the self, identity, and values chapter 3: human adjustment john w. santrock mcgraw-hill © 2006 by...
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The Self, Identity, and Values
Chapter 3:
Human AdjustmentJohn W. Santrock
McGraw-Hill © 2006 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
McGraw-Hill ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
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Chapter Outline
The Self
Identity
Values
Religion
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THE SELF
Self-Concept
Self-Esteem
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Self-Concept
Self-concept consists of our thoughts and feelings about our own characteristics
Rogers argues that congruence between real self and ideal self results in adjustment
Self-concept = individual’s perception of his or her abilities, personality, and other attributes
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Self-Discrepancy
E. Tory Higgins identified 3 domains of self:–Actual self - your representation of attributes you believe or
you actually possess
– Ideal self - your representation of attributes that ideally you would like to possess
–Ought self - your representation of attributes you believe you should possess
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Self-Discrepancy Theory
Self-discrepancy theory - problems occur when representations from different viewpoints or from different domains are inconsistent, or discrepant–Discrepancies between actual and ideal selves create
dejection-relation emotions (depression)
–Discrepancies between actual self and ought self create agitated emotions (anxiety)
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Figure 3.1 The Relation of Discrepancies in Actual, Ideal, and Ought Selves to Depression and Anxiety
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Possible Selves
Possible selves - conceptions of what we might become, including what we would like to become and what we are afraid of becoming– Include hoped-for and dreaded selves
–Serve role in self-evaluation
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Possible Selves
Individualistic cultures - possible selves that reflect distinctiveness of individual
Collectivist cultures - possible selves that strengthen the groups to which they belong
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Self-Esteem
People have both a general level of self-esteem and fluctuating degrees of self-esteem related to specific domains of life
Self-esteem = overall evaluation of one’s self-worth or self-image
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Examples of Domains of Life
–academic competence
–work competence
– social or relationship competence
– sexuality
–athletic competence
–physical attractiveness
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Self-Esteem
There is controversy about whether self-esteem varies according to the age of the individual
Correlations between self-esteem and:– school performance
– job performance
– initiative
– happiness
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3-13Adjustment Strategies for Increasing Self-Esteem
1. Identify your sources of self-esteem and what is causing low self-esteem
2. Face a problem and try to cope with it
3. Seek emotional support
4. Take responsibility for your self-esteem
5. Look for opportunities to achieve
6. Explore resources to improve your self-understanding
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Narcissism
Narcissism - self-centered and self-concerned approach when dealing with others
Narcissists are:–excessively self-centered and self-congratulatory
–unaware of their actual selves and how others perceive them
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IDENTITY
Erikson’s View
The Four Statuses of Identity
Developmental Changes
Ethnic Identity
Gender and Identity
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Erikson's View
Identity versus identity confusion - stage during adolescence and emerging adulthood when individuals are faced with deciding who they are and where they are going in life
Identity = a sense of integration of self in which different parts come together in a unified whole
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Erikson’s View
Youths enter a psychosocial moratorium during which they experiment with personalities and roles as they search for an identity
Psychological moratorium - gap between childhood security and adult autonomy– In the United States, vocational identity is especially
important
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Four Statuses of Identity
James Marcia’s classification based on extent of their crisis and commitment–Crisis - period of identity development during which
individual is choosing among meaningful alternatives
–Commitment - personal investment in an identity
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Four Statuses of Identity
Marcia proposed four identity statuses:– identity diffusion - has not yet experienced identity crisis
and has not made any commitment
– identity foreclosure - has made a commitment but has not experienced an identity crisis
– identity moratorium - experiencing identity crisis but has not made commitment to an identity
– identity achievement - has undergone identity crisis and made a commitment
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3-20Figure 3.3 Marcia’s Four Statuses of Identity
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Developmental Changes
Some experts believe the main identity changes take place in late adolescence or emerging adulthood, rather than in early adolescence
College upperclassmen are more likely to be identity achieved than are freshmen or high school students, although many college students are still wrestling with ideological commitments
Individuals often follow “moratorium-achievement-moratorium-achievement” cycles
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Ethnic Identity
Ethnic identity - enduring aspect of self that includes:– sense of membership in ethnic group
–attitudes and feelings related to membership
During adolescence and emerging adulthood ethnic minority individuals consciously confront their ethnic identity
Many ethnic minority individuals have a bicultural identity
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Ethnic Identity
Helms’ model of ethnic identity development: –Stage 1 - pre-encounter (prefer dominant society’s values)
–Stage 2 - encounter (realize they will never belong to mainstream)
–Stage 3 - immersion/emersion (immerse themselves in minority culture / experience discontent)
–Stage 4 - internalization/commitment (integrate personal and culture identity / enact identity)
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Gender and Identity
Erikson believed that males have a stronger vocational identity, females a stronger social identity
Gender differences appear to be disappearing
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VALUES
Exploring Values
College Students’ Values
Meaning in Life
Sociocultural Perspectives on Values
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Exploring Values
Value conflict - clash between values that encourage opposing actions
Ethnic minority individuals can have value conflict between their values and values of mainstream culture
Values = standards we apply to determine the worth of things, ideas, or events
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3-27Adjustment Strategies for Clarifying Your Values
1. Imagine your own funeral - what will people say?
2. If you had unlimited time and resources, what would you do?
3. Review your most important values.
4. How do your values relate to physical, social, mental, and spiritual needs?
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College Students’ Values
Over the past two decades, U.S. college students have shown an increased concern for personal well-being and a decreased concern for the well-being of others
An increasing number of students are showing an interest in volunteer or community service work
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College Students’ Values
Service learning - form of education that promotes social responsibility and service to the community
Participation in service learning is related to:–higher grades
– increased goal setting
–higher self-esteem
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Meaning in Life
Viktor Frankl believes that examining the finiteness of our existence leads to exploration of meaning in life
Baumeister argues that a quest for a meaningful life involves four main needs:–need for purpose
–need for values
–need for sense of efficacy
–need for self-worth
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Sociocultural Perspectives on Values
Some critics argue that Americans are too concerned with self-fulfillment and personal identity
Zen Buddhism emphasizes living in the present moment by focusing on the task at hand
Morita therapy = Zen Buddhist therapy emphasizing accepting feelings, knowing one’s purposes, and doing what needs to be done
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RELIGION
The Scope of Religion in People’s Lives
Religion and Health
Religious Coping
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The Scope of Religion in People’s Lives
Religion plays important role in the lives of many people around the world
Majority of Americans say they are religious–Females show a stronger interest in religion than males
–Americans are becoming less committed to a particular religious denomination and show a declining faith in mainstream religious organizations
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Figure 3.5 Level of Spirituality
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Religion and Health
Individuals in religious mainstream generally enjoy a positive or neutral link between religion and physical health
Religious thoughts can play role in maintaining hope and stimulating motivation in recovery from an illness or disease
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Religious Coping
Religion helps some people cope more effectively with stress
Positive religious coping strategies include:–expression of a sense of spirituality
– secure relationship with God
–belief that there is meaning to be found in life
– sense of spiritual connectedness with others