment approaches

3 t he cur r en t s tat us o f ac t i o n w i t hin t he fr a me w o r k o f g pa

The current status of action within the framework of gpa

2 In the review that follows, all regions have been covered as far as possible.

Significant examples have been highlighted. Current trends vary for each gpa source

category, as does progress in controlling deterioration. Some areas show a positive

trend as a result of – amongst others – successful implementation of measures

undertaken in the framework of the gpa. Other areas show mixed results, because

improvements in some aspects are offset by an acceleration of human impacts

and resulting negative environmental trends. Finally, some areas show a clear

deterioration, in some cases in spite of action, and in others because action is

insufficient.

2.1 SewageThe problem:

Sewage generally contains organic carbon, nutrients and human pathogens, as well

industrial chemicals, oils and greases (gesamp 2001). Discharge of untreated domestic

wastewater has been identified as a major source of environmental pollution in most of

the unep Regional Seas programmes. The problem occurs mainly in developing countries;

at present, only a fraction of domestic wastewater is being collected there, and of existing

water treatment plants, most do not work efficiently or reliably.

Effects of discharging raw sewage into water bodies are generally local, with

transboundary implications occurring in certain areas. However, the commonality

of sewage related problems throughout coastal areas of the world is significant

(unep 1995). The effects include:

· disturbances in the ecosystem, including destruction of habitats, damage to biota

and biodiversity as well as possible eutrophication (such as green, brown and red

tides and algal blooms);

· effects on human health from polluted water, including swimming (see picture

below), bathing, drinking and eating contaminated aquatic foodstuffs;

· impacts on economic activities, principally fisheries and tourism.

Sewage problems mainly occur in developing countries

2 t he s tat e o f t he m a r ine en v ir o nmen t : t r end s a nd p r o ce s s e s

Assessment:

Cooperation and partnerships are seen as appropriate vehicles for addressing land based

sources of pollution. There are many examples of effective cooperation, including the

Waste-water Emission Targets – Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (wet-wash) Campaign;

the Programme of Action for the Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing

States (bpoa/sids); the Mauritius Strategy for the further Implementation of bpoa/sids;

and the who/unicef Joint Monitoring Programme on Water Supply and Sanitation (jmp).

International financial institutions such as gef and the World Bank, as well as regional

investment banks, bilateral donors and others are instrumental in their implementation.

Furthermore, implementation increasingly functions in a synergistic manner with many

programmes, making a contribution to the implementation of global initiatives such as

the Millennium Development Goals and the relevant targets of the Johannesburg Plan of

Implementation of the World Summit on Sustainable Development (wssd). Cooperation,

both within the framework of the gpa as well as under other conventions and programmes,

is well established.

Synergy

Cooperation and partnerships

Children swimming near sewage outflow pipes

Source: bizzarri/unep/Still Pictures


from improved sanitation and hygiene range from us$3 to us$34 per us$1 invested;

benefits extend well beyond individual households (csd 2005).

Many alternative sanitation systems exist, adapted to specific situations in a country

Sewage is the most serious problem with theleast progress, hamperedby financial constraints


The current situation globally:

Sewage treatment varies considerably, as does the degree of action and the priority

accorded to the problem. The call by the unep Governing Council to give greater attention

to the environmental aspects of sanitation (gcss/gmef ix, Dubai 2006) may help in

focussing attention on this aspect. Highlights of the situation in various regions give

a picture of the range of conditions:

In North America: the usa Clean Water Act enacted in 1948 and totally revised in 1972

regulates pollution and imposes uniform federal standards, based on the best available

technology, for municipal and wastewater treatment. The Clean Water Act has resulted,

in a significant reduction of pollution loads in us waters. The us has also focused specifically

on coastal waters through the Coastal Non-point Pollution Program, implemented by

coastal states and administered jointly by epa and noaa. (See Coastal Zone Act

Reauthorization Amendments of 1990, Section 6217).

In the Baltic Sea: 14 per cent of the wastewater discharged is untreated (unep 2004a);

however, in the last decade, biological treatment plants have reduced microbial

concentrations in wastewater (giwa 2005).

In Western Europe the percentage of population served by treatment plants increased

between 1979 and 1990, and remained constant at a level of 80-90 per cent through to

2000; overall pollution levels have decreased due to improvements in treatment.

Phosphorus, for example, decreased by 30 per cent and nitrogen by 60 per cent (eea 2003).

In the Mediterranean Sea on the other hand 53 per cent of wastewater discharged remains

untreated (unep 2004a).

In Central and Eastern Europe the situation varies. Some 25 per cent of the population is

connected to treatment plants, with most of the water receiving secondary treatment;

however, many large cities discharge wastewater virtually untreated.

Also in the Caspian Sea 60 per cent of wastewater is discharged untreated (unep 2004a).

For Latin America and the Caribbean tourist facilities tend to operate their own treatment

plants, but of these, only 25 per cent are in good operating condition (unep 2001), and

86 per cent of wastewater is discharged untreated (unep 2004a).

The same source (unep 2004a) indicates that in:

the North Atlantic only 10 per cent of wastewater is discharged untreated;

East Asia 89 per cent;

Southern Asia 85 per cent;

the South East Pacific 83 per cent;

West and Central Africa: 80 per cent;

the ropme Sea Area sewage treatment plants exist in all countries, but the level

of treatment varies and capacity is not sufficient to deal with existing loads.

Financial aspects:

Wastewater pollution can prove costly in human, ecological and financial terms (unep 2004)

(see box next page). Pollution is associated with direct costs to the economy, as well as the

costs of missed opportunities; preventive action can generate substantial benefits while

avoiding future expenditures (ihe 2000). The economic, social and environmental benefits

Sewage treatment,degree of action, and priority accorded varyconsiderably per region

Benefits of improved sanitation and hygiene go beyond individualhouseholds

The cost of Inaction

· The total global health impact of human infectious diseases associated with pathogenic micro-organisms from land-based wastewater pollution of the sea is estimated to amount to 3 million‘Disability-Adjusted Life Years’, with an estimated economic loss of some us$12 billion per year(Shuval 2003).

· The 1991 cholera epidemic in Peru was the consequence of poor sanitation and water provision. It is estimated that it cost the government us$1 billion: half of that from loss of life and productivity, a further us$147.1 million from reduced income from tourism, us$29 million from medical expensesand us$27.7 million from reduced exports (Panisset 2000).

· Seafood contaminated by harmful algal blooms causes significant health problems. The socio-eco-nomic impact in 3 European Union countries (Greece, Italy, Spain) is around 3 329 million annually,affecting mainly commercial fisheries (3 59 million) and tourism (3 265 million) (eea 2005). <

At present, conventional water supply and sanitation systems are costly, particularly for

low-income regions. Increasingly, however, there is a wide range of alternatives, going from

technically sophisticated, large-scale, costly systems to simple, small-scale and inexpensive

ones (csd 2005). Effective methods now focus on sustainable wastewater management

that encompasses an enabling policy environment, efficient institutional and financial

arrangements, sustainable, cost-effective technologies and social participation. This

follows suggestions in the Strategic Action Plan on Municipal Wastewater and associated

Management Guidelines and contributes to the achievement of mdg and wssd targets

on Water and Sanitation (unep/who/habitat/wsscc 2001 and 2004).

At the global level estimates of the costs of water supply and sanitation are that an

additional us$89-100 billion is required annually for all aspects of water management

(us$72 billion for household sanitation, of which us$56 billion for wastewater treatment

alone). Although governments and the international community are committed to action,

challenges still remain on how to mobilize investment (csd 2005). Examples of current

investments include an estimate of 3 152 billion in wastewater infrastructure during

1990-2010 and 3 5 billion annually by the European Commission for implementation of

the Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive (European Commission 2004). In the usa,

us$125 billion has been spent between 1972-1992 in construction or expansion of publicly

owned infrastructure (Pew Oceans Commission 2001).

Assessment:

Overall, control of pollution from sewage continues to be a major problem, particularly

in developing countries and is continually getting worse. Treatment facilities and infra-

structure have not kept pace with population growth and the number of people without

the benefit of wastewater treatment will continue to increase, unless the means are found

to overcome existing constraints. These constraints are mainly financial rather than of a

technical nature. On balance, it is perhaps the most serious of all the problems within

the framework of the gpa. It is also the area where least progress has been achieved.


The current situation:

In response to the problems caused by pops the international community adopted the

Stockholm Convention in 2001, with the objective of eliminating production and use and

restricting exports of specific pops. The Convention identifies an initial set of 12 chemicals,

of which 9 are pesticides. These chemicals fall into three categories, namely:

· pesticides (aldrin, chlordane, ddt, dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor, hexachlorobenzene,

mirex, toxaphene;

· industrial chemicals (hcbs and pcbs) and

· unintended by-products (including dioxins and furans).

The situation in respect of pops varies in the different regions, but tends to be worse

at high latitudes. The highlights of the situation in different regions illustrate variations

in environmental conditions.

Arctic has a relatively uniform distribution of pop levels in various sites (Norstrom and Muir

1994). Indigenous people are particularly exposed because of their diet (see Box below).

There are many examples of local pcb contamination, including in Svalbard, the White Sea,

the Kara Sea, the eastern Barents Sea, Alaska, Canada, Greenland and Norway (amap 2003).

New contamination by ddt in the Barents region and of toxaphene in the White Sea is also

occurring. Other pollutants (brominated flame retardants, polychlorinated paraffins and

perfluoro-organic compounds, some of which are produced in large quantities, have

started to reach the Arctic. The Arctic regions of Canada have the highest concentrations

of toxaphene and pcbs in fish, but ddt and chlordane compounds are also important.

Samples of turbot in the eastern areas and the eastern Beaufort Sea have mean toxaphene

concentrations 3 to 5 times higher than in ocean char and 15 to 20 times higher than in

Arctic cod (Jensen and others 1997).

In the Arctic indigenouspeople are particularlyexposed because of their diet

Near Greenland old chemical stocks are leaking

Concentrations inNortheast Atlantic estuaries are above eu limits


pops threaten the environment and health of millions of people…

…in most developingcountries, countries intransition and the Arctic

pops in human breast milk

Fish is the primary food source of indigenous people in the Canadian Arctic. Many of the fish stocks are heavily contaminated by pops and, as a consequence, high concentrations of toxaphene have been found in breast milk of indigenous mothers, significantly higher than in women living in large Canadian cities (gesamp 2001). In East Greenland, 100 per cent of the population has levels of blood contamination of concern and 30 per cent have levels where a change of diet is advised (amap 2003a) <

The number of known ‘dead zones’ (areas deprived of oxygen and devoid of life) has

doubled since 1990 and is spreading as a result of accelerating urbanization and agricultural

and related activities (see section 2.6 on nutrients and section 3.2 on emerging challenges).

2.2 Persistent Organic Pollutants (pops)The problem:

pops are highly toxic and stable organic chemical substances that can last for years or

even decades before breaking down. Through a repeated and often seasonal process of

evaporation and deposit, they can migrate to regions far away from the original source. The

effects can be exacerbated by a combination of harsh climatic conditions, differences in the

gradient of ambient temperature between the poles and the equator, and physico-chemical

properties. This accounts for the prevalence and even higher concentrations of pops in polar

regions than in originating regions (amap 1997). In addition, large stocks of expired or

banned pesticides threaten the environment and health of millions of people in almost

all developing countries and in countries in transition.

pops can become magnified up to 70 000 times background levels and are readily absorbed

by fatty tissue where they concentrate in living organisms through bioaccumulation. They

have a range of biological effects, and, in some regions may pose risks to human health,

principally through ingestion of marine food. Fish, predatory birds, mammals and human

beings are high on the food chain and as a result absorb the highest concentrations. pops

are found in both people and animals living in the most exposed regions such as the Arctic

(gesamp 2001).

Lack of oxygen due to water pollution caused the death of millions of fish

Source: Joao P. Engelbrecht/unep/Still Pictures

There is much variation in concentrations, causesand effects. For example:

Greenland: in the northern and eastern regions, concentrations of toxaphene are high in

narwhal and walrus blubber (ices 2003). This indicates that old chemical stocks are leaking

into the environment.

Northeast Atlantic: concentrations of ddt, lindane and pcbs have decreased in most

stocks, including fish and mussels, pcb concentration in cod increased (eea 2003). However,

concentration of contaminants, such as pcb is still above European Union (eu) limits in river

estuaries such as the Seine in northern France, the Scheldt and the Rhine on the border of

Belgium and the Netherlands, and the Ems in northern Germany.


necessary in order to destroy stocks of approximately 500 000 tonne of obsolete or unused

pesticides. In this context, it should be noted that sales of pesticides earn companies over

us$30 billion a year (fao 2001).

Assessment:

The overall situation has improved considerably since international controls on production

and use of a small number of pops were introduced over 20 years ago. Atmospheric

concentrations of controlled substances have decreased in remote areas of the northern

hemisphere. In the Arctic, the situation is also likely to improve now that regulation is in

place (amap 2003). More needs to be done, though, now and in the future (gesamp 2001).

Pesticides falling into the pts category are still a problem in regions that are heavily

dependent on agriculture, including Sub-Saharan Africa, the Indian Ocean and Central and

South America, as well as in regions where the chemicals are produced, such as East Asia

(unep 2003).The Global Programme of Action on International Chemicals Management,

adopted during the unep Governing Council (gcss/gmef ix 2006) may contribute to

limiting chemical releases.

2.3 Radioactive substancesThe problem:

Radioactive substances have been entering the coastal and marine environment from

a variety of activities, including nuclear power generators, radioactive materials used in

medicine, industry, research and space exploration as well as military operations. Nuclear

weapons testing in the atmosphere (mainly prior to 1964) and fuel reprocessing plants

are main contributors, the first as a source of global impacts, the latter of local ones.

Approximately 85 PBq of radioactive waste has been deliberately dumped into the oceans at

over 80 locations worldwide. The first sea disposal operation took place in 1946 off the coast

of California. Between 1946 and 1991, Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Netherlands,

New Zealand, Republic of Korea, Sweden, Switzerland, the former Soviet Union, the uk and

the usa maintained sea disposal as a waste management option (see iaea database on

nuclear waste management). During this period, about 46 pbq of low-level nuclear waste

was dumped at sea, mostly in the North-East Atlantic. This included waste from research,

medical, industrial and military activities, approximately 43 per cent of which was spent

nuclear fuel from reactors in the former Soviet Union, disposed of in the Kara Sea.


All contemporary practices involving large amounts of radionuclides are authorized

in conformity with the International Safety Standards for Protection Against Ionizing

Radiation and the Safety of Radiation Sources (iaea 1996). Although accidents can occur,

the impacts on human health and the environment are generally of minor significance

(gesamp 2001), as also illustrated in the box on the next page.

Nuclear fuel reprocessingis the most significantactivity releasing radio-nuclides

Impacts on human health and the environ-ment are generally ofminor significance


Baltic Sea over the last 50 years, there have been substantial inputs of pops from various

sources. However, since several pops were banned in the 1980s, there has been a decrease

of up to 50 per cent in pollution loads. A sharp decrease occurred between 1983 and 1993,

levelling off slightly until 1999, when a downward trend began, leading to a further

decrease of more than 30 per cent by 2001. Direct and river inputs of organochlorine

contaminants have generally decreased over the last two decades (ices 2003). However,

concentrations of ddt in seals are still high, as is the concentration of dioxins in fish, which

exceed new eu limits. Considerable regional variation exists, with the most contaminated

fish being found in the Gulf of Bothnia. Dioxin concentrations in sediments peaked in the

1970s, and transfer of dioxins up the food chain have decreased to one third of their 1970

levels, rapidly until the mid-1980s, subsequently levelling off (helcom 2001).

Mediterranean Sea: Data are scattered but local levels of pts reach toxic thresholds for

plants and animals near industrial areas and estuaries; in the Northern countries there

already is evidence of clear contaminations by pcbs, pah and solvents (Blue Plan 2005).

So far pts levels are consistently higher in the Western portion than elsewhere in the basin

but the risk is expected to increase everywhere (Blue Plan 2005). Marine mammals (seals)

in particular exhibit higher levels than elsewhere (unep 2003).

Caspian Sea: levels of agrochemicals, particularly ddt and endosulphan, are a serious

problem. Organochlorines (particularly ddt and its breakdown products) have been

detected in seals, sturgeon and bony fish at levels thought to impair fertility and immune

systems, thus affecting entire populations (especially in seals, where bioaccumulation is

10-1000 times background levels). Other organochlorines detected, in decreasing order

of importance, include pcb, hch and hcb; this is one of the main transboundary concerns

in the region.

South-East Asia and the South Pacific: levels of endosulphan and lindane are high in river

waters and sediments, especially in Malaysia and Thailand, suggesting recent use of these

substances. In the Pacific Islands, levels of pst in the environment appear to be relatively

low for most samples. Overall, the highest concentrations were found for ddt and its

derivatives, especially in Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands, where it was used

to control malarial mosquitoes (unep 2003).

Eastern and Western South America although there are some problem areas in most

countries in the region, decreases in some substances are occurring, especially for ddt and

pesticides, which have fallen below accepted thresholds in the last few years (unep 2003).

Financial aspects:

Estimates (World Bank 1992) indicate that industrial pollution – and, presumably associated

pop emissions – would be reduced significantly if spending on pollution control reached

3 per cent of investment costs. Technically this is not difficult, but costs can be relatively

high at the level of individual enterprises; in this case, government policy and compliance

mechanisms are a determining factor. Other estimates show that us$2.5 billion would be

The Western part of theMediterranean has higherpts levels than the otherparts

In the Caspian agrochemicals are a serious problem

Data for South-East Asiasuggest recent use of pts

Around South Americaagrochemical levels fell below accepted thresholds

Technical solutions to the pops and pts problemexist, but costs can be high

Pollution loads in theBaltic Sea have decreased,but regional variationexists

Good progress is made,but more action is required

1 1 t he cur r en t s tat us o f ac t i o n w i t hin t he fr a me w o r k o f g pa

North-East Atlantic: the main sources of radioactive contaminants are from nuclear

reprocessing plants and the Chernobyl accident, which is mostly a secondary input from

the Baltic. Scientific evidence suggests that these pose low risks to human health and the

environment (gesamp 2001). Liquid discharges from nuclear installations from 1989-2002

show a downward trend in both the total alpha and beta activity, excluding tritium, which

releases have increased, mainly from discharges from La Hague, France (ospar 2004).

Assessment:

the situation concerning radioactive substances in the marine environment is stable and

controls on routine discharges are generally stringent. However, accidents such as the one

in Chernobyl in 1986 have increased radioactive contamination and are a legitimate cause

for concern (gesamp 2001). In spite of incidents such as this, most of the contamination

comes from natural sources rather than human activities and public concern on the

subject is not generally supported by objective risk assessments (Livingston 2004).

2.4 Heavy metalsThe problem:

Although metals (such as copper, zinc and selenium) are essential to life, they can become

toxic through accumulation in organisms, so that even small amounts in seawater or

sediments may become a problem at the top of the food chain. Relatively volatile heavy

metals and those that become attached to air-borne particles can be widely dispersed

(unep 1995). Organic and inorganic metals and metallic compounds are released into

the environment as a result of a variety of human activities. The main point sources are

industrial and mining activities, while diffuse sources include metal structures and

products as well as by-products of combustion, particularly coal and transport.

Mercury, lead and cadmium are metals of concern, because of their high toxicity in certain

forms, and relatively high volatility (transported over large distances in the atmosphere).

Because of its toxicity, especially in its methilated form, mercury has become an issue of

international concern and has led many countries to implement strict controls on emissions

and its phasing out. Seafood contaminated with mercury that poisoned both people and

animals in Minamata, Japan, is a striking example of its toxicity (gesamp 2001). Leaded

gasoline has been a major historic source of contamination and human exposure. Cadmium

accumulates in aquatic organisms such as shellfish and crustaceans and in the liver and

kidneys of mammals. Itai itai disease (bone brittleness related symptoms which occurred

in Japan) was partly caused by consumption of seafood contaminated with cadmium

(gesamp 2001). Other metals of concern are arsenic, copper, nickel, selenium, tin and

zinc. Some – such as tin – are not highly toxic by themselves but can form compounds

with organic substances to produce highly toxic substances. Tributyltin and its derivatives,

for example, have endocrine disrupting properties and have proven to be much more

persistent in the environment than expected. It is used in anti fouling paints and has been

banned in some countries in mariculture and on small vessels. It continues to be used

elsewhere for certain categories of ships (gesamp 2001), but on large vessels its use will

be phased out between 2003 and 2008 (ices 2003).

Mercury, lead and cadmium are highly toxicand easily transportedthrough air over large distances

Impacts of heavy metalsare most pronounced near factories and inindustrialized estuaries

1 0 t he s tat e o f t he m a r ine en v ir o nmen t : t r end s a nd p r o ce s s e s

The most significant authorized releases of radionuclides to the sea are from nuclear

fuel-cycle installations, particularly spent fuel reprocessing plants located at Sellafield (uk),

La Hague and Marcoule – now closed – (France), Trombay (India), and Toki-Mura (Japan).

Areas of direct influence from discharges from Sellafield (Irish Sea) and La Hague (North Sea)

have been subject to comprehensive evaluation for many years. Nuclear power reactors

discharge small amounts of radionuclides at point sources along the coasts or within river

catchment areas; generally these are well regulated and are not of concern, even locally,

under normal operating conditions. Atmospheric deposition (fallout) is still a significant

pathway on land and at sea, but is becoming less important as the atmospheric reservoir

of fission products from weapons testing is reduced by radioactive decay (gesamp 2001).

A voluntary moratorium on disposal of low-level radioactive waste at sea was introduced

in 1985 by the Contracting Parties to the London Convention and in 1993 a new resolution

prohibiting disposal of radioactive waste at sea was adopted (Livingston 2004). Disposal of

low-level liquid and solid waste in the Arctic Ocean makes up less than 1.6 per cent of total

global activity and wastes disposed of in the Pacific Ocean amount to around 1.7 per cent.

Two regions of the world are highlighted here:

The Arctic is more vulnerable to the consequences of radioactive contamination than other

parts of the world because of the characteristics of its land and land cover, food webs and

the diet of its inhabitants. The main sources of contamination are fallout from atmospheric

nuclear weapons testing from 1945 to 1980, discharges from European spent nuclear

fuel reprocessing plants and the fallout from the 1986 Chernobyl accident (amap 2004).

A potential future problem is the decommissioning of the Russian nuclear fleet and

associated infrastructure (Sarkisov 2004) as well as civil facilities containing spent nuclear

fuel. These tasks are receiving priority attention through bilateral, multilateral and inter-

national programmes (gesamp 2001). Monitoring suggests that current levels of contami-

nation are relatively low and pose no immediate radiological concern (Livingston 2004).

The exception is the amount of long-lived water-soluble fission products present in

seawater, originating from nuclear fuel reprocessing in Western Europe (amap 2004).

The Arctic is vulnerable to radioactive conta-mination but currentlevels are relatively low

Radioactive substances: the comparative risks

The comparative risks of ingesting radionuclides and chemical carcinogens through consumption of seafood have been evaluated (iaea 1993). The objective was to place the risks associated with disposing of low-level radioactive wastes at sea in a suitable context. The conclusion was that: · the effect of naturally occurring radionuclides (principally Po210) poses a greater risk than the

dose limits set by the International Commission on Radiological Protection for production, use and disposal of radioactive materials;

· naturally occurring Po-210 and Pb-210 provide the major dose to marine organisms, and in turn, dietary intake of Po-210 is a major contributor to the background dose for populations consuming fish and shellfish (Livingston 2004);

· the presence of pcbs represents a risk similar to that arising from naturally occurring radio nuclides,other chemicals (ddt, hcb, chlordane, benzo(a)pyrene and dieldrin) present lower risks; howeverboth of these risks are two times larger than those arising from disposal at sea of radioactive wastes (gesamp 2001). <

Public concern on radioactivity is not supportedby objective risk assessments


probably because of continued uptake from the large reservoir of lead deposited in soils

and sediments. Lead levels in the environment are expected to diminish over time if

present trends continue. The significance of current levels of cadmium remain unclear; they

are high enough to threaten fish, birds and mammals, but the actual effects have not been

documented here, although the effects in other regions are known. Platinum, palladium

and rhodium, – used in catalytic converters in cars –, as well as other rare earth metals are

present in low concentrations, which are nevertheless many times higher than they were

some decades ago. The environmental and health effect of these metals is not well known

(amap 2003).

North Sea: a comprehensive study considered direct input of heavy metals into surface

waters, as well as deposition in the watershed, river input, Baltic Sea and Atlantic Ocean

inflow and outflow and exchange of metals with sediments. The figure below shows results

in respect of lead. Atmospheric input is important in this larger context; it is roughly equal

to inflow from the Atlantic Ocean (which in itself includes around 20 per cent from the

atmosphere), although smaller than that from direct dumping (gesamp 2001). Lead

cadmium and mercury inputs have decreased by up to 70 per cent in most countries in

the region, although targets for substances such as copper and tributyltin have not

been met (eea 2003).

Input of lead to the North Sea

North Sea: large decreases in lead,cadmium and mercury

unclear cadmium levels


At the local level the most pronounced effect of heavy metals is in the vicinity of point

sources and in estuaries in industrialized countries. In the open ocean, atmospheric

contamination is more important. For example, 96 per cent of mercury in the ocean

originates from atmospheric input, 97 per cent of lead, 92 per cent of cadmium, 76 per

cent of copper and 94 per cent of zinc (gesamp 2001).


An increasingly serious problem globally is that of ‘electronic waste’, particularly the

disposal of computers and mobile phones, which contain over 1000 different materials,

many of them toxic. Recycling (such as valuable component materials like gold) and

disposal, when done without the necessary controls, have serious environmental and

health impacts. In 2004 an estimated 100 million personal computers were either

recycled or disposed of (Hilty 2005).

In more general terms, governments agreed at the 2005 unep Governing Council to

establish partnerships with international organizations, ngos and the private sector to

take steps to control pollution from mercury, cadmium and lead. The Global Programme

of Action on International Chemicals Management (gcss/gmef ix, Dubai, 2006) may be

instrumental in this regard. The situation regarding heavy metals varies somewhat in

different regions, as illustrated below.

Arctic is still affected by high levels of mercury pollution, both in the environment and in

marine mammals. This is occurring in spite of reduction in emissions and concentrations in

Europe and North America, because the reductions are being offset by increased emissions

in Asia. It is believed that the Arctic may, in fact, be acting as a sink for atmospheric mercury

of which around 5 000 t are present at any one time. Levels of mercury in Arctic ringed seals

and beluga whales have increased 2 to 4 times over the past 25 years in some areas of the

Canadian Arctic and Greenland (unep 2002). This gives rise to concerns for indigenous

people in the region, as marine mammals are an important component of traditional diets

(ices 2003). Atmospheric lead deposition has decreased dramatically since the introduction

of unleaded gasoline; however levels of lead in wildlife and fish has not measurably declined,

Electronic waste is a major new sources of toxic metals

Arctic: high mercury levels

decreased lead deposition but still high concentrations in soils and sediments

Source: gesamp 2001, after Van den Hout 1994

Values in parenthesis denote atmospheric contribution to the total input from that source.

Chemical outflow into the sea and the atmosphere

Source: B.Blume/unep/Still Pictures

River and direct discharge1597 (288)

Direct atmospheric deposition1172 (1172)

Lead (tonnes/year)

Dumping3015 (0)

Atlantic outflow4122 (1167)

North Sea

Baltic inflow84 (17)

Atlantic inflow1252 (252)

Erosion240 (5)

Sedimentation3248 (562)


East Asian Seas: pollution from heavy metals (mainly cadmium, nickel, and cobalt) in

electric and electronic equipment and batteries, is an increasing problem, as 9 million

batteries are dumped annually. In order to deal with this problem, Thailand has placed

at least 5,000 containers for hazardous wastes in convenience stores and electric and

electronic goods shops (Fortes 2005).

Assessment:

The situation regarding heavy metals is not clear-cut. While most developed countries

have taken the necessary steps to deal with the problem, progress at the global level is

off-set by new sources of pollution in emerging economies. The picture is complicated

by the effects of atmospheric circulation of pollutants, the time-lag in the dispersal of

pollutants deposited in the past as well as unexpected persistence of certain compounds

in the environment. Added to this, is the emergence of new problems, such as the disposal

of electronic wastes. Overall however, there appears to be progress because of the

increasing awareness of the dangers posed.

2.5 Oils (hydrocarbons)The problem:

Significant quantities of oils (hydrocarbons) derived from human activities find their

way into the marine environment. These oils:

· damage habitats;

· smother aquatic communities and are generally toxic to aquatic life (when ingested,

by coating skin, fur and feathers and by interfering with the respiratory system);

· taint seafood, contaminate water supplies and generally affect human health; and

· foul coastlines and beaches.

Some oils are volatile or easily degraded and disappear rapidly from aquatic systems; other

may persist for long periods in the water column or sediments. Natural seeps can provide

valuable insights into the behaviour of crude oil in the environment and the response of

marine organisms to introduction of oil. Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (pahs) are a

special natural constituent of oils and are also produced by combustion of fossil fuels which

are subsequently dispersed in the atmosphere; lubricating oils are also an important source.

Coastal sediments in most industrial areas and ports frequently have concentrations well

above regional background levels. pahs affect human health mainly by ingestion of seafood

(gesamp 2001).

Land-based sources of oils include:

· urban, industrial and agricultural runoff;

· operational and accidental discharges and emissions from oil exploration, exploitation,

refining, storage and transport;

· inappropriate disposal of used oil, mainly lubricating oil, and

· transport in general.


North East Atlantic: aggregated results of time-trends in concentrations of heavy metals

per sea area over the past 15 years show falling levels for cadmium, mercury and lead in blue

mussels and fish (eea 2003).

Baltic Sea: a few major rivers account for a large proportion of total river-borne loads

of heavy metals. These have largely decreased during the period between 1994-2000,

particularly cadmium and lead. Rivers in Russia – mainly the Neva – make up 60 per cent

of lead and 40 per cent of copper loads, while rivers in Poland make up 90 per cent of total

mercury loads (helcom 2004). The Gulf of Finland received the highest cadmium, lead and

copper loads, while mercury inputs were highest in the Baltic proper. However, overall

concentrations of mercury in fish are at background levels.

Europe: concentrations of contaminants above the limits set by the eu for fish and shellfish

for human consumption are found mainly in mussels and fish in estuaries of major rivers.

Examples include cadmium (Seine), lead (Elbe), cadmium near industrial point discharges

(Sørfjord, Norway) and lead in some harbours (inner Oslo Fjord). In spite of being far away

from point sources, some areas have high concentrations of hazardous materials. Examples

include cadmium in northern Iceland and mercury in northern Norway. Concentrations of

mercury in blue mussels between 1995 and 1999 were slightly higher than background

levels in most areas, indicating a widespread, diffuse exposure, presumably from atmo-

spheric deposition, but with no real hot spots; only four locations showed increasing

concentrations in both mussels and fish (eea 2003a). A 50-90 per cent reduction in

discharges has resulted in improved surface water quality; sediment quality is still a

problem in designated hot-spots.

Mediterranean Sea: the flows of industrial heavy metals, such as mercury, increased by

300 per cent between 1950 and 1990 (unep/map/medpol 2003), but aggregated results

of time trends in concentrations of heavy metals per sea area over the past 15 years show

falling levels for cadmium, mercury and lead in blue mussels and fish (eea 2003). It was

estimated (unep/map 1996) that river discharge is the largest source of mercury (92 per

cent), lead (66 per cent), chromium (57 per cent) and zinc 72 per cent, although direct

industrial discharges from coastal zones are also significant for chromium and lead

(around 30 per cent of the total (eea 2003).

Black Sea: oil spills caused by inadequate handling of mining effluents containing cadmium,

zinc have caused serious fish kills.

Caspian Sea: an estimated 17 t of mercury and 149 t of cadmium are discharged annually

into the sea, and originate in rivers or from industry and municipal sources. The distribution

of concentrations of certain heavy metals such as aluminium, cadmium, cobalt, copper

and nickel indicate that they are due to local geology rather than pollution, while elevated

levels of mercury and chromium indicate local pollution superimposed over regional

characteristics (eea 2003).

Mediterranean: Cadmium, mercury andlead levels are falling

Caspian: Some heavy metals occurdue to geology, others topollution

Nine million batteries are dumped each year in East Asian seas

Progress in industrializedcountries is off-set by new pollution in emerging economies

ne Atlantic: less cadmium, mercury and lead

Baltic: Polish rivers make up 90 per cent of mercuryloads

Europe: Contamination above eu limits occurs in majorestuaries


The Arctic: Rivers in Russia (such as the Ob) that drain into the Arctic are severely

contaminated. Oil exploration and production is a significant source of pollution. Water

from drilling operations accounted for 76 per cent of pollution on the Norway shelf between

1990-95. Levels of pahs in seawater and marine sediments (particularly in the Beaufort Sea)

are above background levels elsewhere (gesamp 2001). Findings suggest that in the next

few decades the sea routes through the Arctic could become virtually ice-free during

summer due to climate change, which would have profound implications for development

and shipping, and oil and gas exploration in the region (acia 2005).

Baltic Sea: ecosystems and wildlife are severely threatened by oil pollution. Coastal areas

are contaminated by oil-spills, but even clean-up operations may do harm to ecosystems

and wildlife. Around 10 per cent of oils originate from deliberate discharges from vessels

(helcom 2003). The effects include immediate contamination of seabirds and beaches,

while long-term ones include greater concentration in sediments (helcom 1996).

Continuing oil transportation will increase the likelihood of large (over 10 000 tonne)

oils-spills by 35 per cent in the Baltic itself and by 100 per cent in the Gulf of Finland

(helcom 2003).


The main pathways for contamination (unep 1995) are:

· atmospheric dispersion of volatile fractions,

· storm sewers and

· sewage treatment plants and rivers


The incidence of oils in the environment can be considered at various levels.

Globally, the most reliable estimates are based on comparisons of data for 1983 and 2003.

The latter is expressed as a percentage of the earlier values. All amounts of oil inputs from

different sources have decreased significantly, except one category – natural seepage,

which is much higher, having increased by 200 per cent. Total oil inputs decreased to 37 per

cent of 1985 levels, oil inputs from atmospheric deposition to 17 per cent; from land-based

sources to 12 per cent; from tanker accidents to 25 per cent and from tanker operations to

five per cent. The table below presents an overview. Two factors, which are difficult to

separate, need to be taken into account when interpreting the data, namely improvements

in data collection and the degree of success in efforts to stem pollution. Furthermore,

the environmental effects of oil releases are a complex function of the local and physical

environment, the nature of the oil and rates of release (nrc 2003).

Data on oil input into oceans need to be interpreted with care

Stricken oil tanker burning oil

Source: J. Ledesma/unep/Still Pictures

Annual (average) worldwide input of oil into oceans (in thousands of tonnes and in percetages)

2003 report 1985 report

Natural seeps (marine seeps) 600 000 (47 %) 200 000 (6 %)

Operational discharges of vessels 270 000 (21 %) not available(larger than 100 Gt)

Land-based sources (municipal 140 000 (11 %) 1 180 000 (36 %)and industrial wastes and runoff)

Tank vessel spills (tanker accidents) 100 000 (8 %) 400 000 (12 %)

Atmospheric deposition 52 000 (4 %) 300 000 (9 %)

Produced waters 36 000 (3 %) 50 000 (2 %)(offshore production)

Operational discharges 36 000 (3 %) 700 000 (22 %)(tanker operations)

Sum of minor categories of inputs 34 600 (3 %) 120 000 (4 %)

Bilge and fuel oils not available 300 000 (9 %)

Total 1 268 600 3 250 000

Source: adapted from nrc 2003


Assessment:

The general situation concerning anthropogenic inputs of oil into the marine environment

has improved significantly since 1985. The greatest success has been achieved in curbing

inputs from marine transportation of oil, the associated discharge from tankers and oil

spills. Improvements in technology (design and operation of tankers) and legislation and

regulation, particularly at the international level, are the main factors in improvement.

However, the danger of a large oil spill is significant, particularly in areas without stringent

safety procedures and inspection practices. With the population growth and industriali-

zation experienced over the past two decades, it is expected that the current trends in

land-based oil runoff (urban runoff, municipal wastes, industry and refineries, disposal

of lubricants) will move upwards.

2.6 NutrientsThe problem:

Nutrient over-enrichment of oceans is probably one of the most important worldwide

problems in the context of the gpa. Imbalances in nutrient ratios cause changes in the entire

structure and functioning of an ecosystem. This includes:

· stimulation of growth of phytoplankton and benthic algae, often favouring toxic or

otherwise harmful species, as well as reduced penetration of light;

· large-scale oxygen depletion from decomposition of excess organic matter;

· general degradation of habitats, including destruction of coral reefs and sea-grass beds;

· alteration of marine food-webs, including damage to larval or other life stages;

· mass mortality of wild or farmed fish and shellfish as well as of mammals, seabirds and

other animals.

Nutrient inputs are often localized but added up they are a major factor in global marine

pollution. Land-based activities are the dominant source of nutrients, especially for fixed

nitrogen, and include (gesamp 2001):

· agricultural runoff (fertilizer);

· atmospheric releases from fossil fuel combustion, and, to a lesser extent, from

agricultural fertilizers and manure;

· sewage and industrial discharges

Nitrogen flow towards the oceans are a good illustration of the magnitude of changes in

anthropogenic nutrient inputs since the industrial revolution. These flows have increased

15 fold in North Sea watersheds,11 fold in the north eastern usa;,10 fold in the Yellow River

basin, 5.7 fold in the Mississippi River basin, 5 fold in the Baltic Sea watersheds, 4.1 fold in

the Great Lakes/St Lawrence River basin, 3.7 fold in South-Western Europe (mea 2005). It is

expected that global river nitrogen exports to the oceans will continue to rise. Projections

for 2030 show an increase of 14 per cent compared to 1995. By 2030 global river nitrogen

exports is projected to be 49.7 Tg/yr, with natural sources contributing 57 per cent of the

total, agriculture 34 per cent and sewage 9 per cent (Bouwman and others 2005).

Nitrogen flow towardsoceans is strongly increasing, a trend that is expected to continue


Caspian Sea: intensive exploration and production of oil and gas has been taking place since

the mid-1990s. Rising water levels between 1978-92 caused flooding, including in oil wells

and production facilities, resulting in widespread pollution of coastal waters. It is estimated

that by 2001 160 000 t were being discharged annually into the sea. Rivers contribute 47 per

cent of total oil inputs and pollution, erosion and various industries 21 per cent, natural see

page 13 per cent and oil industry activities 5 per cent (eea 2003). Oil spills are also occurring

as a result of the development, by international companies, of the shelf zone (cep 2002).

Black Sea: total oil inputs are estimated to be 110 000 t, of which 53 000 t (48 per cent)

arrive via the Danube River. A further 30 000 t derive from domestic sources and 15 400 t

from industry; only 136 t come from accidental oil spills, and this does not include the

discharge of oily residues from ships, which is believed to be considerable (gesamp 2001).

Asia and the Pacific: accidental oil spills from ships, both along transport routes from

the Gulf across the Arabian Sea and at loading points, coupled with increasing offshore

exploration, make the Indian Ocean vulnerable to oil pollution. Oil spills cause severe

contamination in ports in Bangladesh, Indonesia, Malaysia and Pakistan (unep 2002).

North America: inputs of oil from all sources is estimated at 260 000 t annually, originating

in natural seeps (160 000 t/y), land based sources (54 000 t/y), atmospheric discharges

(21 000 t/y), tanker spills (5 300 t/y), oil extraction (3 000 t/y), pipeline spills (1 900 t/y) and

spills in coastal facilities (1 900 t/y) (nrc, 2003). Natural seeps are responsible for over 60 per

cent of oils entering North American waters, the largest and best known natural seeps being

in the Gulf of Mexico and off southern California, both of which also harbour extensive oil

and gas production. Spills from vessels between 1990-99 decreased by two thirds compared

to the previous decade; releases from oil an gas exploration and production have also

decreased dramatically in this period (nrc 2003).

South America: oil exploration and production in river basins is a key factor in pollution in

coastal areas. Oil spills originating in the Andes also contribute considerable amounts of

heavy metals (loicz 2005).

Africa: oil exploration and production along the coasts causes widespread pollution and

degradation of both coastal and marine ecosystems, as shown by the case of Nigeria.

ropme Sea Area: is considered to have one of the greatest pollution risks in the world due

to the large number of offshore installations, tanker loading terminals, and high volume

and density of marine transportation of oil. Around a third of oil spills larger than 10 million

gallons occur here. Smaller scale incidents such as pipeline rupture and well blowouts are

more frequent here than elsewhere. Roughly 2 million barrels of oil are spilled annually from

routine discharges of ballast, tanker slops and from 800 oil and gas platforms (Butayban

2005). The high assimilative capacity of the ecosystem means that the general effects of

oil leaks are minor, and contamination is almost entirely on beaches (gesamp 2001).

Oil input from marinetransportation hassignificantly reduced…

…but land-based run-off is expected to increase

Imbalances in nutrientratios cause major negative changes incoastal ecosystem

Land-based activities arethe dominant source ofnutrients


North Sea: more than 90 per cent of the current annual inflow of both nitrogen and

phosphorus come from the North Atlantic; atmospheric inputs of nitrogen are 23 per

cent of total inputs.

North Atlantic: is the major source of sea nutrients on the western margin of Europe.

Nutrient concentrations in river water are often 50 times higher than in Atlantic waters;

rivers contribute 65-80 per cent of total nitrogen and 80-85 per cent of total phosphorus.

Irish Sea: rivers contribute 56 per cent of total nitrogen inputs; atmospheric nitrogen

deposition contributes 31 per cent.

Baltic Sea: nitrogen from rivers constitutes 69 per cent of total nitrogen inputs;

atmospheric inputs are 31 per cent of totals and have decreased by 20 to 30 per cent.

Mediterranean Sea: concentrations of nutrients in rivers are generally at least four times

lower than rivers in north-west Europe, but there is evidence of an upward trend in both

nitrogen and phosphate concentration (ices 2003).

Black Sea: nitrogen levels are four times higher than they were in the 1960s. However,

important reductions have taken place since the political and economic changes to

the centrally planned economies in the region occurred. Within seven years of reduced

economic activity, the levels of nitrogen and phosphorus entering the sea had dropped

to half the previous levels, dead zones largely disappeared and fisheries rebounded

(Mee 2001). Nitrogen from rivers are 65 per cent of totals, and 70 per cent of this comes

from the Danube River alone.

East Asian Seas: urban areas and agriculture produce such large amounts of organic

waste that coastal ecosystems are unable to filter and neutralize them (escap 1999).

Rivers running through Cambodia, China, Malaysia, Thailand and Vietnam deliver at least

636 840 t of nitrogen to the waters above the Sunda Shelf; China contributes at least 55

per cent of the total, Vietnam 21 per cent and Thailand 20 per cent (Talaue-McManus 2000).

In 2001, 77 ‘red tide’ events affected 15 000 km2 offshore waters of China, where pollution

is serious. Major eutrophication occurs only in estuaries and coastal areas in the Philippines

and Thailand; impacts are most significant in enclosed bays, harbours and lagoons with

limited circulation, such as Manila Bay (Fortes 2005).

North America: in the usa diffuse inputs of nitrogen and phosphorus pollution have

increased dramatically, causing eutrophication, harmful algal blooms, dead zones, coral

reef destruction, loss of sea-grass and kelp beds, fish kills, shellfish poisoning and even sea-

bird and marine mammal deaths (Howarth and others 2000). Around 60 per cent of coastal

rivers and bays are severely degraded. Human activities have increased nitrogen flux in the

Mississippi River basin four-fold and in rivers in the northeast eight-fold. The single largest

coastal system affected by eutrophication is a large dead zone in the Gulf of Mexico. In the

early 1990s it was estimated to be 9 500 km2 and by 1999 20 000 km2. Other severely


Coastal dead zones and eutrophication are of particular concern

Amount of nutrients entering oceans varysignificantly per region

Source: unep gems/Water Programme 2006 (www.gemswater.org)

Americas

Africa

% c

hang

e

Increase

Decrease

76 – 10051 – 7526 – 501 – 250%1 – 2526 – 5051 – 7576 – 100

Insufficient data

Mean Nitrogen(Nitrate+Nitrite)by Region [mg/L N]

1979-1990

1991-2005

3.5

3.0

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0Europe

Asia &the Pacific

Latin America& the Carribbean

While most of the effects of nutrient enrichment are negative, in some areas they have

led to increased production in commercial fisheries, as has happened in the some parts

of the Mediterranean gesamp 2001). Two general problems of concern are:

· ‘coastal dead zones’ (areas of oxygen deprivation and devoid of life) of which there

are currently 146, having doubled every decade since 1960 (Larsen 2004);

· increasing agricultural runoff and consequent eutrophication of coastal waters,

a worrying trend not foreseen three decades ago (unep 2002).

Projections indicate that this could lead to major ecosystem degradation (Tilman and

others 2001). Nutrient over-enrichment also interacts synergistically with other human

activities, contributing to ever increasing degradation.


The amount of nutrients entering the oceans tend to vary significantly over time and

from region to region (see map below), as do the actions to control the problem. Nutrient

enrichment between 1960-1980 in the developed regions of Europe, North America,

Asia and Oceania resulted in major changes in coastal ecosystems. Estuaries and bays are

most affected, but eutrophication is also apparent over large areas of semi-enclosed seas,

including the Baltic, North Adriatic and Black Seas in Europe, the Gulf of Mexico and the Seto

Inland Sea in Japan. Significant reduction in phosphorus loading from discontinuing the use

of polyphosphate detergents has occurred in Europe, North America and Japan (nrc 2000).

Highlights below illustrate other regional trends.

Changes in nitrogen concentrations for significant global watersheds (percentage) and by region (concentration): 1979-1990 and 1991-2003


The effect of these human activities is that either sediment input into the sea increases,

smothering marine communities, or both water and sediment flows decrease, causing

erosion and damage to ecosystems (loicz 2005). Land clearance and deforestation have

increased sediment yields. At a global scale, however, this effect is overshadowed by the

reduction of sediment flow caused by damming (see graph below). Storage of sediments in

large reservoirs has decreased the global flux of sediment to coastal zones by some 30 per

cent over the past 50 years (loicz 2005). In future, these flows will continue to decrease,

mainly because of continued construction of large dams (wcd 2000, loicz 2005). It is assu-

med that a decrease of 5 per cent in total sediment flux represents a threshold beyond which

a coastal system is likely to show considerable deterioration.

Some historical examples can give an idea of the magnitude of changes that have taken

place. Land use and sediment discharge in the eastern seaboard of the usa, for example,

have come full circle (Pasternack and others 2001). After European settlement (post 1740)

agriculture and deforestation caused sedimentation rates to increase eight-fold up to 1820,

and a further three-fold increase occurred in the period of peak deforestation and intensive

agriculture up to 1920. From then onwards sedimentation rates were reduced to nearly

the original levels, because of urbanization and dam construction (loicz 2005). In the Nile

Delta, water input has decreased by 80 per cent and sediment input by 98 per cent since

the construction of the Aswan High Dam in 1964 (Stanley and Warne 1993; El-Sayyed 1996).

Currently 98 per cent of sediments are trapped behind the dam and fresh sediment that

does reach the coast these days arrives with the wind and through transport along the

shore. As a consequence, there has been erosion along parts of the coastline, salinization

of cultivated land and declines of 95 per cent in sardine yields (loicz 2005).

Number of dams in some major sub-regions of the world


degraded coastal areas include Chesapeake Bay, Long Island Sound and the Florida Keys.

The largest single source of nitrogen comes from animal waste leaked directly into water

bodies or volatilised into atmospheric ammonia. The largest non-point source of atmos-

pheric deposition of oxidized nitrogen comes from fossil fuel combustion (Walker 2002);

phosphorus comes from agricultural activities (Jaworski 1990).

Assessment:

Overall, progress in the control of land-based anthropogenic sources of nutrient

over-enrichment of the marine environment has been uneven. In developed regions,

municipal sources are fairly well managed, but nutrient over-enrichment from agri-

cultural runoff is emerging as a serious problem everywhere. Efforts directed at curtailing

phosphorus and nitrogen inputs from point sources have been relatively successful in

some cases, but need to be given higher priority; diffuse inputs have proven more

difficult to control. The box below list some management options.

Dams are the most important factor in sediment mobilization

2.7 Sediment mobilizationThe problem:

Natural sediment mobilization is important in the development and maintenance of coastal

habitats, including wetlands, lagoons, estuaries, sea-grass beds, coral reefs and mangroves,

dunes and sand barriers. Modification of drainage basins by human activities has led to

dramatic changes in the flow of water and suspended sediments and nutrients.

Anthropogenic modifications arise from:

· changes in land use, including land clearance for agriculture and settlement

development, forestry and mining activities; and

· hydrological modification through building of reservoirs, dams (see graph next page)

and causeways, dredging of water bodies and establishing large-scale irrigation schemes.

The key to success: focussed management approaches

Science has been effective in documenting the causes and consequences of nutrient over-enrichment of the oceans. The challenge now is to determine the relative susceptibility of coastal ecosystems anddevise improved methods for reducing nutrient input, enhance nutrient sinks and rehabilitate water-sheds within an adaptive management framework. Various management options are currently beingexplored.· Increasingly management goals are based on desired outcomes for the coastal ecosystem,

determining the nutrient load reductions necessary to attain them. Examples are the Total DailyMaximum Load (tdml) in the usa and the Water Framework Directive in the eu (Boesch, 2002).

· The proportional scenario, which sets a uniform target (e.g. X per cent reduction) for all countries in a given region has proven problematic though, as countries that already meet high water qualitystandards and have already achieved reductions find it more difficult to comply. This is for examplethe case with goals set by the countries of the Baltic Sea region following the 1988 MinisterialDeclaration on the subject (Schernewsky and Neumann 2002).

· An alternative cost-effective scenario has been proposed (Gren 2000), focussing on nutrient loadreduction in drainage basins where it shows the highest cost-efficiency. Simulations show that goals can be met at one fourth of the cost of other approaches; however, a considerable reallocation of investments would be necessary. <

Control of nutrient over-enrichment has been uneven and remains problematic

Dramatic changes haveoccurred in sedimentationpatterns

Source: World Commission on Dams (http://www.dams.org/docs/report/wcdch1.pdf)

China

Asia (excl. China)

North and Central America

Western Europe

Africa

Eastern Europe

South America

Austral Asia

0 5 000 10 000 15 000 20 000 25 000


Many of the examples highlighted have their origin in events occurring years or even

decades ago. However, because human intervention and ecosystem response usually

occurs with a delay, impacts are only now becoming apparent.


Sediment mobilizationproblems are increasingoutside the developedregions


Europe: sediment yields differ markedly throughout the region, with the lowest values

in the Baltic Sea (12.5 t/km2/yr) and the highest in the Mediterranean Sea (300 t/km2/yr).

Relatively low to medium rates occur in the Atlantic Ocean (131 t/km2/yr ), the northern

Black Sea and the Arctic (48 t/km2/yr) and the North Sea (38 t/km2/yr ) (loicz 2005). In

the Mediterranean about 75 per cent of the average sediment yield in its river basins can be

attributed to human activity; the most important factor affecting sediment mobilization

is reduction in water flow resulting from damming, which currently stands at 50 per cent,

so greatly reducing sediment inputs into coastal systems. Particle fluxes from the Ebro in

Spain, for example, have been reduced by 95 per cent and from the Rhone in Southern

France by 80 per cent (Dedkov and Mozzherin, 1992).

Red Sea/Gulf of Aden: the main source of degradation is dredging and infilling

associated with urban expansion, tourism and industrial development; this causes

excessive sedimentation, which in turn leads to suffocation of benthic communities

and ecosystem damage (gesamp 2001).

Asia: sediment transport is a real issue in Asia as well. The sediments of the Yellow

River, for example, have over the years gradually built up a huge delta (see image

below). Between 1979 and 2000 the delta expanded dramatically. Several hundred square

kilometers of newly formed land were added to China’s coast during this period. It is a

dynamic process though. Between 1989 and 1995 the delta has grown, but between 1995

and 2000 it shrank in area (unep 2005b). The Atlas does not report on the causes of this

dynamic sediment regime, but it is clear that there are multiple causes at work influencing

the sediment load and transport. As in the rest of the world dams play their part (China

currently has 22 000 dams, representing some 46 per cent of all dams in the world, see

graph previous page), as do changing land uses in urban development, agriculture,

silviculture and rural development.

South Asia: sediment load from erosion in coastal areas is high, mainly as a result of poor

land-management and construction activities. Annually, 1.6 billion tonnes of sediment

reach the Indian Ocean from rivers in the Indian sub-continent. Total sediment load in

rivers in Bangladesh alone amounts to 2.5 billion tonnes, of which the Brahmaputra

carries 1.7 billion tonnes and the Ganges 0.8 billion tonnes (unep 1987).

East Asian Seas: the load of silt per km2 of drainage basin is 3 to 8 times higher than the

world average and contributes to the high turbidity of coastal waters (escap 2000). Two

thirds of the world’s total sediment transport to oceans occurs here and in South Asia, due

to a combination of active tectonics, steep slopes, erosion-prone soils and heavy rainfall,

all of which are affected by agricultural and logging practices. Increased damming and

diversion of river courses are linked with erosion and sedimentation problems along the

coast (loicz 2005). Studies in Indonesia (Cesar 1996) and the Philippines (Hodgson and

Dixon 1988) indicate that the costs of environmental damage to coral reefs due to

sedimentation from logging far exceed the economic benefits derived from this activity.

The benefits of improved logging practices outweigh monetary costs to loggers by

3:1 (gesamp 2001).

The Wider Caribbean: annual sediment loads are estimated at 1 Gt, or approximately

12 per cent of global sediment input from rivers. Deforestation is the most important

factor in erosion and increases in sediment loads (unep 2001).

South America: the Mississippi, Amazon, La Plata, Orinoco and Santa Marta river systems

discharge large amounts of sediment that move across thousands of kilometres, as seen in

satellite images (unep2002). Along both the Pacific and Atlantic coasts serious problems of

increased sedimentation and eutrophication, as well as erosion occur. Along the Atlantic

coast, siltation and severe erosion has affected mangroves and beaches in Brazil and

Argentina (loicz 2005).

Africa: during the past five decades, water diversion and extraction and construction

of dams have been the most important causes of disruption to ecosystems, contributing

to salinization (as in the Incomati River in Mozambique), nutrient depletion and loss of

biodiversity (as in KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa). Agriculture and associated deforestation

are contributing to increased erosion and sediment flux (as in the Tana and Sabaki Rivers in

Kenya). Coastal erosion and sedimentation are significant and affect nearly all areas of the

continent, the problem being most acute in the Nile Delta and the West African lagoon

system (loicz 2005) (see picture previous page).

Assessment:

As changes in sediment mobilization continues because of development, negative impacts

have increased, and will probably continue to do so in future. The pattern of change varies

from region to region (decrease or increase in sediment flow), with improvements in some

areas being offset by deterioration in others. It is therefore difficult to determine the exact

balance of the situation; it appears to be relatively stable in the developed regions of the

world, while problems are increasing elsewhere.

The delta of the Yellow River with a parrot-headed peninsula

Source: unep 2005b

Undercut cliff bounding a back reef limestone terrace at Diani, Kenya

Source: R.S. Arthurton


Marine litter is a complex problem. Examples of specific effects are entanglement in

nets and plastic bags, and ingestion of various objects. In addition plastic litter kills more

than 1 million birds and 100 000 marine mammals and sea turtles each year. Plastic litter

is believed to be a source of persistent toxic substances and pieces of litter can transport

exotic invasive species over large distances. Items such as glass, plastic, rope, fishing lines

and medical waste also pose immediate risks to human safety. Bathers and divers can

become entangled in submerged or floating debris or injured by syringes and medical

waste can transmit pathogens. Contact with such polluted water can result in a variety

of infections, including skin rashes, diarrhoea, bacillary dysentery, hepatitis and even

typhoid and cholera. Military debris is a particularly serious problem: millions of tonnes of

munitions, including explosives, incendiary devises as well as weapons containing arsenic,

phosphorus and mustard and nerve gas have been dumped in the oceans, sometimes

washing-up on beaches, posing a serious hazard (gesamp 2001).


The annual ‘International Coastal Cleanup’, organized by the ngo ‘Ocean Conservancy’

gives an indication of the amount of marine litter existing globally. In the 2002 campaign,

390 000 volunteers in 100 countries removed litter from more than 21 000 km of coastline

and waterways, collecting 6.2 million pieces of refuse weighing 4 000 tonne. Almost 58 per

cent of the litter could be attributed to recreational activities along the shore. Estimates

from various regions include:

Europe: between 1992-2002, over 73 000 m3 of marine litter were collected along 300 km

of Sweden’s beaches (6 000-8 000 m3/yr). In the Baltic plastic debris has greatly increased

in the last decades and now accounts for over 90 per cent of the total. In Poland, annual

clean-ups collect 50-100 m3 of waste (helcom 2003). Nevertheless, solid waste is not a

big problem as beaches are cleaned regularly and litter from ships is limited (giwa 2005).

Pacific Islands: in 2002 107 tonnes of nets and fishing gear were gathered from the northern

islands in Hawaii (noaa 2002); a further 90 tonnes were collected in 2003.

Australia: in northeast Arnhem Land, around 200 turtles were found ensnared in fishing

nets over a period of four years; apparently around 80 per cent of the nets were foreign.

A beach survey in the same area in 2000 found 7 561 items, including 500 derelict fishing

nets along only 8.5 km of coastline (deh 2001).

ropme Sea Area: an estimated 1.2-2.6 kg of litter is generated on board ships per person

per day, most of which is dumped overboard. In Kuwait, 18 fishing nets weighing more than

three tonnes and measuring more than 3 000 m2 were recently collected (Butayban 2005).

Financial aspects:

Few assessments of the economic impacts and costs of marine litter have been carried out.

The costs for the clean-up of 900 km of coastline, gathering 10 000 tonnes of waste, in 56

communities in the uk was estimated at us$3.9 million. The total cost of marine litter in the


More litter is produced,which accumulates because of its slow or non-degradable nature

2.8 Marine litterThe problem:

Litter is found in coastal areas and oceans across the world, even in remote places far

from human population centres, dispersed by marine currents and wind. Litter in the

marine environment:

· damages ecosystems and wildlife;

· threatens human health and safety,

· has a negative influence on the cultural, aesthetic and amenity values of society, and

· adversely affects economic activities such as tourism and fisheries.

Marine litter consists mainly of slowly degradable or non-degradable substances, which

inevitably accumulate in the environment, causing an ever growing problem. It is difficult

to estimate the total amount of marine litter in the oceans, but it is believed that around

70 per cent of litter entering the oceans lands on the seabed, 15 per cent on beaches and

15 per cent remains floating on the surface. Litter originates from two sources: Sea-based

litter includes:

· trash from all manner of vessels;

· oils from offshore platforms or from boats and transport ships;

· refuse from aquaculture installations;

· discarded ships, fishing equipment and nets.

Land-based sources of litter include:

· municipal wastes from trash dumps, untreated sewage or storm water;

and the special category medical waste;

· various types of wastes from industrial installations and military activities;

· wastes originating from tourism and leisure activities (unep, 2005a).

Marine litter

Source: Shirley Richards/unep/Still Pictures

Impacts of marine littercan be devastating, bothfor animals and men

Some 58 per cent of littercomes from recreationalactivities


In addition to the activities in the coastal area itself, the effects of increased freshwater use

and human activities in the bordering river basins have to be mentioned as major drivers for

coastal change. Damming of rivers during the last decades has caused a decline of sediment

transport to the coastal areas by 30 per cent and a decline of freshwater flows by 15 per cent.

Examples of the type of physical alterations currently occurring in coastal environments

give an idea of the magnitude of the problem. Trawling grounds cause significant damage

to the sea bed; data from 24 countries indicates that trawling grounds cover around

8.8 million km2, of which 5.2 million km2 are located on the continental shelf, representing

57 per cent of the total continental shelf of those countries (wri 2000). Of all wetlands

50 per cent have been lost over the past century and of mangroves even more than 50 per

cent (oecd and iucn 1996); 35 per cent of mangroves disappeared over the past 20 years

alone (Valiela and others 2001). Already 30 per cent of the world’s coral reefs are seriously

damaged and it has been predicted that 60 per cent of coral reefs will be lost by 2030

(Wilkinson 2004). ramsar estimated in 1999 that the main threats are overexploitation

(36 per cent of the total) and habitat destruction (64 per cent of the total, of which 30 per

cent through coastal development, 22 per cent through land-based pollution and erosion

and 12 per cent through marine pollution) (ramsar 1999). More local figures on habitat

destruction are documented in unep-wcmc 2006. Recent fao data show the seriousness

of over exploitation of fisheries: in 12 of the 16 fao statistical regions at least 70 per cent

of stocks are already fully exploited or overexploited, suggesting that that the maximum

fishing potential has been (fao 2004).


The driving forces responsible for the physical alteration and destruction of habitats vary

from region to region, but all show deterioration of some kind.

North Sea: sand and gravel extraction is widespread, and is particularly intense in the

southern part damaging benthic communities, which can take up to 10 years to recover.

Intensive trawling activities affect the seabed in sub-regions such as the Irish Sea

(gesamp 2001).

Baltic Sea: approximately 90 per cent of marine and coastal biotopes are threatened to

some degree, either by loss of area or reduction in quality (helcom 1998 and 2001).

Mediterranean Sea: In the section on sediment mobilization the example of the Nile

River has already been given. Many other examples exist. After a new fishing harbour and

commercial port were built in the 1990-s near Tangier in Morocco, for example, the Tangier

beach nearly disappeared as the sediment transport regime changed. As a result Tangier

lost 53 per cent of its international night-stays, local tourism transport was reduced by

40 per cent and local craftsmen lost 25 per cent of their income. On the other hand,

continued growth in tourist facilities and settlements in coastal areas also contributes to

a disturbance of ecosystems and destruction of coastal habitats in most countries of the

region (Blue Plan 2005).


Shetlands (assuming all parties involved were damaged equally) was estimated at

us$9.9 million annually, of which some us$8.7 million for the fishing industry (Hall

and Nickerson 2000).

Municipalities on the west coast of Sweden spend an estimated us$1.6 million annually to

clean beaches along 3 600 km of coastline. The cost to the fishing industry in Sweden on the

Skagerrak coast has been estimated to be over us$1.1 million per year (Hall and Nickerson

2000). Extrapolating from these figures it is possible to imagine the magnitude of global

clean-up costs and of the damage incurred.

Assessment:

The problem of marine litter has steadily grown worse, despite both national and inter-

national efforts to control it. The largely non-degradable nature of litter in the marine

environment causes it to accumulate and a constant increase in the amounts discarded only

adds to the problem. Legislation and improved management practices have a limited effect,

because the problem has cultural roots (people do not really feel responsible). Information,

education and public awareness programmes are proving useful, but there is still room for

improvement (unep, 2005a).

2.9 Physical alteration and destruction of habitatsThe problem:

Direct physical alteration or outright destruction of coastal and marine ecosystems is

coupled to growth of population and economic activities. Thirty-eight percent of the

world’s population lives on only 7.6 per cent of the Earth’s total land area, a narrow fringe of

coastal land (unep 2006). Projections indicate that the numbers will increase considerably

over the next few decades; increases will be larger than for in-land areas. Average

population density in the coastal zone increased from 77 persons per square kilometre in

1990 to 87 p/km2 in 2000. It is projected that this trend will continue resulting in population

densities of 99 p/km2 in 2010, 115 p/km2 in 2025 and 134 p/km2 in 2050 (un data at

www.gpa.unep.org/padg). This growth has a clear bearing on the amount of physical

alterations and consequent destruction of coastal areas. The most damaging actions are:

‚ changes in land use, including draining wetlands and mangroves for use in agriculture

or settlements, building dams, ports, seawalls and aquaculture installations as well

as tourist facilities, and

· overuse of resources, including over-fishing, water, sand and gravel extraction

and other similar practices.

The effects of these actions are inextricably linked and problems in one area set off chain

reactions in others. The most important effects are:

· imbalances in ecosystems,

· outright physical or habitat destruction and

· damages to wildlife and fish-stocks.

Coastal degradation isworst in regions with fast growing populations,but no area is spared

Much damage is caused by activities in coastalzones …

… but activity in the hinterland also has severe negative impacts

Some 35 per cent of man-groves disappeared in thepast 20 years…

…and 60 per cent of theremaining coral reefs willbe lost by 2030

Cost of cleaning-up marine litter and of damage incurred is enormous

The marine litter problem has culturalroots; awareness programmes can help to tackle it


for fish. Also the 2005 tsunami caused a great deal of destruction, but, there are signs of

recovery in some areas.

North America: About a third of North America’s threatened and endangered species

depend on wetlands (unep 2002). A wide mix of land use changes have resulted in large

wetland losses, with urban development responsible for 30 per cent, agriculture for 26 per

cent, silviculture for 23 per cent and rural development for 21 per cent (American Rivers

2000). Overall losses in wetlands have decreased in the last three decades (usepa 2003).

Key areas of the usa continue to loose valuable wetlands, though. The destruction of

Louisiana’s coastal wetlands caused by Hurricane Katrina provides part of the explanation

for the continued losses. More than 1 million acres have been lost there over the past

decades. Before the alteration of the ecosystem, millions of tonnes of sediment from

the Mississippi replenished the wetlands and barrier islands in the delta on a regular basis.

The canals that were built to accommodate the oil and gas installations in the area led to

salt-water intrusion though, and this destroyed the freshwater marsh-grasses, all of

which formed a protective buffer (Waite and Pittman 2005).

Wider Caribbean: more than 300 million hectares of land has been degraded and almost

two-thirds of the reefs are potentially threatened from human activities, of which over

40 per cent are at high or very high risk (Burke and Maidens 2004). A marked deterioration

has taken place over the last two decades. By the late 1990s the condition of reefs was

considered poor, and live coral cover averaged only 20 per cent or less, except in north

Barbuda (Smith and others 2000). Between 1995 and 2001 reefs in the Soufriere region

lost an average of 47 per cent coral cover in shallow waters and 48 per cent in deeper waters.

North-west of Saint Lucia 82 per cent of the reefs has either died or is in poor condition

(Department of Fisheries of Saint Lucia 2003). In many Caribbean countries intensive mining

of beach sand and coastal construction (breakwaters and seawalls) have led to increasing

deterioration of the coastal environment. The usa Virgin Islands have lost 50 per cent of

their mangroves in the last 70 years (dpnr/dep and usda/nrcs 1998).

Latin America: loss of habitats along the coastline is wide-spread, as is evidenced by

declines in fisheries. Annual catches have historical monitoring records which provide

reliable ‘critical threshold estimates’ for many sites. Extreme cases of deterioration include

the 90 per cent reduction in commercial fisheries in the Magdalena River delta in Colombia

over the last two decades and a 90 per cent decline in viviparous shark catches in the Patos

Lagoon estuary in Brazil (Haimovici and others 1997). Extensive losses of mangroves in

Ecuador and Colombia, and salt marsh areas in southern Brazil have been reported

(Cardona and Botero 1998); (pmrc 1993; Seeliger and Costa1997).

Africa: extensive changes to the geomorphology of coastal areas are taking place,

particularly through erosion of major deltas such as those of the Nile, Volta and Zambezi

River or, more rarely, by accretion, as occurs around the Sabaki River in Kenya, which is

threatening the Watamu Marine Park. Generalized disturbances in the ecosystem due to

agriculture and extensive deforestation are acute in small to medium river catchment areas


Caspian Sea: the transgression of the sea in the last two decades has resulted in a sharp

increase of water levels of around 2.5 m, which has displaced wetlands and other shallow

habitats; this has been accompanied by ecosystem instability and a decline in bio-diversity,

particularly in the Caspian lowland in Kazakhstan and Russia, in lowland deltas in Azerbaijan

and offshore shallows (giwa 2005a).

West Asia is suffering from increasing deterioration of coastal areas, mainly because of land

reclamation (dredging, infilling) and construction; the problem is severe along the western

coasts of the Gulf countries (Bahrain, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates). Habitat

destruction is exemplified by the case of Dubai, where the expansion of the tourism

industry is damaging the marine habitat, burying coral reefs, oyster and sea-grass beds,

threatening other marine species, increasing the turbidity of coastal waters and disrupting

natural currents. Much of the damage has been caused by one single development project

through which a series of artificial islands are being created . Part of the project is located

in a formerly protected marine reserve (Butler 2005). Restoration efforts in the marshlands

of Lower Mesopotamia do show some positive signs (see box below).

A wetland reborn: the marshlands of Lower Mesopotamia

The most significant changes in the Lower Mesopotamia wetland ecosystem have occurred here in thepast three decades. Satellite images show that 93 per cent of the lakes and marshes that existed in 1970had disappeared by 2002 (UNEP 2002). This is attributable in part to the construction of a large numberof dams in the headwaters of the Tigris-Euphrates system, but the principal change came from largedrainage works in southern Iraq, notably the Main Outfall Drain (formerly the Third River or SaddamRiver), the Mother of Battles River (sealed in 2003), and the Glory River, all of which redirect marshwaters to the Persian Gulf.

In May 2003 action was taken by the local population and the Ministry of Water Resources to re-establish the marshlands. By May 2005 an estimated 20-25 per cent of the area had been floodedagain, either seasonally or permanently. Re-flooding, however, is not necessarily equivalent to restoration. Some areas have experienced a rapid return to original conditions, others are recoveringmore slowly, and some areas have not returned to wetland conditions but have become akin to reservoirs or evaporation ponds.

Full recovery of the ecosystem will not be easy. It may even be impossible in some parts. However, the social fabric does show signs of recovery, with as many as 42 000 Marsh Dwellers returning to their age-old traditional lifestyle (Eden Again 2005).

The Marshlands play an important role as spawning and nursery area for the north western Persian Gulf aquatic ecosystem, while juveniles are migrating via the 190 km long Shatt Al-Arab, the connection between the Marshlands and the sea. It is estimated that 40 per cent of Kuwait’s shrimp catch originates from the marshes. <

South East Asia probably has some of the most degraded wetland in the world, caused in

part by population pressure, deforestation (Indonesia), ecosystem fragmentation and large

numbers of dams (India); 88 per cent of the coral reefs (among the most species rich in the

world) are potentially threatened by human activities, of which 50 per cent at high or very

high risk (Burke and others 2002). Mangroves, also among the most bio-diverse in the world

(Burke and others 2001), are under increasing pressure from land clearance for agriculture,

aquaculture and logging, despite the widely documented value of these ecosystems in

terms of coastal protection, water purification, co2 absorption and as breeding grounds

3 3 p r o b l ems id en t ified f o r p r i o r i t y ac t i o n

Problems identified for priority action

3 Among the nine gpa source categories four issues have emerged as requiring

priority, namely sewage and management of municipal waste water, nutrient

over-enrichment, marine litter and physical alteration and habitat destruction.

A number of resulting challenges have come forth, which are not all new, but

are clearly putting increasing pressure on the marine environment. Here the

importance of freshwater systems, wetlands, and land use practices in catchment

areas requires special mention. This points to the urgent need for integrated

management and ecosystem-based approaches.

3.1 The issues Management of municipal wastewater: Due to a variety of factors, in particular the rapid

urbanization and growth in population along the coast, traditional approaches to dealing

with this problem are no longer effective, and the overall situation steadily grows worse.

In an attempt to find a solution, governments are increasingly turning to alternative

approaches. This entails various streams, from giving priority to the issue in the framework

of national and international strategies, to dealing with the problem in an integrated

manner, as well as using simpler methods and technologies that are more cost effective.

This problem was identified as a priority in six of the ten regions where unep carried out

assessments of land-based sources of pollution in 1997-98 (gesamp 2001) and has also been

recognized by the mdg, wssd and csd-12 as a priority. Increasingly, a series of international

programme initiatives address the problem, including the unep/wsscc wet-wash

initiative.

Nutrient over-enrichment: The potential seriousness of this problem was not foreseen only

a few decades ago, when it was first emerging. Over the past few years, the magnitude

and intractability of the problem has become apparent. Increased demands for food for an

expanding global population, intensified agriculture and an estimated 2.4-2.7-fold increase

by 2050 in nitrogen and phosphorus-driven eutrophication of terrestrial, freshwater and

near-shore marine ecosystems are all elements of a worrying picture of the future (Tilman

and others 2001). This eutrophication and habitat destruction would cause unprecedented

ecosystem simplification, loss of ecosystem services, and species extinction. It is now clear

that, while there has been continuous action to deal with this problem, it is not yet having

the desired effect. A new understanding is now emerging of the dynamics of the problem

and the kind of approach and control measures that can be effective. In particular, focussing

on an outcome based approach rather than on arbitrary goals of nutrient reduction seems

to offer some promise. However, this presents scientific and technological challenges that

will not be easy to overcome.

Physical alteration and destruction of habitats in the coastal zone: This problem, and

the related problem of changed sediment mobilization regimes, is now perceived as being

of extreme seriousness, given the sheer magnitude of the destruction and the changes

taking place. Increasingly it is understood that the problem cannot be dealt with in an

isolated manner, but must be approached on a broad front, in an integrated manner, not

only at the level of activities (such as tourism, aquaculture and infrastructure development),


in Morocco (Sebou and Moulouya) and East Africa (Tana, Sabaki, Rufiji) (loicz 2005).

Agricultural and urban development and other pressures are resulting in a loss of up to

50 per cent of wetlands in Southern Africa (deat 1999) and Western Africa (Armah and

Nyarko 1998; Oteng-Yeboah 1998), while some 80 per cent of the Upper Guinea forest

has been cleared, leading to widespread environmental deterioration (Conservation

International 1999).

Assessment:

Physical alteration and destruction of coastal ecosystems has continued to increase in the

last decade as a direct result of population growth and associated growth in economic

and development activities, in particular those associated with infrastructure and tourism.

Coastal ecosystems and habitats, particularly wetlands, mangroves and coral reefs, are fast

disappearing; this in turn affects biota, with grave consequences for bio-diversity and food

supplies. While deterioration is worst in regions with the fastest rates of population growth,

no area is spared. An emerging factor is the growing incidence of catastrophic natural

events, sometimes exacerbated by previous weakening of natural systems brought

about by human action.

Management of waste-water is identified as a priority in six of the tenregional seas assessed

New understanding is emerging of the dynamics of nutrient over-enrichment and control measures

padh must be approached in an integrated manner with a specific geographical focus

Infrastructure and tourism increase coastal alteration and destruction, …

…and the consequencesfor biodiversity and foodsupply are grave

3 5 p r o b l ems id en t ified f o r p r i o r i t y ac t i o n

Good quality and resilience of coastal habitats (a priority component of the gpa)

are of major importance for coastal protection against flood events and tsunami’s.

Effects of sea level rise – Sea level rise is expected to cause salinization as well as physical

alteration posing a major challenge for coastal management

3.3 Important management responses There are two basic elements for environmental management. The first deals with the

construction of a solid basis for understanding environmental problems, in particular with

indicators that allow the assessment of changes taking place in the environment. The

second is of a much broader nature and can be exemplified by the integrated management

of river basins and coastal areas.

Indicators relevant to gpa sources: In many cases the absence of clear targets and

appropriate indicators, as well as inadequate data and information make it difficult to assess

in concrete terms the current situation and trends in respect of the nine source categories

of the gpa. Long-term monitoring programmes are often not feasible because of constraints

such as lack of financial resources and institutional capacity. This is particularly true of

developing countries. However, assessments of the state of the environment are required

in order to improve environmental policy and management. The use of well chosen ‘smart’

indicators will help streamline such assessments and guide policy setting and management

choices; ‘smart’ referring to ‘specific, measurable, achievable, realistic, and time-bound’.

In addition ‘proxy’ indicators can be useful in the absence of other required data and

information (also as a preparation of the next assessment of developments on gpa related

issues). Three categories of indicators should be outlined: indicators for the process of gpa

implementation, for stress reduction related to source categories and for environmental

status of the marine environment.

Integrated management of river basins and coastal areas: Although integrated

approaches to planning and management have existed for decades, these have not been

applied systematically to the problems dealt with by the gpa. As the perception of the

nature of these problems evolves it is increasingly accepted that there would be benefit

in moving away from a sectoral approach and towards a broader management framework.

To consider economic, developmental, social and environmental goals together in the

context of both freshwater and marine ecosystems is seen as the way forward. In order to

establish linkages between river basin management and coastal and marine management

an ecosystem-based, multi-sectoral approach is envisaged. The required scale is defined by

the extent of the priority problems themselves, their driving forces, the extension of their

impacts and the anticipated societal responses.


but also applying a geographical focus (such as coastal areas, associated river basins and

hinterland). Systematic, integrative management approaches are being considered and it

is accepted that all relevant actors (industry, policy makers, and the private sector) must

embrace them.

Marine litter: The problem of marine litter is continuously getting worse and posing an

increasing threat to the marine and coastal biodiversity in productive coastal areas. Most

of the marine litter consists of material that degrades slowly, and pieces of litter are also

potential carriers of invasive species between seas. Though a wide range of marine litter-

related policy instruments already exists, the threat is still growing, which suggests

that much more remains to be done. According to a recent study ‘deficiencies in the

implementation and enforcement of existing international and regional environment-

related agreements, as well as national legislations and standards, are contributing to

the problem’ (unep 2005a).

3.2 Emerging challenges Coastal dead zones – areas of oxygen deprivation and devoid of life of which there are

currently about 150 in the world. The number of known locations has doubled every decade

since 1960. While many of these sites are small coastal bays and estuaries, seabed areas

in marginal seas of up to 70 000 km2 are also affected. Increased flows of nitrogen from

agricultural runoff, deposition in coastal areas of air-borne nitrogen compounds from

fossil-fuel burning, and discharges of human wastes are causing nutrient over-enrichment

and excessive algae blooms. Most oxygen from the water system is then used for

decomposition of the algae in the bottom layers (unep 2004).

Depleted freshwater flows – freshwater flows are the lifeblood for estuaries and

coastal zones, as they provide for the salinity gradients and nutrient flows to sustain the

regenerative functions of these regions for marine aquatic ecosystems. During the last

decades river flows have decreased at a global scale by about 15 per cent, mainly because

of damming (Vörösmarty and others 1997 and 2003). Dramatic increase of up-stream

water use and climate change are causing depletion of freshwater flows in an increasing

number of rivers in arid and semi arid regions during the dry season or even all year

around (such as in the Colorado, Yangtze and Ganga rivers).

Downstream and near-coast freshwater wetlands, used by migratory species as

spawning and nursery area, are deteriorating while they are of major importance in

sustaining marine aquatic ecosystems.

New chemicals in the environment – In addition to the few persistent and well-known

pops and metals, especially in western countries, hundreds to thousands of other, newer

and less persistent chemicals are continuously released into the environment ensuring

their ubiquitous presence. In this respect mention also has to be made of the problem of

electronic waste.

Sea level rise is a real challenge for coastalmanagement

Use indicators to assessenvironmental changeand to guide policy andmanagement decisions

Link river basin andcoastal and marinemanagement through an ecosystem-basedapproach

Healthy coastal habitatsprovide flood protection

Freshwater flows intocoastal waters are decreasing

Near-coast freshwaterwetlands are deteriorating

New chemicals arereleased into the environment

Waters deprived of oxygen and devoid of life increase

3 7 ov er a l l a s s e s s men t a nd co n clus i o ns

Overall assessment and conclusions

4 Overall progress in protecting the marine environment from the effects of land-

based activities, and in implementing the gpa has been uneven. Success in some

areas has been offset by deterioration elsewhere. This uneven performance occurs

at all levels, both between and within sectors and between and within regions.

A distinction has to be made between whether progress can be measured in terms

of actual improvements or merely in terms of arresting further deterioration.

An additional distinction needs to be made in cases where the situation has

deteriorated in absolute terms. In assessing the situation, it is important to under-

stand the implications of what is occurring and the underlying reasons for progress,

stagnation or regression. Although it is not possible to draw conclusions on what

action resulted in which trend, and without going into details that have already

been reviewed in previous sections, one can highlight the following:

The framework for action for the protection of the marine environment is established,

with a good, solid institutional and legal base and global programme of action (gpa)

functional in several regions. A good level of international and regional cooperation

facilitates implementation of the gpa/lba.

The degree of progress in the various sectors varies considerably. The following clusters

can be distinguished, considering trends in the current situation and effectiveness of

action taken in relation to the nine priority areas of the gpa framework:

· Relatively good levels of success have been achieved in relation to Persistent Organic

Pollutants, Radioactive substances and Oil (hydrocarbons). Of course some problems

remain, mainly in developing regions, but overall, progress has been consistent. One

special issue here is the danger posed by accidents affecting radioactive substances

and oil. Besides, pesticides continue to pose problems, mainly in developing regions.

· Mixed results have been obtained in respect of Heavy metals and Sediment mobilization.

Overall, the situation appears relatively stable in developed regions, but presents

problems in areas of rapid development. In respect of heavy metals, emerging problems

such as that of electronic waste pose new threats.

· Worsening conditions are occurring in respect of Sewage, Nutrients, Marine litter and

Physical alteration and destruction of habitats. In developed regions the situation is

stable in respect of sewage, but because of population growth and rapidly increasing

development, it is a major problem in developing regions and the situation continues to

deteriorate. Agricultural nutrient run-off is a growing problem in most places. The other

two problems are increasing in severity and magnitude and have a global reach.

Factors determining progress are related directly to the problem at hand or are part of a

broader context. Factors that influence progress in a positive manner include a clear and

functional regulatory system, a solid institutional framework, well-trained personnel,

financial and technical resources and an informed public. Well defined or circumscribed

problems appear easier to deal with, whereas diffuse or pervasive problems or complex

questions appear much more difficult.


While adopting the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation, the global community agreed

to develop integrated water resources management and water efficiency plans by 2005.

They called for development and implementation of national/regional strategies, plans

and programmes with regard to integrated river basin, watershed and groundwater

management (jpoi, Chapter 4, para 26). This was reiterated during the unep Governing

Council Special Session, held in Jeju, Republic of Korea in 2004, where an integrated

strategy to water resources management was emphasised based on an ‘ecosystem-based

approach and linking the principles… (and) practice of iwrm with integrated coastal

zone management’ (unep 2004b).

Relatively good levels of success exist in three of the nine gpa sourcecategories,…

…mixed results for twoout of nine, and…

…worsening conditionsfor the remaining four

Factors that influence progress in a positivemanner

3 9 r efer en ce s

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influence the way people act (or neglect) and are notoriously difficult to change. Public

awareness campaigns have been effective, but at the same time political will on the part

of governments to take appropriate action is paramount.

Finally, there are two factors that have a direct bearing on progress, but that lie outside the

scope of an environmental plan. The first is the degree of economic development: a solid

starting level contributes to the ability of society to deal with problems. The second is the

speed at which changes occur in a society: high rates of population and economic growth

can create unstable conditions that are not conducive to effective action. The implication

is that, if progress is to be made, issues of the broadest concern to society, namely

development and human well-being, must be factored into any action to protect the

marine environment.

It appears that action in the context of the gpa has been effective in several regions, but

that factors outside its scope, namely the continued pressure of population growth and

economic development, has made progress in absolute terms elusive. If deterioration is

to be arrested and improvements made, new, different, better ways must be found. While

this will not be easy, it is nevertheless possible and feasible.

The length of time required to obtain results within the framework of the gpa must be taken

in to account. Experience from long-standing regional environmental initiatives (such as the

Mediterranean Sea, North America’s Great Lakes, the Mekong River, to name a few) shows

that these processes often take 15 to 20 years before meaningful commitments to joint

management can be secured, and an even longer time before the environment actually

begins to respond. Viewed in this light, the gpa is just starting.

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To make progress innovative ways must be found

Actual results will only be obtained through long-term processes

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