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The Scottish Wars ofIndependenceNational 5 HIstory Information

ContentsArticles

Wars of Scottish Independence 1Alexander III of Scotland 12Edward I of England 17John Balliol 39William Wallace 43Robert the Bruce 51John III Comyn, Lord of Badenoch 69Battle of Dunbar (1296) 74Battle of Stirling Bridge 77Battle of Bannockburn 82Declaration of Arbroath 89Treaty of Edinburgh–Northampton 91

ReferencesArticle Sources and Contributors 94Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 97

Article LicensesLicense 99

Wars of Scottish Independence 1

Wars of Scottish Independence

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The Wars of Scottish Independence were a series of military campaigns fought between the Kingdom of Scotlandand the Kingdom of England in the late 13th and early 14th centuries.The First War (1296–1328) began with the English invasion of Scotland in 1296, and ended with the signing of the Treaty of Edinburgh-Northampton in 1328. The Second War (1332–1357) began with the English-supported invasion by Edward Balliol and the "Disinherited" in 1332, and ended in 1357 with the signing of the Treaty of Berwick. The wars were part of a great national crisis for Scotland and the period became one of the most defining times in the nation's history. At the end of both wars, Scotland retained its status as an independent nation. The wars

Wars of Scottish Independence 3

were important for other reasons, such as the emergence of the longbow as a key weapon in medieval warfare.

The First War of Independence: 1296–1328Main article: First War of Scottish Independence

Background

Edward I and Edward, Prince ofWales

King Alexander III of Scotland died in 1286, leaving his 3-year-oldgranddaughter Margaret (called "the Maid of Norway") as his heir. In 1290, theGuardians of Scotland signed the Treaty of Birgham agreeing to the marriage ofthe Maid of Norway and Edward of Caernarvon, the son of Edward I, who wasMargaret's great-uncle. This marriage would not create a union between Scotlandand England because the Scots insisted that the Treaty declare that Scotland wasseparate and divided from England and that its rights, laws, liberties and customswere wholly and inviolably preserved for all time.

However, Margaret, travelling to her new kingdom, died shortly after landing onthe Orkney Islands around 26 September 1290. With her death, there were 13rivals for succession. The two leading competitors for the Scottish crown wereRobert Bruce, 5th Lord of Annandale (grandfather of the future King Robert theBruce) and John Balliol, Lord of Galloway. Fearing civil war between the Bruceand Balliol families and supporters, the Guardians of Scotland wrote to Edward Iof England, asking him to come north and arbitrate between the claimants in

order to avoid civil war.

Edward agreed to meet the guardians at Norham in 1291. Before the process got underway Edward insisted that hebe recognised as Lord Paramount of Scotland. During the meeting, Edward had his army standing by, thus forcingthe Scots to accept his terms. He gave the claimants three weeks to agree to his terms. With no King, with no armyready, and King Edward's army at hand, the Scots had no choice. The claimants to the crown acknowledged Edwardas their Lord Paramount and accepted his arbitration. Their decision was influenced in part by the fact that most ofthe claimants had large estates in England and, therefore, would have lost them if they had defied the English king.However, many involved were churchmen such as Bishop Wishart for whom such mitigation cannot be claimed.[2]

On 11 June, acting as the Lord Paramount of Scotland, Edward I ordered that every Scottish royal castle be placedtemporarily under his control and every Scottish official resign his office and be re-appointed by him. Two dayslater, in Upsettlington, the Guardians of the Realm and the leading Scottish nobles gathered to swear allegiance toKing Edward I as Lord Paramount. All Scots were also required to pay homage to Edward I, either in person or atone of the designated centres by 27 July 1291.There were thirteen meetings from May to August 1291 at Berwick, where the claimants to the crown pleaded theircases before Edward, in what came to be known as the "Great Cause". The claims of most of the competitors wererejected, leaving Balliol, Bruce, Floris V, Count of Holland and John de Hastings of Abergavenny, 2nd BaronHastings, as the only men who could prove direct descent from David I.On 3 August, Edward asked Balliol and Bruce to choose 40 arbiters each, while he chose 24, to decide the case. On 12 August, he signed a writ that required the collection of all documents that might concern the competitors' rights or his own title to the superiority of Scotland, which was accordingly executed.[3]</ref> Balliol was named king by a majority on 17 November 1292 and on 30 November. He was crowned King of Scots at Scone Abbey. On 26 December, at Newcastle upon Tyne, King John swore homage to Edward I for the Kingdom of Scotland. Edward soon made it clear that he regarded the country as a vassal state. Balliol, undermined by members of the Bruce faction, struggled to resist, and the Scots resented Edward's demands. In 1294, Edward summoned John Balliol to

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appear before him, and then ordered that he had until 1 September 1294 to provide Scottish troops and funds for hisinvasion of France.On his return to Scotland, John held a meeting with his council and after a few days of heated debate, plans weremade to defy the orders of Edward I. A few weeks later a Scottish parliament was hastily convened and 12 membersof a war council (four Earls, Barons, and Bishops, respectively) were selected to advise King John.Emissaries were immediately dispatched to inform King Philip IV of France of the intentions of the English. Theyalso negotiated a treaty by which the Scots would invade England if the English invaded France, and in return theFrench would support the Scots. The treaty would be sealed by the arranged marriage of John's son Edward andPhilip's niece Joan. Another treaty with King Eric II of Norway was hammered out, in which for the sum of 50,000groats he would supply 100 ships for four months of the year, so long as hostilities between France and Englandcontinued. Although Norway never acted, the Franco-Scottish alliance, later known as the Auld Alliance, wasrenewed frequently until 1560.It was not until 1295 that Edward I became aware of the secret Franco-Scottish negotiations. In early October, hebegan to strengthen his northern defences against a possible invasion. It was at this point that Robert Bruce, 6th Lordof Annandale (father of the future King Robert the Bruce) was appointed by Edward as the governor of CarlisleCastle. Edward also ordered John Balliol to relinquish control of the castles and burghs of Berwick, Jedburgh andRoxburgh. In December, more than 200 of Edward's tenants in Newcastle were summoned to form a militia byMarch 1296 and in February, a fleet sailed north to meet with his land forces in Newcastle.The movement of English forces along the Anglo-Scottish border did not go unnoticed. In response, King JohnBalliol summoned all able-bodied Scotsmen to bear arms and gather at Caddonlee by 11 March. Several Scottishnobles chose to ignore the summons, including Robert Bruce, Earl of Carrick, whose Carrick estates had been seizedby John Balliol and reassigned to John 'The Red' Comyn. Robert Bruce, Earl of Carrick had become Earl of Carrickat the resignation of his father earlier that year.

Beginning of the war: 1296–1306

The dethroned King John, whom aScottish chronicler dubbed 'toom

tabard' ('empty coat')

The First War of Scottish Independence can be loosely divided into four phases:the initial English invasion and success in 1296; the campaigns led by WilliamWallace, Andrew de Moray and various Scottish Guardians from 1297 until JohnComyn negotiated for the general Scottish submission in February 1304; therenewed campaigns led by Robert the Bruce following his killing of The RedComyn in Dumfries in 1306 to his and the Scottish victory at Bannockburn in1314; and a final phase of Scottish diplomatic initiatives and military campaignsin Scotland, Ireland and Northern England from 1314 until the Treaty ofEdinburgh-Northampton in 1328.

The war began in earnest with Edward I's brutal sacking of Berwick in March1296, followed by the Scottish defeat at the Battle of Dunbar and the abdicationof John Balliol in July.[4] The English invasion campaign had subdued most ofthe country by August and, after removing the Stone of Destiny from SconeAbbey and transporting it to Westminster Abbey, Edward convened a parliamentat Berwick, where the Scottish nobles paid homage to him as King of England.Scotland had been all but conquered.

The revolts which broke out in early 1297, led by William Wallace, Andrew de Moray and other Scottish nobles, forced Edward to send more forces to deal with the Scots, and although they managed to force the nobles to capitulate at Irvine, Wallace and de Moray's continuing campaigns eventually led to the first key Scottish victory, at Stirling Bridge. Moray was fatally wounded in the fighting at Stirling, and died soon after the battle. This was

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followed by Scottish raids into northern England and the appointment of Wallace as Guardian of Scotland in March1298. But in July, Edward invaded again, intending to crush Wallace and his followers, and defeated the Scots atFalkirk. Edward failed to subdue Scotland completely before returning to England.There have been, however, several stories regarding Wallace and what he did after the Battle of Falkirk. It is said bysome sources that Wallace travelled to France and fought for the French King against the English during their ownongoing war while Bishop Lamberton of St Andrews, who gave much support to the Scottish cause, went and spoketo the pope.

Notable figures from the first War ofIndependence as depicted by the Victorian artist

William Hole

Wallace was succeeded by Robert Bruce and John Comyn as jointguardians, with William de Lamberton, Bishop of St Andrews beingappointed in 1299 as a third, neutral Guardian to try and maintain orderbetween them. During that year, diplomatic pressure from France andRome persuaded Edward to release the imprisoned King John into thecustody of the pope, and Wallace was sent to France to seek the aid ofPhilip IV; he possibly also travelled to Rome.

Further campaigns by Edward in 1300 and 1301 led to a truce betweenthe Scots and the English in 1302. After another campaign in1303/1304, Stirling Castle, the last major Scottish held stronghold, fellto the English, and in February 1304, negotiations led to most of theremaining nobles paying homage to Edward and to the Scots all butsurrendering. At this point, Robert Bruce and William Lamberton mayhave made a secret bond of alliance, aiming to place Bruce on theScottish throne and continue the struggle. However, Lamberton came from a family associated with theBalliol-Comyn faction and his ultimate allegiances are unknown.

After the capture and execution of Wallace in 1305, Scotland seemed to have been finally conquered and the revoltcalmed for a period.

King Robert the Bruce: 1306–1328

Bannockburn Monument plaque

On 10 February 1306, during a meeting between Bruce and Comyn, the twosurviving claimants for the Scottish throne, Bruce quarrelled with and killed JohnComyn at Greyfriars Kirk in Dumfries. At this moment the rebellion was sparkedagain.

Comyn, it seems, had broken an agreement between the two, and informed KingEdward of Bruce's plans to be king. The agreement was that one of the twoclaimants would renounce his claim on the throne of Scotland, but receive landsfrom the other and support his claim. Comyn appears to have thought to get boththe lands and the throne by betraying Bruce to the English. A messenger carryingdocuments from Comyn to Edward was captured by Bruce and his party, plainlyimplicating Comyn. Bruce then rallied the Scottish prelates and nobles behindhim and had himself crowned King of Scots at Scone less than five weeks afterthe killing in Dumfries. He then began a new campaign to free his kingdom.After being defeated in battle he was driven from the Scottish mainland as an outlaw. Bruce later came out of hidingin 1307. The Scots thronged to him, and he defeated the English in a number of battles. His forces continued to growin strength, encouraged in part by the death of Edward I in July 1307. The Battle of Bannockburn in 1314 was anespecially important Scottish victory.

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In 1320, the Declaration of Arbroath was sent by a group of Scottish nobles to the Pope affirming Scottishindependence from England. Two similar declarations were also sent by the clergy and Robert I. In 1327, Edward IIof England was deposed and killed. The invasion of the North of England by Robert the Bruce forced Edward III ofEngland to sign the Treaty of Edinburgh-Northampton on 1 May 1328, which recognised the independence ofScotland with Bruce as King. To further seal the peace, Robert's son and heir David married the sister of Edward III.

The Second War of Independence: 1332–1357Main article: Second War of Scottish IndependenceAfter Robert the Bruce's death, King David II was too young to rule, so the guardianship was assumed by ThomasRandolph, Earl of Moray. But Edward III, despite having given his name to the Treaty of Edinburgh-Northampton,was determined to avenge the humiliation by the Scots and he could count on the assistance of Edward Balliol, theson of John Balliol and a claimant to the Scottish throne.Edward III also had the support of a group of Scottish nobles, led by Balliol and Henry Beaumont, known as the'Disinherited.' This group of nobles had supported the English in the First War and, after Bannockburn, Robert theBruce had given them a year to return to his peace. When they refused he deprived them of their titles and lands,granting them to his allies. When peace was concluded, they received no war reparations. These 'Disinherited' werehungry for their old lands and would prove to be the undoing of the peace.The Earl of Moray died on 20 July 1332. The Scots nobility gathered at Perth where they elected Domhnall II, Earlof Mar as the new Guardian. Meanwhile a small band led by Balliol had set sail from the Humber. Consisting of thedisinherited noblemen and mercenaries, they were probably no more than a few hundred men strong.Edward III was still formally at peace with David II and his dealings with Balliol were therefore deliberatelyobscured. He of course knew what was happening and Balliol probably did homage in secret before leaving, butBalliol's desperate scheme must have seemed doomed to failure. Edward therefore refused to allow Balliol to invadeScotland from across the River Tweed. This would have been too open a breach of the treaty. He agreed to turn ablind eye to an invasion by sea, but made it clear that he would disavow them and confiscate all their English landsshould Balliol and his friends fail.The 'Disinherited' landed at Kinghorn in Fife on 6 August. The news of their advance had preceded them, and, asthey marched towards Perth, they found their route barred by a large Scottish army, mostly of infantry, under thenew Guardian.At the Battle of Dupplin Moor, Balliol's army, commanded by Henry Beaumont, defeated the larger Scottish force.Beaumont made use of the same tactics that the English would make famous during the Hundred Years' War, withdismounted knights in the centre and archers on the flanks. Caught in the murderous rain of arrows, most of theScots didn't reach the enemy's line. When the slaughter was finally over, the Earl of Mar, Sir Robert Bruce (anillegitimate son of Robert the Bruce), many nobles and around 2,000 Scots had been slain. Edward Balliol then hadhimself crowned King of Scots, first at Perth, and then again in September at Scone Abbey. Balliol's successsurprised Edward III, and fearing that Balliol's invasion would eventually fail leading to a Scots invasion of England,he moved north with his army.In October, Sir Archibald Douglas, now Guardian of Scotland, made a truce with Balliol, supposedly to let theScottish Parliament assemble and decide who their true king was. Emboldened by the truce, Balliol dismissed mostof his English troops and moved to Annan, on the north shore of the Solway Firth. He issued two public letters,saying that with the help of England he had reclaimed his kingdom, and acknowledged that Scotland had alwaysbeen a fief of England. He also promised land for Edward III on the border, including Berwick-on-Tweed, and thathe would serve Edward for the rest of his life. But in December, Douglas attacked Balliol at Annan in the early hoursof the morning. Most of Balliol's men were killed, though he himself managed to escape through a hole in the wall,and fled, naked and on horse, to Carlisle.

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Edward III invades Scotland, from an edition ofFroissart's Chronicles

In April 1333, Edward III and Balliol, with a large English army, laidsiege to Berwick. Archibald Douglas attempted to relieve the town inJuly, but was defeated and killed at the Battle of Halidon Hill. David IIand his Queen were moved to the safety of Dumbarton Castle, whileBerwick surrendered and was annexed by Edward. By now, much ofScotland was under English occupation, with eight of the Scottishlowland counties being ceded to England by Edward Balliol.

At the beginning of 1334, Philip VI of France offered to bring David IIand his court to France for asylum, and in May they arrived in France,setting up a court-in-exile at Château Gaillard in Normandy. Philip alsodecided to derail the Anglo-French peace negotiations then takingplace (at the time England and France were engaged in disputes that

would lead to the Hundred Years' War), declaring to Edward III that any treaty between France and England mustinclude the exiled King of Scots.

In David's absence, a series of Guardians kept up the struggle. In November, Edward III invaded again, but heaccomplished little and retreated in February 1335 due primarily to his failure to bring the Scots to battle. He andEdward Balliol returned again in July with an army of 13,000, and advanced through Scotland, first to Glasgow andthen to Perth, where Edward III installed himself while his army looted and destroyed the surrounding countryside.At this time, the Scots followed a plan of avoiding pitched battles, depending instead on minor actions of heavycavalry – the normal practice of the day. Some Scottish leaders, including the Earl of Atholl, who had returned toScotland with Edward Balliol in 1332 and 1333, defected to the Bruce party.Following Edward's return to England, the remaining leaders of the Scots resistance chose Sir Andrew Murray asGuardian. He soon negotiated a truce with Edward until April 1336, during which, various French and Papalemissaries attempted to negotiate a peace between the two countries. In January, the Scots drew up a draft treatyagreeing to recognise the elderly and childless Edward Balliol as King, so long as David II would be his heir andDavid would leave France to live in England. However, David II rejected the peace proposal and any further truces.In May, an English army under Henry of Lancaster invaded, followed in July by another army under King Edward.Together, they ravaged much of the north-east and sacked Elgin and Aberdeen, while a third army ravaged thesouth-west and the Clyde valley. Prompted by this invasion, Philip VI of France announced that he intended to aidthe Scots by every means in his power, and that he had a large fleet and army preparing to invade both England andScotland. Edward soon returned to England, while the Scots, under Murray, captured and destroyed Englishstrongholds and ravaged the countryside, making it uninhabitable for the English.Although Edward III invaded again, he was becoming more anxious over the possible French invasion, and by late1336, the Scots had regained control over virtually all of Scotland and by 1338 the tide had turned. While "BlackAgnes," Countess-consort Dunbar and March, continued to resist the English laying siege to Dunbar Castle, hurlingdefiance and abuse from the walls, Scotland received some breathing space when Edward III claimed the Frenchthrone and took his army to Flanders, beginning the Hundred Years' War with France.In the late autumn of 1335, Strathbogie, dispossessed Earl of Atholl, and Edward III set out to destroy Scottishresistance by dispossessing and killing the Scottish freeholders. Following this, Strathbogie moved to lay siege toKildrummy Castle, held by Lady Christian Bruce, sister of the late King Robert and wife of the Guardian, Andrewde Moray. Her husband moved his small army quickly to her relief although outnumbered by some five to one.However, many of Strathbogie's men had been impressed and had no loyalty to the English or the usurper, Balliol.Pinned by a flank attack while making a downhill charge, Strathbogie's army broke and Strathbogie refused tosurrender and was killed. The Battle of Culblean was the effective end of Balliol's attempt to overthrow the King ofScots.

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So, in just nine years, the kingdom so hard won by Robert the Bruce had been shattered and had recovered. Many ofher experienced nobles were dead and the economy which had barely begun to recover from the earlier wars wasonce again in tatters. It was to an impoverished country in need of peace and good government that David II wasfinally able to return in June 1341.

David II (lower left) captured at Neville's Cross,from an edition of Froissart's Chronicles

When David returned, he was determined to live up to the memory ofhis illustrious father. He ignored truces with England and wasdetermined to stand by his ally Philip VI during the early years of theHundred Years' War. In 1341 he led a raid into England, forcingEdward III to lead an army north to reinforce the border. In 1346, aftermore Scottish raids, Philip VI appealed for a counter invasion ofEngland in order to relieve the English stranglehold on Calais. Davidgladly accepted and personally led a Scots army southwards withintention of capturing Durham. In reply, an English army movednorthwards from Yorkshire to confront the Scots. On 14 October, at theBattle of Neville's Cross, the Scots were defeated. They suffered heavycasualties and David was wounded in the face by two arrows beforebeing captured. He was sufficiently strong however to knock out two

teeth from the mouth of his captor. After a period of convalescence, he was imprisoned in the Tower of London,where he was held prisoner for eleven years, during which time Scotland was ruled by his nephew, Robert Stewart,7th High Steward. Edward Balliol returned to Scotland soon afterwards with a small force, in a final attempt torecover Scotland. He only succeeded in gaining control of some of Galloway, with his power diminishing there until1355. He finally resigned his claim to the Scottish throne in January 1356 and died childless in 1364.

David II pays homage to Edward III

Finally, on 3 October 1357, David was released under the Treaty ofBerwick, under which the Scots agreed to pay an enormous ransom of100,000 merks for him (1 merk was ⅔ of an English pound) payable in10 years. Heavy taxation was needed to provide funds for the ransom,which was to be paid in instalments, and David alienated his subjectsby using the money for his own purposes. The country was in a sorrystate then; she had been ravaged by war and also the Black Death. Thefirst instalment of the ransom was paid punctually. The second was lateand after that no more could be paid for.

In 1363, David went to London and agreed that should he die childless,the crown would pass to Edward (his brother-in-law) or one of hissons, with the Stone of Destiny being returned for their coronation asKing of Scots. However, this seems to have been no more than a rather dishonest attempt to re-negotiate the ransomsince David knew perfectly well that Parliament would reject such an arrangement out of hand. The Scots did rejectthis arrangement, and offered to continue paying the ransom (now increased to 100,000 pounds). A 25-year trucewas agreed and in 1369, the treaty of 1365 was cancelled and a new one set up to the Scots benefit, due to theinfluence of the war with France. The new terms saw the 44,000 merks already paid deducted from the original100,000 with the balance due in instalments of 4,000 for the next 14 years.

When Edward died in 1377, there were still 24,000 merks owed which were never paid. David himself had lost hispopularity and the respect of his nobles when he married the widow of a minor laird after the death of his Englishwife. He himself died in February 1371.By the end of the campaign, Scotland was independent and remained thus, until the unification of the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland to create the single Kingdom of Great Britain was completed in the Treaty of

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Union of 1707.

Major battles and events•• Capture of Berwick (1296)•• Battle of Dunbar (1296)• Battle of Stirling Bridge, 1297•• Battle of Falkirk (1298)• Battle of Roslin, 1303•• Battle of Happrew 1304• Fall of Stirling Castle, 1304• Battle of Methven, 1306• Battle of Dalry, 1306• Battle of Glen Trool, 1307• Battle of Loudoun Hill, 1307• Battle of Slioch, 1307• Battle of Inverurie, 1308• Battle of Pass of Brander, 1308• Battle of Bannockburn, 1314• Battle of Connor, 1315• Battle of Skaithmuir, 1316• Battle of Skerries, 1316• Battle of Faughart, 1318• Capture of Berwick, 1318• Battle of Myton, 1319• Declaration of Arbroath, 1320• Battle of Boroughbridge, 1322• Battle of Old Byland, 1322• Treaty of Corbeil, 1326• Battle of Stanhope Park, 1327• Treaty of Edinburgh-Northampton, 1328• Battle of Dupplin Moor, 1332• Battle of Halidon Hill, 1333• Battle of Dornock, 1333• Battle of Boroughmuir, 1335• Battle of Culblean, 1335• Battle of Neville's Cross, 1346• Treaty of Berwick, 1357

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Important figures

Scotland•• King Alexander III•• King David II•• King John Balliol•• Edward Bruce•• William Wallace• John II Comyn and John III Comyn — Guardians (1298–1301, 1304)• Sir Archibald Douglas – Guardian, k. Battle of Halidon Hill 1333• Sir James Douglas, "the Black" or "the Guid"• Agnes Dunbar, Countess-consort of Dunbar/March• Donnchadh IV, Earl of Fife, (1288–1353)• William Lamberton — Bishop of St Andrews (1298–1328)• Maol Choluim II, Earl of Lennox (1303–33)*Bernard of Arbroath — Chancellor (1308–1328)• Domhnall I, Earl of Mar (1276–1301)• Gartnait, Earl of Mar (1301–05)• Domhnall II, Earl of Mar (1305–32) Guardian (1332)•• Andrew de Moray• Sir Andrew Murray — Guardian (1332, 1335–1338)• Thomas Randolph, 1st Earl of Moray — Guardian (1329–1332)•• King Robert I the Bruce• John de Soulis — Guardian (1301–1304)• Robert Stewart, 7th High Steward — Lieutenant (1346–1357)• Uilleam II, Earl of Ross (1274–23)• Aodh, Earl of Ross (1323–33)•• Walter Stewart, 6th High Steward• Maol Íosa III, Earl of Strathearn (1271–1317)• Maol Íosa IV, Earl of Strathearn (1317–29)• Maol Íosa V, Earl of Strathearn, 1330-4, Earl of Caithness & Orkney, 1331–50• Robert Wishart — Bishop of Glasgow (1272–1317)

England•• King Edward I•• King Edward II•• King Edward III•• Edward Balliol•• Henry Beaumont, '4th Earl of Buchan'•• Humphrey de Bohun, 4th Earl of Hereford•• John de Bretagne, 1st Earl of Richmond•• Henry of Grosmont, 1st Duke of Lancaster•• David I Strathbogie, Earl of Atholl•• David II Strathbogie, Earl of Atholl•• Gilbert de Umfraville, Earl of Angus•• Aymer de Valence, 2nd Earl of Pembroke•• John de Warenne, 6th Earl of Surrey

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Other important figures•• Philip IV of France•• Philip VI of France•• Pope John XXII

ReferencesNotes

[1] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=Template:History_of_Scotland& action=edit[2] Scott, Ronald McNair, Robert the Bruce, King of the Scots, pp 25–27[3] The writ required the collection of ".... all the charters instruments rolls and writs whatsoever that might concern the rights of the competitors,

or his own pretended title to the superiority of Scotland, to be carried off and placed where he should appoint; and these to be put into thehands of five persons, two Scots and three English; and these last to act by themselves, if the two first happened to be hindered."<ref> – PhDDissertation, citing Innes' Essays, p. 305 for the quote.

[4][4] Scott, Ronald McNair, Robert the Bruce, King of the Scots, p 35

Citations

External links• ory/independence/features_independence_arbroath.shtml Wars of Independence (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/

history/ scottishhis)• http:/ / www. historynet. com/ historical_conflicts/ 3036606. html (http:/ / www. historynet. com/

historical_conflicts/ 3036606. html)• Battles: Dupplin Moor; Halidon Hill; Neville's Cross (http:/ / skyelander. orgfree. com/ menu5. html)• http:/ / kingcrest. com/ sinclair/ timeline. html-ssi (http:/ / kingcrest. com/ sinclair/ timeline. html-ssi)

Alexander III of Scotland 12

Alexander III of Scotland

Alexander III

Coronation of King Alexander on Moot Hill, Scone. He is being greeted by the ollamh rígh, the royal poet, who is addressing himwith the proclamation "Benach De Re Albanne" (= Beannachd Dé Rígh Alban, "God Bless the King of Scotland"); the poet goes on to

recite Alexander's genealogy. By Alexander's side is Maol Choluim II, Earl of Fife holding the sword.

King of Scots

Reign 6 July 1249 – 19 March 1286

Coronation 13 July 1249, Scone

Predecessor Alexander II

Successor Margaret (disputed)

Spouse Margaret of EnglandYolande de Dreux

Issue Margaret, Queen of NorwayAlexander, Prince of Scotland

House House of Dunkeld

Father Alexander II

Mother Marie de Coucy

Born 4 September 1241Roxburgh, Roxburghshire

Died 19 March 1286Kinghorn Ness, Fife

Burial Dunfermline Abbey

Alexander III (Medieval Gaelic: Alaxandair mac Alaxandair; Modern Gaelic: Alasdair mac Alasdair) (4 September1241 – 19 March 1286) was King of Scots from 1249 to his death.

LifeAlexander was born at Roxburgh, the only son of Alexander II by his second wife Marie de Coucy. Alexander IIIwas also the grandson of William the Lion. Alexander's father died on 8 July 1249 and he became king at the age ofseven, inaugurated at Scone on 13 July 1249.The years of his minority featured an embittered struggle for the control of affairs between two rival parties, the oneled by Walter Comyn, Earl of Menteith, the other by Alan Durward, Justiciar of Scotia. The former dominated theearly years of Alexander's reign. At the marriage of Alexander to Margaret of England in 1251, Henry III of Englandseized the opportunity to demand from his son-in-law homage for the Scottish kingdom, but Alexander did notcomply. In 1255 an interview between the English and Scottish kings at Kelso led to Menteith and his party losing toDurward's party. But though disgraced, they still retained great influence, and two years later, seizing the person ofthe king, they compelled their rivals to consent to the erection of a regency representative of both parties.

Alexander III of Scotland 13

Statue of Alexander on the west door of St. Giles,Edinburgh

On attaining his majority at the age of 21 in 1262, Alexander declaredhis intention of resuming the projects on the Western Isles which thedeath of his father thirteen years before had cut short. He laid a formalclaim before the Norwegian king Haakon. Haakon rejected the claim,and in the following year responded with a formidable invasion.Sailing around the west coast of Scotland he halted off the Isle ofArran, and negotiations commenced. Alexander artfully prolonged thetalks until the autumn storms should begin. At length Haakon, weary ofdelay, attacked, only to encounter a terrific storm which greatlydamaged his ships. The Battle of Largs (October 1263) provedindecisive, but even so, Haakon's position was hopeless. Baffled, heturned homewards, but died in Orkney on 15 December 1263. TheIsles now lay at Alexander's feet, and in 1266 Haakon's successorconcluded the Treaty of Perth by which he ceded the Isle of Man andthe Western Isles to Scotland in return for a monetary payment.Norway retained only Orkney and Shetland in the area. In 1284,Alexander invested the title of Lord of the Isles in the head of ClanDonald, Aonghas Mór, and over the next two centuries the Macdonald

lords operated as if they were kings in their own right, frequently opposing the Scottish monarch.

Alexander III being rescued from the fury of astag by Colin Fitzgerald

Succession

Alexander had married Margaret, daughter of King Henry III ofEngland and Eleanor of Provence, on 26 December 1251. She died in1275, after they had three children.

1. Margaret (28 February 1261 – 9 April 1283), who married KingEric II of Norway

2. Alexander, Prince of Scotland (21 January 1264 Jedburgh – 28January 1284 Lindores Abbey); buried in Dunfermline Abbey

3. David (20 March 1272 – June 1281 Stirling Castle); buried in Dunfermline AbbeyAccording to the Lanercost Chronicle, Alexander did not spend his decade as a widower alone: "he used never toforbear on account of season nor storm, nor for perils of flood or rocky cliffs, but would visit none too creditablynuns or matrons, virgins or widows as the fancy seized him, sometimes in disguise."

Alexander III of Scotland 14

Alexander III Monument at Kinghorn[1]

Towards the end of Alexander's reign, the death of all three of hischildren within a few years made the question of the successionone of pressing importance. In 1284 he induced the Estates torecognize as his heir-presumptive his granddaughter Margaret, the"Maid of Norway". The need for a male heir led him to contract asecond marriage to Yolande de Dreux on 1 November 1285.

But the sudden death of the king dashed all such hopes. Alexanderdied in a fall from his horse in the dark while riding to visit thequeen at Kinghorn in Fife on 18 March 1286 because it was herbirthday the next day. He had spent the evening at EdinburghCastle celebrating his second marriage and overseeing a meetingwith royal advisors. He was advised by them not to make thejourney over to Fife because of weather conditions, but travelledanyway. Alexander became separated from his guides and it isassumed that in the dark his horse lost its footing. The 44-year oldking was found dead on the shore the following morning with abroken neck. Some texts have said that he fell off a cliff. Althoughthere is no cliff at the site where his body was found there is a very

steep rocky embankment - which would have been fatal in the dark. After Alexander's death, his strong realm wasplunged into a period of darkness that would eventually lead to war with England. Had Alexander, who was a strongmonarch, lived, things would have worked out differently (Ashley 2002, p. 156). He was buried in DunfermlineAbbey.

As Alexander left no surviving children, the heir to the throne was his unborn child by Queen Yolande. WhenYolande's pregnancy ended, probably with a miscarriage, Alexander's granddaughter Margaret became the heir.Margaret died, still uncrowned, on her way to Scotland in 1290. The inauguration of John Balliol as king on 30November 1292 ended the six years of interregnum when the Guardians of Scotland governed the land.The death of Alexander and the subsequent period of instability in Scotland was lamented in an early Scots poemrecorded by Andrew of Wyntoun in his Orygynale Cronykil of Scotland.

Quhen Alysandyr oure kyng was dede,

That Scotland led in luve and le,

Away was sons of ale and brede,

Of wyne and wax of gamyn and gle.

Oure gold was changed into lede,

Cryst, born into vyrgynyte,

Succoure Scotland and remede,

That stat is in perplexyte.

In 1886, a monument to Alexander III was erected at the approximate location of his death in Kinghorn.

Alexander III of Scotland 15

Fictional portrayalsAlexander III has been depicted in historical novels. They include:[2]

• The Thirsty Sword (1892) by Robert Leighton. The novel depicts the "Norse invasion of Scotland" (1262–1263,part of the Scottish–Norwegian War) and the Battle of Largs. It includes depictions of Alexander III and hisopponent Haakon IV of Norway.[2]

• Alexander the Glorious (1965) by Jane Oliver. The novel covers the entire reign of Alexander III (1249–1286),"almost entirely from Alexander's viewpoint".[3][4]

• The Crown in Darkness (1988) by Paul C. Doherty. A crime fiction novel where Hugh Corbett investigates the"mysterious death" of Alexander III (1286). Alexander supposedly suffered a fatal fall from his horse. But thereare suspicions of murder. The novel concludes that Alexander was indeed murdered "by a fanatical servant" ofEdward I of England. The killer acting according to "Edward's secret desire to overwhelm and control Scotland".Doherty suggests that the personal relations of the two kings were strained by constant arguments, though this innot confirmed by historical sources.[5]

• Insurrection (2010) by Robyn Young. This novel is the first of a series of novels primarily about the life andtimes of Robert the Bruce. However, it covers Alexander III and the circumstances surrounding his death in somedetail.

• Holinshed in his oft fanciful history of England stated that at Alexander III's wedding, a horrible monster, mostlyskeleton but with raw flesh, appeared at the end of the procession and caused the wedding to be hurriedlyconcluded. This was,in tradition, an omen of death.

• Crusader (1991) by Nigel Tranter. This novel follows the minority of Alexander III and his relationship withDavid de Lindsay. Tranter, who has written scores of historical novels spanning the range of Scotland's history,also wrote "Envoy Extraordinary" (1999) (about Patrick Earl of Dunbar) and "True Thomas" (1981) (aboutThomas the Rhymer), both of which take place during the reign of Alexander III and in which Alexander if afeatured character.

Notes[1] British Listed Buildings (http:/ / www. britishlistedbuildings. co. uk/ sc-13639-kinghorn-road-alexander-iii-monument-king)[2][2] Nield (1968), p. 37[3] "Historical Novel:Medieval Celts" (http:/ / www. historicalnovels. info/ Medieval-Celts. html)[4] "Alexander the Glorious", review (http:/ / www. amazon. com/ ALEXANDER-GLORIOUS-Jane-Oliver/ product-reviews/ B00209JTBA/

ref=sr_1_1_cm_cr_acr_txt?ie=UTF8& showViewpoints=1)[5][5] Browne, Kreiser (2000), p. 78, 80-81

Sources• Anderson, Alan Orr (ed.), Early Sources of Scottish History: AD 500–1286, 2 Vols, (Edinburgh, 1922),

republished, Marjorie Anderson (ed.) (Stamford, 1991)• idem (ed.), Scottish Annals from English Chroniclers: AD 500–1286, (London, 1908), republished, Marjorie

Anderson (ed.) (Stamford, 1991)• Ashley, Mike (2002), British Kings & Queens, Carroll & Graf, ISBN 0-7867-1104-3.• Brown, Michael (2004), The Wars of Scotland 1214-1371, Edinburgh University Press, ISBN 0 7486 1237 8• Browne, Ray Broadus; Krauser, Lawrence A. (2000), The Detective as Historian: History and Art in historical

crime fiction, Vol. 1 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=pGb9qrbYqOYC& printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r& cad=0#v=onepage& q& f=false), Popular Press, ISBN 978-0-87972-815-1

• Campbell, Marion (1999), Alexander III King of Scots, House of Lochar, ISBN 1 899863 55 9• Fergusson, James (1937), Alexander the Third King of Scotland, Alexander MacClehose & Co.• Neville, Cynthia J.; Simpson, Grant G. (2012), Regesta Regum Scottorum, Vol. IV part 1. The Acts of Alexander

III, Edinburgh University Press, ISBN 978 0 7486 2732 5.

Alexander III of Scotland 16

• Nield, Jonathan (1968), A Guide to the Best Historical Novels and Tales (http:/ / books. google. com/books?id=904G29jMdzIC& printsec=frontcover& hl=el& source=gbs_ge_summary_r& cad=0#v=onepage& q&f=false), Ayer Publishing, ISBN 978-0-8337-2509-7

• Reid, Norman H. (1990), Scotland in the Reign of Alexander III 1249-1286, John Donald, ISBN 0 85976 218 1• Scott, Robert McNair. Robert the Bruce: King of Scots, 1996

Alexander III of ScotlandHouse of Dunkeld

Born: 4 September 1241 Died: 19 March 1286

Regnal titles

Preceded byAlexander II

King ofScots

1249–1286

Succeeded byMargaret (disputed)

Edward I of England 17

Edward I of England"Edward I" redirects here. For other uses, see Edward I (disambiguation).

Edward I

Portrait in Westminster Abbey, thought to be of Edward I

King of England (more...)

Reign 16 November 1272 – 7 July 1307

Coronation 19 August 1274

Predecessor Henry III

Successor Edward II

Spouse Eleanor of Castile(m. 1254–1290)Margaret of France(m. 1299–1307)

Issueamong others

Eleanor, Countess of BarJoan, Countess of HertfordAlphonso, Earl of ChesterMargaret, Duchess of BrabantMary of WoodstockElizabeth, Countess of HerefordEdward II of EnglandThomas, Earl of NorfolkEdmund, Earl of Kent

House House of Plantagenet

Father Henry III of England

Mother Eleanor of Provence

Born 17/18 June 1239Palace of Westminster, London, England

Died 7 July 1307 (aged 68)Burgh by Sands, Cumberland, England

Burial Westminster Abbey, London, England

Religion Roman Catholicism

Edward I (17 June 1239 – 7 July 1307), also known as Edward Longshanks and the Hammer of the Scots (Latin: Malleus Scotorum), was King of England from 1272 to 1307. The first son of Henry III, Edward was involved early in the political intrigues of his father's reign, which included an outright rebellion by the English barons. In 1259, he briefly sided with a baronial reform movement, supporting the Provisions of Oxford. After reconciliation with his

Edward I of England 18

father, however, he remained loyal throughout the subsequent armed conflict, known as the Second Barons' War.After the Battle of Lewes, Edward was hostage to the rebellious barons, but escaped after a few months and joinedthe fight against Simon de Montfort. Montfort was defeated at the Battle of Evesham in 1265, and within two yearsthe rebellion was extinguished. With England pacified, Edward left on a crusade to the Holy Land. The crusadeaccomplished little, and Edward was on his way home in 1272 when he was informed that his father had died.Making a slow return, he reached England in 1274 and was crowned at Westminster on 19 August.He spent much of his reign reforming royal administration and common law. Through an extensive legal inquiry,Edward investigated the tenure of various feudal liberties, while the law was reformed through a series of statutesregulating criminal and property law. Increasingly, however, Edward's attention was drawn towards military affairs.After suppressing a minor rebellion in Wales in 1276–77, Edward responded to a second rebellion in 1282–83 with afull-scale war of conquest. After a successful campaign, Edward subjected Wales to English rule, built a series ofcastles and towns in the countryside and settled them with Englishmen. Next, his efforts were directed towardsScotland. Initially invited to arbitrate a succession dispute, Edward claimed feudal suzerainty over the kingdom. Inthe war that followed, the Scots persevered, even though the English seemed victorious at several points. At the sametime there were problems at home. In the mid-1290s, extensive military campaigns required high levels of taxation,and Edward met with both lay and ecclesiastical opposition. These crises were initially averted, but issues remainedunsettled. When the King died in 1307, he left to his son, Edward II, an ongoing war with Scotland and manyfinancial and political problems.Edward I was a tall man for his era, hence the nickname "Longshanks". He was temperamental, and this, along withhis height, made him an intimidating man, and he often instilled fear in his contemporaries. Nevertheless, he held therespect of his subjects for the way he embodied the medieval ideal of kingship, as a soldier, an administrator and aman of faith. Modern historians are divided on their assessment of the King: while some have praised him for hiscontribution to the law and administration, others have criticised him for his uncompromising attitude towards hisnobility. Currently, Edward I is credited with many accomplishments during his reign, including restoring royalauthority after the reign of Henry III, establishing Parliament as a permanent institution and thereby also a functionalsystem for raising taxes, and reforming the law through statutes. At the same time, he is also often criticised for otheractions, such as his brutal conduct towards the Scots, and issuing the Edict of Expulsion in 1290, by which the Jewswere expelled from England. The Edict remained in effect for the rest of the Middle Ages, and it would be over 350years until it was formally overturned under Oliver Cromwell in 1656.

Edward I of England 19

Early years, 1239–63

Childhood and marriage

Early fourteenth-century manuscriptinitial showing Edward and his wifeEleanor. The artist has perhaps triedto depict Edward's blepharoptosis, a

trait he inherited from his father.

Edward was born at the Palace of Westminster on the night of 17–18 June 1239,to King Henry III and Eleanor of Provence.[1]</ref> Edward was anAnglo-Saxon name, and was not common among the aristocracy of England afterthe Norman Conquest, but Henry was devoted to the veneration of Edward theConfessor, and decided to name his firstborn son after the saint.[2] he wasreferred to simply as "King Edward", "King Edward, son of King Henry", or"King Edward, the first by that name after the Conquest". It was only after thesuccession of first his son and then his grandson—both of whom bore the samename—that "Edward I" came into common usage.</ref> Among his childhoodfriends was his cousin Henry of Almain, son of King Henry's brother Richard ofCornwall. Henry of Almain would remain a close companion of the prince, boththrough the civil war that followed, and later during the crusade. Edward was inthe care of Hugh Giffard – father of the future Chancellor Godfrey Giffard –until Bartholomew Pecche took over at Giffard's death in 1246.

There were concerns about Edward's health as a child, and he fell ill in 1246,1247, and 1251. Nonetheless, he became an imposing man; at 6 feet 2 inches(1.88 m) he towered over most of his contemporaries, and hence perhaps his epithet "Longshanks", meaning "longlegs" or "long shins". The historian Michael Prestwich states that his "long arms gave him an advantage as aswordsman, long thighs one as a horseman. In youth, his curly hair was blond; in maturity it darkened, and in old ageit turned white. [His features were marred by a drooping left eyelid.] His speech, despite a lisp, was said to bepersuasive."

In 1254, English fears of a Castilian invasion of the English province of Gascony induced Edward's father to arrangea politically expedient marriage between his fourteen-year-old son and Eleanor, the half-sister of King Alfonso X ofCastile. Eleanor and Edward were married on 1 November 1254 in the Abbey of Santa María la Real de Las Huelgasin Castile. As part of the marriage agreement, the young prince received grants of land worth 15,000 marks a year.Though the endowments King Henry made were sizeable, they offered Edward little independence. He had alreadyreceived Gascony as early as 1249, but Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester, had been appointed as royallieutenant the year before and, consequently, drew its income, so in practice Edward derived neither authority norrevenue from this province. The grant he received in 1254 included most of Ireland, and much land in Wales andEngland, including the earldom of Chester, but the King retained much control over the land in question, particularlyin Ireland, so Edward's power was limited there as well, and the King derived most of the income from those lands.From 1254 to 1257, Edward was under the influence of his mother's relatives, known as the Savoyards, the mostnotable of whom was Peter of Savoy, the queen's uncle. After 1257, Edward increasingly fell in with the Poitevin orLusignan faction – the half-brothers of his father Henry III – led by such men as William de Valence.[3]</ref> Thisassociation was significant, because the two groups of privileged foreigners were resented by the established Englisharistocracy, and they would be at the centre of the ensuing years' baronial reform movement. There were tales ofunruly and violent conduct by Edward and his Lusignan kinsmen, which raised questions about the royal heir'spersonal qualities. The next years would be formative on Edward's character.

Edward I of England 20

Early ambitionsEdward had shown independence in political matters as early as 1255, when he sided with the Soler family inGascony, in the ongoing conflict between the Soler and Colomb families. This ran contrary to his father's policy ofmediation between the local factions. In May 1258, a group of magnates drew up a document for reform of theKing’s government – the so-called Provisions of Oxford – largely directed against the Lusignans. Edward stood byhis political allies and strongly opposed the Provisions. The reform movement succeeded in limiting the Lusignaninfluence, however, and gradually Edward's attitude started to change. In March 1259, he entered into a formalalliance with one of the main reformers, Richard de Clare, Earl of Gloucester. Then, on 15 October 1259, heannounced that he supported the barons' goals, and their leader, Simon de Montfort.The motive behind Edward's change of heart could have been purely pragmatic; Montfort was in a good position tosupport his cause in Gascony. When the King left for France in November, Edward's behaviour turned into pureinsubordination. He made several appointments to advance the cause of the reformers, causing his father to believethat his son was considering a coup d'état. When the King returned from France, he initially refused to see his son,but through the mediation of the Earl of Cornwall and the archbishop of Canterbury, the two were eventuallyreconciled. Edward was sent abroad, and in November 1260 he again united with the Lusignans, who had beenexiled to France.Back in England, early in 1262, Edward fell out with some of his former Lusignan allies over financial matters. Thenext year, King Henry sent him on a campaign in Wales against Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, with only limited results.Around the same time, Simon de Montfort, who had been out of the country since 1261, returned to England andreignited the baronial reform movement. It was at this pivotal moment, as the King seemed ready to resign to thebarons' demands, that Edward began to take control of the situation. Whereas he had so far been unpredictable andequivocating, from this point on he remained firmly devoted to protecting his father's royal rights. He reunited withsome of the men he had alienated the year before – among them his childhood friend, Henry of Almain, and John deWarenne, Earl of Surrey – and retook Windsor Castle from the rebels. Through the arbitration of King Louis IX ofFrance, an agreement was made between the two parties. This so-called Mise of Amiens was largely favourable tothe royalist side, and laid the seeds for further conflict.

Civil war and crusades, 1264–73

Second Barons' WarMain article: Second Barons' WarThe years 1264–1267 saw the conflict known as the Second Barons' War, in which baronial forces led by Simon deMontfort fought against those who remained loyal to the King. The first scene of battle was the city of Gloucester,which Edward managed to retake from the enemy. When Robert de Ferrers, Earl of Derby, came to the assistance ofthe rebels, Edward negotiated a truce with the earl, the terms of which he later broke. Edward then capturedNorthampton from Montfort's son Simon, before embarking on a retaliatory campaign against Derby's lands. Thebaronial and royalist forces finally met at the Battle of Lewes, on 14 May 1264. Edward, commanding the rightwing, performed well, and soon defeated the London contingent of Montfort's forces. Unwisely, however, hefollowed the scattered enemy in pursuit, and on his return found the rest of the royal army defeated. By theagreement known as the Mise of Lewes, Edward and his cousin Henry of Almain were given up as hostages toMontfort.

Edward I of England 21

Medieval manuscript showing Simon de Montfort's mutilated body at the field ofEvesham

Edward remained in captivity until March,and even after his release he was kept understrict surveillance. Then, on 28 May, hemanaged to escape his custodians and joinedup with the Earl of Gloucester, who hadrecently defected to the King's side.[4]</ref>

Montfort's support was now dwindling, andEdward retook Worcester and Gloucester

with relatively little effort. Meanwhile, Montfort had made an alliance with Llywelyn and started moving east to joinforces with his son Simon. Edward managed to make a surprise attack at Kenilworth Castle, where the youngerMontfort was quartered, before moving on to cut off the earl of Leicester. The two forces then met at the secondgreat encounter of the Barons' War, the Battle of Evesham, on 4 August 1265. Montfort stood little chance againstthe superior royal forces, and after his defeat he was killed and mutilated on the field.

Through such episodes as the deception of Derby at Gloucester, Edward acquired a reputation as untrustworthy.During the summer campaign, though, he began to learn from his mistakes, and acted in a way that gained therespect and admiration of his contemporaries. The war did not end with Montfort's death, and Edward participated inthe continued campaigning. At Christmas, he came to terms with the younger Simon de Montfort and his associatesat the Isle of Axholme in Lincolnshire, and in March he led a successful assault on the Cinque Ports. A contingent ofrebels held out in the virtually impregnable Kenilworth Castle and did not surrender until the drafting of theconciliatory Dictum of Kenilworth.[5]</ref> In April it seemed as if Gloucester would take up the cause of thereform movement, and civil war would resume, but after a renegotiation of the terms of the Dictum of Kenilworth,the parties came to an agreement.[6]</ref> Edward, however, was little involved in the settlement negotiationsfollowing the wars; at this point his main focus was on planning his upcoming crusade.

Crusade and accessionSee also: Eighth Crusade and Ninth Crusade

Operations during the Crusade of Edward I

Edward took the crusader's cross in an elaborate ceremony on 24 June1268, with his brother Edmund and cousin Henry of Almain. Amongothers who committed themselves to the Ninth Crusade were Edward'sformer adversaries – like the Earl of Gloucester, though de Clare didnot ultimately participate. With the country pacified, the greatestimpediment to the project was providing sufficient finances. KingLouis IX of France, who was the leader of the crusade, provided a loanof about £17,500. This, however, was not enough; the rest had to beraised through a tax on the laity, which had not been levied since 1237.In May 1270, Parliament granted a tax of a twentieth,[7] in exchangefor which the King agreed to reconfirm Magna Carta, and to imposerestrictions on Jewish money lending. On 20 August Edward sailedfrom Dover for France. Historians have not determined the size of theforce with any certainty, but Edward probably brought with himaround 225 knights and all together less than 1000 men.

Originally, the Crusaders intended to relieve the beleaguered Christian stronghold of Acre, but Louis had been diverted to Tunis. The French King and his brother Charles of Anjou, who had made himself king of Sicily, decided to attack the emirate to establish a stronghold in North Africa. The plans failed when the French forces were struck by an epidemic which, on 25 August, took the life of King Louis himself.[8] By the time Edward arrived at Tunis,

Edward I of England 22

Charles had already signed a treaty with the emir, and there was little else to do but return to Sicily. The crusade waspostponed until next spring, but a devastating storm off the coast of Sicily dissuaded Charles of Anjou and Louis'ssuccessor Philip III from any further campaigning. Edward decided to continue alone, and on 9 May 1271 he finallylanded at Acre.By then, the situation in the Holy Land was a precarious one. Jerusalem had fallen in 1244, and Acre was now thecentre of the Christian state. The Muslim states were on the offensive under the Mamluk leadership of Baibars, andwere now threatening Acre itself. Though Edward's men were an important addition to the garrison, they stood littlechance against Baibars' superior forces, and an initial raid at nearby St Georges-de-Lebeyne in June was largelyfutile. An embassy to the Ilkhan Abaqa[9] (1234–1282) of the Mongols helped bring about an attack on Aleppo in thenorth, which helped to distract Baibar's forces. In November, Edward led a raid on Qaqun, which could have servedas a bridgehead to Jerusalem, but both the Mongol invasion and the attack on Qaqun failed. Things now seemedincreasingly desperate, and in May 1272 Hugh III of Cyprus, who was the nominal king of Jerusalem, signed aten-year truce with Baibars. Edward was initially defiant, but an attack by a Muslim assassin in June forced him toabandon any further campaigning. Although he managed to kill the assassin, he was struck in the arm by a daggerfeared to be poisoned, and became severely weakened over the following months.[10] Other accounts of the scenehave Eleanor being led away weeping by John de Vescy, and suggest that it was another of Edward's close friends,Otto de Grandson, who attempted to sucking the poison from the wound.</ref>It was not until 24 September that Edward left Acre. Arriving in Sicily, he was met with the news that his father haddied on 16 November. Edward was deeply saddened by this news, but rather than hurrying home at once, he made aleisurely journey northwards. This was partly due to his health still being poor, but also due to a lack of urgency. Thepolitical situation in England was stable after the mid-century upheavals, and Edward was proclaimed king at hisfather's death, rather than at his own coronation, as had until then been customary.[11]</ref> In Edward's absence, thecountry was governed by a royal council, led by Robert Burnell. The new king embarked on an overland journeythrough Italy and France, where among other things he visited the pope in Rome and suppressed a rebellion inGascony. Only on 2 August 1274 did he return to England, and was crowned on 19 August.

Edward I of England 23

Early reign, 1274–96

Welsh wars

Conquest

See also: Conquest of Wales by Edward I

Wales after the Treaty ofMontgomery 1267   Gwynedd,

Llywelyn ap Gruffudd'sprincipality  Territories conquered byLlywelyn  Territories of Llywelyn'svassals  Lordships of the Marcherbarons  Lordships of the King of

England

Llywelyn ap Gruffudd enjoyed an advantageous situation in the aftermath of theBarons' War. Through the 1267 Treaty of Montgomery, he officially obtainedland he had conquered in the Four Cantrefs of Perfeddwlad and was recognisedin his title of Prince of Wales. Armed conflicts nevertheless continued, inparticular with certain dissatisfied Marcher Lords, such as Gilbert de Clare, Earlof Gloucester, Roger Mortimer and Humphrey de Bohun, Earl of Hereford.Problems were exacerbated when Llywelyn's younger brother Dafydd andGruffydd ap Gwenwynwyn of Powys, after failing in an assassination attemptagainst Llywelyn, defected to the English in 1274. Citing ongoing hostilities andthe English king's harbouring of his enemies, Llywelyn refused to do homage toEdward. For Edward, a further provocation came from Llywelyn's plannedmarriage to Eleanor, daughter of Simon de Montfort.

In November 1276, war was declared. Initial operations were launched under thecaptaincy of Mortimer, Lancaster (Edward's brother Edmund) and William deBeauchamp, Earl of Warwick.[12]</ref> Support for Llywelyn was weak amonghis own countrymen. In July 1277 Edward invaded with a force of 15,500, ofwhom 9,000 were Welshmen. The campaign never came to a major battle, andLlywelyn soon realised he had no choice but to surrender. By the Treaty ofAberconwy in November 1277, he was left only with the land of Gwynedd,though he was allowed to retain the title of Prince of Wales.

When war broke out again in 1282, it was an entirely different undertaking. For the Welsh, this war was overnational identity, enjoying wide support, provoked particularly by attempts to impose English law on Welsh subjects.For Edward, it became a war of conquest rather than simply a punitive expedition, like the former campaign. Thewar started with a rebellion by Dafydd, who was discontented with the reward he had received from Edward in 1277.Llywelyn and other Welsh chieftains soon joined in, and initially the Welsh experienced military success. In June,Gloucester was defeated at the Battle of Llandeilo Fawr. On 6 November, while John Peckham, archbishop ofCanterbury, was conducting peace negotiations, Edward's commander of Anglesey, Luke de Tany, decided to carryout a surprise attack. A pontoon bridge had been built to the mainland, but shortly after Tany and his men crossedover, they were ambushed by the Welsh and suffered heavy losses at the Battle of Moel-y-don. The Welsh advancesended on 11 December, however, when Llywelyn was lured into a trap and killed at the Battle of Orewin Bridge.The conquest of Gwynedd was complete with the capture in June 1283 of Dafydd, who was taken to Shrewsbury andexecuted as a traitor the following autumn.Further rebellions occurred in 1287–8 and, more seriously, in 1294, under the leadership of Madog ap Llywelyn, adistant relative of Llywelyn ap Gruffudd. This last conflict demanded the King's own attention, but in both cases therebellions were put down.

Edward I of England 24

Colonisation

See also: Castles and Town Walls of King Edward in GwyneddBy the 1284 Statute of Rhuddlan, the Principality of Wales was incorporated into England and was given anadministrative system like the English, with counties policed by sheriffs. English law was introduced in criminalcases, though the Welsh were allowed to maintain their own customary laws in some cases of property disputes.After 1277, and increasingly after 1283, Edward embarked on a full-scale project of English settlement of Wales,creating new towns like Flint, Aberystwyth, and Rhuddlan. Their new residents were English migrants, with thelocal Welsh banned from living inside them, and many were protected by extensive walls.An extensive project of castle-building was also initiated, under the direction of Master James of Saint George, aprestigious architect whom Edward had met in Savoy on his return from the crusade. These included the castles ofBeaumaris, Caernarfon, Conwy and Harlech, intended to act both as fortresses and royal palaces for the King. Hisprogramme of castle building in Wales heralded the introduction of the widespread use of arrowslits in castle wallsacross Europe, drawing on Eastern influences. Also a product of the Crusades was the introduction of the concentriccastle, and four of the eight castles Edward founded in Wales followed this design. The castles made a clear,imperial statement about Edward's intentions to rule North Wales permanently, and drew on imagery associated withthe Byzantine Roman Empire and King Arthur in an attempt to build legitimacy for his new regime.In 1284, King Edward had his son Edward (later Edward II) born at Caernarfon Castle, probably to make a deliberatestatement about the new political order in Wales. David Powel, a 16th-century clergyman, suggested that the babywas offered to the Welsh as a prince "that was borne in Wales and could speake never a word of English", but thereis no evidence to support this account. In 1301 at Lincoln, the young Edward became the first English prince to beinvested with the title of Prince of Wales, when King Edward granted him the Earldom of Chester and lands acrossNorth Wales. The King seems to have hoped that this would help in the pacification of the region, and that it wouldgive his son more financial independence.[13]</ref>

Examples of Edward's buildingprogramme, including the

exterior...

...and interior of CaernarfonCastle, incorporating Roman

and Arthurian design;

the use of concentric design atBeaumaris ...

...and Harlech Castle;

and the extensive defences of thenewly planned towns, such as

Conwy.

Edward I of England 25

Diplomacy and war on the Continent

Edward I (right) giving homage to Philip IV(left). As Duke of Aquitaine, Edward was a

vassal of the French king.

Edward never again went on crusade after his return to England in1274, but he maintained an intention to do so, and took the cross againin 1287. This intention guided much of his foreign policy, until at least1291. To stage a European-wide crusade, it was essential to preventconflict between the greater princes on the continent. A major obstacleto this was represented by the conflict between the French House ofAnjou ruling southern Italy, and the kingdom of Aragon in Spain. In1282, the citizens of Palermo rose up against Charles of Anjou andturned for help to Peter of Aragon, in what has become known as theSicilian Vespers. In the war that followed, Charles of Anjou's son,Charles of Salerno, was taken prisoner by the Aragonese. The Frenchbegan planning an attack on Aragon, raising the prospect of alarge-scale European war. To Edward, it was imperative that such awar be avoided, and in Paris in 1286 he brokered a truce betweenFrance and Aragon that helped secure Charles' release. As far as thecrusades were concerned, however, Edward's efforts proved ineffective. A devastating blow to his plans came in1291, when the Mamluks captured Acre, the last Christian stronghold in the Holy Land.

After the fall of Acre, Edward's international role changed from that of a diplomat to an antagonist. He had long beendeeply involved in the affairs of his own Duchy of Gascony. In 1278 he assigned an investigating commission to histrusted associates Otto de Grandson and the chancellor Robert Burnell, which caused the replacement of theseneschal Luke de Tany. In 1286, Edward visited the region himself and stayed for almost three years. The perennialproblem, however, was the status of Gascony within the kingdom of France, and Edward's role as the French king'svassal. On his diplomatic mission in 1286, Edward had paid homage to the new king, Philip IV, but in 1294 Philipdeclared Gascony forfeit when Edward refused to appear before him in Paris to discuss the recent conflict betweenEnglish, Gascon, and French sailors (that had resulted in several French ships being captured, along with the sackingof the French port of La Rochelle).

Eleanor of Castile had died on 28 November 1290. Uncommon for such marriages of the period, the couple lovedeach other. Moreover, like his father, Edward was very devoted to his wife and was faithful to her throughout theirmarried lives — a rarity among monarchs of the time. He was deeply affected by her death. He displayed his grief byerecting twelve so-called Eleanor crosses, one at each place where her funeral cortège stopped for the night. As partof the peace accord between England and France in 1294, it was agreed that Edward should marry Philip IV'shalf-sister Margaret, but the marriage was delayed by the outbreak of war.Edward made alliances with the German king, the Counts of Flanders and Guelders, and the Burgundians, whowould attack France from the north. The alliances proved volatile, however, and Edward was facing trouble at homeat the time, both in Wales and Scotland. It was not until August 1297 that he was finally able to sail for Flanders, atwhich time his allies there had already suffered defeat. The support from Germany never materialised, and Edwardwas forced to seek peace. His marriage to Margaret in 1299 ended the war, but the whole affair had proven bothcostly and fruitless for the English.[14]</ref>

Edward I of England 26

The Great CauseSee also: Competitors for the Crown of Scotland

King Edward's Chair, in WestminsterAbbey; originally, the Stone of

Destiny would have fitted into thegap beneath the seat

The relationship between the nations of England and Scotland by the 1280s wasone of relatively harmonious coexistence. The issue of homage did not reach thesame level of controversy as it did in Wales; in 1278 King Alexander III ofScotland paid homage to Edward I, but apparently only for the lands he held ofEdward in England. Problems arose only with the Scottish succession crisis ofthe early 1290s. In the years from 1281 to 1284, Alexander's two sons and onedaughter died in quick succession. Then, in 1286, King Alexander died himself,leaving as heir to the throne of Scotland the three-year-old Margaret, the Maid ofNorway, who was born in 1283 to Alexander's daughter Margaret and King EricII of Norway. By the Treaty of Birgham, it was agreed that Margaret shouldmarry King Edward's then one-year-old son Edward of Carnarvon, thoughScotland would remain free of English overlordship.

Margaret, by now seven years of age, sailed from Norway for Scotland in theautumn of 1290, but fell ill on the way and died in Orkney. This left the countrywithout an obvious heir, and led to the succession dispute known to history as theGreat Cause.[15]</ref>

Even though as many as fourteen claimants put forward their claims to the title, the real contest was between JohnBalliol and Robert de Brus. The Scottish magnates made a request to Edward to arbitrate in the dispute. At Birgham,with the prospect of a personal union between the two realms, the question of suzerainty had not been of greatimportance to Edward. Now he insisted that, if he were to settle the contest, he had to be fully recognised asScotland's feudal overlord. The Scots were reluctant to make such a concession, and replied that since the countryhad no king, no one had the authority to make this decision. This problem was circumvented when the competitorsagreed that the realm would be handed over to Edward until a rightful heir had been found. After a lengthy hearing, adecision was made in favour of John Balliol on 17 November 1292.[16]</ref>

Even after Balliol's accession, Edward still continued to assert his authority over Scotland. Against the objections ofthe Scots, he agreed to hear appeals on cases ruled on by the court of guardians that had governed Scotland duringthe interregnum. A further provocation came in a case brought by Macduff, son of Malcolm, Earl of Fife, in whichEdward demanded that Balliol appear in person before the English Parliament to answer the charges. This theScottish King did, but the final straw was Edward's demand that the Scottish magnates provide military service in thewar against France. This was unacceptable; the Scots instead formed an alliance with France and launched anunsuccessful attack on Carlisle. Edward responded by invading Scotland in 1296 and taking the town of Berwick in aparticularly bloody attack. At the Battle of Dunbar, Scottish resistance was effectively crushed. Edward confiscatedthe Stone of Destiny – the Scottish coronation stone – and brought it to Westminster placing it in what becameknown as King Edward's Chair; he deposed Balliol and placed him in the Tower of London, and installedEnglishmen to govern the country. The campaign had been very successful, but the English triumph would only betemporary.

Edward I of England 27

Government and law

Character as king

Round table, made by Edward, now hung inWinchester Castle

Edward had a reputation for a fierce temper, and he could beintimidating; one story tells of how the Dean of St Paul's, wishing toconfront Edward over the high level of taxation in 1295, fell down anddied once he was in the King's presence. When Edward of Caernarfondemanded an earldom for his favourite Gaveston, the King erupted inanger and supposedly tore out handfuls of his son's hair. Some of hiscontemporaries considered Edward frightening, particularly in his earlydays. The Song of Lewes in 1264 described him as a leopard, an animalregarded as particularly powerful and unpredictable.

Despite these frightening character traits, however, Edward'scontemporaries considered him an able, even an ideal, king. Thoughnot loved by his subjects, he was feared and respected. He metcontemporary expectations of kingship in his role as an able,determined soldier and in his embodiment of shared chivalric ideals. Inreligious observance he also fulfilled the expectations of his age: heattended chapel regularly and gave alms generously.

Edward took a keen interest in the stories of King Arthur, which were highly popular in Europe during his reign. In1278 he visited Glastonbury Abbey to open what was then believed to be the tomb of Arthur and Guinevere,recovering "Arthur's crown" from Llywelyn after the conquest of North Wales, while, as noted above, his newcastles drew upon the Arthurian myths in their design and location. He held "Round Table" events in 1284 and 1302,involving tournaments and feasting, and chroniclers compared him and the events at his court to Arthur. In somecases Edward appears to have used his interest in the Arthurian myths to serve his own political interests, includinglegitimising his rule in Wales and discrediting the Welsh belief that Arthur might return as their political saviour.

Administration and the law

Groat of Edward I (4 pence)

Soon after assuming the throne, Edward set about restoring order andre-establishing royal authority after the disastrous reign of his father.To accomplish this, he immediately ordered an extensive change ofadministrative personnel. The most important of these was theappointment of Robert Burnell as chancellor, a man who would remainin the post until 1292 as one of the King's closest associates. Edwardthen replaced most local officials, such as the escheators and sheriffs.This last measure was done in preparation for an extensive inquestcovering all of England, that would hear complaints about abuse of power by royal officers. The inquest producedthe set of so-called Hundred Rolls, from the administrative subdivision of the hundred.[17]

The second purpose of the inquest was to establish what land and rights the crown had lost during the reign ofHenry III.The Hundred Rolls formed the basis for the later legal inquiries called the Quo warranto proceedings. The purposeof these inquiries was to establish by what warrant (Latin: Quo warranto) various liberties were held.[18]</ref> If thedefendant could not produce a royal licence to prove the grant of the liberty, then it was the crown's opinion – basedon the writings of the influential thirteenth-century legal scholar Bracton – that the liberty should revert to the king.

Edward I of England 28

By enacting the Statute of Gloucester in 1278 the King challenged baronial rights through a revival of the system ofgeneral eyres (royal justices to go on tour throughout the land) and through a significant increase in the number ofpleas of quo warranto to be heard by such eyres.

Long cross penny with portrait of Edward

This caused great consternation among thearistocracy, who insisted that long use in itselfconstituted license. A compromise waseventually reached in 1290, whereby a libertywas considered legitimate as long as it could beshown to have been exercised since thecoronation of King Richard I, in 1189. Royalgains from the Quo warranto proceedings wereinsignificant; few liberties were returned to theKing. Edward had nevertheless won a significantvictory, in clearly establishing the principle that

all liberties essentially emanated from the crown.

The 1290 statute of Quo warranto was only one part of a wider legislative effort, which was one of the mostimportant contributions of Edward I's reign. This era of legislative action had started already at the time of thebaronial reform movement; the Statute of Marlborough (1267) contained elements both of the Provisions of Oxfordand the Dictum of Kenilworth. The compilation of the Hundred Rolls was followed shortly after by the issue ofWestminster I (1275), which asserted the royal prerogative and outlined restrictions on liberties. In the Mortmain(1279), the issue was grants of land to the church. The first clause of Westminster II (1285), known as De donisconditionalibus, dealt with family settlement of land, and entails. Merchants (1285) established firm rules for therecovery of debts, while Winchester (1285) dealt with peacekeeping on a local level. Quia emptores (1290) – issuedalong with Quo warranto – set out to remedy land ownership disputes resulting from alienation of land bysubinfeudation. The age of the great statutes largely ended with the death of Robert Burnell in 1292.

Finances, Parliament and the Expulsion of Jews

Edward I of England 29

16th-century illustration of Edward Ipresiding over Parliament. The sceneshows Alexander III of Scotland andLlywelyn ap Gruffudd of Wales oneither side of Edward; an episode

that never actually occurred.

Edward I's frequent military campaigns put a great financial strain on the nation.There were several ways through which the king could raise money for war,including customs duties, money lending and lay subsidies. In 1275, Edward Inegotiated an agreement with the domestic merchant community that secured apermanent duty on wool. In 1303, a similar agreement was reached with foreignmerchants, in return for certain rights and privileges. The revenues from thecustoms duty were handled by the Riccardi, a group of bankers from Lucca inItaly. This was in return for their service as money lenders to the crown, whichhelped finance the Welsh Wars. When the war with France broke out, the Frenchking confiscated the Riccardi's assets, and the bank went bankrupt. After this, theFrescobaldi of Florence took over the role as money lenders to the Englishcrown.

Another source of crown income was represented by England's Jews. The Jewswere the king's personal property, and he was free to tax them at will. By 1280,the Jews had been exploited to a level at which they were no longer of muchfinancial use to the crown, but they could still be used in political bargaining.Their usury business – a practice forbidden to Christians – had made manypeople indebted to them and caused general popular resentment. In 1275, Edwardhad issued the Statute of the Jewry, which outlawed usury and encouraged theJews to take up other professions; in 1279, in the context of a crack-down on coin-clippers, he arrested all the headsof Jewish households in England and had around 300 of them executed. In 1280, he ordered all Jews to attendspecial sermons, preached by Dominican friars, with the hope of persuading them to convert, but these exhortationswere not followed. The final attack on the Jews in England came in the Edict of Expulsion in 1290, whereby Edwardformally expelled all Jews from England. This not only generated revenues through royal appropriation of Jewishloans and property, but it also gave Edward the political capital to negotiate a substantial lay subsidy in the 1290Parliament. The expulsion, which was reversed in 1656, followed a precedent set by other European territorialprinces: Philip II of France had expelled all Jews from his own lands in 1182; John I, Duke of Brittany, drove themout of his duchy in 1239; and in the late 1240s Louis IX of France had expelled the Jews from the royal demesnebefore his first passage to the East.

Edward held Parliament on a reasonably regular basis throughout his reign. In 1295, however, a significant changeoccurred. For this Parliament, in addition to the secular and ecclesiastical lords, two knights from each county andtwo representatives from each borough were summoned. The representation of commons in Parliament was nothingnew; what was new was the authority under which these representatives were summoned. Whereas previously thecommons had been expected simply to assent to decisions already made by the magnates, it was now proclaimed thatthey should meet with the full authority (plena potestas) of their communities, to give assent to decisions made inParliament. The King now had full backing for collecting lay subsidies from the entire population. Lay subsidieswere taxes collected at a certain fraction of the moveable property of all laymen. Whereas Henry III had onlycollected four of these in his reign, Edward I collected nine. This format eventually became the standard for laterParliaments, and historians have named the assembly the "Model Parliament".[19]</ref>

Edward I of England 30

Later reign, 1297–1307

Constitutional crisisThe incessant warfare of the 1290s put a great financial demand on Edward's subjects. Whereas the King had onlylevied three lay subsidies until 1294, four such taxes were granted in the years 1294–97, raising over £200,000.Along with this came the burden of prises (appropriation of food), seizure of wool and hides, and the unpopularadditional duty on wool, dubbed the maltolt. The fiscal demands on the King's subjects caused resentment, and thisresentment eventually led to serious political opposition. The initial resistance was not caused by the lay taxes,however, but by clerical subsidies. In 1294, Edward made a demand of a grant of one half of all clerical revenues.There was some resistance, but the King responded by threatening with outlawry, and the grant was eventuallymade. At the time, the archbishopric of Canterbury was vacant, since Robert Winchelsey was in Italy to receiveconsecration.[20]</ref> Winchelsey returned in January 1295 and had to consent to another grant in November of thatyear. In 1296, however, his position changed when he received the papal bull Clericis laicos. This bull prohibited theclergy from paying taxes to lay authorities without explicit consent from the Pope. When the clergy, with referenceto the bull, refused to pay, Edward responded with outlawry. Winchelsey was presented with a dilemma betweenloyalty to the King and upholding the papal bull, and he responded by leaving it to every individual clergyman to payas he saw fit. By the end of the year, a solution was offered by the new papal bull Etsi de statu, which allowedclerical taxation in cases of pressing urgency.Edward

By God, Sir Earl, either go or hangRoger Bigod

By that same oath, O king, I shall neither go nor hang

Chronicle of Walter of Guisborough[21]

Opposition from the laity took longer to surface. This resistance focused on two things: the King's right to demandmilitary service, and his right to levy taxes. At the Salisbury parliament of February 1297, Roger Bigod, Earl ofNorfolk, in his capacity as Marshal of England, objected to a royal summons of military service. Bigod argued thatthe military obligation only extended to service alongside the King; if the King intended to sail to Flanders, he couldnot send his subjects to Gascony. In July, Bigod and Humphrey de Bohun, Earl of Hereford and Constable ofEngland, drew up a series of complaints known as the Remonstrances, in which objections to the extortionate levelof taxation were voiced. Undeterred, Edward requested another lay subsidy. This one was particularly provocative,because the King had sought consent only from a small group of magnates, rather than from representatives from thecommunities in parliament. While Edward was in Winchelsea, preparing for the campaign in Flanders, Bigod andBohun turned up at the Exchequer to prevent the collection of the tax. As the King left the country with a greatlyreduced force, the kingdom seemed to be on the verge of civil war. What resolved the situation was the Englishdefeat by the Scots at the Battle of Stirling Bridge. The renewed threat to the homeland gave king and magnatescommon cause. Edward signed the Confirmatio cartarum – a confirmation of Magna Carta and its accompanyingCharter of the Forest – and the nobility agreed to serve with the King on a campaign in Scotland.Edward's problems with the opposition did not end with the Falkirk campaign. Over the following years he would beheld up to the promises he had made, in particular that of upholding the Charter of the Forest.[22] In the parliament of1301, the King was forced to order an assessment of the royal forests, but in 1305 he obtained a papal bull that freedhim from this concession. Ultimately, it was a failure in personnel that spelt the end of the opposition againstEdward I. Bohun died late in 1298, after returning from the Falkirk campaign. As for Bigod, in 1302 he arrived at anagreement with the King that was beneficial for both: Bigod, who had no children, made Edward his heir, in returnfor a generous annual grant. Edward finally got his revenge on Winchelsey in 1305, when Clement V was electedpope. Clement was a Gascon sympathetic to the King, and on Edward's instigation had Winchelsey suspended fromoffice.

Edward I of England 31

Return to ScotlandSee also: First Scottish War of Independence

Reconstruction of Edward I's private chambers atthe Tower of London

The situation in Scotland had seemed resolved when Edward left thecountry in 1296, but resistance soon emerged under the leadership ofthe strategically gifted and charismatic William Wallace. On11 September 1297, a large English force under the leadership of Johnde Warenne, Earl of Surrey, and Hugh de Cressingham was routed by amuch smaller Scottish army led by Wallace and Andrew Moray atStirling Bridge. The defeat sent shockwaves into England, andpreparations for a retaliatory campaign started immediately. Soon afterEdward returned from Flanders, he headed north. On 22 July 1298, inthe only major battle he had fought since Evesham in 1265, Edwarddefeated Wallace's forces at the Battle of Falkirk. Edward, however,was not able to take advantage of the momentum, and the next year theScots managed to recapture Stirling Castle. Even though Edward campaigned in Scotland both in 1300, when hesuccessfully besieged Caerlaverock Castle and in 1301, the Scots refused to engage in open battle again, preferringinstead to raid the English countryside in smaller groups.

The defeated Scots, secretly urged on by the French, appealed to the pope to assert a claim of overlordship toScotland in place of the English. His papal bull addressed to King Edward in these terms was firmly rejected onEdward's behalf by the Barons' Letter of 1301. The English managed to subdue the country by other means,however. In 1303, a peace agreement was reached between England and France, effectively breaking up theFranco-Scottish alliance. Robert the Bruce, the grandson of the claimant to the crown in 1291, had sided with theEnglish in the winter of 1301–02. By 1304, most of the other nobles of the country had also pledged their allegianceto Edward, and this year the English also managed to re-take Stirling Castle. A great propaganda victory wasachieved in 1305 when Wallace was betrayed by Sir John de Menteith and turned over to the English, who had himtaken to London where he was publicly executed. With Scotland largely under English control, Edward installedEnglishmen and collaborating Scots to govern the country.The situation changed again on 10 February 1306, when Robert the Bruce murdered his rival John Comyn and a fewweeks later, on 25 March, had himself crowned King of Scotland by Isobel, sister of the Earl of Buchan. Bruce nowembarked on a campaign to restore Scottish independence, and this campaign took the English by surprise. Edwardwas suffering ill health by this time, and instead of leading an expedition himself, he gave different militarycommands to Aymer de Valence and Henry Percy, while the main royal army was led by the Prince of Wales. TheEnglish initially met with success; on 19 June, Aymer de Valence routed Bruce at the Battle of Methven. Bruce wasforced into hiding, while the English forces recaptured their lost territory and castles. Edward responded with severebrutality against Bruce's allies; it was clear that he now regarded the struggle not as a war between two nations, butas the suppression of a rebellion of disloyal subjects. This brutality, though, rather than helping to subdue the Scots,had the opposite effect, and rallied growing support for Bruce.

Edward I of England 32

Death and legacy

Death, 1307

Tomb of Edward I, from an illustration madewhen the tomb was opened in 1774

In February 1307, Bruce reappeared and started gathering men, and inMay he defeated Aymer de Valence at the Battle of Loudoun Hill.Edward, who had rallied somewhat, now moved north himself. On theway, however, he developed dysentery, and his condition deteriorated.On 6 July he encamped at Burgh by Sands, just south of the Scottishborder. When his servants came the next morning to lift him up so thathe could eat, he died in their arms.

Various stories emerged about Edward’s deathbed wishes; according toone tradition, he requested that his heart be carried to the Holy Land,along with an army to fight the infidels. A more dubious story tells ofhow he wished for his bones to be carried along on future expeditions against the Scots. Another account of hisdeathbed scene is more credible; according to one chronicle, Edward gathered around him the Earls of Lincoln andWarwick, Aymer de Valence, and Robert Clifford, and charged them with looking after his son Edward. In particularthey should make sure that Piers Gaveston was not allowed to return to the country. This wish, however, the sonignored, and had his favourite recalled from exile almost immediately. The new king, Edward II, remained in thenorth until August, but then abandoned the campaign and headed south. He was crowned king on 25 February 1308.

Edward I's body was brought south, laying in state at Waltham Abbey, before being buried in Westminster Abbey on27 October. There are few records of the funeral, which cost £473. Edward's tomb was an unusually plainsarcophagus of Purbeck marble, without the customary royal effigy, possibly the result of the shortage of royal fundsafter the King's death. The sarcophagus may normally have been covered over with rich cloth, and originally mighthave been surrounded by carved busts and a devotional religious image, all since lost. The Society of Antiquariesopened the tomb in 1774, finding that the body had been well preserved over the preceding 467 years, and took theopportunity to determine the King's original height.[23] Traces of the Latin inscription Edwardus Primus ScottorumMalleus hic est, 1308. Pactum Serva ("Here is Edward I, Hammer of the Scots, 1308. Keep the Vow"), which canstill be seen painted on the side of the tomb, referring to his vow to avenge the rebellion of Robert Bruce. Thisresulted in Edward being given the epithet the "Hammer of the Scots" by historians, but is not contemporary inorigin, having been added by the Abbot John Feckenham in the 16th century.

Edward I of England 33

Historiography

Bishop William Stubbs, in hisConstitutional History (1873–78),

emphasised Edward I's contributionto the English constitution.

The first histories of Edward in the 16th and 17th centuries drew primarily on theworks of the chroniclers, and made little use of the official records of the period.They limited themselves to general comments on Edward's significance as amonarch, and echoed the chroniclers' praise for his accomplishments. During the17th century, the lawyer Edward Coke wrote extensively about Edward'slegislation, terming the King the "English Justinian", after the renownedByzantine law-maker, Justinian I. Later in the century, historians used theavailable record evidence to address the role of parliament and kingship underEdward, drawing comparisons between his reign and the political strife of theirown century. 18th-century historians established a picture of Edward as an able,if ruthless, monarch, conditioned by the circumstances of his own time.

The influential Victorian historian William Stubbs instead suggested that Edwardhad actively shaped national history, forming English laws and institutions, andhelping England to develop parliamentary and constitutional government. Hisstrengths and weaknesses as a ruler were considered to be emblematic of the English people as a whole. Stubbs'student, Thomas Tout, initially adopted the same perspective, but after extensive research into Edward's royalhousehold, and backed by the research of his contemporaries into the early parliaments of the period, he changed hismind. Tout came to view Edward as a self-interested, conservative leader, using the parliamentary system as "theshrewd device of an autocrat, anxious to use the mass of the people as a check upon his hereditary foes among thegreater baronage."

Historians in the 20th and 21st century have conducted extensive research on Edward and his reign. Most haveconcluded this was a highly significant period in English medieval history, some going further and describingEdward as one of the great medieval kings, although most also agree that his final years were less successful than hisearly decades in power.[24][25] More recently, Michael Prestwich argues that "Edward was a formidable king; hisreign, with both its successes and its disappointments, a great one," and he was "without doubt one of the greatestrulers of his time", while John Gillingham suggests that "no king of England had a greater impact on the peoples ofBritain than Edward I" and that "modern historians of the English state... have always recognized Edward I’s reign aspivotal." [26] Fred Cazel similarly comments that "no-one can doubt the greatness of the reign". Most recently,Andrew Spencer has agreed with Prestwich, arguing that Edward's reign "was indeed... a great one", and CarolineBurt states that "Edward I was without a doubt one of the greatest kings to rule England"</ref> Three majoracademic narratives of Edward have been produced during this period.[27] Frederick Powicke's volumes, published in1947 and 1953, forming the standard works on Edward for several decades, and were largely positive in praising theachievements of his reign, and in particular his focus on justice and the law.[28] In 1988, Michael Prestwich producedan authoritative biography of the King, focusing on his political career, still portraying him in sympathetic terms, buthighlighting some of the consequences of his failed policies.[29] Marc Morris's biography followed in 2008, drawingout more of the detail of Edward's personality, and generally taking a harsher view of the King's weaknesses and lesspleasant characteristics.[30] Considerable academic debate has taken place around the character of Edward's kingship,his political skills, and in particular his management of his earls, and the degree to which this was collaborative orrepressive in nature.There is also a great difference between English and Scottish historiography on King Edward. G. W. S. Barrow, inhis biography on Robert the Bruce, accused Edward of ruthlessly exploiting the leaderless state of Scotland to obtaina feudal superiority over the kingdom. This view of Edward is reflected in the popular perception of the King, as canbe seen in the 1995 movie Braveheart's portrayal of the King as a hard-hearted tyrant.

Edward I of England 34

Issue

Edward

Eleanor of CastileEdward and Eleanor had at least fourteen children, perhaps as many as sixteen. Of these, five daughters survived intoadulthood, but only one boy outlived Edward: the future King Edward II. Edward I was reportedly concerned withhis son's failure to live up to the expectations of an heir to the crown, and at one point decided to exile the prince'sfavourite Piers Gaveston.By Margaret, Edward had two sons, both of whom lived into adulthood, and a daughter who died as a child.[31] TheHailes Abbey chronicle indicates that John Botetourt may have been Edward's illegitimate son; however, the claim isunsubstantiated.

Children by Eleanor of Castile

Name Birth Death Notes

Daughter May 1255 29 May 1255 Stillborn or died shortly after birth

Katherine before 17 June1264

5 September 1264 Buried at Westminster Abbey.

Joanna Summer orJanuary 1265

before 7 September1265

Buried at Westminster Abbey.

John 13 July 1266 3 August 1271 Died at Wallingford, while in the custody of his granduncle, Richard, Earl of Cornwall.Buried at Westminster Abbey.

Henry 6 May 1268 14 October 1274 Buried at Westminster Abbey.

Eleanor c. 18 June 1269 19 Aug 1298 Married, in 1293, Henry III, Count of Bar, by whom she had two children. Buried atWestminster Abbey.

Juliana after May 1271 5 September 1271 Born, and died, while Edward and Eleanor were in Acre.

Joan 1272 23 Apr 1307 Married (1) in 1290 Gilbert de Clare, Earl of Hertford, who died in 1295, and (2) in 1297Ralph de Monthermer. She had four children by Clare, and three or four by Monthermer.

Alphonso 24 November1273

19 August 1284 Buried at Westminster Abbey.

Margaret Probably15 Mar 1275

After11 Mar 1333

Married John II of Brabant in 1290, with whom she had one son.

Berengaria 1 May 1276 between 7 June1277 and 1278

Buried at Westminster Abbey.

Daughter December 1277 January 1278 Buried at Westminster Abbey.

Edward I of England 35

Mary 11/12 Mar 1279 29 May 1332 A Benedictine nun in Amesbury, Wiltshire, where she was probably buried.

Son 1280/81 1280/81 Little evidence exists for this child.

Elizabeth c. 7 Aug 1282 5 May 1316 She married (1) in 1297 John I, Count of Holland, (2) in 1302 Humphrey de Bohun, Earl ofHereford. The first marriage was childless; by Bohun Elizabeth had ten children.

Edward 25 Apr 1284 21 Sep 1327 Succeeded his father as king of England. In 1308 he married Isabella of France, with whomhe had four children.

Children by Margaret of France

Name Birth Death Notes

Thomas 1 June 1300 4 Aug 1338 Buried in the abbey of Bury St Edmunds. Married (1) Alice Hales, with issue; (2) MaryBrewes, no issue.

Edmund 1 Aug 1301 19 Mar 1330 Married Margaret Wake with issue.

Eleanor 6 May 1306 1310

Notes[1] As the sources give the time simply as the night between the 17 and 18 June, we can not know the exact date of Edward's birth.<ref

name=Morris2009P2>[2] Regnal numbers were not commonly used in Edward's time; as the first post-Conquest king to carry that name,<ref>[3] Henry III's mother Isabella of Angoulême married Hugh X of Lusignan after the death of King John.<ref>[4] This was Gilbert de Clare, son of the aforementioned Richard de Clare.<ref name=Prestwich1997pp48>[5] The Dictum restored land to the disinherited rebels, in exchange for a fine decided by their level of involvement in the wars.<ref

name=Prestwich2007P117>[6] The essential concession was that the disinherited would now be allowed to take possession of their lands before paying the fines.<ref

name=Prestwich2007P121>[7][7] This meant a grant of 1/20 of all movable property.[8] The disease in question was either dysentery or typhus;[9] Avner Falk, Franks and Saracens: Reality and Fantasy in the Crusades, Jul 2010 , p. 192[10] The anecdote of Queen Eleanor saving Edward's life by sucking the poison out of his wound is almost certainly a later fabrication.<ref>[11] Though no written proof exists, it is assumed that this arrangement was agreed on before Edward's departure.<ref name=Morris2009P104>[12] Lancaster's post was held by Payne de Chaworth until April.<ref name=Powicke1962P409>[13] This title became the traditional title of the heir apparent to the English throne. Prince Edward was not born heir apparent, but became so

when his older brother Alphonso died in 1284.<ref>[14] Prestwich estimates the total cost to be around £400,000.<ref name=Prestwich1971P172>[15] The term is an 18th-century invention.<ref name=Morris2009P253>[16] Even though the principle of primogeniture did not necessarily apply to descent through female heirs, there is little doubt that Balliol's claim

was the strongest one.<ref name=Prestwich1997PP358>[17] The few surviving documents from the Hundred Rolls show the vast scope of the project. They are dealt with extensively in: Helen Cam

(1963). The Hundred and the Hundred Rolls: An Outline of Local Government in Medieval England (New ed.). London: Merlin Press..[18] Among those singled out in particular by the royal justices was the earl of Gloucester, who was seen to have encroached ruthlessly on royal

rights over the preceding years.<ref name=Sutherland1963PP146>[19] The term was first introduced by William Stubbs.<ref name=Morris2009PP282>[20] Winchelsey's consecration was held up by the protracted papal election of 1292–94.<ref name=Powicke1962P671>[21][21] Quoted in[22] A full text of the charter, with additional information, can be found at: Jones, Graham. "The Charter of the Forest of King Henry III" (http:/ /

info. sjc. ox. ac. uk/ forests/ Carta. htm). St John's College, Oxford. Retrieved 17 July 2009..[23] The original report can be found in Ayloffe, J. (1786). "An Account of the Body of King Edward the First, as it appeared on opening his

Tomb in the year 1774". Archeologia iii: 386, 398–412..[24][24] ; ; ; ; ; ;[25] G. Templeman argued in his 1950 historiographical essay that "it is generally recognized that Edward I deserves a high place in the history

of medieval England".<ref>[26][26] ; ;[27][27] ; ;[28][28] ; ; ;[29][29] ; ; ;

Edward I of England 36

[30][30] ; ;[31][31] The information on Edward's children with Eleanor is based on

References

Bibliography• Barrow, G. W. S. (1965). Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland. London, UK: Eyre and

Spottiswoode. OCLC  655056131 (http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ oclc/ 655056131).• Brears, Peter (2010). "Food Supply and Preparation at the Edwardian Castles". In Williams, Diane; Kenyon, John.

The Impact of Edwardian Castles in Wales. Oxford, UK: Oxbow Books. pp. 85–98. ISBN 978-1-84217-380-0.• Brown, A.L. (1989). The Governance of Late Medieval England 1272–1461. London, UK: Edward Arnold.

ISBN 0-8047-1730-3.• Burt, Caroline (2013). Edward I and the Governance of England, 1272-1307. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge

University Press. ISBN 9780521889995.• Carpenter, David (2004). The Struggle for Mastery: Britain, 1066–1284. London, UK: Penguin Books.

ISBN 9780140148244.• Cathcart King, David James (1988). The Castle in England and Wales: An Interpretative History. London, UK:

Croom Helm. ISBN 0-918400-08-2.• Cazel, Fred A. (1991). "Edward I, by Michael Prestwich". Speculum 66 (1): 225–227.• Coldstream, Nicola (2010). "James of St George". In Williams, Diane; Kenyon, John. The Impact of Edwardian

Castles in Wales. Oxford, UK: Oxbow Books. pp. 37–45. ISBN 978-1-84217-380-0.• Davies, R. R. (2000). The Age of Conquest: Wales, 1063–1415. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

ISBN 0-19-820878-2.• Denton, J. H. (1989). "Edward I by Michael Prestwich". The English Historical Review 104 (413): 981–984.• Duffy, Mark (2003). Royal Tombs of Medieval England. Stroud, UK: Tempus. ISBN 978-0-7524-2579-5.• Friar, Stephen (2003). The Sutton Companion to Castles. Stroud, UK: Sutton Publishing.

ISBN 978-0-7509-3994-2.• Haines, Roy Martin (2003). King Edward II: His Life, his Reign and its Aftermath, 1284–1330. Montreal, Canada

and Kingston, Canada: McGill-Queen's University Press. ISBN 978-0-7735-3157-4.• Harriss, G.L. (1975). King, Parliament and Public Finance in Medieval England to 1369. Oxford: Oxford

University Press. ISBN 0-19-822435-4.• Lilley, Keith D. (2010). "The Landscapes of Edward's New Towns: Their Planning and Design". In Williams,

Diane; Kenyon, John. The Impact of Edwardian Castles in Wales. Oxford, UK: Oxbow Books. pp. 99–113.ISBN 978-1-84217-380-0.

• Loomis, Roger Sherman (1953). "Edward I, Arthurian Enthusiast". Speculum 28 (1): 114–127.• Maddicott, John (1983). "The Mise of Lewes, 1264". English Historical Review 98 (338): 588–603.• Maddicott, John (1989). "The Crusade Taxation of 1268–70 and the Development of Parliament". In P. R. Coss &

S. D. Lloyd (eds.). Thirteenth Century England 2. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press. pp. 93–117.ISBN 0-85115-513-8.

• Maddicott, John (1994). Simon de Montfort. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-37493-6.• McFarlane, K. B. (1981). The Nobility of Later Medieval England. London, UK: Hambledon.

ISBN 0-9506882-5-8.• Morris, Marc (2009). A Great and Terrible King: Edward I and the Forging of Britain. London, UK: Windmill

Books. ISBN 978-0-09-948175-1.• Phillips, Seymour (2011). Edward II. New Haven, US and London, UK: Yale University Press.

ISBN 978-0-300-17802-9.

Edward I of England 37

• Plucknett, Theodore Frank Thomas (1949). Legislation of Edward I. Oxford, UK: The Clarendon Press. OCLC 983476 (http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ oclc/ 983476).

• Powicke, F. M. (1947). King Henry III and the Lord Edward: The Community of the Realm in the ThirteenthCentury. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press. OCLC  1044503 (http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ oclc/ 1044503).

• Powicke, F. M. (1962). The Thirteenth Century, 1216–1307 (2nd ed.). Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press. OCLC 3693188 (http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ oclc/ 3693188).

• Prestwich, Michael (1972). War, Politics and Finance under Edward I. London, UK: Faber and Faber.ISBN 0-571-09042-7.

• Prestwich, Michael (1997). Edward I (Yale ed.). New Haven, US: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-07209-0.• Prestwich, Michael (2003). The Three Edwards: War and State in England, 1272-1377 (2nd ed.). London, UK:

Routledge. ISBN 9780415303095.• Prestwich, Michael (2007). Plantagenet England: 1225–1360 (new ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

ISBN 0-19-822844-9.• Prestwich, Michael (2010). "Edward I and Wales". In Williams, Diane; Kenyon, John. The Impact of Edwardian

Castles in Wales. Oxford, UK: Oxbow Books. pp. 1–8. ISBN 978-1-84217-380-0.• Raban, Sandra (2000). England Under Edward I and Edward II, 1259-1327. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.

ISBN 9780631223207.• Riley-Smith, Jonathan (2005). The Crusades: A History. London: Continuum. ISBN 0-8264-7269-9.• Sadler, John (2008). The Second Barons' War: Simon de Montfort and the Battles of Lewes and Evesham.

Barnsley, UK: Pen and Sword Military. ISBN 1-84415-831-4.• Spencer, Andrew (2014). Nobility and Kingship in Medieval England: The Earls and Edward I, 1272-1307.

Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781107026759.• Stubbs, William (1880). The Constitutional History of England 2. Oxford, UK: Clarendon.• Sutherland, Donald (1963). Quo Warranto Proceedings in the Reign of Edward I, 1278–1294. Oxford, UK:

Clarendon Press. OCLC  408401 (http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ oclc/ 408401).• Templeman, G. (1950). "Edward I and the Historians". Cambridge Historical Journal 10 (1): 16–35.• Tout, Thomas Frederick (1920). Chapters in the Administrative History of Mediaeval England: The Wardrobe,

the Chamber and the Small Seals 2. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press. OCLC  832154714 (http:/ /www. worldcat. org/ oclc/ 832154714).

• Watson, Fiona J. (1998). Under the Hammer: Edward I and the Throne of Scotland, 1286–1307. East Linton:Tuckwell Press. ISBN 1-86232-031-4.

• Wheatley, Abigail (2010). "Caernarfon Castle and its Mythology". In Williams, Diane; Kenyon, John. The Impactof Edwardian Castles in Wales. Oxford, UK: Oxbow Books. pp. 129–139. ISBN 978-1-84217-380-0.

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Edward I of England.

• Edward I of England at royal.gov.uk (http:/ / www. royal. gov. uk/ HistoryoftheMonarchy/KingsandQueensofEngland/ ThePlantagenets/ EdwardILongshanks. aspx)

• King Edward I Monument (http:/ / www. heritageandhistory. com/ contents1a/ 2009/ 03/king-edward-i-monument/ )

• Archival material relating to Edward I of England (http:/ / www. nationalarchives. gov. uk/ nra/ searches/subjectView. asp?ID=P48472) listed at the UK National Archives

• Portraits of King Edward I (http:/ / www. npg. org. uk/ collections/ search/ person. php?LinkID=mp67807) at theNational Portrait Gallery, London

Edward I of England 38

Edward I of EnglandHouse of Plantagenet

Born: 17 June 1239 Died: 7 July 1307

Regnal titles

Preceded byHenry III

King of EnglandDuke of Aquitaine

Lord of Ireland1272–1307

Succeeded byEdward II

Preceded byJoan

Count of Ponthieu1279–1290

with Eleanor

Honorary titles

Preceded byMatthew de Hastings

Lord Warden of the CinquePorts1265

Succeeded bySir Matthew de Bezille

John Balliol 39

John BalliolFor the father of the king, see John I de Balliol. For the 1825 play, see John Balliol (play).

John Balliol

King John, his crown and sceptre symbolically broken as depicted in the 1562 Forman Armorial, produced for Mary, Queen of Scots

King of Scots

Reign 17 November 1292 – 10 July 1296

Coronation 30 November 1292, Scone

Predecessor Margaret (disputed)

Successor Robert I

Spouse Isabella de Warenne

Issue Edward Balliol

House House of Balliol

Father John I de Balliol

Mother Devorguilla of Galloway

Born c. 1249unknown

Died 25 November 1314Picardy, prob. Hélicourt

Burial prob. Hélicourt

Religion Roman Catholicism

John Balliol (Norman French: Johan de Bailliol, Middle Scots: Jhon Ballioun;[1][2] c. 1249 – 25 November 1314),known as Toom Tabard (Scots for "empty coat"), was King of Scots from 1292 to 1296.

Early lifeLittle of Balliol's early life is known. He was born between 1248 and 1250 at an unknown location; possibilitiesinclude Galloway, Picardy and Barnard Castle, County Durham.[3] He was the son of John, 5th Baron Balliol, Lordof Barnard Castle, and his wife Dervorguilla of Galloway, daughter of Alan, Lord of Galloway and granddaughter ofDavid, Earl of Huntingdon.[4] From his mother he inherited significant lands in Galloway and claim to Lordship overthe Gallovidians, as well as various English and Scottish estates of the Huntingdon inheritance; from his father heinherited large estates in England and France, such as Hitchin, in Hertfordshire.

Accession as King of ScotsIn 1284 Balliol had attended a parliament at Scone, which had recognised Margaret, Maid of Norway, as heir presumptive to her grandfather, King Alexander III.[5] Following the death of Margaret in 1290, John Balliol was a competitor for the Scottish crown in the Great Cause, as he was a great-great-great-grandson of King David I through his mother (and therefore one generation further than his main rival Robert Bruce, 5th Lord of Annandale, grandfather of Robert the Bruce, who later became king), being senior in genealogical primogeniture but not in proximity of blood. He submitted his claim to the Scottish auditors with King Edward I of England as the arbitrator, at Berwick-upon-Tweed on 6 June 1291.[6] The Scottish auditors' decision in favour of Balliol was pronounced in the Great Hall of Berwick Castle on 17 November 1292, and he was inaugurated accordingly King of Scotland at Scone,

John Balliol 40

30 November 1292, St. Andrew's Day.Edward I, who had coerced recognition as Lord Paramount of Scotland, the feudal superior of the realm, steadilyundermined John's authority. He demanded homage to be paid towards himself, legal authority over the ScottishKing in any disputes brought against him by his own subjects, contribution towards the costs for the defence ofEngland, and military support was expected in his war against France. He treated Scotland as a feudal vassal stateand repeatedly humiliated the new king. The Scots soon tired of their deeply compromised king; the direction ofaffairs was allegedly taken out of his hands by the leading men of the kingdom, who appointed a council oftwelve—in practice, a new panel of Guardians—at Stirling in July 1295. They went on to conclude a treaty of mutualassistance with France - known in later years as the Auld Alliance.

AbdicationIn retaliation, Edward I invaded, commencing the Wars of Scottish Independence. The Scots were defeated atDunbar and the English took Dunbar Castle on 27 April 1296. John abdicated at Stracathro near Montrose on 10 July1296. Here the arms of Scotland were formally torn from John's surcoat, giving him the abiding name of "ToomTabard" (empty coat).[7]

John was imprisoned in the Tower of London until allowed to go to France in July 1299. When his baggage wasexamined at Dover, the Royal Golden Crown and Seal of the Kingdom of Scotland, with many vessels of gold andsilver, and a considerable sum of money, were found in his chests. Edward I ordered that the Crown be offered to St.Thomas the Martyr and that the money be returned to John for the expenses of his journey. But he kept the Sealhimself.[8] John was released into the custody of Pope Boniface VIII on condition that he remain at a papalresidence. He was released around the summer of 1301 and lived the rest of his life on his family's ancestral estatesat Hélicourt, Picardy.Over the next few years, there were several Scottish rebellions against Edward (for example, in 1297 under WilliamWallace and Andrew Moray). The rebels would use the name of "King John", on the grounds that his abdication hadbeen under duress and therefore invalid. This claim came to look increasingly tenuous, as John's position undernominal house-arrest meant that he could not return to Scotland nor campaign for his release, despite the Scots'diplomatic attempts in Paris and Rome. After 1302, he made no further attempts to extend his personal support to theScots. Effectively, Scotland was left without a monarch until the accession of Robert the Bruce in 1306.

DeathJohn died around 25 November 1314 at his family's château at Hélicourt in France.[9] On 4 January 1315, KingEdward II of England, writing to King Louis X of France, said that he had heard of the death of 'Sir John deBalliol'[10] and requested the fealty and homage of Edward Balliol to be given by proxy.A John de Bailleul is interred in the church of St. Waast at Bailleul-sur-Eaune. This may or may not be the ScottishKing.John was survived by his son Edward Balliol, who later revived his family's claim to the Scottish throne, receivedsupport from the English, and had some temporary successes.

John Balliol 41

Marriage and issue

John Balliol and his wife.

John married, around 9 February 1281, Isabella de Warenne,daughter of John de Warenne, 6th Earl of Surrey. Her motherAlice de Lusignan was daughter of Hugh X de Lusignan byIsabella of Angoulême, widow of King John of England, makingIsabella niece, in the half-blood, of Henry III of England. John wasalso the brother-in-law to John Comyn, who was murdered byRobert the Bruce in February 1306, in Dumfries.Wikipedia:Disputed statement

It has been established that John and Isabella had at least onechild:• Edward Balliol, Scottish pretender, (d.1367). Married to

Marguerite de Taranto, daughter of Philip I, Prince of Taranto(d. 1332) - annulled or divorced with no issue.

However, other children have been linked to the couple as otherpossible issue:• Henry de Balliol. He was killed in the Battle of Annan on 16

December 1332, leaving no issue.[11]

• Agnes (or Maud or Anne) Balliol was married to BryanFitzAlan, Lord FitzAlan, and feudal Baron of Bedale. Theywere parents to Agnes FitzAlan (b. 1298), who married SirGilbert Stapleton, Knt., of Bedale (1291–1324). Gilbert is better known for his participation in the assassinationof Piers Gaveston, Earl of Cornwall.

•• Margaret Balliol. Died unmarried.

Fictional portrayalsJohn Balliol has been depicted in drama:• John Balliol, An Historical Drama. In Five Acts (1825) play based on his life by William Tennant.• A character named Balliol, portrayed by British actor Bernard Horsfall, appears in Mel Gibson's 1995

Oscar-winning epic, Braveheart, an heroic tale of Scottish national hero William Wallace. The character is merelypresented as a claimant to the Scottish crown, with no further delving into his significance. He is presumablyloosely based on John Balliol, although in reality he was a prisoner in France at that time.

References

Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Baliol, John de.

• See also: Beam, Amanda (2008). The Balliol Dynasty, 1210-1364. Edinburgh: John Donald.[1] Stevenson, Joseph. Documents illustrative of the history of Scotland Volume 2. (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=O1oJAAAAIAAJ&

pg=PA67& dq=Johan+ de+ Bailliol& hl=en& sa=X& ei=P-XpT9azD5SA6QGNwOSSDQ& ved=0CGAQ6AEwBw#v=onepage& q=Johan deBailliol& f=false)

[2] Hary, Blind. The Actes and Deidis of the Illustre and Vallyeant Campioun Schir William Wallace. (http:/ / www. archive. org/ stream/actisanddeidisi00henrgoog/ actisanddeidisi00henrgoog_djvu. txt=false)

[3] G. P. Stell, "John [John de Balliol] (c.1248x50–1314)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, Sept 2004; onlineedn, Oct 2005 , accessed 25 July 2007 (http:/ / www. oxforddnb. com/ view/ article/ 1209).

John Balliol 42

[4] Dunbar, Sir Archibald H.,Bt., Scottish Kings - A Revised Chronology of Scottish History 1005 - 1625, Edinburgh, 1899: p. 115[5] Foedera, p 228[6] Dunbar, Sir Archibald H.,Bt., Scottish Kings - A Revised Chronology of Scottish History 1005 - 1625, Edinburgh, 1899: p. 116[7][7] This nickname is usually understood to mean "empty coat", but this is disputed.[8] Foedera, vol.1, part 2, p.909[9] Fordun, Annals: 95[10] Dunbar, Sir Archibald H.,Bt., Scottish Kings - A Revised Chronology of Scottish History 1005 - 1625, Edinburgh, 1899: p. 117[11] Dunbar, Sir Archibald H.,Bt., Scottish Kings - A Revised Chronology of Scottish History 1005 - 1625, Edinburgh, 1899: p. 118

Sources• Bold, Valentina (2007), James Hogg: a bard of nature's making (http:/ / books. google. gr/

books?id=Zp3J3_1DhcIC& printsec=frontcover& source=gbs_ge_summary_r& cad=0#v=onepage& q& f=false),Peter Lang, ISBN 978-3-03910-897-8

• Rymer, Thomas,Foedera Conventiones, Literae et cuiuscunque generis Acta Publica inter Reges Angliae.London. 1745. (Latin) (http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/ fderaconventione01ryme)

John BalliolHouse of Balliol

Born: ? c. 1249 Died: November 1314

Regnal titles

Preceded byMargaret

King of Scots1292–1296

VacantTitle next held by

Robert I

Titles in pretence

Preceded by-

— TITULAR —King of the Scots

1296–1314Reason for succession failure:

First War of Scottish Independence

Succeeded byEdward Balliol

William Wallace 43

William WallaceFor other people named William Wallace, see William Wallace (disambiguation).

William Wallace

Imaginative 18th-century engraving of Wallace

Born c. 1270[1]

Elderslie, Renfrewshire, Scotland

Died 23 August 1305Smithfield, London, Middlesex, England

Cause of death Hanged, drawn and quartered

Resting place London England in unmarked grave

Nationality Scottish

Occupation Commander in the Scottish Wars of Independence

Religion Roman Catholicism

Children None recorded

Parents Father: Alan or Malcolm Wallace

Sir William Wallace (Medieval Gaelic: Uilliam Uallas; modern Scottish Gaelic: Uilleam Uallas; Norman French:William le Waleys; c. 1270 – 23 August 1305) was a Scottish landowner who became one of the main leaders duringthe Wars of Scottish Independence.Along with Andrew Moray, Wallace defeated an English army at the Battle of Stirling Bridge in September 1297,and was appointed Guardian of Scotland, serving until his defeat at the Battle of Falkirk in July 1298. In August1305 Wallace was captured in Robroyston near Glasgow and handed over to King Edward I of England, who hadhim hanged, drawn, and quartered for high treason and crimes against English civilians.Since his death, Wallace has obtained an iconic status far beyond his homeland. He is the protagonist of the15th-century epic poem The Wallace, by Blind Harry. Wallace is also the subject of literary works by Sir WalterScott and Jane Porter and of the 1995 Academy Award-winning film Braveheart.

William Wallace 44

Background

Statue of Wallace at Edinburgh Castle

William Wallace was a member of the lesser nobility, but little isdefinitely known of his family history or even his parentage. BlindHarry's late-15th-century poem gives his father as Sir Malcolm ofElderslie, however William's own seal, found on a letter sent to theHanse city of Lübeck in 1297[2] gives his father's name as AlanWallace.[3][4] This Alan Wallace may be the same as the one listed inthe 1296 Ragman Rolls as a crown tenant in Ayrshire, but there is noadditional confirmation.[5] Blind Harry's assertion that William was theson of Sir Malcolm of Elderslie has given rise to a tradition thatWilliam's birthplace was at Elderslie in Renfrewshire, and this is stillthe view of some historians,[6] but William's seal has given rise to acounter claim of Ellerslie in Ayrshire. There is no contemporaryevidence linking him with either location, although both areas hadconnections with the wider Wallace family.[7] Records show earlymembers of the family as holding estates at Riccarton, Tarbolton, andAuchincruive in Kyle, and Stenton in Haddingtonshire.[8] They werevassals of James Stewart, 5th High Steward of Scotland as their landsfell within his territory. His brothers Malcolm and John are knownfrom other sources.[9]

The origins of the Wallace surname and its association with southwest Scotland are also far from certain, other thanthe name's being derived from the Old English wylisc (pronounced "wullish") meaning "foreigner" or "Welshman".It is possible that all the Wallaces in the Clyde area were medieval immigrants from Wales, but given that the termwas also used for local Cumbric-speaking Strathclyde Welsh, it seems equally likely that the surname refers topeople who were seen as being "Welsh" due to their Cumbric language.

Political crisis in ScotlandMain article: Competitors for the Crown of Scotland

Coronation of Alexander

When Wallace was growing up, King Alexander III[10] ruled Scotland.His reign had seen a period of peace and economic stability. On 19March 1286, however, Alexander died after falling from his horse.

The heir to the throne was Alexander's granddaughter, Margaret, Maidof Norway. As she was still a child and in Norway, the Scottish lordsset up a government of guardians. Margaret fell ill on the voyage toScotland and died in Orkney on 26 September 1290. The lack of aclear heir led to a period known as the "Great Cause", with severalfamilies laying claim to the throne.

With Scotland threatening to descend into civil war, King Edward I ofEngland was invited in by the Scottish nobility to arbitrate. Before theprocess could begin, he insisted that all of the contenders recognise

him as Lord Paramount of Scotland. In early November 1292, at a great feudal court held in the castle atBerwick-upon-Tweed, judgement was given in favour of John Balliol having the strongest claim in law.

Edward proceeded to reverse the rulings of the Scottish Lords and even summoned King John Balliol to stand before the English court as a common plaintiff. John was a weak king, known as "Toom Tabard" or "Empty Coat". John

William Wallace 45

renounced his homage in March 1296 and by the end of the month Edward stormed Berwick-upon-Tweed, sackingthe then-Scottish border town. In April, the Scots were defeated at the Battle of Dunbar in East Lothian and by July,Edward had forced John to abdicate. Edward then instructed his officers to receive formal homage from some 1,800Scottish nobles (many of the rest being prisoners of war at that time).

Silent years prior to the Wars of Independence

Wallace depicted in a children's history bookfrom 1906

Some historians, such as Andrew Fisher, believe Wallace must havehad some earlier military experience in order to lead a successfulmilitary campaign in 1297. Campaigns like Edward I of England's warsin Wales might have provided a good opportunity for a younger son ofa landholder to become a mercenary soldier.[11]

Wallace's personal seal bears the archer's insignia.[12] If Wallace wasindeed an archer, he must have been a professional, worth paying areasonable sum of money for military services. The first class longbow (as probably used by Wallace) had a draw weight of up to 170 lbs.

Walter Bower states that Wallace was "a tall man with the body of agiant ... with lengthy flanks ... broad in the hips, with strong arms andlegs ... with all his limbs very strong and firm".[13] Blind Harry'sWallace reaches seven feet.[14]

The start of the uprising

William Wallace 46

Wallace statue by D. W. Stevenson on theScottish National Portrait Gallery, Edinburgh

The first act definitely known to have been carried out by Wallace washis assassination of William de Heselrig, the English High Sheriff ofLanark, in May 1297. He then joined with William the Hardy, Lord ofDouglas, and they carried out the raid of Scone. This was one ofseveral rebellions taking place across Scotland, including those ofseveral Scottish nobles and Andrew Moray in the north.

The uprising suffered a blow when the nobles submitted to the Englishat Irvine in July. Wallace and Moray were not involved, and continuedtheir rebellions. Wallace used the Ettrick Forest as a base for raiding,and attacked Wishart's palace at Ancrum. Wallace and Moray met andjoined their forces, possibly at the siege of Dundee in early September.

Battle of Stirling Bridge

Main article: Battle of Stirling Bridge

The later Stirling Bridge

On 11 September 1297, an army jointly led by Wallace and AndrewMoray won the Battle of Stirling Bridge. Although vastlyoutnumbered, the Scottish army routed the English army. John deWarenne, 6th Earl of Surrey's professional army of 3,000 cavalry and8,000 to 10,000 infantry met disaster as they crossed over to the northside of the river. The narrowness of the bridge prevented many soldiersfrom crossing together (possibly as few as three men abreast), so, whilethe English soldiers crossed, the Scots held back until half of them hadpassed and then killed the English as quickly as they could cross. Theinfantry were sent on first, followed by heavy cavalry. The Scots'schiltron formations forced the infantry back into the advancing

cavalry. A pivotal charge, led by one of Wallace's captains, caused some of the English soldiers to retreat as otherspushed forward, and under the overwhelming weight, the bridge collapsed and many English soldiers drowned.Thus, the Scots won a significant victory, boosting the confidence of their army. Hugh Cressingham, Edward'streasurer in Scotland, died in the fighting and it is reputed that his body was subsequently flayed and the skin cut intosmall pieces as tokens of the victory. The Lanercost Chronicle records that Wallace had "a broad strip [ofCressingham’s skin] ... taken from the head to the heel, to make therewith a baldrick for his sword".[15]

After the battle, Moray and Wallace assumed the title of Guardians of the Kingdom of Scotland on behalf of KingJohn Balliol. Moray died of wounds suffered on the battlefield sometime in late 1297.The type of engagement conducted by Wallace was characterized by opportunistic tactics and the strategic use ofterrain. This was in stark contrast to the contemporary views on chivalric warfare which were characterized bystrength of arms and knightly combat. Therefore, the battle embittered relations between the two antagonisticnations, whilst also perhaps providing a new departure in the type of warfare which England had hitherto employed.The numerical and material inferiority of the Scottish forces would be mirrored by that of the English in the HundredYears' War, who, in turn, abandoned chivalric warfare to achieve decisive victory in similar engagements such asCrécy and Poitiers.

William Wallace 47

Around November 1297, Wallace led a large-scale raid into northern England, through Northumberland andCumberland.In a ceremony in Selkirk Abbey towards the end of the year, Wallace was knighted. This would have been carriedout by one of three Scottish earls — Carrick, Strathearn or Lennox.[16]

Battle of FalkirkMain article: Battle of Falkirk

Stained glass portraying the Warrior WilliamWallace

William Wallace Statue, Aberdeen

In April 1298, Edward ordered a second invasion of Scotland. He hadan army of 3000 men from 23 clans. Wikipedia:Disputed statementThey plundered Lothian and regained some castles, but failed to bringWilliam Wallace to combat; the Scots shadowed the English army,intending to avoid battle until shortages of supplies and money forcedEdward to withdraw, at which point the Scots would harass his retreat.The English quartermasters' failure to prepare for the expedition leftmorale and food supplies low, and a resulting riot within Edward's ownarmy had to be put down by his cavalry. In July, while planning areturn to Edinburgh for supplies, Edward received intelligence that theScots were encamped nearby at Falkirk, and he moved quickly toengage them in the pitched battle he had long hoped for.

Wallace arranged his spearmen in four schiltrons — circular, hedgehogformations surrounded by a defensive wall of wooden stakes. TheEnglish, however, employed Welsh longbowmen, who swung strategicsuperiority in their favour. The English proceeded to attack withcavalry, and break up the Scottish archers. Under the command of theScottish nobles, the Scottish knights withdrew, and Edward's menbegan to attack the schiltrons. It remains unclear whether the infantryshooting bolts, arrows and stones at the spearmen proved the decidingfactor, although it is very likely that it was the arrows of Edward'sbowmen. Gaps in the schiltrons soon appeared, and the Englishexploited these to crush the remaining resistance. The Scots lost manymen, including John de Graham. Wallace escaped, though his militaryreputation suffered badly.

By September 1298, Wallace resigned as Guardian of Scotland infavour of Robert the Bruce, Earl of Carrick and future king, and JohnIII Comyn, Lord of Badenoch, King John Balliol's nephew.

Details of Wallace's activities after this are vague, but there is someevidence that he left on a mission to the court of King Philip IV ofFrance to plead the case for assistance in the Scottish struggle forindependence. There is a surviving letter from the French king dated 7November 1300 to his envoys in Rome demanding that they shouldhelp Sir William. It also suggests that Wallace may have intended totravel to Rome, although it is not known if he did. There is also areport from an English spy at a meeting of Scottish leaders, where they said Wallace was in France.

By 1304 Wallace was back in Scotland, and involved in skirmishes at Happrew and Earnside.

William Wallace 48

Capture and execution

Wallace's trial in Westminster Hall. Painting byDaniel Maclise

Wallace evaded capture by the English until 5 August 1305 when Johnde Menteith, a Scottish knight loyal to Edward, turned Wallace over toEnglish soldiers at Robroyston near Glasgow. Letters of safe conductfrom Haakon V of Norway, Philip IV of France, and John Balliol,along with other documents, were found on Wallace and delivered toEdward by John de Segrave.[17]

Wallace was transported to London, lodged in the house of William deLeyrer, then taken to Westminster Hall, where he was tried for treasonand for atrocities against civilians in war, "sparing neither age nor sex,monk nor nun." He was crowned with a garland of oak to suggest hewas the king of outlaws. He responded to the treason charge, "I could

not be a traitor to Edward, for I was never his subject." With this, Wallace asserted that the absent John Balliol wasofficially his king.Wikipedia:Citation needed

Plaque marking the place of Wallace's execution.

Following the trial, on 23 August 1305, Wallace was taken from thehall to the Tower of London, then stripped naked and dragged throughthe city at the heels of a horse to the Elms at Smithfield.[18] He washanged, drawn and quartered — strangled by hanging, but releasedwhile he was still alive, emasculated, eviscerated and his bowels burntbefore him, beheaded, then cut into four parts. His preserved head(dipped in tar) was placed on a pike atop London Bridge. It was laterjoined by the heads of the brothers, John and Simon Fraser. His limbswere displayed, separately, in Newcastle upon Tyne,Berwick-upon-Tweed, Stirling, and Perth. A plaque stands in a wall ofSt. Bartholomew's Hospital near the site of Wallace's execution atSmithfield.

In 1869 the Wallace Monument was erected, very close to the site ofhis victory at Stirling Bridge. The Wallace Sword, which supposedlybelonged to Wallace, although some parts were made at least 160 yearslater, was held for many years in Dumbarton Castle and is now in theWallace Monument.

Historiography of Wallace

The Wallace Monument, near Stirling Bridge

Although there are problems with writing a satisfactory biography ofmany medieval people, the problems with Wallace are greater thanusual. Not much is known about him beyond his military campaign of1297–1298, and the last few weeks of his life in 1305. Even in recentyears, his birthplace and his father's name have been argued.

To compound this, the legacy of subsequent 'biographical' accounts,sometimes written as propaganda, other times simply as entertainment,has clouded much scholarship until relatively recent times. Someaccounts have uncritically copied elements from the epic poem, The

William Wallace 49

Acts and Deeds of Sir William Wallace, Knight of Elderslie, written around 1470 by Blind Harry the minstrel. Harrywrote from oral tradition describing events 170 years earlier, and is not in any sense an authoritative descriptor ofWallace's exploits. Much of the poem is clearly at variance with known historical facts and records of the period andis either fabricated using traditional chivalric motifs or 'borrowed' from the exploits of others and attributed toWallace.

Wallace in fictionIn the early 19th century, Walter Scott wrote of Wallace in Exploits and Death of William Wallace, the "Hero ofScotland", and Jane Porter penned a romantic version of the Wallace legend in The Scottish Chiefs in 1810. G. A.Henty wrote a novel in 1885 about this time period titled In Freedom's Cause. Henty, a producer of the Boy's OwnPaper fiction who wrote for that magazine, portrays the life of William Wallace, Robert the Bruce, The BlackDouglas, and others, while dovetailing the events of his novel with historical fiction. Nigel Tranter wrote a historicalnovel titled The Wallace, published in 1975, which is said to be more accurate than its literary predecessors. Thenovel "The Temple and the Stone", written by Katherine Kurtz and Deborah Turner Harris (1998), includes anaccount of Wallace's victory at Stirling, his defeat at Falkirk, and his trial and execution in London, along with afictional connection between Wallace and Templar Knights.A well-known account of Wallace's life is presented in the 1995 film Braveheart, directed by and starring MelGibson as Wallace, written by Randall Wallace, and filmed in both Scotland and Ireland. The film, however, is ahighly fictionalized account of Wallace's life and has been described by some as one of the most historicallyinaccurate modern films.

Notes[1] http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 634784/ Sir-William-Wallace[2] [[Lübecker Nachrichten (http:/ / www. ln-online. de/ regional/ luebeck/ 2854120/ L& uuml;becks_Stadtarchiv_h&

uuml;tet_Schottlands_�Braveheart�-Schatz. htm)], 21. September 2010: The document is still kept in the cities archives][3] Duncan, "William, son of Alan Wallace", pp. 47–50; Grant, "Bravehearts and Coronets", p. 91.[4] The Scottish Wars of Independence: The Lübeck Letter (http:/ / www. scottisharchivesforschools. org/ ffa/ lubeck. asp) at the National

Archives of Scotland website[5] Watson, "Sir William Wallace", p. 27; Duncan, "William, son of Alan Wallace", pp. 51–53; Grant, "Bravehearts and Coronets", pp. 90–93.[6] Traquair, Peter Freedom's Sword[7] Watson, "Sir William Wallace", p. 27; Grant, "Bravehearts and Coronets", pp. 90–91.[8] Barrow, Kingdom of the Scots, pp. 324–325.[9] Duncan, "William, son of Alan Wallace", p. 53; Grant, "Bravehearts and Coronets", pp. 91–92.[10][10] (Medieval Gaelic: Alaxandair mac Alaxandair; Modern Gaelic: Alasdair mac Alasdair)[11][11] Fisher, Andrew (2002), William Wallace (2nd ed.), Edinburgh: Birlinn, ISBN 1-84158-593-9[12][12] Lübecker Nachrichten, 21. September 2010: The document is still kept in the city's archives.[13][13] Walter bower, The Scottichronicon[14][14] Fisher, Andrew (2002), William Wallace (2nd ed.), Edinburgh: Birlinn, ISBN 1-84158-593-9, page 278[15] Chronicle of Lanercost, ed. H. Maxwell, vol.1, p.164.[16] Prebble, John The Lion in the North[17] Barrow, G. W., Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland, EUP (2005), 452 n.48: Palgrave, Francis, ed., Documents and

Records illustrating the history of Scotland, and the transactions between the Crowns of Scotland and England, vol. 1, (1837) (http:/ / books.google. co. uk/ books?id=VlULAAAAYAAJ& source=gbs_navlinks_s), p.cxcv, citing Bishop Stapleton's Kalendar of Treasury documentspreserved in London, 1323: Palgrave, Francis, ed., Antient Kalendars and Inventories of the Treasury of His Majesty's Exchequer: BishopStapleton's calendar, vol.2 (1836) (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=jBcnAAAAMAAJ& source=gbs_navlinks_s) p. 134, item 46.

[18] Stevenson, Joseph, ed., Documents Illustrative of Sir William Wallace, Maitland Club (1841) (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/books?id=ejIWAAAAYAAJ& source=gbs_navlinks_s), p.189, 192

William Wallace 50

References• Barrow, G. W. S. (1989), Kingship and Unity: Scotland 1000–1306, The New History of Scotland 2 (2nd ed.),

Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, ISBN 0-7486-0104-X, 4th edition (2005) (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/books?id=fmA1R9aPK90C& source=gbs_navlinks_s) ISBN 0748620222

• Barrow, G. W. S. (1976), Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland (2nd ed.), Edinburgh:Edinburgh University Press, ISBN 0-85224-307-3

• Barrow, G. W. S. (2003), The Kingdom of the Scots: Government, Church and Society from the eleventh to thefourteenth century (2nd ed.), Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, ISBN 0-7486-1803-1

• Brown, Chris (2005), William Wallace. The True Story of Braveheart, Stroud: Tempus Publishing Ltd,ISBN 0-7524-3432-2

• Brown, Michael (2004), The Wars of Scotland 1214–1371, The New Edinburgh History of Scotland 4,Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, ISBN 0-7486-1238-6

• Clater-Roszak, Christine. "Sir William Wallace ignited a flame." Military History 14 (1997): 12–15.• Cowan, Edward J. (2003), 'For Freedom Alone': The Declaration of Arbroath, 1320, West Linton: Tuckwell

Press, ISBN 1-84158-632-3• Cowan, Edward J.; Finlay, Richard J., eds. (2002), Scottish History: The Power of the Past, Edinburgh:

Edinburgh University Press, ISBN 0-7486-1420-6• Cowan, Edward J., ed. (2007), The Wallace Book, Edinburgh: John Donald, ISBN 978-0-85976-652-4• Cowan, Edward J. (2007), "William Wallace: 'The Choice of the Estates'", in Cowan, Edward J., The Wallace

Book, Edinburgh: John Donald, pp. 9–25, ISBN 978-0-85976-652-4• Duncan, A. A. M. (2007), "William, Son of Alan Wallace: The Documents", in Cowan, Edward J., The Wallace

Book, Edinburgh: John Donald, pp. 42–63, ISBN 978-0-85976-652-4• Fisher, Andrew (2002), William Wallace (2nd ed.), Edinburgh: Birlinn, ISBN 1-84158-593-9• Fraser, James E. (2002), "'A Swan from a Raven': William Wallace, Brucean Propaganda and Gesta Annalia II",

The Scottish Historical Review (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press), LXXXI (1): 1–22, ISSN  0036-9241(http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ issn/ 0036-9241)

• Grant, Alexander (2007), "Bravehearts and Coronets: Images of William Wallace and the Scottish Nobility", inCowan, Edward J., The Wallace Book, Edinburgh: John Donald, pp. 86–106, ISBN 978-0-85976-652-4

• King, Elspeth (2007), "The Material Culture of William Wallace", in Cowan, Edward J., The Wallace Book,Edinburgh: John Donald, pp. 117–135, ISBN 978-0-85976-652-4

• The Chronicle of Lanercost 1272–1346, ed. H. Maxwell, 1913;• Prestwich, Michael (2007), "The Battle of Stirling Bridge: An English Perspective", in Cowan, Edward J., The

Wallace Book, Edinburgh: John Donald, pp. 64–76, ISBN 978-0-85976-652-4• Morton, Graeme. William Wallace. London: Sutton, 2004. ISBN 0-7509-3523-5.• Folklore, Myths and Legends of Britain. London: Reader’s Digest Association, 1973, 519–20.• Reese, Peter. William Wallace: A Biography. Edinburgh: Canongate, 1998. ISBN 0-86241-607-8.• Riddy, Felicity (2007), "Unmapping the Territory: Blind Hary's Wallace", in Cowan, Edward J., The Wallace

Book, Edinburgh: John Donald, pp. 107–116, ISBN 978-0-85976-652-4• Scott, Sir Walter. Exploits and death of William Wallace, the 'Hero of Scotland'• Stead, Michael J., and Alan Young. In the Footsteps of William Wallace. London: Sutton, 2002.• Stevenson, Joseph, ed., Documents Illustrative of Sir William Wallace (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/

books?id=ejIWAAAAYAAJ& source=gbs_navlinks_s), Maitland Club (1841)• Traquair, Peter (1998), Freedom's Sword, University of Virginia: Roberts Rinehart Publishers, ISBN 1570982473• Watson, Fiona (2007), "Sir William Wallace: What We Do — and Don't — Know", in Cowan, Edward J., The

Wallace Book, Edinburgh: John Donald, pp. 26–41, ISBN 978-0-85976-652-4

William Wallace 51

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to William Wallace.

Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Wallace, Sir William.

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: William Wallace

• Wallace and Bruce (http:/ / www. stirling. gov. uk/ services/ education-and-learning/ local-history-and-heritage/local-history/ wallace-and-bruce)

• The Lübeck letter (http:/ / www. scottisharchivesforschools. org/ ffa/ lubeck. asp)• Wallace letters to go on show (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ news/ uk-scotland-14959390?utm_source=twitterfeed&

utm_medium=twitter)• Portraits of Sir William Wallace (http:/ / www. npg. org. uk/ collections/ search/ person. php?LinkID=mp67461)

at the National Portrait Gallery, London

Robert the Bruce"Robert Bruce" redirects here. For other uses, see Robert Bruce (disambiguation)."The Bruce" redirects here. For other uses, see Bruce (disambiguation).

Robert I

Victorian depiction of Bruce

King of Scots

Reign 1306–1329

Coronation 25 March 1306

Predecessor John

Successor David II

Spouse Isabella of MarElizabeth de Burgh

Issuemore...

Marjorie BruceDavid II of Scotland

House House of Bruce

Father Robert de Brus, 6th Lord of Annandale

Mother Marjorie, Countess of Carrick

Born 11 July 1274Turnberry Castle, Ayrshire[1]

Died 7 June 1329 (aged 54)Manor of Cardross

Burial Dunfermline Abbey (Body) – Melrose Abbey (Heart)

Religion Roman Catholicism

Robert the Bruce 52

Robert I (11 July 1274 – 7 June 1329), popularly known as Robert the Bruce (Medieval Gaelic: Roibert a Briuis;modern Scottish Gaelic: Raibeart Bruis; Norman French: Robert de Brus or Robert de Bruys, Early Scots: RobertBrus), was King of Scots from 1306 until his death in 1329. Robert was one of the most famous warriors of hisgeneration, eventually leading Scotland during the Wars of Scottish Independence against England. He foughtsuccessfully during his reign to regain Scotland's place as an independent nation, and is today remembered inScotland as a national hero.Descended from the Scoto-Norman and Gaelic nobilities, through his father he was a fourth-great grandson of DavidI. Robert’s grandfather Robert de Brus, 5th Lord of Annandale, was one of the claimants to the Scottish throneduring the 'Great Cause'. As Earl of Carrick, Robert the Bruce supported his family’s claim to the throne and tookpart in William Wallace’s revolt against Edward I of England.In 1298 he became a Guardian of Scotland alongside his great rival for the Scottish throne, John Comyn, andWilliam Lamberton, Bishop of St. Andrews. Bruce resigned as guardian in 1300 due in part to his quarrels withComyn, but chiefly because the restoration of King John seemed imminent. In 1302 he submitted to Edward I andreturned ‘to the king’s peace’. With the death of his father in 1304, Bruce inherited his family’s claim to the throne.In February 1306, following an argument during their meeting at Greyfriars monastery, Dumfries, Bruce killedComyn. He was excommunicated by the Pope but absolved by Robert Wishart, Bishop of Glasgow. Bruce movedquickly to seize the throne and was crowned king of Scots on 25 March 1306, at Scone. Edward I’s forces defeatedRobert in battle, and he was forced to flee into hiding in the Hebrides and Ireland before returning in 1307 to defeatan English army at Loudoun Hill and wage a highly successful guerrilla war against the English. Robert defeated theComyns and his other Scots enemies, destroying their strongholds and devastating their lands from Buchan toGalloway. In 1309 he was able to hold his first parliament at St Andrews, and a series of military victories between1310 and 1314 won him control of much of Scotland.At the Battle of Bannockburn in June 1314 Bruce defeated a much larger English army under Edward II, confirmingthe re-establishment of an independent Scottish monarchy. The battle marked a significant turning point, and, freedfrom English threats, Scotland's armies could now invade northern England, with Robert launching devastating raidsinto Lancashire and Yorkshire. Robert also decided to expand his war against the English and create a second frontby sending an army under his younger brother, Edward, to invade Ireland, appealing to the native Irish to rise againstEdward II's rule.Despite Bannockburn and the capture of the final English stronghold at Berwick in 1318, Edward II still refused togive up his claim to the overlordship of Scotland. In 1320, the Scottish magnates and nobles submitted theDeclaration of Arbroath to Pope John XXII, declaring that Robert was their rightful monarch and assertingScotland’s status as an independent kingdom. In 1324 the Pope recognized Robert as king of an independentScotland, and in 1326 the Franco-Scottish alliance was renewed in the Treaty of Corbeil. In 1327, the Englishdeposed Edward II in favour of his son, Edward III, and peace was temporarily concluded between Scotland andEngland with the Treaty of Edinburgh-Northampton, by which Edward III renounced all claims to sovereignty overScotland.Robert I died on 7 June 1329. His body is buried in Dunfermline Abbey, while his heart was interred in MelroseAbbey. Bruce's lieutenant and friend Sir James Douglas agreed to take the late King's embalmed heart on crusade tothe Lord's Sepulchre in the Holy Land, but he only reached Moorish Granada. Douglas was killed in battle during thesiege of Teba while fulfilling his promise. His body and the casket containing the embalmed heart were found uponthe field. They were both conveyed back to Scotland by Sir William Keith of Galston.[2]

Robert the Bruce 53

Background and early lifeThe first of the Bruce, or de Brus, line arrived in Scotland with David I in 1124 and was given the lands ofAnnandale in Dumfries and Galloway.[3] Robert was the first son of Robert de Brus, 6th Lord of Annandale andMarjorie, Countess of Carrick, and claimed the Scottish throne as a fourth great-grandson of David I.[4] His motherwas by all accounts a formidable woman who, legend would have it, kept Robert Bruce's father captive until heagreed to marry her. From his mother he inherited the Earldom of Carrick, and through his father a royal lineage thatwould give him a claim to the Scottish throne. The Bruces also held substantial estates in Garioch, Essex, Middlesex,and County Durham.[5]

Although Robert the Bruce's date of birth is known,[6] his place of birth is less certain, although it is most likely tohave been Turnberry Castle in Ayrshire, the head of his mother’s earldom.[][7][8][9] Very little is known of his youth.He was probably brought up in a mixture of the Anglo-Norman culture of northern England and south-easternScotland, and the Gaelic culture of south-west Scotland and most of Scotland north of the River Forth. Annandalewas thoroughly feudalized and the form of Northern Middle English that would later develop into the Scots languagewas spoken throughout the region. Carrick was historically an integral part of Galloway, and though the earls ofCarrick had achieved some feudalization, the society of Carrick at the end of the thirteenth century remainedemphatically Celtic and Gaelic speaking.[10]

Robert the Bruce would most probably have become trilingual at an early age. He would have spoken both theAnglo-Norman language of his Scoto-Norman peers and his father’s family, and the Gaelic language of his Carrickbirthplace and his mother’s family. He would also have spoken the early Scots language.[10][11] The family wouldhave moved between the castles of their lordships — Lochmaben Castle, the main castle of the lordship ofAnnandale, and Turnberry and Loch Doon Castle, the castles of the earldom of Carrick. Robert had nine siblings,and he and his brother Edward may have been fostered according to Gaelic tradition, spending a substantial part oftheir youth at the courts of other noblemen (Robert’s foster-brother is referred to by Barbour as sharing Robert’sprecarious existence as an outlaw in Carrick in 1307-08).[12] As heir, Robert would have been schooled by tutors inall the requirements of courtly etiquette, and he would have waited as a page at his father’s and grandfather’s tables.This grandfather, known to contemporaries as Robert the Noble, and to history as "Bruce the Competitor", (becausehe competed with the other claimants to the throne of Scotland in the "Great Cause"), seems to have been animmense influence on the future king.[12]

Robert's first appearance in history is on a witness list of a charter issued by Alexander Og MacDonald, Lord ofIslay. His name appears in the company of the Bishop of Argyll, the vicar of Arran, a Kintyre clerk, his father, and ahost of Gaelic notaries from Carrick.[10] Robert Bruce, the king to be, was sixteen years of age when Margaret, Maidof Norway, died in 1290. He must have followed this and subsequent events with interest, perfectly aware that hisown fate would be profoundly affected by the success or failure of his grandfather’s claim to the throne. It is alsoaround this time that Robert would have been knighted, and he began to appear on the political stage in the Brucedynastic interest.[13]

Robert's mother died early in 1292. In November of the same year Edward I of England, on behalf of the Guardiansof Scotland and following the "Great Cause", awarded the vacant Crown of Scotland to his grandfather's first cousinonce removed, John Balliol.[14] Almost immediately, his grandfather, Robert de Brus, 5th Lord of Annandale,resigned his Lordship of Annandale and his claim to the throne to Robert's father, possibly to avoid having to swearfealty to John as a vassal lord. Days later that son, Robert de Brus, 6th Lord of Annandale, resigned the earldom ofCarrick he had held in right of his late wife to their son, Robert, the future king.[15]

Even after John's accession, Edward still continued to assert his authority over Scotland and relations between the two kings soon began to deteriorate. Naturally, the Bruces sided with King Edward against King John and his Comyn allies. Robert the Bruce and his father both considered John a usurper.[16][17] Against the objections of the Scots, Edward I agreed to hear appeals on cases ruled on by the court of the Guardians that had governed Scotland during the interregnum.[10] A further provocation came in a case brought by Macduff, son of Malcolm, Earl of Fife,

Robert the Bruce 54

in which Edward demanded that John appear in person before the English Parliament to answer the charges.[10] Thisthe Scottish king did, but the final straw was Edward's demand that the Scottish magnates provide military service inEngland's war against France.[10] This was unacceptable; the Scots instead formed an alliance with France.[10] TheComyn-dominated council acting in the name of King John summoned the Scottish host to meet at Caddonlee on 11March. The Bruces and the earls of Angus and March refused and the Bruce family withdrew temporarily fromScotland, while the Comyns forfeited their estates in Annandale and Carrick, granting them to John Comyn, Earl ofBuchan.[17] Edward I had, however, provided a safe refuge for the Bruces, having appointed the Lord of Annandaleto the command of Carlisle Castle in October 1295.[18] At some point in early 1296, Robert married his first wife,Isabella of Mar, the daughter of Domhnall I, Earl of Mar and his wife Helen.

Beginning of the Wars of Independence

Drawing of Robert the Bruce and Isabella of Mar,from 1562

Almost the first blow in the war between Scotland and England was adirect attack on the Bruces. On 26 March 1296, Easter Monday, sevenScottish earls made a surprise attack on the walled city of Carlisle,which was not so much an attack against England as the Comyn Earl ofBuchan and their faction attacking their Bruce enemies.[19] RobertBruce must have helped his father in defending Carlisle on thisoccasion and would have gained first-hand knowledge of the city’sdefences. Both his father and grandfather were at one time Governorsof Castle, and following the loss of Annandale to Comyn in 1295, itwas their principal residence. The next time Carlisle was besieged, in1315, Robert the Bruce would be leading the attack.[18]

Edward I responded to King John's alliance with France and the attackon Carlisle by invading Scotland at the end of March 1296 and takingthe town of Berwick in a particularly bloody attack upon the flimsypalisades.[20] At the Battle of Dunbar, Scottish resistance waseffectively crushed. Edward deposed King John, placed him in theTower of London, and installed Englishmen to govern the country. Thecampaign had been very successful, but the English triumph would only be temporary.[18]

Although the Bruces were by now back in possession of Annandale and Carrick, in August 1296 Robert Bruce, Lordof Annandale, and his son, Robert Bruce, Earl of Carrick and future king, were among the more than 1,500 Scots atBerwick[21] who swore an oath of fealty to King Edward I of England.[22] When the Scottish revolt against Edward Ibroke out in July 1297, James Stewart, 5th High Steward of Scotland, led into rebellion a further group of disaffectedScots, including Robert Wishart, Bishop of Glasgow, MacDuff, the son of the earl of Fife, and the young RobertBruce.[23] The future king was now twenty-two, and in joining the rebels he seems to have been actingindependently of his father, who took no part in the rebellion and appears to have abandoned Annandale once morefor the safety of Carlisle. It appears that Robert Bruce had fallen under the influence of his grandfather’s friends,Wishart and Stewart, who had inspired him to patriotic resistance.[23] With the outbreak of the revolt, Robert leftCarlisle and made his way to Annandale, where he called together the knights of his ancestral lands and, according tothe English chronicler Walter of Guisborough, addressed them thus:

"No man holds his own flesh and blood in hatred and I am no exception. I must join my own people andthe nation in which I was born. I ask that you please come with me and you will be my councillors andclose comrades"[23][24]

Urgent letters were sent ordering Bruce to support Edward's commander, John de Warenne, 6th Earl of Surrey (to whom Bruce was related), in the summer of 1297; but instead of complying, Bruce continued to support the revolt

Robert the Bruce 55

against Edward I. That Bruce was in the forefront of fomenting rebellion is shown in a letter written to Edward byHugh Cressingham on 23 July 1292, which reports the opinion that "if you had the earl of Carrick, the Steward ofScotland and his brother…you would think your business done".[25] On 7 July, Bruce and his friends made termswith Edward by a treaty called the Capitulation of Irvine. The Scottish lords were not to serve beyond the sea againsttheir will and were pardoned for their recent violence in return for swearing allegiance to King Edward. The Bishopof Glasgow, James the Steward, and Sir Alexander Lindsay became sureties for Bruce until he delivered his infantdaughter Marjorie as a hostage, which he never did, and he was soon actively fighting for the Scotsagain.Wikipedia:Citation needed.Shortly after the Battle of Stirling Bridge, Bruce again defected to the Scots; he laid waste to Annandale and burnedthe English-held castle of Ayr. Yet, when King Edward returned to England after his victory at the Battle of Falkirk,where Fordun records Robert fighting for Edward under the command of Antony Bek, Bishop of Durham,Annandale and Carrick were excepted from the Lordships and lands that he assigned to hisfollowers.Wikipedia:Citation neededWilliam Wallace resigned as Guardian of Scotland after his defeat at the Battle of Falkirk. He was succeeded byRobert Bruce and John Comyn as joint Guardians, but they could not see past their personal differences. As anephew and supporter of King John, and as someone with a serious claim to the Scottish throne, Comyn was Bruce'senemy. In 1299, William Lamberton, Bishop of St. Andrews, was appointed as a third, neutral Guardian to try tomaintain order between Bruce and Comyn. The following year, Bruce finally resigned as joint Guardian and wasreplaced by Sir Gilbert de Umfraville, Earl of Angus. In May 1301, Umfraville, Comyn, and Lamberton alsoresigned as joint Guardians and were replaced by Sir John de Soules as sole Guardian. Soules was appointed largelybecause he was part of neither the Bruce nor the Comyn camps and was a patriot. He was an active Guardian andmade renewed efforts to have King John returned to the Scottish throne.In July 1301 King Edward I launched his sixth campaign into Scotland. Though he captured the castles of Bothwelland Turnberry, he did little to damage the Scots' fighting ability, and in January 1302 he agreed to a nine-monthtruce. It was around this time that Robert the Bruce submitted to Edward, along with other nobles, even though hehad been on the side of the Scots until then. There were rumours that John Balliol would return as to regain theScottish throne. Soules, who had probably been appointed by John, supported his return, as did most other nobles.But it was no more than a rumor and nothing came of it.Although Bruce had recently pledged to support King Edward, it is interesting to note that he sent a letter to themonks at Melrose Abbey in March 1302 that effectively weakened his usefulness to the English king. Apologisingfor having called tenants of the monks to service in his army when there had been no national call-up, Bruce pledgedthat, henceforth, he would "never again" require the monks to serve unless it was to "the common army of the wholerealm", for national defence. Bruce also married his second wife that year, Elizabeth de Burgh, the daughter ofRichard de Burgh, 2nd Earl of Ulster. By Elizabeth he had four children: David II, John (died in childhood), Matilda(who married Thomas Isaac and died at Aberdeen 20 July 1353), and Margaret (who married William de Moravia,5th Earl of Sutherland in 1345).In 1303, Edward invaded again, reaching Edinburgh before marching to Perth. Edward stayed in Perth until July,then proceeded via Dundee, Brechin, and Montrose to Aberdeen, where he arrived in August. From there he marchedthrough Moray to Badenoch before re-tracing his path back south to Dunfermline. With the country now undersubmission, all the leading Scots, except for William Wallace, surrendered to Edward in February 1304. JohnComyn, who was by now Guardian, submitted to Edward. The laws and liberties of Scotland were to be as they hadbeen in the days of Alexander III, and any that needed alteration would be with the assent of King Edward and theadvice of the Scots nobles.On 11 June 1304, with both of them having witnessed the heroic efforts of their countrymen during King Edward's siege of Stirling Castle, Bruce and William Lamberton made a pact that bound them, each to the other, in “friendship and alliance against all men.” If one should break the secret pact, he would forfeit to the other the sum of ten

Robert the Bruce 56

thousand pounds. The pact is often interpreted as a sign of their deep patriotism despite both having alreadysurrendered to the English. With Scotland defenceless, Edward set about destroying her as a realm. Homage wasagain obtained under force from the nobles and the burghs, and a parliament was held to elect those who would meetlater in the year with the English parliament to establish rules for the governance of Scotland. For all the apparentparticipation by Scots in the government, however, the English held the real power. The Earl of Richmond, Edward'snephew, was to head up the subordinate government of Scotland. While all this took place, William Wallace wasfinally captured near Glasgow, and he was hanged, drawn, and quartered in London on 23 August 1305.In September 1305, Edward ordered Robert Bruce to put his castle at Kildrummy, "in the keeping of such a man ashe himself will be willing to answer for," suggesting that King Edward suspected Robert was not entirely trustworthyand may have been plotting behind his back. However, an identical phrase appears in an agreement between Edwardand his lieutenant and lifelong friend, Aymer de Valence. A further sign of Edward's distrust occurred on 10 October1305, when Edward revoked his gift of Sir Gilbert de Umfraville's lands to Bruce that he had made only six monthsbefore.[26]

Robert Bruce as Earl of Carrick, and now 7th Lord of Annandale, held huge estates and property in Scotland and abarony and some minor properties in England, and he had a strong claim to the Scottish throne. He also had a largefamily to protect. If he claimed the throne, he would throw the country into yet another series of wars, and if hefailed, he would be sacrificing everyone and everything he knew.

Murder of John Comyn

The killing of Comyn in the Greyfriars church inDumfries, as seen by Felix Philippoteaux, a

19th-century illustrator.

Bruce, like all his family, had a complete belief in his right to thethrone. However, his actions of supporting alternately the English andScottish armies had led to a great deal of distrust towards Bruce amongthe "Community of the Realm of Scotland". His ambition was furtherthwarted by John Comyn, who had been much more resolute in hisopposition to the English. Comyn was the most powerful noble inScotland and was related to many more powerful nobles both withinScotland and England, including relatives that held the earldoms ofBuchan, Mar, Ross, Fife, Angus, Dunbar, and Strathearn; theLordships of Kilbride, Kirkintilloch, Lenzie, Bedrule, and Scraesburgh;and sheriffdoms in Banff, Dingwall, Wigtown, and Aberdeen. He alsohad a powerful claim to the Scottish throne through his descent fromDonald III on his father's side and David I on his mother's side. Comyn was the nephew of John Balliol.

According to Barbour and Fordoun, in the late summer of 1305, in a secret agreement sworn, signed, and sealed,John Comyn agreed to forfeit his claim to the Scottish throne in favour of Robert Bruce upon receipt of the Brucelands in Scotland should an uprising occur led by Bruce.[27] Whether the details of the agreement with Comyn arecorrect or not, King Edward moved to arrest Bruce while Bruce was still at the English court. Fortunately for Bruce,his friend, and Edward's son-in-law, Ralph de Monthermer learnt of Edward's intention and warned Bruce bysending him twelve pence and a pair of spurs. Bruce took the hint,[28] and he and a squire fled the English courtduring the night. They made their way quickly for Scotland and the fateful meeting with Comyn at Dumfries.

According to Barbour, Comyn betrayed his agreement with Bruce to King Edward I, and when Bruce arranged a meeting for 10 February 1306 with Comyn in the Chapel of Greyfriars Monastery in Dumfries and accused him of treachery, they came to blows.[29] Bruce killed Comyn in Dumfries before the high altar. The Scotichronicon says that on being told that Comyn had survived the attack and was being treated, two of Bruce's supporters, Roger de Kirkpatrick, uttering the words "I mak siccar" ("I make sure"), and John Lindsay went back into the church and finished Bruce's work. Barbour however tells no such story. Regardless, for Bruce the 'die was cast' at the moment in

Robert the Bruce 57

Greyfriars, and he had no alternative except to become king or a fugitive. Bruce asserted his claim to the Scottishcrown and began his campaign by force for the independence of Scotland. Swords were drawn by supporters of bothsides, the burial ground of the Monastery becoming the battlefield.Bruce and his party then attacked Dumfries Castle. The English garrison surrendered and for the third time in the dayBruce and his supporters were victorious. Bruce hurried from Dumfries to Glasgow, where, kneeling before BishopRobert Wishart, he made confession of his violence and sacrilege and was granted absolution by the Bishop. Theclergy throughout the land was adjured to rally to Bruce by Wishart.[30] In spite of this, Bruce was excommunicatedfor this crime.[31]

English records still in existence today tell a completely different story. They state that the Comyn murder wasplanned in an attempt to gain the throne of Scotland. For this reason King Edward of England wrote to the Pope andasked for his excommunication of Robert Bruce. No records have ever been found in England stating that KingEdward had any knowledge of treachery by Robert Bruce before his acts against Comyn. They state that KingEdward did not hear of the murder of John Comyn until several days after his death.

War of King Robert I

Bruce crowned King of Scots; modern tableau at EdinburghCastle

Six weeks after Comyn was killed in Dumfries, Bruce wascrowned King of Scots by Bishop William de Lamberton atScone, near Perth, on 25 March 1306 with all formality andsolemnity. The royal robes and vestments that RobertWishart had hidden from the English were brought out bythe Bishop and set upon King Robert. The bishops of Morayand Glasgow were in attendance as well as the earls ofAtholl, Menteith, Lennox, and Mar. The great banner of thekings of Scotland was planted behind his throne.[32]

Isabella MacDuff, Countess of Buchan and wife of JohnComyn, 3rd Earl of Buchan (a cousin of the murdered JohnComyn), arrived the next day, too late for the coronation.She claimed the right of her family, the MacDuff Earl ofFife, to crown the Scottish king for her brother, Donnchadh IV, Earl of Fife, who was not yet of age, and in Englishhands. So a second coronation was held and once more the crown was placed on the brow of Robert Bruce, Earl ofCarrick, Lord of Annandale, King of the Scots.

In June 1306 Bruce was defeated at the Battle of Methven, and in August he was surprised in Strathfillan, where hehad taken refuge.Wikipedia:Citation needed His wife and daughters and other women of the party were sent toKildrummy in August 1306 under the protection of Bruce's brother Neil Bruce and the Earl of Atholl and most of hisremaining men.[33] Bruce fled with a small following of his most faithful men, including Sir James Douglas andGilbert Hay, Bruce's brothers Thomas, Alexander, and Edward, as well as Sir Neil Campbell and the Earl ofLennox.[34]

Edward I marched north again in the spring. On his way, he granted the Scottish estates of Bruce and his adherents tohis own followers and had published a bill excommunicating Bruce. Bruce's queen, Elizabeth, his daughter Marjorie,his sisters Christina and Mary, and Isabella MacDuff were captured in a sanctuary at Tain and sent to harshimprisonment, which included Mary and Isabella being hung in cages at Roxburgh and Berwick castles respectivelyfor about four years, while Bruce's brother Neil was executed. On 7 July, King Edward I died, leaving Bruceopposed by his son, Edward II.It is still uncertain where Bruce spent the winter of 1306–07. Most likely he spent it in the Hebrides (possibly sheltered by Christina of Garmoran) although Ireland is a serious possibility, and Orkney (under Norwegian rule at

Robert the Bruce 58

the time) or Norway proper (where his sister was queen dowager) although unlikely are not impossible.[35] Bruceand his followers returned to the Scottish mainland in February in two groups. One, led by Bruce and his brotherEdward landed at Turnberry Castle and began a guerrilla war in south-west Scotland. The other, led by his brothersThomas and Alexander, landed slightly further south in Loch Ryan, but they were soon captured and executed. InApril, Bruce won a small victory over the English at the Battle of Glen Trool, before defeating Aymer de Valence,2nd Earl of Pembroke, at the Battle of Loudoun Hill. At the same time, James Douglas made his first foray for Bruceinto south-western Scotland, attacking and burning his own castle in Douglasdale. Leaving his brother Edward incommand in Galloway, Bruce travelled north, capturing Inverlochy and Urquhart Castles, burning Inverness Castleand Nairn to the ground, then unsuccessfully threatening Elgin.Transferring operations to Aberdeenshire in late 1307, he threatened Banff before falling seriously ill, probablyowing to the hardships of the lengthy campaign. Recovering, leaving John Comyn, 3rd Earl of Buchan unsubdued athis rear, Bruce returned west to take Balvenie and Duffus Castles, then Tarradale Castle on the Black Isle. Loopingback via the hinterlands of Inverness and a second failed attempt to take Elgin, Bruce finally achieved his landmarkdefeat of Comyn at the Battle of Inverurie in May 1308; he then overran Buchan and defeated the English garrison atAberdeen. The Harrying of Buchan in 1308 was ordered by Bruce to make sure all Comyn family support wasextinguished. Buchan had a very large population because it was the agricultural capital of northern Scotland, andmuch of its population was loyal to the Comyn family even after the defeat of the Earl of Buchan. Most of theComyn castles in Moray, Aberdeen, and Buchan were destroyed and their inhabitants killed. Bruce ordered similarharryings in Argyle and Kintyre, in the territories of Clan MacDougall. With these acts, Bruce had successfullydestroyed the power of the Comyns, which had controlled much of northern and southwestern Scotland for over ahundred and fifty years. He then crossed to Argyll and defeated the MacDougalls (allies of the Comyns) at the Battleof Pass of Brander and took Dunstaffnage Castle, the last major stronghold of the Comyns.[36]

Bruce reviewing troops before the Battle of Bannockburn

In March 1309, Bruce held his firstParliament at St. Andrews, and by Augusthe controlled all of Scotland north of theRiver Tay. The following year, the clergy ofScotland recognised Bruce as king at ageneral council. The support given to himby the church in spite of hisexcommunication was of great politicalimportance. Over the next three years, oneEnglish-held castle or outpost after anotherwas captured and reduced: Linlithgow in1310, Dumbarton in 1311, and Perth, byBruce himself, in January 1312. Bruce alsomade raids into northern England and,landing at Ramsey in the Isle of Man, thenlaid siege to Castle Rushen in Castletown,capturing it on 21 June 1313 and denying the island's strategic importance to the English. In the spring of 1314,Edward Bruce laid siege to Stirling Castle, whose governor, Philip de Mowbray, agreed to capitulate if not relievedbefore 24 June 1314. In March 1314, James Douglas captured Roxburgh, and Randolph captured Edinburgh Castle.In May, Bruce again raided England and subdued the Isle of Man.

The eight years of exhausting but deliberate refusal to meet the English on even ground have caused many toconsider Bruce as one of the great guerrilla leaders of any age. This represented a transformation for one raised as afeudal knight.

Robert the Bruce 59

Battle of BannockburnMain article: Battle of BannockburnBruce secured Scottish independence from England militarily – if not diplomatically – at the Battle of Bannockburnin 1314. An English army led by Edward II in person trying to relieve the siege of Stirling Castle was decisivelydefeated in an atypical set-piece battle.

Further confrontation with England then the Irish conflictMain article: Bruce campaign in IrelandFreed from English threats, Scotland's armies could now invade northern England. Bruce also drove back asubsequent English expedition north of the border and launched raids into Yorkshire and Lancashire. Buoyed by hismilitary successes, Bruce's forces also invaded Ireland in 1315, purportedly to free the country from English rule(having received a reply to offers of assistance from Donal O'Neil, king of Tyrone), and to open a second front in thecontinuing wars with England. The Irish even crowned Edward Bruce as High King of Ireland in 1316. Robert laterwent there with another army to assist his brother.In conjunction with the invasion, Bruce popularised an ideological vision of a "Pan-Gaelic Greater Scotia" with hislineage ruling over both Ireland and Scotland. This propaganda campaign was aided by two factors. The first was hismarriage alliance from 1302 with the de Burgh family of the Earldom of Ulster in Ireland; second, Bruce himself, onhis mother's side of Carrick, was descended from Gaelic royalty in Scotland as well as Ireland. Bruce's Irishancestors included Eva of Leinster (d.1188), whose ancestors included Brian Boru of Munster and the kings ofLeinster. Thus, lineally and geopolitically, Bruce attempted to support his anticipated notion of a pan-Gaelic alliancebetween Scottish-Irish Gaelic populations, under his kingship. This is revealed by a letter he sent to the Irish chiefs,where he calls the Scots and Irish collectively nostra nacio (our nation), stressing the common language, customsand heritage of the two peoples:

Whereas we and you and our people and your people, free since ancient times, share the same nationalancestry and are urged to come together more eagerly and joyfully in friendship by a common languageand by common custom, we have sent you our beloved kinsman, the bearers of this letter, to negotiatewith you in our name about permanently strengthening and maintaining inviolate the special friendshipbetween us and you, so that with God's will our nation (nostra nacio) may be able to recover her ancientliberty.

The diplomacy worked to a certain extent, at least in Ulster, where the Scots had some support. The Irish chief,Donal O'Neil, for instance, later justified his support for the Scots to Pope John XXII by saying "the Kings of LesserScotia all trace their blood to our Greater Scotia and retain to some degree our language and customs."[37]

The Bruce campaign in Ireland was characterised by some initial military success. However, the Scots failed to winover the non-Ulster chiefs or to make any other significant gains in the south of the island, where people couldn't seethe difference between English and Scottish occupation. Eventually it was defeated when Edward Bruce was killedat the Battle of Faughart. The Irish Annals of the period described the defeat of the Bruces by the English as one ofthe greatest things ever done for the Irish nation due to the fact it brought an end to the famine and pillaging wroughtupon the Irish by both the Scots and the English.[38]

Robert the Bruce 60

DiplomacyThe reign of Robert Bruce also included some significant diplomatic achievements. The Declaration of Arbroath of1320 strengthened his position, particularly vis-à-vis the Papacy, and Pope John XXII eventually lifted Bruce'sexcommunication. In May 1328 King Edward III of England signed the Treaty of Edinburgh-Northampton, whichrecognised Scotland as an independent kingdom, and Bruce as its king.

Death

King Robert I is buried in Dunfermline Abbey

Robert I had been suffering from a serious illness from at least 1327.The Lanercost Chronicle and Scalacronica state that the king was saidto have contracted and died of leprosy.[10] Jean Le Bel also stated thatin 1327 the king was a victim of 'la grosse maladie', which is usuallytaken to mean leprosy.[10] However, the ignorant use of the term'leprosy' by fourteenth-century writers meant that almost any majorskin disease might be called leprosy. The earliest mention of thisillness is to be found in an original letter written by an eye-witness inUlster at the time the king made a truce with Sir Henry Mandeville on12 July 1327. The writer of this letter reported that Robert I was sofeeble and struck down by illness that he would not live, 'for he canscarcely move anything but his tongue'.[10] Barbour writes of the king'sillness that 'it began through a benumbing brought on by his coldlying', during the months of wandering from 1306 to 1309.[10] None ofthe Scottish accounts of his death hint at leprosy. It has been proposedthat, alternatively, he may have suffered from tuberculosis, syphilis,motor neurone disease, or a series of strokes. There does not seem tobe any evidence as to what the king himself or his physicians believedhis illness to be. Nor is there any evidence of an attempt in his lastyears to segregate the king in any way from the company of friends, family, courtiers, or foreign diplomats.[10]

In October 1328 the Pope finally lifted the interdict from Scotland and the excommunication of Robert I.[39] Theking’s last journey appears to have been a pilgrimage to the shrine of Saint Ninian at Whithorn; this was possibly insearch of a miraculous cure, or to make his peace with God. With Moray by his side, Robert set off from his manorat Cardross for Tarbert on his 'great ship', thence to the Isle of Arran, where he celebrated Christmas of 1328 at thehall of Glenkill near Lamlash. Thence he sailed to the mainland to visit his son and his bride, both mere children,now installed at Turnberry Castle, the head of the earldom of Carrick and once his own main residence.[10] Hejourneyed overland, being carried on a litter, to Inch in Wigtownshire: houses were built there and supplies broughtto that place, as though the king's condition had deteriorated. At the end of March 1329 he was staying at GlenluceAbbey and at Monreith, from where St Ninian’s cave was visited. Early in April he arrived at the shrine of St Ninianat Whithorn. He fasted four or five days and prayed to the saint, before returning by sea to Cardross.[10]

Barbour and other sources relate that Robert summoned his prelates and barons to his bedside for a final council atwhich he made copious gifts to religious houses, dispensed silver to religious foundations of various orders, so thatthey might pray for his soul, and repented of his failure to fulfil a vow to undertake a crusade to fight the 'Saracens'in the Holy Land.[10] Robert's final wish reflected conventional piety, and was perhaps intended to perpetuate hismemory. After his death his heart was to be removed from his body and borne by a noble knight on a crusade againstthe Saracens and carried to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, before being brought back toScotland:[10]

Robert the Bruce 61

"I will that as soone as I am trespassed out of this worlde that ye take my harte owte of my body, andembawme it, and take of my treasoure as ye shall thynke sufficient for that enterprise, both for yourselfe and suche company as ye wyll take with you, and present my hart to the holy Sepulchre where asour Lorde laye, seyng my body can nat come there."[40]

Robert died on 7 June 1329, at the Manor of Cardross, near Dumbarton.[41] He died utterly fulfilled, in that the goalof his lifetime's struggle – untrammelled recognition of the Bruce right to the crown – had been realised, andconfident that he was leaving the kingdom of Scotland safely in the hands of his most trusted lieutenant, Moray, untilhis infant son reached adulthood.[42] Six days after his death, to complete his triumph still further, papal bulls wereissued granting the privilege of unction at the coronation of future Kings of Scots.

BurialThe king's body was embalmed and his sternum was sawn to allow extraction of the heart, which Sir James Douglasplaced in a silver casket to be worn on a chain around his neck. The body was taken to Dunfermline Abbey, andRobert I was interred in what was then the very centre of the abbey, beneath the high altar, and beside his queen. Theking’s tomb was carved in Paris by Thomas of Chartres from alabaster brought from England and was decorated withgold leaf. The tomb was transported to Dunfermline via Bruges and was erected over the king’s grave in the autumnof 1330. Ten alabaster fragments from the tomb are on display in the National Museum of Scotland and traces ofgilding still remain on some of them.[10]

When a projected international crusade failed to materialise, Douglas and his company sailed to Spain whereAlfonso XI of Castile was mounting a campaign against the Moorish kingdom of Granada. According to tradition,Douglas and his company including Sir William de Keith, Sir William de St. Clair of Rosslyn and the brothers SirRobert Logan of Restalrig and Sir Walter Logan, were received by Alfonso. In August 1330 they participated in theBattle of Teba. As he was pursuing the Moorish cavalry after having fought back a feigned attack, Sir James Douglastook the silver casket containing the heart of Robert the Bruce from his neck, and threw it before him among theenemy, saying, "Now pass thou onward before us, as thou wert wont, and I will follow thee or die." The Muslimcavalry, realizing the small number of their pursuers, turned around and renewed the fight. Douglas was about toretreat when he noticed Sir William de St. Clair of Rosslyn being surrounded by Moorish warriors, and with hisremaining men attempted to relieve him. As the knights were hard pressed and outnumbered by the Moors, Sir JamesDouglas and most of his men were slain, among them Sir Robert Logan and Sir Walter Logan. A few of thesurviving companions of Douglas found both his body and the casket on the battlefield and took care that they weresent back home. The Bruce's heart was brought back to Scotland by Sir Symon Locard of Lee (later Lockhart) andSir William Keith of Galston.[43]

In accordance with Bruce's written request, the heart was buried at Melrose Abbey in Roxburghshire.[44] In 1920, theheart was discovered by archaeologists and was reburied, but the location was not marked.[45] In 1996, a casket wasunearthed during construction work. Scientific study by AOC archaeologists in Edinburgh, demonstrated that it didindeed contain human tissue and it was of appropriate age. It was reburied in Melrose Abbey in 1998, pursuant to thedying wishes of the King.

Robert the Bruce 62

Discovery of the Bruce's tombMain article: Dunfermline Abbey

The tower of the rebuilt eastern end of the Abbeybears the sculpted words KING ROBERT THE

BRUCE

On 17 February 1818, workmen breaking ground on the new parishchurch to be built on the site of the eastern choir of DunfermlineAbbey uncovered a vault before the site of the former abbey highaltar.[46][47] The vault was covered by two large, flat stones – oneforming a headstone, and a larger stone six feet (182 cm) in length,with six iron rings or handles set in it. When these stones wereremoved, the vault was found to be seven feet (214 cm) in length,56 cm wide and 45 cm deep.[48] Within the vault, inside the remnantsof a decayed oak coffin, there was a body entirely enclosed in lead,with a decayed shroud of cloth of gold over it. Over the head of thebody the lead was formed into the shape of a crown.[49] Fragments ofmarble and alabaster had been found in the debris around the site ofvault several years earlier, which were linked to Robert the Bruce’s recorded purchase of a marble and alabastertomb made in Paris.[50] The Barons of Exchequer ordered that the vault was to be secured from all further inspectionwith new stones and iron bars and guarded by the town constables, and that once the walls of the new church werebuilt up around the site, an investigation of the vault and the remains could take place.[51] Accordingly, on 5November 1819, the investigation took place. The cloth of gold shroud and the lead covering were found to be in arapid state of decay since the vault had first been opened 21 months earlier.[48] The body was raised up and placedon a wooden coffin board on the edge of the vault. It was found to be covered in two thin layers of lead, each around5 mm thick. The lead was removed and the skeleton was inspected by James Gregory and Alexander Monro,Professor of Anatomy at the University of Edinburgh. The sternum was found to have been sawn open from top tobottom, permitting removal of the king’s heart after death.[52] A plaster cast was taken of the detached skull by artistWilliam Scoular.[52][53] The bones were measured and drawn, and the king’s skeleton was measured to be 5 feet 11inches (180 cm). It has been estimated that Bruce may have stood at around 6 feet 1 inch (186 cm) tall as a youngman, which by medieval standards was impressive. At this height he would have stood almost as tall as Edward I ( 6feet 2 inches; 188 cm).[52]

The skeleton, lying on the wooden coffin board, was then placed upon the top of a lead coffin and the large crowd ofcurious people who had assembled outside the church were allowed to file past the vault to view the king’sremains.[54] It was at this point in the proceedings that some small relics – teeth and finger bones – were allegedlyremoved from the skeleton. The published accounts of eyewitnesses such as Henry Jardine and James Gregoryconfirm the removal of small objects at this time.[55] Robert the Bruce’s remains were ceremonially re-interred in thevault in Dunfermline Abbey on 5 November 1819. They were placed in a new lead coffin, into which was poured1,500 lbs of molten pitch to preserve the remains, before the coffin was sealed.[54]

Professor Sue Black and her team of forensic anthropologists from Dundee recreated his face from the cast made ofhis skull.[56]

Issue

Robert the Bruce 63

Child by Isabella of Mar

Name Birth Death Notes

Marjory 1296 2 March 1316 Married in 1315 Walter Stewart, 6th High Steward of Scotland, by whom she had one child(Robert II of Scotland)

Children by Elizabeth de Burgh

Name Birth Death Notes

Margaret unknown 1346/47 Married in 1345 William de Moravia, 5th Earl of Sutherland; had son, John (1346-1361).[57]

Matilda (Maud) unknown 1353 Married Thomas Isaac;[57] had two daughters.[57] Buried at Dunfermline Abbey

David 5 March1324

22 February1371

Succeeded his father as King of Scots. Married (1) in 1328 Joan of England; no issue; married (2)in 1364 Margaret Drummond; no issue.

John 5 March1324

Before 1327 Younger twin brother of David II. Died in infancy.

Acknowledged illegitimate children by unknown mothers

Name Birth Death Notes

Sir RobertBruce

1332 Killed at the Battle of Dupplin Moor.

Walter ofOdistoun

Predeceased his father.

Margaret Bruce Married Robert Glen; alive in 1364.

Elizabeth Bruce Married Sir Walter Oliphant of Aberdalgie and Dupplin.

Christina ofCarrick

Alive in 1329.

Sir Neil ofCarrick

1346 Killed at the Battle of Neville's Cross

Bruce's descendants include all later Scottish monarchs and all British monarchs since the Union of the Crowns in1603. A large number of families definitely are descended from him.[58]

Robert the Bruce 64

Monuments and commemoration

Depictions in Art

Bruce statue at Stirling Castle

Bruce statue at the entrance to Edinburgh Castle

Robert I was originally buried in Dunfermline Abbey, traditionalresting-place of Scottish monarchs since the reign of Malcolm III.His tomb, imported from Paris, was extremely elaborate, carvedfrom gilded alabaster. It was destroyed at the Reformation, but somefragments were discovered in the 19th century (now in the Museumof Scotland in Edinburgh).

The site of the tomb in Dunfermline Abbey was marked by largecarved stone letters spelling out "King Robert the Bruce" around thetop of the bell tower, when the eastern half of the abbey church wasrebuilt in the first half of the 19th century. In 1974 the BruceMemorial Window was installed in the north transept,commemorating the 700th anniversary of the year of his birth. Itdepicts stained glass images of the Bruce flanked by his chief men,Christ, and saints associated with Scotland.

A 1929 statue of Robert the Bruce is set in the wall of EdinburghCastle at the entrance, along with one of William Wallace. InEdinburgh also, the Scottish National Portrait Gallery has statues ofBruce and Wallace in niches flanking the main entrance. Thebuilding also contains several frescos depicting scenes from Scotshistory by William Brassey Hole in the entrance foyer, including alarge example of Bruce marshalling his men at Bannockburn.

Statues of the Bruce also stand on the battleground at Bannockburn,outside Stirling Castle [59] and Marischal College in Aberdeen.

Robert the Bruce 65

Banknotes

Statue of king Robert the Bruce in front ofMarischal College.

From 1981 to 1989, Robert the Bruce was portrayed on £1 notes issuedby the Clydesdale Bank, one of the three Scottish banks with right toissue banknotes. He was shown on the obverse crowned in battle dress,surrounded by thistles, and on the reverse in full battle armour in ascene from the Battle of Bannockburn. When the Clydesdale Bankdiscontinued £1 banknotes, Robert The Bruce's portrait was movedonto the bank's £20 banknote in 1990 and it has remained there to date.

Aircraft

The airline British Caledonian, named a McDonnell DouglasDC-10-30 (G-BHDI) after Robert the Bruce.

LegendsAccording to a legend, at some point while he was on the run during the winter of 1306–07, Bruce hid in a cave onRathlin Island off the north coast of Ireland, where he observed a spider spinning a web, trying to make a connectionfrom one area of the cave's roof to another. Each time the spider failed, it began again until it succeeded. Inspired bythis, Bruce returned to inflict a series of defeats on the English, thus winning him more supporters and eventualvictory. The story serves to illustrate the maxim: "if at first you don't succeed, try try try again." Other versions haveBruce in a small house watching the spider try to make its connection between two roof beams; or, defeated for theseventh time by the English, watching the spider make its attempt seven times, succeeding on the eighthtry.Wikipedia:Citation neededBut this legend appears for the first time in only a much later account, "Tales of a Grandfather" by Sir WalterScott,Wikipedia:Citation needed and may have originally been told about his companion-in-arms Sir James Douglas(the "Black Douglas"), who had spent time hiding out in caves within his manor of Lintalee, which was thenoccupied by the English. The entire account may in fact be a version of a literary trope used in royal biographicalwriting. A similar story is told, for example, in Jewish sources about King David, and in Persian folklore about theMongolian warlord Tamerlane and an ant.[60]

Notes[1][1] Robert The Bruce. Publisher: Heinemann. ISBN 0-431-05883-0.[2][2] History of Scotland during the Reign of Robert I. surnamed the Bruce, Volume 2. Robert Kerr, 1811[3][3] Robert de Brus, 1st Lord of Annandale[4] Magna Carta Ancestry: A Study in Colonial and Medieval Families By Douglas Richardson, Kimball G. Everingham (http:/ / books. google.

com/ books?id=wHZcIRMhSEMC& pg=PA733& dq=bruce+ and+ Broadoak& sig=_1iJsPKVqilBVmDkwuV2Afapp7o).[5][5] Macnamee, Robert Bruce: Our Most Valiant Prince, King and Lord, p.27.[6] King Robert the Bruce By A. F. Murison (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=9YCVFdVvZK8C& pg=PA18& dq=writtle+ and+ bruce&

sig=Tjk9iqKCTZFFkV-ul4w1DUHTMEo#PPA18,M1).[7] Geoffrey the Baker's: Chronicon Galfridi le Baker de Swynebroke (http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/ chronicongalfrid00bakeuoft), ed.

Edward Maunde Thompson (Oxford, 1889).[8] Scottish Kings 1005 – 1625, by Sir Archibald H Dunbar, Bt., Edinburgh, 1899, p. 127 (http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/

scottishkingsrev00dunbuoft), where Robert the Bruce's birthplace is given "at Writtle, near Chelmsford in Essex, on 11 July 1274". Baker,cited above, is also mentioned with other authorities.

[9][9] Macnamee, Robert Bruce: Our Most Valiant Prince, King and Lord, p.10.[10] Barrow, Robert Bruce, 4th ed., p. 34[11][11] Macnamee, Robert Bruce: Our Most Valiant Prince, King and Lord, p. 12.[12][12] Macnamee, Robert Bruce: Our Most Valiant Prince, King and Lord, p. 14.[13][13] Macnamee, Robert Bruce: Our Most Valiant Prince, King and Lord, p. 30.

Robert the Bruce 66

[14][14] Scott, Robert the Bruce, p. 29.[15][15] Macnamee, Robert Bruce: Our Most Valiant Prince, King and Lord, p. 49.[16][16] Fordun, Scotichronicon, p. 309.[17][17] Macnamee, Robert Bruce: Our Most Valiant Prince, King and Lord, p. 50.[18][18] Macnamee, Robert Bruce: Our Most Valiant Prince, King and Lord, p. 53.[19][19] Duncan, Kingship, p.322.[20][20] M. Strickland, 'A Law of Arms or a Law of Treason? Conduct in War in Edward I's Campaigns in Scotland, 1296-1307', Violence in

Medieval Society, ed. R.W. Kaeuper (Woodbridge, 2000), p.64-6.[21][21] Barrow, "Bruce", p.75-77.[22][22] Macnamee, Robert Bruce: Our Most Valiant Prince, King and Lord, p. 60.[23][23] Macnamee, Robert Bruce: Our Most Valiant Prince, King and Lord, p. 63.[24][24] from The Chronicle of Walter of Guisborough (previously edited as the Chronicle of Walter of Hemingford or Hemingburgh)[25][25] Macnamee, Robert Bruce: Our Most Valiant Prince, King and Lord, p. 64.[26][26] Scott, Robert the Bruce, p. 72.[27] Fordun, Scotichronicon, p. 330; Barbour, The Bruce, p. 13.[28] Ronald McNair Scott (1988). Robert the Bruce, King of Scots. Canongate: p. 72.[29] Barbour, The Bruce, p. 15.[30] Scott, Robert the Bruce, p. 74.[31] The History Channel 17 May 2006.[32][32] Scott, Robert the Bruce, p. 75.[33] Scott, Ronald McNair, Robert the Bruce, pp. 84–85.[34] Scott, Robert the Bruce, pp. 84–85.[35] Traquair, Peter Freedom's Sword[36][36] . (Retrieved from Google Books).[37][37] Remonstrance of the Irish Chiefs to Pope John XXII, p. 46.[38][38] The Annals of Connacht.[39] Macnamee, Robert Bruce: Our Most Valiant Prince, King and Lord, p. 276.[40] from Froissart's Chronicles, translated by John Bourchier, Lord Berners (1467–1533), E M Brougham, News Out Of Scotland, London 1926[41] The exact location is uncertain, and it may not have been very near the modern village of Cardross, although it was probably in Cardross

Parish. Barrow suggests that it was at present-day Mains of Cardross farm on the outskirts of Dumbarton, beside the River Leven. CardrossManor, Dunbartonshire (http:/ / www. castleduncan. com/ forum/ index. php?showtopic=2013), castleduncan.com

[42][42] Macnamee, Robert Bruce: Our Most Valiant Prince, King and Lord, p. 271.[43][43] Anecdotes of the Aristocracy and Episodes in Ancestral Story, 2: In Two Volummes[44][44] Acts of Robert I, king of Scots, 1306-1329, ed. A.A.M. Duncan (Regesta Regum Scottorum, vol.v [1988]), no.380 and notes[45] Burial Honours Robert the Bruce (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ uk/ 119036. stm).[46][46] Penman 2009 p.14[47][47] Jardine 1821 p.2[48][48] Jardine 1821 p.6[49][49] Jardine 1821 p.4[50][50] Jardine 1821 p.13[51][51] Jardine 1821 p.5[52][52] Jardine 1821 p.8[53][53] Fawcett 2005 p.100[54][54] Jardine 1821 p.11[55][55] Penman 2009 p.35[56] Facial reconstruction of Robert The Bruce p42 (http:/ / theses. gla. ac. uk/ 375/ 01/ 2008vanezisphd. pdf).[57][57] Weir, Alison., Britain's royal families, the complete genealogy (London, 2008) pg. 211[58] Lauder-Frost, Gregory, FSA Scot,Darr Some Descendants of Robert the Bruce, in The Scottish Genealogist, vol. LI, No.2, June 2004:

49–58, ISSN 0300-337X.[59] Robert the Bruce statue in place after 130-year delay (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ uk_news/ scotland/ south_of_scotland/ 8454863. stm)[60] silkroaddestinations.com (http:/ / www. silkroaddestinations. com/ uzbekistan. html#shz) – Uzbekistan, Shakhrisabz.

Robert the Bruce 67

References• Barrow, G. W. S. (1998), Robert Bruce & the Community of the Realm of Scotland, Edinburgh: Edinburgh

University Press, ISBN 0-85224-539-4.• Balfour Paul, James (1904), The Scots Peerage, Edinburgh: David Douglas.• Bartlett, Robert (1993), The Making of Europe, Conquest, Colonization and Cultural Change: 950–1350,

Princeton: Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-691-03298-X.• Bingham, Caroline (1998), Robert the Bruce, London: Constable, ISBN 0-09-476440-9.• Brown, Chris (2004), Robert the Bruce. A Life Chronicled, Stroud: Tempus, ISBN 0-7524-2575-7.• Brown, Chris (2008), Bannockburn 1314, Stroud: History, ISBN 978-0-7524-4600-4.• Dunbar, Archibald H. (1899), Scottish Kings 1005–1625, Edinburgh: D. Douglas, pp. 126–141, with copious

original source materiéls.• Duncan, A.A.M. (Editor), (1999) John Barbour: The Bruce Canongate.• Fawcett, Richard (ed.) (2005), Royal Dunfermline, Edinburgh: Society of Antiquaries of Scotland,

ISBN 978-0-903903-34-9.• Grant, Alexander, (1984) Independence and Nationhood: Scotland 1306-1469 Edward Arnold. ISBN

978-0748602735.• Grant A, and Stringer, Keith J., (1995) Uniting the Kingdom? The Making of British History Routledge,

pp. 97–108. ISBN 978-0415130417.• Hunter, Paul V (2012), The Adventures of Wee Robert Bruce, Bonhill, West Dunbartonshire: Auch Books.• Jardine, Henry (1821), Report relative to the tomb of King Robert the Bruce, and the cathedral church of

Dunfermline, Edinburgh: Edinburgh Hay, Gall and Co..• Loudoun, Darren (2007), Scotlands Brave.• Macnamee, Colm (2006), The Wars of the Bruces: England and Ireland 1306–1328, Edinburgh: Donald,

ISBN 978-0-85976-653-1.• Macnamee, Colm (2006), Robert Bruce: Our Most Valiant Prince, King and Lord, Edinburgh: Birlinn,

ISBN 978-1-84158-475-1.• Nicholson, R., Scotland in the Later Middle Ages.• Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (http:/ / www. oxforddnb. com/ public/ dnb/ 3754. html).• Ó Néill, Domhnall (1317), "Remonstrance of the Irish Chiefs to Pope John XXII" (http:/ / www. ucc. ie/ celt/

published/ T310000-001/ ), CELT archive.• Penman, Michael (2009), 'Robert Bruce's Bones: Reputations, Politics and Identities in Nineteenth-Century

Scotland', International Review of Scottish Studies, 34 (2009), 7-73, Ontario: Centre for Scottish Studies at theUniversity of Guelph.

• Prestwich, Michael (1997). Edward I. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-07209-0..• Geoffrey the Baker's: Chronicon Galfridi le Baker de Swynebroke (http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/

chronicongalfrid00bakeuoft), ed. Edward Maunde Thompson (Oxford, 1889).• Mackenzie, Agnes Mure (1934), Robert Bruce, King of Scots• Watson, Fiona, J. (1998), Under the Hammer: Edward I and Scotland, 1286-1307, Tuckwell Press, East Linton.ISBN 978-1862320314.

Robert the Bruce 68

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Robert the Bruce.

• The Robert the Bruce Commemoration Trust (http:/ / www. brucetrust. co. uk/ trust. html)• Account of Robert Bruce & Battle of Bannockburn (http:/ / skyelander. orgfree. com/ menu4. html)• John Barbour: The Brus (http:/ / www. arts. gla. ac. uk/ SESLL/ STELLA/ STARN/ poetry/ BRUS/ contents. htm)• Robert the Bruce at Findagrave.com (http:/ / www. findagrave. com/ cgi-bin/ fg. cgi?page=gr& GRid=3103)• Robert the Bruce Heritage Centre (http:/ / www. robertthebruceheritagecentre. co. uk/ )• Portraits of Robert I ('The Bruce') (http:/ / www. npg. org. uk/ collections/ search/ person. php?LinkID=mp55826)

at the National Portrait Gallery, London

Robert the BruceHouse of Bruce

Born: 11 July 1274 Died: 7 June 1329

Preceded byMarjorie

Earl of Carrick1292–1314

Succeeded byEdward

Preceded byRobert VI de Brus

Lord ofAnnandale1304–1312

Succeeded byThomas Randolph

Regnal titles

VacantTitle last held by

John

King of Scots1306–1329

Succeeded byDavid II

John III Comyn, Lord of Badenoch 69

John III Comyn, Lord of Badenoch

John III Comyn, Lord of BadenochDied 10 February 1306

Dumfries

Cause of death stabbing

Title Guardian of Scotland

Other names Red Comyn

Nationality Scottish

Spouse(s) Joan de Valence

Issue John IV

Parents John II Comyn & Eleanor née Balliol Comyn

John III 'Red' Comyn, Lord of Badenoch and Lord of Lochaber, also known simply as the Red Comyn (died 10February 1306) was a Scottish nobleman who was an important figure in the Wars of Scottish Independence, andwas Guardian of Scotland during the Second Interregnum 1296–1306. He is best known for having been stabbed todeath by the future Robert I of Scotland before the altar at the church of the Greyfriars at Dumfries.His father, John II Comyn, Lord of Badenoch, known as the Black Comyn, was one of the Competitors for theCrown of Scotland, claiming his descent from King Donald III of Scotland. His mother was Eleanor Balliol, eldestdaughter of John I de Balliol, father of King John Balliol. The Red Comyn might thus be said to have combined twolines of royal descent, Gaelic and Norman.He had, moreover, links with the royal house of England: in the early 1290s he married Joan de Valence, daughter ofWilliam de Valence, 1st Earl of Pembroke, an uncle of Edward I.

Comyn familyOn the eve of the Wars of Independence the Comyns were one of the dominant families of Scotland, with extensiveland holdings in both the north and south of the country, and political influence and family connections with thecrown. Of Norman-French origin, the family first made an appearance in Scotland during the reign of David I andmade steady progress ever since. In the thirteenth century they acquired the lordship of Badenoch, with extensivelandholdings also in Lochaber, as well as the earldom of Buchan. On the death of Alexander III, John Comyn's fatherwas appointed to the panel of Guardians to await the arrival of the infant Maid of Norway, granddaughter ofAlexander III. Her death in 1290 immersed the nation in crisis, finally solved in 1292 when John Balliol emerged asking, with the support of his Comyn kinsmen, a solution that was never accepted by the next best claimant, RobertBruce of Annandale, grandfather of the future king. The Comyns were the principal supporters of King John evenafter he was deposed by Edward I in 1296. As such they were foremost among the enemies of the house of Bruce.

Comyn at warWith the outbreak of war between England and Scotland, Comyn, his father, and his cousin, John Comyn, Earl of Buchan, crossed the border and attacked Carlisle, defended for King Edward by Robert Bruce, Earl of Carrick, the father of the future king. The Wars of Scottish Independence thus began in a clash between the Bruces and Comyns. Having no siege equipment, the Comyns drew off and subsequently joined the main Scottish host at Haddington, which had been assembled to meet the advance of the English army along the east coast. On 27 April the Scots were overwhelmed at the Battle of Dunbar, with John being among the many prisoners taken. While his father and cousin

John III Comyn, Lord of Badenoch 70

retreated north in the company of the king, he was sent south, to be imprisoned in the Tower of London.John remained in prison for some months; but with the war in Scotland seemingly over he was finally released oncondition that he took up service with Edward in Flanders, the main theatre of operations in his war against theFrench. While there he learned of the rising of William Wallace and Andrew de Moray and their joint victory overthe English at the Battle of Stirling Bridge. In March 1298 John was among Scots who deserted from the English,finally ending up in Paris, where they appealed for aid to Philip IV. The only help they managed to get was a shipback to Scotland, arriving before the summer.

Battle of FalkirkEarlier that year William Wallace had emerged as Guardian, Moray having died at Stirling or shortly after. The maintask facing the Guardian was to gather a national army to meet an invasion by Edward, anxious to overturn theverdict of Stirling Bridge. For cavalry, by far the weakest element of the Scottish host, Wallace depended on theComyns and the other noble families. On 22 July Wallace's army was destroyed at the Battle of Falkirk, the lighthorse being driven off at an early stage by the heavy English cavalry. It is possible that John Comyn was present atthe battle, though the evidence is far from conclusive. The main Scottish sources, the chronicles of John Fordun andJohn Barbour, were composed decades after the event, long after the Comyns had been expelled from Scotland, andhad a specific agenda, namely to magnify the later King, Robert Bruce, and diminish John Comyn. According toFordun, John and his kin hated Wallace and only appeared on the battlefield with premeditated treachery in mind —"For, on account of the ill-will, begotten of the sprig of envy, which the Comyns had conceived towards theaforesaid William, they, with their accomplices, forsook the field, and escaped unhurt." This is set alongside acommendation of Robert Bruce, the future king, who, in Fordun's account, fought on the side of the English and"was the means of bringing about the victory." This seems unlikely although not impossible since at about the sametime Bruce was known to be fighting the English in Ayrshire where he burned Ayr Castle. The contemporaryEnglish record of the Lanercost Chronicle simply blames the inadequacy of the Scottish cavalry in general. Soonafter the defeat, John Comyn and Robert the Bruce were named as joint Guardians of the Realm in place of Wallace,unlikely if treachery had been so manifest.

Guardian of ScotlandWith no independent power base Wallace, whose prestige had always been based on the success of his army, hadlittle choice but to resign as Guardian after Falkirk, though Fordun has him stepping down because of the"wickedness of the Comyns." In his place came one of the more unusual, and difficult, balancing acts in Scottishhistory: John Comyn and Robert Bruce the younger, who had now joined the patriot party. The Scots were stillfighting on behalf of the absent King John, so Bruce must have paid lip service to the cause, though his royalambitions were openly known. The records give little or nothing in the way of insight into the feelings and motivesof these men, but it seems reasonably clear that hatred and suspicion of the one for the other were uppermost. At ameeting of a council of the magnates at Peebles in August 1299 an argument broke out, during which Comyn is saidby an English spy to have seized Bruce by the throat. Seemingly to act as a mediator William Lamberton, Bishop ofSt. Andrews, was appointed as a third Guardian, not the best of arrangements as Lamberton was politically closer toBruce. Bruce resigned before May 1300, when the restoration of King John was looking increasingly likely, leavingonly Comyn and Lamberton, but even this was too much. When parliament assembled at Rutherglen it learned that"the bishop of St Andrews and sire John Comyn were at discord and the Stewart of Scotland and the earl of Atholltook the part of the bishop, and sir John Comyn said that he did not wish to be a guardian of the realm along with thebishop. But at length they were in accord and they elected Sir Ingram d'Umphraville to be one of the guardians of therealm in place of the earl of Carrick."Wikipedia:QuotationsThis was obviously an arrangement that suited Comyn, because Umphraville was a close political associate and a kinsman of King John. With the Guardianship taking Scotland one way Robert Bruce went the other, making his

John III Comyn, Lord of Badenoch 71

peace with Edward by February 1302 in a document in which he expressed the fear that "the realm of Scotland mightbe removed from the hands of the king, which God forbid, and delivered to John Balliol, or to hisson."Wikipedia:QuotationsThe new triumvirate lasted to May 1301, when John de Soules emerged as sole Guardian, seemingly appointed byBalliol himself pending his return. The following year, with Soules leaving for France on a diplomatic mission,Comyn became sole Guardian, occupying the position for the next two years. Comyn became Lord of Badenochfollowing his father's death that same year.

Defiance and surrenderThere was a certain inevitability to the Comyn domination of Scottish government in the years before 1304: not onlywere they the most powerful of the noble families, but their heartlands to the north of the Forth had been untouchedever since the campaign of 1296. English invasions in 1298, 1300, and 1301 had been confined to the south of thecountry, leaving the north as the chief recruiting ground, and supply base, of the Scottish army. The Guardian'sprestige increased still further when he and Sir Simon Fraser defeated an English force at the Battle of Roslin inFebruary 1303. For once Fordun recognised the achievement:There never was so desperate a struggle, or one in which the stoutness of knightly prowess shone forth so brightly.The commander and leader in this struggle was John Comyn, the son... John Comyn, then guardian of Scotland, andSimon Fraser with their followers, day and night, did their best to harass and to annoy, by their general prowess, theaforesaid kings officers and bailiffs... the aforesaid John Comyn and Simon, with their abettors, hearing of theirarrival at Rosslyn and wishing to steal a march rather than have one stolen upon them, came briskly through fromBiggar to Rosslyn, in one night, with some chosen men, who chose rather death before unworthy subjection to theEnglish nation; and all of a sudden they fearlessly fell upon the enemy.

Politically, however, the outlook was bleak. Philip entered into a final peace with Edward, from which Scotland wasexcluded. John Balliol, whose star had risen briefly above the horizon, now sank into the twilight of history. In amood of desperation the Scottish diplomats in Paris, who included Comyn's cousin Buchan, wrote words ofencouragement; "For God's sake do not despair...it would gladden your hearts if you would know how much yourhonour has increased in every part of the world as a result of your recent battle with the English." However, for thefirst time since 1296 Edward was preparing an offensive that would take him deep into the north of Scotland. Unableto mount an effective resistance, and with his main base threatened with destruction, Comyn entered into peacenegotiations, concluded at Strathord near Perth in February 1304. However, this was no abject surrender, unlike thatof King John in 1296. Comyn laid down clear terms, insisting that there should be no reprisals or disinheritance,which Edward accepted, with notable exceptions. Edward maintained his particular hatred for one former Guardian.Comyn was thus obliged to adhere to a condition in which he and other named individuals were to "capture SirWilliam Wallace and hand him over to the king, who will watch to see how each of them conducts himself so that hecan do most favour to whoever shall capture Wallace..." There is no evidence to suggest Comyn made any effort tofulfill this condition, though this does not imply that he would have failed to hand over Wallace if he had theopportunity.

John III Comyn, Lord of Badenoch 72

Death in Dumfries

The killing of Comyn in the Greyfriars church inDumfries, as seen by Felix Philippoteaux, a

19th-century illustrator.

On 10 February 1306 Robert Bruce participated in the killing of JohnComyn before the high altar of the Greyfriars Church in Dumfries.Legend, probably apocryphal, says Robert the Bruce called Comyn to ameeting, stabbed him and rushed out to tell Roger de Kirkpatrick.Kirkpatrick went in to finish the job uttering: "You doubt! I maksiccar!" ("I make sure!")

Apart from these bare facts, nothing certain can be gathered fromcontemporary accounts. While later Scottish sources all try to justifythe crime by amplifying earlier accusations of malevolence andtreachery against Comyn, the English sources portray Robert as avillain who lured Comyn into a church — taken as a guarantee ofsafety — with the intention of committing premeditated murder.

We know that by early 1306, either from the records or subsequent events, that Bruce had secured the support ofleading Scottish churchmen, like William de Lamberton and Robert Wishart the bishop of Glasgow, and David deMoravia the bishop of Moray for some kind of political coup, most likely involving the revival of the Scottishmonarchy (less than seven weeks after the killing in Dumfries, Bruce was crowned king). Balliol was obviouslynever going to return — not that Bruce would have worked for such an outcome — so the only two realisticcandidates for the office were either himself or John Comyn. Some sources suggest that Bruce offered a pact,whereby one would take the crown in return for the lands of the other.

Thirteen days after the event, a garbled version of the facts reached the court of Edward I at Winchester, where themurder was reported as "the work of some people who are doing their utmost to trouble the peace and quiet of therealm of Scotland." Once the picture became clear, Edward reacted in fury, authorising Aymer de Valence, Comyn'sbrother-in-law, to take extraordinary action against Bruce and his adherents by refusing quarter to them. KingEdward also emphasised his blood relationship with the Comyns by ordering his cousin, Joan, to send John's youngson and namesake to England, where he was placed in the care of Sir John Weston, guardian of the royal children.John IV Comyn grew to manhood in England, not returning to Scotland until 1314, when he was killed at the Battleof Bannockburn. The death of his father plunged Scotland into a brief but bloody civil war, largely concluded by1308, but with political reverberations that were to last for decades.

References

Documentary and narrative• Barbour, John, The Bruce, trans. A. A. H. Duncan, 1964.• Bower, Walter, Scotichronicon, ed. D. E. R. Watt, 1987–1996.• Calendar of Documents Relating to Scotland, ed. J. Bain, 1881.• Chronicle of Walter of Guisborough, ed. H. Rothwell, Camden Society, vol. 89, 1957.• Fordun, John of, Chronicles, ed. W. F. Skene, 1871-2.• Gray, Sir Thomas, Scalicronica, trans. H. Maxwell, 1913.• Lanercost Chronicle, trans. H. Maxwell, 1913.• Palgrave, F., ed. Documents and Records Illustrating the History of Scotland, 1837.• Pluscarden, the Book of, ed. F. J. H. Skene, 1877–80.• Wyntoun, Andrew, Orygynale Cronykil of Scotland, ed. D. Laing, 1872–9.

John III Comyn, Lord of Badenoch 73

Secondary works• Barrow, G, Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland, 1976.• Barron, E. M., The Scottish War of Independence, 1934.• Young, A., Robert the Bruce's Rivals: the Comyns, 1212–1314, 1997.

Peerage of Scotland

Preceded byJohn II

Lord ofBadenoch1302–1306

Succeeded byJohn IV

Battle of Dunbar (1296) 74

Battle of Dunbar (1296)

Battle of DunbarPart of the First War of Scottish Independence

Date 27 April 1296

Location near Dunbar, Scotland

Result Decisive English victory

Belligerents

Kingdom of Scotland Kingdom of England

Commanders and leadersJohn Balliol John de Warenne, 6th Earl of Surrey

StrengthHundreds of cavalry Hundreds of cavalry

Casualties and losses1+ killedc. 100 prisoners

None Known

The Battle of Dunbar was the only significant field action in the campaign of 1296. King Edward I of England hadinvaded Scotland in 1296 to punish King John Balliol for his refusal to support English military action in France.Thebattlefield is currently under research to be inventoried and protected by Historic Scotland under the ScottishHistorical Environment Policy of 2009.

BackgroundAfter the sack of Berwick-upon-Tweed, Edward rushed to complete the conquest of Scotland, remained in the townfor a month, supervising the strengthening of its defences. On 5 April, he received a message from King Johnrenouncing his homage, to which he remarked, more in contempt than anger, "O' foolish knave! What folly hecommits. If he will not come to us we will go to him."The next objective in the campaign was the Earl of March's castle at Dunbar, a few miles up the coast from Berwick.March was with the English, but his wife, Marjory Comyn, sister of the Earl of Buchan, did not share her husband'spolitical loyalties and allowed her fellow Scots to occupy the castle. Edward sent one of his chief lieutenants, Johnde Warenne, 6th Earl of Surrey, John Balliol's own father-in-law, northwards with a strong force of knights to investthe stronghold. The defenders sent messages to King John, bivouacked with the main body of his army at nearbyHaddington, asking for urgent assistance. In response the army, or a large part of it, advanced to the rescue ofDunbar. John, who was showing even less skill as a commander than he had as a king, did not accompany it. Thecampaign of 1296 was now to enter its final phase.

Battle of Dunbar (1296) 75

BattleThere is little evidence to suggest that Dunbar was anything other than an action between two bodies of mountedmen-at-arms (armoured cavalry). Surrey's force seems to have comprised one formation (out of four) of the Englishcavalry; the Scots force lead in part by Comyns probably represented the greater part of their cavalry elementWikipedia:Citation needed. The two forces came in sight of each other on 27 April. The Scots occupied a strongposition on some high ground to the west. To meet them, Surrey's cavalry had to cross a gully intersected by theSpott Burn. As they did so their ranks broke up, and the Scots, deluded into thinking the English were leaving thefield, abandoned their position in a disorderly downhill charge, only to find that Surrey's forces had reformed onSpottsmuir and were advancing in perfect order. The English routed the disorganised Scots in a single charge. Theaction was brief and probably not very bloody, since the only casualty of any note was a minor Lothian knight, SirPatrick Graham, though about 100 Scottish lords, knights and men-at-arms were taken prisoner Wikipedia:Citationneeded. According to one English source over ten thousand Scots died at the battle of Dunbar, however this isprobably a confusion with the casualties incurred at the storming of Berwick Wikipedia:Citation needed. Thesurvivors fled westwards to the safety of the Ettrick Forest. The following day King Edward appeared in person andDunbar castle surrendered. Some important prisoners were taken: John Comyn, Earl of Buchan, and the earls ofAtholl, Ross and Menteith, together with 130 knights and esquires. All were sent into captivity in England.

AftermathThe battle of Dunbar effectively ended the war of 1296 with the English winning. The remainder of the campaignwas little more than a grand mopping-up operation. James, the hereditary High Steward of Scotland, surrendered theimportant fortress at Roxburgh without attempting a defence, and others were quick to follow his example. OnlyEdinburgh Castle held out for a week against Edward's siege engines. A Scottish garrison sent out to help King John,who had fled north to Forfar, were told to provide for their own safety. Edward himself, true to his word, advancedinto central and northern Scotland in pursuit of King John. Stirling Castle, which guarded the vital passage across theRiver Forth was deserted save for a janitor who stayed behind to hand the keys to the English. John reached Perth on21 June, where he received messages from Edward asking for peace.John Balliol, in surrendering, submitted himself to a protracted abasement. At Kincardine Castle on 2 July heconfessed to rebellion and prayed for forgiveness. Five days later in the kirkyard of Stracathro he abandoned thetreaty with the French. The final humiliation came at Montrose on 8 July. Dressed for the occasion John wasceremoniously stripped of the vestments of royalty. Antony Bek, the Bishop of Durham, ripped the red and goldarms of Scotland from his surcoat, thus bequeathing to history the nickname Toom Tabard (empty coat) by whichJohn has been known to generations of Scottish schoolchildren. He and his son Edward were sent south intocaptivity. Soon after, the English king followed, carrying in his train the Stone of Scone and other relics of Scottishnationhood.

Battle of Dunbar (1296) 76

Notes

References• Young, Alan. Robert Bruce's Rivals: The Comyns 1212-1314, p. 158.•• Barrell, A., "Medieval Scotland"•• Brown, M., "Wars of Scotland"Brown, C., "Scottish Battlefields"•• Nicholson, R. "Scotland. The Later Middle Ages"•• Ayton, A. "Knights and their Warhorses"•• Watson, F., "Under the Hammer"•• Brown, C., "Knights of the Scottish Wars of Independence"Coordinates: 55.97692°N 2.52119°W (http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack.php?pagename=Battle_of_Dunbar_(1296)& params=55. 97692_N_2. 52119_W_type:event_region:GB)

Battle of Stirling Bridge 77

Battle of Stirling Bridge

Battle of Stirling BridgePart of the First War of Scottish Independence

Old Stirling Bridge with the Abbey Craig and Wallace Monument

Date 11 September 1297

Location Stirling Bridge, Stirling, Scotland56°07′54″N 3°55′57″W [1]Coordinates: 56°07′54″N 3°55′57″W [1]

Result Decisive Scottish victory

Belligerents

Kingdom of Scotland Kingdom of England

Commanders and leadersWilliam Wallace

Andrew de Moray † Earl of Surrey Hugh de Cressingham †

Strength2,300 men•• ~300 cavalry•• ~2,000 infantry

9,000 – 13,000 men• ~1,000 – 3,000 cavalry• ~8,000 – 10,000 infantry

Casualties and lossesUnknown 100 cavalry killed[2]

5,000 infantry killed[3]

The Battle of Stirling Bridge was a battle of the First War of Scottish Independence. On 11 September 1297, theforces of Andrew de Moray and William Wallace defeated the combined English forces of John de Warenne, 6thEarl of Surrey, and Hugh de Cressingham near Stirling, on the River Forth.

The main battleThe Earl of Surrey had won a victory over the aristocracy of Scotland at the Battle of Dunbar and his belief that he was now dealing with a rabble proved that he had greatly underestimated the Scottish forces. The small bridge at Stirling was only broad enough to allow two horsemen to cross abreast. The Scots deployed in a commanding position dominating the soft, flat ground to the north of the river. Sir Richard Lundie, a Scots knight who joined the English after the capitulation at Irvine, offered to outflank the enemy by leading a cavalry force over a nearby ford, where sixty horsemen could cross at the same time. Hugh Cressingham, King Edward's treasurer in Scotland, was anxious to avoid any unnecessary expense in prolonging the war and he persuaded the Earl to reject this advice and

Battle of Stirling Bridge 78

order a direct attack across the bridge.The Scots waited as the English knights and infantry made their slow progress across the bridge on the morning of11 September. The disorderly Scottish army of 1296 was gone: Wallace and Moray's hold over their men was tight.Earlier in the day many English and Welsh archers had crossed, only to be immediately recalled because Surrey hadoverslept; the Scots held back and did not attack at that time. Wallace and Moray waited, according to the Chronicleof Hemingburgh, until "as many of the enemy had come over as they believed they could overcome". When thevanguard, comprising 5,400 English and Welsh infantry plus several hundred cavalry, had crossed the bridge, theattack was ordered. The Scots spearmen came down from the high ground in rapid advance towards Stirling Bridge,quickly seizing control of the English bridgehead. In the narrow space of the bridge, the massed English cavalrywere incredibly vulnerable to the line of Scots spearmen holding the end of the bridge. Surrey's vanguard was nowcut off from the rest of the army. The heavy cavalry to the north of the river was trapped and cut to pieces (due, inpart, to the strewing of caltropsWikipedia:Citation needed to unseat the cavalry, making them easy targets for theScottish forces), their comrades to the south powerless to help Hugh de Cressingham, whose body was subsequentlyflayed and the skin cut into small pieces for souvenirs of the victory. The Lanercost Chronicle records that Wallacehad[4] "a broad strip [of Cressingham’s skin]...taken from the head to the heel, to make therewith a baldrick for hissword". Losses among the infantry, many of them Welsh, were also high. Those who could throw off their armourswam across the river.

The present-day Stirling Bridge

Surrey, who was left with a pitiful contingent of archers, had remainedto the south of the river and was still in a strong position. The bulk ofhis army remained intact and he could have held the line of the Forth,denying the triumphant Scots a passage to the south, but his confidencewas gone. After the escape of Sir Marmaduke Tweng, an Englishknight from Yorkshire,[5] Surrey ordered the bridge's destruction andretreated towards Berwick, leaving the garrison at Stirling Castleisolated and abandoning the Lowlands to the rebels. James Stewart, theHigh Steward of Scotland, and Malcolm, Earl of Lennox, whose forceshad been part of Surrey's army, observing the carnage to the north ofthe bridge, withdrew. Then the English supply train was attacked atThe Pows, a wooded marshy area, by James Stewart and the other Scots lords, killing many of the fleeing soldiers.

The location of Stirling Bridge at the date of the battle is not known with certainty, but four stone piers have beenfound underwater just north (56°07′45″N 3°56′12″W [6]) and at an angle to the extant 15th-century bridge, alongwith man-made stonework on one bank in line with the piers. The site of the fighting was along either side of anearthen causeway leading from the Abbey Craig, atop which the Wallace Monument is now located, to the northernend of the bridge. The battlefield has been inventoried and protected by Historic Scotland under the ScottishHistorical Environment Policy of 2009.

Battle of Stirling Bridge 79

Aftermath

Stirling Bridge from the south bank of the RiverForth with the Wallace Monument in the

background

The Battle of Stirling Bridge was a shattering defeat for the English: itshowed that under certain circumstances infantry could be superior tocavalry. It was to be some time, though, before this lesson was fullyabsorbed.Contemporary English chronicler Walter of Guisborough recorded theEnglish losses in the battle as 100 cavalry and 5,000 infantry killed.[7]

Scottish casualties in the battle are unrecorded, with the exception ofAndrew Moray. He appears to have been injured in the battle and diedof his injuries around November.

Wallace went on to lead a destructive raid into northern England whichdid little to advance the Scots objectives, Wikipedia:Citation neededhowever the raids frightened the English army and stalled their

advance. By March 1298 he had emerged as Guardian of Scotland. His glory was brief, for King Edward himselfwas coming north from Flanders. The two men finally met on the field of Falkirk in the summer of 1298, whereWallace was defeated.

The battle in fictionThe heroic exploits of Wallace were passed on to posterity mainly in the form of tales collected and recounted by thepoet Blind Harry, the Minstrel (?-1492) whose original, probably oral sources were never specified. Blind Harry wasactive some two hundred years after the events described in his The Acts and Deeds of the Illustrious and ValiantChampion Sir William Wallace, c.1470. The tales were designed to entertain the court of James IV (r.1488–1513)and are undoubtedly a blend of fact and fiction. Like most of his episodes, Blind Harry's account of the battle ofStirling Bridge is highly improbable, for example his use of figures of a biblical magnitude for the size of theparticipating armies. Nevertheless, his highly dramatised and graphic account of the battle fed the imaginations ofsubsequent generations of Scottish schoolchildren. Here is his description:

On Saturday they [Moray and Wallace] rode on to the bridge, which was of good plain board, well made andjointed, having placed watches to see that none passed from the army. Taking a wright, the most able workmanthere, he [Wallace] ordered him to saw the plank in two at the mid streit [middle stretch], so that no-one mightwalk over it. He then nailed it up quickly with hinges, and dirtied it with clay, to cause it to appear that nothinghad been done. The other end he so arranged that it should lie on three wooden rollers, which were so placed,that when one was out the rest would fall down. The wright, himself, he ordered to sit there underneath, in acradle, bound on a beam, to loose the pin when Wallace let him know by blowing a horn when the time wascome. No one in all the army should be allowed to blow but he himself.

Battle of Stirling Bridge 80

A Victorian depiction of the battle. The bridge collapse suggests that the artist hasbeen influenced by Blind Harry's account.

The day of the great battleapproached; for power, the Englishwould not fail; they were ever six toone against Wallace. Fifty thousandmade for the place of battle, theremainder abiding at the Castle; bothfield and Castle they thought toconquer at their will. The worthyScots upon the other side of the river,took the plain field on foot.Hugh Cressingham leads on thevanguard with twenty thousand likelymen to see. Thirty thousand the Earlof Warren had, but he did then aswisdom did direct, all the first armybeing sent over before him. SomeScottish men, who well knew this manner of attack, bade Wallace sound, saying there were now enough. Hehastened not, however, but steadily observed the advance until he saw Warren's force thickly crowd the bridge.Then from Jop he took the horn and blew loudly, and warned John the Wright, who thereupon struck out theroller with skill; when the pin was out, the rest of it fell down. Now arose an hideous outcry among the people,both horses and men, falling into the water. (...)On foot, and bearing a great sharp spear, Wallace went amongst the thickest of the press. he aimed a stroke atCressingham in his corslet, which was brightly polished. The sharp head of the spear pierced right through theplates and through his body, stabbing him beyond rescue; thus was that chieftain struck down to death. Withthe stroke Wallace bore down both man and horse.The English army although ready for battle, lost heart when their chieftain was slain, and many openly beganto flee. Yet worthy men abode in the place until ten thousand were slain. Then the remainder fled, not able toabide longer, seeking succour in many directions, some east, some west, and some fled to the north. Seventhousand full at once floated in the Forth, plunged into the deep and drowned without mercy; none were leftalive of all that fell army.[8]

As well as the bridge ploy, Wallace's use of a spear appears to be a fictional element. As the son of a minor laird, hewould have been trained in arms, and as a commander it is unlikely he would have wielded the weapon of thecommon footsoldier. It cannot of course be ruled out that he would have used one in the heat of battle. A two-handedclaymore, purporting to be Wallace's, which may contain original metal from his sword blade, was kept by theScottish kings[9] and is displayed as a relic in the Wallace Monument which was built at the summit of abbey craigthe hill that would later be known to the locals as "boner hill".The potency of these tales can be gauged from the following statement by the poet Robert Burns, writing some threecenturies after they were first related.

The two first books I ever read in private, and which gave me more pleasure than any two books I everread again, were The Life of Hannibal and The History of Sir William Wallace [a modernised version ofBlind Harry by William Hamilton of Gilbertfield]. Hannibal gave my young ideas such a turn that I usedto strut in raptures up and down after the recruiting drum and bagpipe, and wish myself tall enough thatI could be a soldier; while the story of Wallace poured a Scottish prejudice into my veins which will boilalong there till the flood-gates of life shut in eternal rest.[10]

The Battle of Stirling Bridge is depicted in the 1995 film Braveheart, but it bears little resemblance to the real battle, there being no bridge (due mainly to the difficulty of filming around the bridge itself) and tactics resembling the

Battle of Stirling Bridge 81

Battle of Bannockburn. The main strategic events of the battle (but obviously not the detail) are followed in RobynYoung's novel Requiem.Wikipedia:Citation needed

Notes[1] http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack. php?pagename=Battle_of_Stirling_Bridge& params=56. 1317046_N_-3.

9325905_E_type:landmark[2] Cowan, Edward J., The Wallace Book, 2007, John Donald, ISBN 0-85976-652-7, ISBN 978-0-85976-652-4, p. 69[3] Cowan, Edward J., The Wallace Book, 2007, John Donald, ISBN 0-85976-652-7, ISBN 978-0-85976-652-4, p. 69[4][4] Chronicle of Lanercost, ed. H.Maxwell, vol.1, p.164.[5] Sir Marmaduke Tweng (http:/ / bluebellstrilogy. com/ blog/ category/ great-figures-of-medieval-scotland/ sir-marmaduke-tweng/ )[6] http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack. php?pagename=Battle_of_Stirling_Bridge& params=56. 1290916_N_-3.

936764_E_type:landmark[7] Cowan, Edward J., The Wallace Book, 2007, John Donald, ISBN 0-85976-652-7, ISBN 978-0-85976-652-4, p. 69[8][8] Sir William Wallace, His Life And Deeds By Henry The Minstrel In Modern Prose By Thomas Walker, Glasgow 1910[9][9] "To bynding of Wallass's sword with cordis of silk and new hilt and plomet, new skabbard, and new hilt to the said sword, XXVj.sh.", entry

in James IV's Household Book for 8 December 1505, in E M Brougham, News Out Of Scotland, Heinemann 1926[10][10] letter to Dr. John Moore, dated 2 August 1787, quoted in M. Lindsay, Robert Burns, London and New York 1979

References• Barrow, G. W. S., Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland, 1976.•• Brown, C., "William Wallace" 2005.• Cowan, Edward J., The Wallace Book, 2007, John Donald, ISBN 0-85976-652-7, ISBN 978-0-85976-652-4• Ferguson, J., William Wallace: Guardian of Scotland., 1948.• "The Chronicle of Lanercost 1272 – 1346", ed. H. Maxwell, 1913.• Nicholson, R., Scotland-the Later Middle Ages, 1974.• Prestwich, M., The Three Edwards: War and State in England, 1272–1277, 1980.• Traquair, P., Freedom's Sword

External links• Historic Scotland site report and area map (http:/ / www. historic-scotland. gov. uk/

battle_of_stirling_bridge_summary. pdf/ )

Battle of Bannockburn 82

Battle of BannockburnFor the song, see The Battle of Bannockburn (song).Coordinates: 56.092°N 3.915°W [1]

Battle of BannockburnPart of the First War of Scottish Independence

This depiction from the Scotichronicon (c.1440) is the earliest known image of the battle. King Robert wielding an axe and EdwardII fleeing toward Stirling feature prominently, conflating incidents from the two days of battle.

Date 23–24 June 1314

Location Bannockburn, south of Stirling, Scotland

Result Decisive Scottish victory

Belligerents

Kingdom of Scotland Kingdom of England

Commanders and leaders

Robert the Bruce Edward II Humphrey de Bohun

Strength5,000–10,000 13,700–25,000[2]

Casualties and losses

400[3]–4,000[4] 700 cavalry4,000[5] – 11,000 infantry[6]

The Battle of Bannockburn (Blàr Allt a' Bhonnaich in Scottish Gaelic) (24 June 1314) was a significant Scottishvictory in the First War of Scottish Independence, and a landmark in Scottish history.Stirling Castle, a Scots royal fortress, occupied by the English, was under siege by the Scottish army. Edward II ofEngland assembled a formidable force to relieve it. This attempt failed, and his army was defeated in a pitched battleby a smaller army commanded by Robert I of Scotland.

Battle of Bannockburn 83

BackgroundThe Wars of Scottish Independence between England and Scotland began in 1296 and initially the English weresuccessful, having won victories at the Battle of Dunbar (1296) and at the Capture of Berwick (1296).[7] The removalof John Balliol from the Scottish throne also contributed to the English success. The Scots had been victorious indefeating the English at the Battle of Stirling Bridge in 1297, however this was countered by Edward I of England'svictory at the Battle of Falkirk (1298). By 1304 Scotland had been conquered, but in 1306 Robert the Bruce seizedthe Scottish throne and the war was reopened.Edward II of England came to the throne in 1307 but was incapable of providing the determined leadership that hadbeen shown by his father, Edward I, and the English position soon became more difficult. Stirling Castle was one ofthe most important castles that was held by the English as it commanded the route north into the Scottish Highlands.It was besieged in 1314 by Robert the Bruce's brother, Edward Bruce, and an agreement was made that if the castlewas not relieved by mid-summer then it would be surrendered to the Scots. The English could not ignore thischallenge and military preparations were made for a substantial campaign in which the English army probablynumbered 2,000 cavalry and 15,000 infantry, many of whom would have been longbowmen. The Scottish armyprobably numbered between 7,000 and 10,000 men, of whom no more than 500 would have been mounted. Unlikethe heavily armoured English cavalry, the Scottish cavalry would have been light horsemen who were good forskirmishing and reconnaissance but were not suitable for charging the enemy lines. The Scottish infantry would havehad axes, swords and pikes, with few bowmen among them.The precise size of the English force relative to the Scottish forces is unclear but estimates range from as much as atleast two or three times the size of the army Bruce had been able to gather, to as little as only 50% larger.[8]

Battle of Bannockburn 84

Preparations

An early 14th century English depiction of a Biblical battle giving animpression of how soldiers were equipped at Bannockburn. The image of aking wielding a battle axe in the top half has led some historians to link this

image to Bannockburn.

Edward II and his advisors were aware of theplaces that the Scots were likely to challengethem and sent out orders for their troops toprepare for an enemy established in boggyground near to the River Forth, near Stirling.The English appear to have advanced in fourdivisions whereas the Scots were in threedivisions, known as 'schiltrons' which werestrong defensive circles of men bristling withpikes. Thomas Randolph, 1st Earl of Moray,commanded the Scottish vanguard, which wasstationed about a mile to the south of Stirling,near the church of St. Ninian, while the kingcommanded the rearguard at the entrance to theNew Park. His brother Edward led the thirddivision. According to Barbour, there was afourth division nominally under the youthfulWalter the Steward, but actually under thecommand of Sir James Douglas.[9] The Scottisharchers used yew-stave longbows and thoughthese were not weaker or inferior to Englishlongbows, there were fewer Scottish archersthan English archers, possibly numbering only500. These archers played little part in thebattle.[10] There is first hand evidence from thecaptured Carmelite friar, Robert Baston in hispoem, written just after the battle, that one orboth sides employed slingers and crossbowmen.[11]

The Battle

Location of the battlefieldThere is some confusion over the exact site of the Battle of Bannockburn, although most modern historians agreethat the traditional site, where a visitor centre and statue have been erected, is not the correct one.[12] Although alarge number of possible alternatives have been proposed, most can be dismissed leaving two serious contenders:[13]

• the area of peaty ground known as the Dryfield outside the village of Balquhiderock, about three-quarters of amile to the east of the traditional site,[14] and

• the Carse of Balquhiderock, about a mile and a half north-east of the traditional site, accepted by the NationalTrust as the most likely candidate.[15]

Battle of Bannockburn 85

First day of battle

An interpretation of the battle of Bannockburn-first day

Most medieval battles were short-lived,lasting only a few hours, therefore the Battleof Bannockburn is unusual in that it lastedfor two days. On 23 June 1314 two of theEnglish cavalry formations advanced, thefirst commanded by the Earl of Gloucesterand the Earl of Hereford. They encountereda body of Scots, among them Robert theBruce himself. A celebrated single combatthen took place between Bruce and Henryde Bohun who was the nephew of the Earlof Hereford. Bohun charged at Bruce andwhen the two passed side by side, Brucesplit Bohun's head with his axe.[16] TheScots then rushed upon the English underGloucester and Hereford who struggled back over the Bannockburn.[17] The second English cavalry force wascommanded by Robert Clifford. They advanced on the flank of the Scots, coming up against the schiltrom that wascommanded by Thomas Randolph, 1st Earl of Moray but the English withdrew in confusion, unable to break theScottish formation.

Second day of battle

An interpretation of the battle of Bannockburn-second day

Under nightfall the English forces crossedthe stream that is known as the BannockBurn, establishing their position on the plainbeyond it. A Scottish knight, AlexanderSeton, who was fighting in the service ofEdward II of England, deserted the Englishcamp and told Bruce of the low Englishmorale, encouraging Bruce to attack them.In the morning the Scots then advancedfrom New Park. The English archers shouldhave been able to counter this advance butthey were neutralized by a Scottish cavalrycharge led by Sir Robert Keith. The Englishresponded to the Scots advance with acharge of their own, led by the Earl ofGloucester. Gloucester had argued with the Earl of Hereford over who should lead the vanguard into battle, andargued with the king that the battle should be postponed. This led the king to accuse him of cowardice, whichperhaps goaded Gloucester into the charge. Few accompanied Gloucester in his charge and when he reached theScottish lines he was quickly surrounded and killed. Gradually the English were pushed back and ground down bythe Scots' schiltrons. An attempt to employ the English and Welsh longbowmen to shoot at the advancing Scots fromtheir flank failed when they were dispersed by the Scottish 500-horse light cavalry under the Marischal Sir RobertKeith[18] The English cavalry was hemmed in making it difficult for them to maneuver. As a result the English were

Battle of Bannockburn 86

unable to hold their formations and broke ranks. It soon became clear that the English had lost and Edward II neededto be led to safety. However one of Edward's knights, Giles de Argentine, declared that he was not accustomed toflee and made one final charge on the Scots, only to die on their spears.

English retreatEdward fled with his personal bodyguard, ending the remaining order in the army; panic spread and defeat turnedinto a rout. He arrived eventually at Dunbar Castle, from which he took ship to England. From the carnage ofBannockburn, the rest of the army tried to escape to the safety of the English border, ninety miles to the south. Manywere killed by the pursuing Scottish army or by the inhabitants of the countryside that they passed through. HistorianPeter Reese says that, "only one sizeable group of men—all footsoldiers—made good their escape to England."[6]

These were a force of Welsh spearmen who were kept together by their commander, Sir Maurice de Berkeley, andthe majority of them reached Carlisle.[6] Weighing up the available evidence, Reese concludes that "it seemsdoubtful if even a third of the footsoldiers returned to England." Out of 16,000 infantrymen, this would give a totalof about 11,000 killed. The English chronicler Thomas Walsingham gave the number of English men-at-arms whowere killed as 700,[] while 500 more men-at-arms were spared for ransom.[19] The Scottish losses appear to havebeen comparatively light, with only two knights among those killed.[20]

AftermathThe defeat of the English opened up the north of England to Scottish raids and allowed the Scottish invasion inIreland.[21] These finally led, after the failure of the Declaration of Arbroath to reach this end by diplomatic means,to the Treaty of Edinburgh–Northampton.[22] It was not until 1332 that the Second War of Scottish Independencebegan with the Battle of Dupplin Moor, followed by the Battle of Halidon Hill (1333) which were won by theEnglish.

Notable casualties

Deaths•• Gilbert de Clare, 8th Earl of Gloucester• Sir Giles d'Argentan•• John Lovel, 2nd Baron Lovel•• John Comyn, Lord of Badenoch•• Robert de Clifford, 1st Baron de Clifford• Sir Henry de Bohun• William le Marshal, Marshal of Ireland• Edmund de Mauley, King's Steward• Sir Robert de Felton of Litcham, 1st Lord

Battle of Bannockburn 87

Captives•• Humphrey de Bohun, 4th Earl of Hereford•• John Segrave, 2nd Baron Segrave•• Maurice de Berkeley, 2nd Baron Berkeley•• Thomas de Berkeley• Sir Marmaduke Tweng•• Ralph de Monthermer, 1st Baron Monthermer•• Robert de Umfraville, Earl of Angus• Sir Anthony de Luci• Sir Ingram de Umfraville

Legacy

Bannockburn Heritage Centre

The modern Bannockburn monument

Statue of Robert the Bruce by Pilkington Jackson,near the Bannockburn Heritage Centre

In 1932 the Bannockburn Preservation Committee, under EdwardBruce, 10th Earl of Elgin and Kincardine, presented lands to theNational Trust for Scotland. Further lands were purchased in 1960 and1965 to facilitate visitor access. A modern monument stands in a fieldabove the battle site, where the warring parties are believed to havecamped on the night before the battle. The monument consists of twohemicircular walls depicting the opposing parties. Nearby stands the1960s statue of Bruce by Pilkington Jackson. The monument, and theassociated visitor centre, is one of the most popular tourist attractionsin the area. The battlefield has been included in the Inventory ofHistoric Battlefields in Scotland and protected by Historic Scotlandunder the Historic Environment (Amendment) Act 2011.

The National Trust for Scotland operates the Bannockburn HeritageCentre, which is open daily from March through October. On 31October 2012 the building was closed for demolition and replacementby a new design, inspired by traditional Scottish buildings, by Reiachand Hall Architects. The project is a partnership between the NationalTrust for Scotland and Historic Scotland, funded by the ScottishGovernment and the Heritage Lottery Fund.

Arts

"Scots Wha Hae" is the title of a patriotic poem by Robert Burns.[23]

The chorus of Scotland's unofficial national anthem Flower of Scotland refers to Scotland's victory over Edward andthe English at Bannockburn.

Battle of Bannockburn 88

Notes[1] http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack. php?pagename=Battle_of_Bannockburn& params=56. 092_N_-3.

915_E_region:GB_scale:50000[2] Grant, R.G. (2008), Battle: A visual journey through 5,000 years of combat, DK Publishing,p.118.[3] Sadler, John, Scottish Battles, (Biddles Ltd., 1998), 52–54.[4][4] Grant, 118.[5][5] Sadler, 52.[6][6] Reese, p.174[7] Black, Jeremy. (2005). The Seventy Great Battles of All Time. pp. 71–73. Thames & Hudson Ltd. ISBN 0-500-25125-8.[8] Watson, F., "In Our Time: The Battle of Bannockburn" (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ iplayer/ episode/ b00y2srx/

In_Our_Time_The_Battle_of_Bannockburn/ ), BBC Radio, 3 February 2011[9] Nicholson, Later Middle Ages pp.87–89[10] The Chronicle of Lanercost says that on the second day of the battle, "the English archers were thrown forward before the line, and the

Scottish archers engaged them, a few being killed and wounded on either side; but the King of England's archers quickly put the others toflight." The Chronicle of Lanercost, 1272–1346: Translated, with notes by Sir Herbert Maxwell. p. 206

[11] Walter Bower, Scotichronicon,Book XII, p. 371[12] Mackenzie, W. M. (1913). The Battle of Bannockburn: a Study in Mediaeval Warfare, Publisher: James MacLehose; Glasgow.[13] Barrow, Geoffrey W.S. (1998). Robert Bruce & The Community of The Realm of Scotland. ISBN 0-85224-604-8[14] Barron, E.M., The Scottish War of Independence: a Critical Study, 1934[15] Christison, Philip, Bannockburn: The Story of the Battle, 1960, Edinburgh: The National Trust for Scotland.[16] Hyland, Ann. The Warhorse 1250–1600, UK: Sutton Publishing, 1998, p 38[17] The Battle of Bannockburn (http:/ / www. britishbattles. com/ scottish/ battle-bannockburn. htm) britishbattles.com. Retrieved 14 June,

2014.[18] Ronald McNair Scott: Robert the Bruce, King of Scots, Canongate (1996)[19][19] Mackenzie, p.90[20][20] Reese, p.176[21] Ronald McNair Scott (1988). Robert the Bruce, King of Scots. Canongate (1996)[22] Ronald McNair Scott (1988). Robert the Bruce, King of Scots. Canongate (1996)[23] The Complete Works of Robert Burns (http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ files/ 18500/ 18500-h/ 18500-h. htm#CCVII) at Project Gutenberg.

References

Primary• Barbour, John, The Brus, trans. A. A. M. Duncan, 1964.• Bower, Walter, Scotichronicon, ed. D. E. R. Watt, 1987–1993.• Gray, Thomas, Scalacronica, edited and translated by H Maxwell, 1913.• Lanercost Chronicle, edited and translated by H. Maxwell, 1913.• Vita Edwardi Secundi (Life of Edward the Second), ed. N. D. Young, 1957.• Walsingham, Thomas, Historia Anglicana.

Secondary• Barrow, G. W. S., Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland, 1988,ISBN 0-85224-604-8•• Brown, C.A., "Bannockburn 1314",History Press,Stroud, 2008, ISBN 978-0-7524-4600-4.• Nicholson, R., Scotland-the Later Middle Ages, 1974.• Prestwich, M., The Three Edwards: War and State in England, 1272–1377, 1980• Ramsay, J. H., The Genesis of Lancaster, 1307–99, 1913.• Brown, C.A., Robert the Bruce. A life Chronicled.• MacNamee, C., The Wars of the Bruces• Brown, M., Wars of Scotland• Reese, P., Bannockburn, Canongate, Edinburgh, 2003, ISBN 1-84195-465-9• Mackenzie, W. M., Bannockburn: A Study in Medieval Warfare, The Strong Oak Press, Stevenage 1989 (first

published 1913), ISBN 1-871048-03-6

Battle of Bannockburn 89

• Armstrong, Pete (illustrated by Graham Turner), Bannockburn 1314: Robert Bruce's Great Victory, OspreyPublishing, 2002 ISBN 1-85532-609-4

•  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Bannockburn". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge UniversityPress.

External links• Battle of Bannockburn animated battle map (http:/ / www. theartofbattle. com/ battle-of-bannockburn-1314. htm)

by Jonathan Webb• The Battle of Bannockburn 700th Anniversary Project (http:/ / www. battleofbannockburn. com)• Battle of Bannockburn (http:/ / www. medievalarchives. com/ battleofbannockburn) on Medieval Archives

Podcast (http:/ / www. medievalarchives. com/ PodcastList)

Declaration of Arbroath

The 'Tyninghame' copy of the Declaration from 1320 AD

The Declaration of Arbroath is adeclaration of Scottish independence, madein 1320. It is in the form of a letter in Latinsubmitted to Pope John XXII, dated 6 April1320, intended to confirm Scotland's statusas an independent, sovereign state anddefending Scotland's right to use militaryaction when unjustly attacked.

Generally believed to have been written inthe Arbroath Abbey by Bernard ofKilwinning, then Chancellor of Scotland andAbbot of Arbroath,[1] and sealed byfifty-one magnates and nobles, the letter isthe sole survivor of three created at the time.The others were a letter from the King ofScots, Robert I, and a letter from fourScottish bishops which all presumably madesimilar points.

Overview

The Declaration was part of a broader diplomatic campaign which sought to assert Scotland's position as anindependent kingdom,[2] rather than being a feudal land controlled by England's Norman kings, as well as lift theexcommunication of Robert the Bruce.[3] The Pope had recognised Edward I of England's claim to overlordship ofScotland in 1305 and Bruce was excommunicated by the Pope for murdering John Comyn before the altar inGreyfriars Church in Dumfries in 1306.

The Declaration made a number of rhetorical points: that Scotland had always been independent, indeed for longer than England; that Edward I of England had unjustly attacked Scotland and perpetrated atrocities; that Robert the Bruce had delivered the Scottish nation from this peril; and, most controversially, that the independence of Scotland was the prerogative of the Scottish people, rather than the King of Scots. In fact it stated that the nobility would choose someone else to be king if Bruce proved to be unfit in maintaining Scotland's independence. Some have

Declaration of Arbroath 90

interpreted this last point as an early expression of 'popular sovereignty' – that government is contractual and thatkings can be chosen by the community rather than by God alone.It has also been argued that the Declaration was not a statement of popular sovereignty (and that its signatorieswould have had no such concept) but a statement of royal propaganda supporting Bruce's faction. A justification hadto be given for the rejection of King John in whose name William Wallace and Andrew de Moray had rebelled in1297. The reason given in the Declaration is that Bruce was able to defend Scotland from English aggressionwhereas, by implication, King John could not.[4]

To this man, in as much as he saved our people, and for upholding our freedom, we are bound by rightas much as by his merits, and choose to follow him in all that he does.

Whatever the true motive, the idea of a contract between King and people was advanced to the Pope as an excuse forBruce's coronation whilst John de Balliol still lived in Papal custody.There are 39 names (eight earls and thirty one barons) at the start of the document, all of whom may have had theirseals appended, probably over the space of some weeks and months, with nobles sending in their seals to be used.(On the extant copy of the Declaration there are only 19 seals, and of those 19 people only 12 are named within thedocument.) It is thought likely that at least 11 more seals than the original 39 might have been appended.) TheDeclaration was then taken to the papal court at Avignon by Bishop Kininmund, Sir Adam Gordon and Sir Odard deMaubuisson.

The most-cited passage of the Declaration, translated from the Latin original...

...as displayed on the walls of the National Museum of Scotland

The Pope heeded the arguments contained inthe Declaration, influenced by the offer ofsupport from the Scots for his long-desiredcrusade if they no longer had to fear Englishinvasion. He exhorted Edward II in a letterto make peace with the Scots, but thefollowing year was again persuaded by theEnglish to take their side and issued sixbulls to that effect.[5] It was only in October1328, after a short-lived peace treatybetween Scotland and England, the Treatyof Edinburgh-Northampton (whichrenounced all English claims to Scotlandand was signed by the new English king,Edward III, on 1 March 1328), that theinterdict on Scotland and theexcommunication of its king were finallyremoved.[6]

The original copy of the Declaration that was sent to Avignon is lost. A copy of the Declaration survives amongScotland's state papers, held by the National Archives of Scotland in Edinburgh.[7] The most widely known Englishlanguage translation was made by Sir James Fergusson, formerly Keeper of the Records of Scotland, from text thathe reconstructed using this extant copy and early copies of the original draft. One passage in particular is oftenquoted from the Fergusson translation:

...for, as long as but a hundred of us remain alive, never will we on any conditions be brought underEnglish rule. It is in truth not for glory, nor riches, nor honours that we are fighting, but for freedom –for that alone, which no honest man gives up but with life itself.

Declaration of Arbroath 91

References[1] Ronald McNair Scott: Robert the Bruce, King of Scots, Canongate 1996, p 196, ISBN 0-86241-616-7[2][2] Robert the Bruce and the Scottish Identity, G.Barrow, 1984[3][3] Scotland: A New History, M. Lynch, 1992[4] The New Penguin History of Scotland, edited by R.A. Houston and W.W.J. Knox, “Medieval Scotland”, D. Ditchburn and A.J. MacDonald,

2001[5] Ronald McNair Scott: Robert the Bruce, King of Scots, Canongate 1996, p 197, ISBN 0-86241-616-7[6] Ronald McNair Scott: Robert the Bruce, King of Scots, Canongate 1996, p 225, ISBN 0-86241-616-7[7] National Archives of Scotland website feature (http:/ / www. nas. gov. uk/ about/ 090401. asp)

External links

Wikisource has original text related to this article:

Declaration of Arbroath

• Declaration of Arbroath (http:/ / www. nas. gov. uk/ about/ 090401. asp) on National Archives of Scotlandwebsite (includes full Latin text and English translation)

Treaty of Edinburgh–NorthamptonNot to be confused with Treaty of Edinburgh.The Treaty of Edinburgh–Northampton was a peace treaty, signed in 1328 between the Kingdoms of England andScotland. It brought an end to the First War of Scottish Independence, which had begun with the English invasion ofScotland in 1296. The treaty was signed in Edinburgh by Robert the Bruce, King of Scotland, on 17 March 1328,and was ratified by the English Parliament at Northampton on 1 May. The document was written in French, and isheld by the National Archives of Scotland in Edinburgh.The terms of the treaty stipulated that, in exchange for £100,000 sterling, the English Crown would recognise:•• The Kingdom of Scotland as fully independent;•• Robert the Bruce, and his heirs and successors, as the rightful rulers;• The border between Scotland and England as that recognised under the reign of Alexander III (1249-1286).

The WarMain article: First War of Scottish IndependenceThe cause of the Wars of Scottish Independence was ultimately the uncertainty over the succession of the Scottishcrown following the death of Alexander III in 1286. Edward I of England initially supported the claim of JohnBalliol, who was crowned King of Scots in 1292, but eventually pressed his own claim to sovereignty over Scotland.After Balliol's removal and exile, Robert the Bruce broke from the English camp and took up his own rival claim tothe crown, by leading a resistance to Edward. Robert declared himself King, after killing his chief rival and cousin,and was crowned in 1306. He decisively defeated the English, under Edward II, at Bannockburn in 1314.Peace talks were held between 1321 and 1324. Little progress was made, as the English refused to recognise Robertthe Bruce as King of Scots, although a truce was agreed in 1323, to last thirteen years. Edward II claimed he adheredto this truce, but he allowed English privateers to attack Flemish vessels trading with Scotland. For example,privateers seized the Flemish vessel Pelarym, worth £2,000, and massacred all the Scots on board.Wikipedia:Citationneeded Robert the Bruce demanded justice, but in vain, and so he renewed the Auld Alliance between Scotland andFrance, which was concluded 26 April 1326, at Corbeil. In 1327, the Scots invaded northern England and defeatedthe English at Stanhope in Weardale in County Durham. Before this, Bruce invaded Ulster in Ireland.

Treaty of EdinburghNorthampton 92

NegotiationsAfter the debacle of the Weardale campaign, the Dowager Queen Isabella, and Earl Mortimer of March, governingEngland on behalf of the underage Edward III of England, began to consider peace as the only remaining option. InOctober 1327 they sent envoys to Scotland to open negotiations. On 1 March 1328, at a Parliament at York, EdwardIII issued letters patent which set out the core of the agreement. On 17 March, the negotiations ended and a formaltreaty was signed in the King's Chamber of the Abbey of Holyrood, Edinburgh. The Treaty was ratified by theEnglish Parliament at Northampton on 3 May.[1]

TermsIsabel and Mortimer agreed in the treaty that they, in the name of King Edward III, renounced all pretensions tosovereignty over Scotland. Joanna, the six-year-old sister of Edward III, was promised in marriage to thefour-year-old David, the son of Robert Bruce, and the marriage duly took place on 17 July the same year. In thequitclaim of Edward III of 1 March 1328 preceding the treaty Edward endorsed that the Anglo–Scottish borderwould be maintained as it was in the reign of Alexander III of Scotland and that Scotland, so defined, "shall belongto our dearest ally and friend, the magnificent prince, Lord Robert, by God's grace illustrious King of Scotland, andto his heirs and successors, separate in all things from the kingdom of England, whole, free, and undisturbed inperpetuity, without any kind of subjection, service, claim or demand."[2] In return, the Scots would pay £100,000sterling to England, which was raised by a special peace levy.As part of the treaty, Edward III agreed to return the Stone of Destiny to Scotland. This was not in the treaty, but waspart of a concurrent agreement, and Edward III issued a royal writ 4 months later, on 1 July, addressed to the Abbotof Westminster, which acknowledged this agreement and ordered the Stone be taken to his mother — it was not.Eventually (668 years later) it was returned to Scotland, arriving on 30 November 1996 at Edinburgh Castle. (Butwhen next there is a coronation of a United Kingdom monarch, the stone is to be transported to England for use inthe ceremony.)

EffectsThe treaty lasted only five years. It was unpopular with many English nobles, who viewed it as humiliating. In 1333it was overturned by Edward III, after he had begun his personal reign, and the Second War of ScottishIndependence continued until a lasting peace was established in 1357.

The OriginalThe original treaty [3] was written in French, with two copies made, top and bottom, on a single sheet. After theEnglish and Scottish ambassadors verified that the copies were the same, it was cut in half across the middle with awavy line, so that the two copies could be matched together if ever questioned. The kings did not actually sign thetreaty, but signified their agreement by affixing their seals to straps that hang from the bottom of the document.(These wax seals have not survived the years, and are lost from the straps.) The bottom copy of the two originals isin the National Archives of Scotland, in Edinburgh.

Treaty of EdinburghNorthampton 93

References[1] Magnusson, Magnus. (2000) Scotland: The Story of a Nation London: HarperCollins. ISBN 0-00-257148-X[2] Ronald McNair Scott: Robert the Bruce, King of Scots, Hutchinson & Co 1982, p 222[3] http:/ / www. ltscotland. org. uk/ Images/ SP6-1_Treaty_lg_tcm4-569532. gif

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Article Sources and ContributorsWars of Scottish Independence  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=619891640  Contributors: Adraeus, Alithea, AllanHainey, Alphathon, An Siarach, Andreas Kaganov,Angusmclellan, AntL, Antemeridian, AnyGuy, Anynameidon'tcare, Ardfern, Ary29, Athaenara, Autoerrant, Avillia, Avriette, Awiseman, BTLizard, Berek, Boogieman12, Brendandh,Breogan2008, BrownHairedGirl, Brozen, C.Fred, CalJW, Cameron, Cameron Nedland, Canaen, Carolina cotton, Charles Matthews, Chowbok, Cmdrjameson, Codingmasters, Comatose51,Crosbiesmith, Cuchullain, DBaba, Damacguy, Daza25, Dduck, Deacon of Pndapetzim, Derek Ross, Dermo69, Dougweller, Ebz123, Eclecticology, Edgar181, Electriccatfish2, Erenwip, Esperant,Everyking, Faithlessthewonderboy, Favonian, Felipe P, Finlay McWalter, Fornadan, Fraslet, Fredbauder, Freemarket, Frietjes, Fxer, Gadig, Gdr, Geo Swan, Gmh04, Gogo Dodo, Gr8opinionater,Harborsparrow, Hchc2009, HighKing, Hike395, Hockeybabe61593, Huckamike, Hughstew, Hyperman 42, Ian Pitchford, JBellis, JForget, JScotia, Jaygtee, Jfruh, Jnestorius, JoDonHo, Kate,Kbthompson, Kelly Martin, Kernel Saunters, Kim Traynor, Kingpin13, Koromislo1, Kross, Leandrod, Legis, Leodgunn, Lightmouse, Lkinkade, Magioladitis, Mais oui!, Malcolm Farmer,Malinaccier, Marrtel, MattDP, MelbourneStar, Michael Hardy, Mike Dillon, Mirv, Moonraker, Mordea, Mortein, Mutt Lunker, Nechaev, Neddyseagoon, Nehrams2020, Neutrality, Nev1,Nick123, Notuncurious, Ohconfucius, PKT, Pablo X, Pajfarmor, PatGallacher, Paxsimius, Philiv2, Pigman, Raafi2001, Radagast83, Rcpaterson, Reefyj, Rich Farmbrough, Roadrunner,Robertgreer, SFC9394, SWOI 599, Sabrebd, Sandy Scott, Santiperez, Sardanaphalus, Sdr, Sec 1971, Shell Kinney, SimonP, Skeezix1000, Smilingman, Snapperman2, Spazure, SpookyMulder,SpottedLeaf, Stuart.Jamieson, SuperTails92, Surtsicna, T-borg, Tabletop, Tadgstirkland, Tenoir3, The JPS, TheOldJacobite, Themonksofmontezuma, Theoldanarchist, Thetjord, Tim!, Tomalakgeretkal, Tony1, Tubber, TwistOfCain, Twitchey, TwoOneTwo, Ubiquity, Varitek, WHaggett, Wai Hong, Wally, Writtenright, YeshuaDavid, ZekeMacNeil, Zocky, 193 anonymous edits

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John Balliol  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=616979424  Contributors: Adam Bishop, Agricolae, Aitias, Alansohn, Andrea1952, Andrei Iosifovich, Angusmclellan,Appraiser, Astroview120mm, Auntof6, Autoerrant, Berek, Bigboobs69cabbage, Bob Burkhardt, Brendandh, Bsimmons666, C.Fred, CarolGray, Chris the speller, Closedmouth, Colonies Chris,Cormag100, Courcelles, Crohnie, Crom1, Danbarnesdavies, David Lauder, David Newton, DavidRF, Deacon of Pndapetzim, Deb, Deposuit, Derek Ross, Deror avi, Dferg47, Dimadick, Djp27,Docu, Dominics Fire, DrKiernan, DropShadow, Dsmdgold, Dthem 2000, Ducknish, Duffman, Eapos, Eckieboy, Ellywa, FXShannon, FeanorStar7, Fratrep, GTBacchus, Gdr, GoodDay, Gracoo2,Greenshed, Heracles2008, Itc editor2, J.delanoy, JaT, JackofOz, Jamiemaloneyscoreg, Japanese Searobin, John, John K, John Quiggin, John of Lancaster, JohnAlbertRigali, Kernel Saunters,Kittybrewster, Kotniski, Ksnow, KuatofKDY, Langer, LesleyMcDade, Lord Emsworth, LouisPhilippeCharles, MK8, MKleid, MacRusgail, Mais oui!, Mans79, MattDP, Mav, Michaelsanders,Michitaro, Misekoyu, Montrealais, Newm30, Nimetapoeg, Opera hat, Panarjedde, PatGallacher, Peyre, Philip Stevens, Private Pilot, Randywombat, Rcpaterson, Retired username, RexxS,Robvanvee, RogDel, Rollingstoner100, Royalty90, Rsloch, Saforrest, Sluzzelin, Sohelpme, Someone else, Spicemix, Sprocketonline, Surtsicna, Tbhotch, Thatguyflint, The Emperor's New Spy,Tom Morris, Trigaranus, Tusixoh, Van helsing, Versus22, Waimea, Xn4, Æthelwold, Крепкий чай, 131 anonymous edits

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Robert the Bruce  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=620516070  Contributors: 1exec1, 24.91.183.xxx, 661kts, 96T, A.amitkumar, A.j.roberts, A4086, ARUNKUMAR P.R, Acad Ronin, Acorn42, AdamSmithee, Adamrush, Addyrab, AdjustShift, Adraeus, Afrogranny55, Agentwash, Alansohn, Alison, Alpha Quadrant (alt), Altaar, An Siarach, Anastacia Prisbrey, Andronikus, Andy mci, Angela, Anger22, Angr, Angus2K10, Angusmclellan, Antandrus, Antichain, AntonioMartin, Anárion, ArglebargleIV, Arjayay, Arminden, Arno, Astarabadi, Aveandbyjupiter, Avillia, BFCockburn, Bark, Bart133, BeatrixBelibaste, Bender235, Berek, Bgwhite, Bibi Khanom, BillFlis, Billtheking, Bkell, Blake.elder, Blanchardb, Blueberry0810, Bluejay Young, Bob247, Borkificator, Brandubh Blathmac, Brendandh, Brianann MacAmhlaidh, Brozozo, Bullseyeking26, Bwats2, CDHBruce, CIreland, CPMcE, Caledoniankilt, Calton, Canthusus, Captainpoopypants, CarolGray, Catherinedl, Catpedantic, Ceejayoz, Celtus, Charles Matthews, Charmii, Cherlin, Chewings72, Chicheley, Chingwakabungya, Chochopk, Chris the speller, ChrisGualtieri, Chrisstacey1964, CityOfSilver, CivilCasualty, Clarityfiend, Claíomh Solais, Cnbrb, Cometstyles, CommonsDelinker, Conval, Conversion script, CopperMurdoch, Cormag100, Craigy144, Crosbiesmith, Crystallina, Csbarrett, Csteve41, D6, DBigXray, DVD R W, Daaviiid, Dainomite, Daleyo, Dan Koehl, Danbarnesdavies, Danny, Davecampbell, David Lauder, DavisGL, Dduck, De Maiden City, Deacon of Pndapetzim, Deb, Delirium, Delldot, Deor, Derek Ross, Descendall, Deskford, Dferg47, Dhatfield, Dillard421, Dimadick, Doc glasgow, Dodgeboy08, Dougweller, Dr batfink, DropShadow, Drpickem, DuncanHill, Duncharris, Dynamitecow, Elonka, Epf, Eric Wester, Eric-Wester, ErrantX, Etho714, Ewand03, Falcon8765, FallingGravity, Famguy56, Favonian, Filipvr, Finalius, Fishiehelper2, FlaviaR, FloreatAntiquaDomus, Frankenpuppy, Fred Condo, Furrykef, Gareth Griffith-Jones, General Epitaph, Gianmaria Framarin, Gilderien, Gimboid13, Glenfarclas, Gmh04, Godcardra, Golbez, GoodDay, Goodtimber, Grafen, Grandia01, Grandpafootsoldier, Gregalodon, Guliolopez, Gullucum, Gwernol, Gwinva, Gypsum Fantastic, Haberjw1, Hanfresco, HansM, Harami2000, Hartsoup, Hellomyfriendhello, Henry Flower, HiLo48, Hibernian, Highlandjacobite, Hotcrocodile, Howcheng, Hydrargyrum, IainWR, Iainiainiain, Iambensiemon, Insanity Incarnate, Ir5ac, Iridescent, Isoxyl, Itsmejudith, J 1982, J.delanoy, JF42, JRScotia, JScotia, JSoules, Jachin, Jafeluv, Jake Wartenberg, James62mccullough, Jason Quinn, Java13690, Jay, Jaygtee, Jbill007, Jeanne boleyn, Jeremy Bolwell, Jessicacullen, Jgrantduff, Jheald, Jieaux, Jimjoe, Jmorrison230582, Jobbbie12345, John, John K, John Smith's, John Vandenberg, Jon186, Jonathan Oldenbuck, Jonathan.Bruce, Joshmaul, Jpatros, Jprg1966, Jyril, Jza84, K6ka, Kansas Bear, Kbthompson, Keeshu, Keilana, Keith D, Ken Gallager, Kernel Saunters, Kerowyn, Kestrel man hoovers in the dark, Kilo-Lima, Kim Traynor, Kingpin13, Kirkpatrick, Kirstenellinor, Kjetilbjornsrud, KlipKlopWiki, Kmorozov, KnowledgeOfSelf, Kostisl, Krich, KuatofKDY, L E X commons, L1A1 FAL, Langer, Lankiveil, Laszlo Panaflex, LeaveSleaves, Leithp, Leodgunn, Lesgles, Leszek Jańczuk, Leuko, Lilac Soul, LindsayH, LizardJr8, Lizzie143, Lord Emsworth, Loren Rosen, LorenzoB, Lost on belmont, LoveActresses, Lungtaworld, Lyrelle Everyne, ML5, MZMcBride, Mac Davis, MacRusgail, Mackensen, Maelbrigda, Mais oui!, Mallimak, Mannafredo, Manofwiki007, Maproom, Marc Esnouf, MarcoTolo, Marek69, MasterKiller, Mathonius, Mav, Mediatech492, Mediran, Michael Hardy, MichaelSousa, Michaelsanders, Mick Knapton, Mike Young, Mississippienne, Mk5384, Moe Epsilon, Monkeyzpop, Montrealais, Moondyne, Moriscoinegipto, Morwen, Mrmuk, Muon, Mutt Lunker, NYMets2000, Natty4bumpo, NawlinWiki, Neelix, Netkinetic, Neutrality, Nev1, NewEnglandYankee, Newm30, Niceguyedc, Nick Number, Nikthestunned, Nobzncheez, Nocrowx, Norm mit, NotWith, Nv8200p, O.Koslowski, OAC89, Ordinaterr, Orphan Wiki, OwenBlacker, PCHS-NJROTC, PGWG, Panarjedde, PatGallacher, Paul August, Pedant17, Peter James, Phantomsteve, Phil Boswell, Philip Stevens, Philip Trueman, Phoe, Pigman, Piledhigheranddeeper, Plobnob, Plyrbask2010, Polylerus, Pompeymagnus, PranksterTurtle, Prsgoddess187,

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John III Comyn, Lord of Badenoch  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=620429299  Contributors: Adam keller, Adamrush, Alarob, Anastacia Prisbrey, Andrea1952,Angusmclellan, AntonioMartin, Bazonka, BeatrixBelibaste, Billreid, BlueMoonlet, Brendandh, Celtic3k, Charles Matthews, D6, Danni243, Deacon of Pndapetzim, Deadlock, Deb, Dimadick,Dl2000, Dodgeboy08, Everyking, Ewsd02, Hmains, Howcheng, Huangdi, Jay, Katharineamy, Kbthompson, Kernel Saunters, Kevs, Lavateraguy, Le Deluge, Mais oui!, Mathias-S, Mmxx, MuttLunker, Nunh-huh, Opera hat, PatGallacher, Pompeymagnus, R sirahata, Rbkl, Rcpaterson, Rjwilmsi, RogDel, Rosser1954, Rubiscous, Saforrest, Scotland Rules, Senator2029, Sleigh,Sprocketonline, Stephen, Str1977, Stuart.Jamieson, The Mummy, The twilighted, Thismightbezach, Tide rolls, Tusixoh, Welsh, William Avery, X-Anárion-x, 69 anonymous edits

Battle of Dunbar (1296)  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=605148903  Contributors: Alai, Andrew Gray, Ardfern, Autoerrant, Awiseman, Benson85, BillC, Brendandh,Byblios, Caerwine, Captain Seafort, CarolGray, Chasingsol, Chris the speller, Cloaked Romulan, Comyn1960, Derek Ross, Dermo69, Deucalionite, Dl2000, Eclecticology, Erik Kennedy, Flonto,Fraslet, Gail, Gaius Cornelius, Gdr, GeeJo, George Burgess, Gilliam, Gmh04, Grafen, Harryboyles, Howcheng, J.delanoy, JaGa, John Hansen, Kirill Lokshin, Kizor, Lochheart, MK8,MacRusgail, Mais oui!, Manxruler, Maury Markowitz, MikeLHenderson, Morwen, Nimetapoeg, Pakaraki, Quindie, Rcpaterson, Rosiestep, Rshu, Scotland Rules, Scottish123, Simon12,Snapperman2, SoLando, Tagishsimon, TheOldJacobite, Thegreenj, Tim!, Timsdad, Tnnn, Tuesdaily, Ulric1313, WereSpielChequers, 82 anonymous edits

Battle of Stirling Bridge  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=619405998  Contributors: 1exec1, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, AP1787, Adamrush, Addshore, Ahoerstemeier, Alai,Alaniaris, Altaïr, Amenzix, Amitchell125, Andymc1989, Anonymous101, Ansh666, Ardfern, Asclepius, Atarr, Avoided, Awiseman, Banddroid, BeckenhamBear, Bellerophon5685, Benson85,Bentogoa, Berek, Bernie Wadelheim, BethNaught, Bigd1111, Blaue Max, Bmwhd1, Bobo192, Brianann MacAmhlaidh, BritishWatcher, Burto88, Byblios, C0N6R355, Caiaffa, Callzy broon,CalviNet, Cantiorix, Caranorn, Carnildo, Censorship Workaround, Chuckisback53, Colonies Chris, Coltsfan, Coolhawks88, Cormag100, Corpx, Crecy99, D6, Damirgraffiti, Danjaal, Darkwind,David Biddulph, Davidmeisner, Dduck, Dede2008, Derekbd, Dermo69, Discospinster, Djlayton4, Donner60, Downwards, Drumpat01, Dynaflow, Editbringer, Epicgenius, ErrantX, EthanHampton, Fama Clamosa, Flonto, Folantin, Fraggle81, Fraslet, Fredil Yupigo, Galileo01, Gdr, Gmh04, Grammarmonger, Hajatvrc, Hmains, HoboBob11, Horatio154, Hughstew, Hugo999,Iapetus Regulus, Info199912, Itsmejudith, JRG1976, Jaedza, JamesMLane, Jan1nad, Janfrie1988, Japanese Searobin, Jay, Jaygtee, Jdlambert, Jllm06, Jovianeye, Jrt989, Keyesc, Khazar2,Kilom691, Kim Traynor, Kirill Lokshin, Klemen Kocjancic, KnightRider, Koavf, L1A1 FAL, LauraBell2k9plus2, Leodgunn, Lightmouse, Logan, LordWiltshire1529, Mais oui!, MarnetteD,Materialscientist, Mboverload, Melchoir, Michael Hardy, Mike Rosoft, Milkunderwood, Mirv, Misortie, Miterdale, Mjgm84, Moe Epsilon, Moonraker, Mr0t1633, Mutt Lunker, Myanw, Naraht,NawlinWiki, Ofol, Ohconfucius, Omeganumber, Osloboslo, Oxymoron83, PBS, Pasicles, PatGallacher, Pedant17, Piledhigheranddeeper, ProudIrishAspie, Quadalpha, Quindie, Rapomon,RayFyfe, Rcpaterson, Reconsider the static, Regibox, Renata3, Revcasy, RexNL, Rich Farmbrough, Robertgreer, RodlenJack, Rshu, Rubicon, Rushbugled13, SElefant, Sabrebd, Sam Hocevar,Schoen, Seaphoto, Shipseggsbasket, Snapperman2, SoLando, Sodaant, Some jerk on the Internet, SpaceFlight89, Spireite UK, Studerby, Sun Creator, Tagishsimon, Tentinator, The Man13,TheOldJacobite, Themadexistentialist, Thetruthofwallace, Tide rolls, Tim!, Tolly4bolly, Trahelliven, TransporterMan, Traveler100, Trevor MacInnis, Tttom, Txmy, Unicyclopedia, VasilievVV,Velella, Victor Blacus, Voyager, Wally, Wandalstouring, Welsh, Wetman, Widr, Wikiain, Wikipelli, Wjfox2005, Wulfricqwerty, YellowMonkey, Yvonnio, 375 anonymous edits

Battle of Bannockburn  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=619405695  Contributors: 96T, ABF, ANCorley, APMcConn, Abelard, Abrawak, AchillesSandman, Adam keller,Akerbeltz, Alan Isherwood, Alansohn, Aleenf1, Allmightyduck, Andrei nacu, Andygm, Angusmclellan, Ann Stouter, Ansible, Archer884, Archer888, Ardfern, Arto B, Avalon, Avmarle,AxelBoldt, BRFC98, Ben davison, Benson85, Berek, Bfigura's puppy, Bill Oversixty, Billreid, Blaue Max, Bluehotel, Bob Burkhardt, Bobbaxter, BobbyG86, Bogey97, Breadandcheese,Brendandh, Brianhe, Bruce Condell, Bssc, Byblios, C0N6R355, CHRB, Cactus.man, Calcinations, Caltas, Camembert, CanadianLinuxUser, Canterbury Tail, Cantiorix, Caribbean H.Q., Celtus,Charles Matthews, CharlotteWebb, Chase me ladies, I'm the Cavalry, Choess, Chris G, ChrisCork, Circeus, Clarityfiend, Conval, Cormag100, Crosbiesmith, Cst17, DVdm, David.Monniaux,Deacon of Pndapetzim, Denholm Reynholm, Dermo69, Dieuthuy, Dimadick, Dipa1965, Dl2000, Doncram, Dranzer666, Drmies, Droigheann, Drybones20, Dycedarg, ESkog, EddEdmondson,Eliz81, Elonka, Emily Jensen, Everyking, Ewsd02, Excirial, EyeSerene, Favonian, Fdewaele, Finlay McWalter, FlieGerFaUstMe262, Flonto, Fluox, Fnielsen, Fraslet, Fraxinus Croat,FreplySpang, Gdr, General Grievous, Gingerbreadman4290, Globusz, Gmh04, GoneAwayNowAndRetired, Gordonjcp, Gowps14, Grafen, Grstain, Guanaco, Guliolopez, Gwinva, HENRY V OFENGLAND, Hchc2009, Hede2000, Helios22, Henn.erz3, Hephaestos, Herk1955, Historian of Scotland, Hodja Nasreddin, Howcheng, Huckamike, Iain1917, IdreamofJeanie, Isis, Isoxyl,J.delanoy, JGGardiner, JScotia, Jasper Chua, Jaufrec, Javierito92, Jdforrester, Jeandré du Toit, Jeanne boleyn, Jeffrey Mall, Jguad1, Jim1138, Jivecat, Jllm06, Joconnor, JoeMarfice, JoeSmack,John.james, Josdeng, Jpiw, Jprg1966, Jquarry, Jumpmaster6, Jwy, K6ka, Kansas Bear, Kelson, Kim Traynor, King jakob c, Kirill Lokshin, Knerlo, Koavf, Kuru, Lavenderbunny, Leehein, Leithp,Leodgunn, LiDaobing, Lightmouse, LilHelpa, Lilac Soul, Ling.Nut, Lochheart, Longhair, Lor, Lord Voldemort, Loren Rosen, Lucky13pjn, Luk, MBaran, MacRusgail, Magioladitis, Mais oui!,Marek69, Mathewannis, MattDP, Mfcayley, Minimac, Mirv, Mmccalpin, Mogism, Mongoose27, Monstrelet, Moshe Constantine Hassan Al-Silverburg, MrChile, Mugunth Kumar, MurielGottrop, MusikAnimal, Mutt Lunker, NTSHunter, Nev1, Newyorkadam, Norm mit, Ohconfucius, Osloboslo, PBS, PBS-AWB, Panarjedde, Panzer V Panther, PatGallacher, Paul August,Paul1776, Pbl1998, Peter James, PeterPredator, Phaedriel, Philip Trueman, Pompeymagnus, Postie77, Profoss, Promonex, ProudIrishAspie, Pseudomonas, Pádraic MacUidhir, Quadalpha,QuintusPetillius, RA0808, Raoulduke47, Rcpaterson, Rich Farmbrough, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), Rjwilmsi, Robertgreer, Rodhullandemu, Rosiestep, Rshu, Rubiscous, Ruperthumpledink, Russophile2, Sabrebd, Schol49, Scotire, Scotland Rules, Scotstarvit, Semperf, Sherool, Shoessss, Snapperman2, SoLando, Sporty Chicken, Stephencdickson, Stumps, Sullivan9211,Summitscribbler, Tabularius, Tagishsimon, Taobear, Tasfan, Tfz, The ed17, The wub, TheOldJacobite, Thomask0, Thrissel, Thumperward, Tim!, Tolea93, Tommy6860, ToothlessinSeattle,Tpbradbury, Trahelliven, Trappist the monk, Turian, Uncle Scrooge, Utcursch, Valetude, Vector Potential, Wayne Slam, WhyNotFreedom, Widr, Wiki alf, Wikiain, WolfmanSF, Xxsquishyxx,Yamamoto Ichiro, Yngvarr, Yooden, Yzmo, 565 anonymous edits

Declaration of Arbroath  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=616150503  Contributors: A1r, Andrew Gray, AnonMoos, Ardfern, Ben MacDui, Berek, Blue-Haired Lawyer,Boleslaw, Brendandh, BrynLlywelyn, Cbjohnny, Charmii, ChrisGualtieri, Conversion script, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DanShearer, DavidLeighEllis, Dbachmann, Dduck, Deacon of Pndapetzim,Derek Ross, Dermo69, Doradus, Dougweller, Dweir, Eastlaw, Ed Tracey, Eric Forste, Fishiehelper2, Gaius Cornelius, Gandalf x, Gentgeen, George Burgess, GoingBatty, Graham87, Haikon,Hajor, Henry Flower, Henrygb, Hmains, Howcheng, Hrafn, Imagesonline, Iota, J04n, Joseph Solis in Australia, Kez321, Kim Traynor, Kirill Lokshin, KnowledgeOfSelf, Kurykh, Larry Sanger,Larry_Sanger, Lobsterthermidor, ML5, MacRusgail, Mais oui!, Mav, Mediatech492, Mirv, Mr. Blackout, ultimate ruler, Ms medusa, NawlinWiki, Neddyseagoon, Ng556, Niera, Noseynosenose,PatGallacher, PeterR, Quadell, Raven in Orbit, Rincewind42, Rjt3, Robert McClenon, Rurquhart, S kitahashi, Santiperez, Sophitus, Srsm1820, Stewie1971, Svick, Tadgstirkland, Tassedethe,Thrissel, Tim!, TreasuryTag, Wee Curry Monster, Woohookitty, X!, 82 anonymous edits

Treaty of Edinburgh–Northampton  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=613472365  Contributors: An Siarach, Anthony Appleyard, Ardfern, BRFC98, Brendandh,CambridgeBayWeather, ColinFine, Cynical, Dduck, Dermo69, Deucalionite, Father Ignatius, Francs2000, Gmh04, Good Olfactory, Isaac Sanolnacov, Ivanomi, Jeffthejiff, Jonathan Oldenbuck,Jrt989, Kirill Lokshin, Leandrod, Mais oui!, Mathiasrex, Mirv, Monstrelet, Nick Number, Nimetapoeg, PatGallacher, Quadell, Rcpaterson, Saga City, Standsure, T-bonham, Thrissel, Tim!,Voyager, Walgamanus, 20 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 97

Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsFile:Royal Arms of the Kingdom of Scotland.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Royal_Arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Scotland.svg  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-Sharealike 3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0  Contributors: Royal_Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Scotland.svg: Sodacan derivative work: Sodacan (talk)File:Flag of Scotland.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Scotland.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: none knownFile:Edward I and II.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Edward_I_and_II.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Cartedaos, MhmrodriguesFile:John Balliol.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:John_Balliol.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Forman Armorial (produced for Mary, Queen of Scots)File:War of Independence figures by Wm Hole.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:War_of_Independence_figures_by_Wm_Hole.JPG  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Kim TraynorFile:Bannockburn Monument plaque - geograph.org.uk - 1538086.jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bannockburn_Monument_plaque_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1538086.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 2.0 Generic Contributors: 3 anonymous editsFile:Edward III invades Scotland.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Edward_III_invades_Scotland.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Kim Traynor, ScotireFile:The Battle of Neville's Cross.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_Battle_of_Neville's_Cross.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Kim TraynorFile:David Bruce, king of Scotland, acknowledges Edward III as his feudal lord.jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:David_Bruce,_king_of_Scotland,_acknowledges_Edward_III_as_his_feudal_lord.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Virgil Master(illuminator)File:Alexander III and Ollamh Rígh.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Alexander_III_and_Ollamh_Rígh.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Calgacus,Danbarnesdavies, Gryffindor, Lx 121, Mhmrodrigues, Parpan05, Sabrebd, Seamus45, Zhuyifei1999, 1 anonymous editsFile:Alexander III statue, West door of St. Giles, Edinburgh.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Alexander_III_statue,_West_door_of_St._Giles,_Edinburgh.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Kim TraynorFile:Death of astag by Benjamin West.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Death_of_astag_by_Benjamin_West.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Benjamin West(Life time: died1820)File:Alexander III monument, Kinghorn Fife.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Alexander_III_monument,_Kinghorn_Fife.jpg  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Kim TraynorFile:Gal_nations_edward_i.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gal_nations_edward_i.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Hchc2009, Jmperry, Mhmrodrigues,NotFromUtrecht, Thomas Gun, Verica Atrebatum, 1 anonymous editsFile:Edward I and Eleanor.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Edward_I_and_Eleanor.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Acoma, Jheald, Lampman, Mel22,Mhmrodrigues, Verica AtrebatumFile:Montfort Evesham.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Montfort_Evesham.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Acoma, Hchc2009, Lampman, Skim, VericaAtrebatum, 1 anonymous editsFile:EdwardICrusadeMap.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:EdwardICrusadeMap.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike  Contributors: PHGCOMFile:Wales_after_the_Treaty_of_Montgomery_1267.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wales_after_the_Treaty_of_Montgomery_1267.svg  License: CreativeCommons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: AlexDFile:Caernarfon Castle 1994.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Caernarfon_Castle_1994.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: Herbert OrtnerFile:Caernafon Wards.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Caernafon_Wards.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: AlbertistvanFile:Beaumaris aerial.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Beaumaris_aerial.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: CadwFile:Harlech Castle - Cadw photograph.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Harlech_Castle_-_Cadw_photograph.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Hchc2009,InnotataFile:Conwy Town Walls - geograph.org.uk - 1723348.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Conwy_Town_Walls_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1723348.jpg  License: CreativeCommons Attribution-Share Alike 2.0 Generic  Contributors: WereSpielChequersFile:Eduard+Filip.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Eduard+Filip.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AcomaFile:SanktEdvardsstol westminster.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SanktEdvardsstol_westminster.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5  Contributors:Kjetil BjørnsrudFile:Winchester RoundTable.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Winchester_RoundTable.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0 Contributors: Martin KraftFile:Groat of Edward I 4 pences.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Groat_of_Edward_I_4_pences.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: PHGCOMFile:King Edward I penny London mint.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:King_Edward_I_penny_London_mint.jpg  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: NumisanticaFile:Medieval parliament edward.Jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Medieval_parliament_edward.Jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Ardfern, Bkwillwm,Isthmus, Man vyi, Mdd, Primaler, 1 anonymous editsFile:Tower of London King's room.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tower_of_London_King's_room.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0  Contributors: Bernard GagnonFile:Tomb of Edward.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tomb_of_Edward.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Lampman, Mhmrodrigues, Verica AtrebatumFile:Portrait of William Stubbs by Hubert von Herkomer.jpeg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Portrait_of_William_Stubbs_by_Hubert_von_Herkomer.jpeg  License:Public Domain  Contributors: P. S. Burtonfile:Eduard2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Eduard2.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: User:Siebrandfile:Eleanor Castile.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Eleanor_Castile.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: User:SiebrandImage:Commons-logo.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Commons-logo.svg  License: logo  Contributors: AnomieImage:SetonArmorialJohnBalliolAndWife.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SetonArmorialJohnBalliolAndWife.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:Dsmdgold, Gryffindor, Shakko, Torstein, VoyagerImage:Wikisource-logo.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wikisource-logo.svg  License: logo  Contributors: ChrisiPK, Guillom, INeverCry, Jarekt, Leyo,MichaelMaggs, NielsF, Rei-artur, Rocket000, SteinsplitterFile:William wallace.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:William_wallace.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Spisák BenceFile:Braveheart edinburghcastle.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Braveheart_edinburghcastle.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5  Contributors: KjetilBjørnsrudImage:Alexander III and Ollamh Rígh.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Alexander_III_and_Ollamh_Rígh.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Calgacus,Danbarnesdavies, Gryffindor, Lx 121, Mhmrodrigues, Parpan05, Sabrebd, Seamus45, Zhuyifei1999, 1 anonymous editsFile:Wallace, as depicted in a children's history book from 1906.jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wallace,_as_depicted_in_a_children's_history_book_from_1906.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Kilom691, Kim Traynor, ScotireFile:William Wallace statue, Scottish National Portrait Gallery, Edinburgh.JPG  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:William_Wallace_statue,_Scottish_National_Portrait_Gallery,_Edinburgh.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Kim TraynorFile:SterlingBridge.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SterlingBridge.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Davidmeisner at en.wikipediaFile:Wallace Monument 20080505 Stained glass William Wallace.jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wallace_Monument_20080505_Stained_glass_William_Wallace.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Otter

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 98

File:William Wallace Statue , Aberdeen2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:William_Wallace_Statue_,_Aberdeen2.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:Original uploader was Axis12002 at en.wikipediaFile:The Trial of William Wallace at Westminster.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_Trial_of_William_Wallace_at_Westminster.jpg  License: Public Domain Contributors: Jappalang, MattesFile:S F-E-CAMERON LONDON WALLACE MEMORIAL STBARTS.JPG  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:S_F-E-CAMERON_LONDON_WALLACE_MEMORIAL_STBARTS.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0 Contributors: Steve F-E-Cameron (Merlin-UK)File:Wfm wallace monument.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wfm_wallace_monument.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Finlay McWalterImage:Wikiquote-logo.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wikiquote-logo.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: -xfi-, Dbc334, Doodledoo, Elian, Guillom, Jeffq,Krinkle, Maderibeyza, Majorly, Nishkid64, RedCoat, Rei-artur, Rocket000, 11 anonymous editsFile:Robertthebruce.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Robertthebruce.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Gryffindor, JeremyA, Juiced lemon, Maksim, Reddevil 666File:Robert I and Isabella of Mar.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Robert_I_and_Isabella_of_Mar.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Forman Armorial(produced for Mary, Queen of Scots)Image:Death of Comyn.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Death_of_Comyn.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: BeatrixBelibasteFile:Robert The Bruce Crowned King of Scots.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Robert_The_Bruce_Crowned_King_of_Scots.jpg  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Kim TraynorFile:Battle of Bannockburn - Bruce addresses troops.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Battle_of_Bannockburn_-_Bruce_addresses_troops.jpg  License: PublicDomain  Contributors: Edmund Blair Leighton signs his woodcuts as EBL. UNIQ-ref-0-4982840008e3bc17-QINU UNIQ-ref-1-4982840008e3bc17-QINUFile:Dunfermline Abbey - entrance.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dunfermline_Abbey_-_entrance.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 2.0Generic  Contributors: Andy StephensonFile:Dunfermline Abbey tower.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dunfermline_Abbey_tower.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Kim TraynorFile:Robert the Bruce.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Robert_the_Bruce.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: Christian BickelFile:Robert the Bruce, Edinburgh Castle.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Robert_the_Bruce,_Edinburgh_Castle.jpg  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Kim TraynorFile:Robert The Bruce Marischal College.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Robert_The_Bruce_Marischal_College.JPG  License: Creative Commons Zero Contributors: User:L E X commonsFile:England COA.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:England_COA.svg  License: unknown  Contributors: IpankoninFile:Old Stirling Bridge and the Abbey Craig with the Wallace Monument, Stirling Scotland.jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Old_Stirling_Bridge_and_the_Abbey_Craig_with_the_Wallace_Monument,_Stirling_Scotland.jpg  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Kim TraynorFile:Blason Murray (Moray) (selon Gelre).svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Blason_Murray_(Moray)_(selon_Gelre).svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: User:Jimmy44File:Blason ville fr Dreux (Eure-et-Loir).svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Blason_ville_fr_Dreux_(Eure-et-Loir).svg  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors: User:SpedonaFile:Cressing.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cressing.gif  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Suun at de.wikipediaImage:Stirling Bridge and Wallace Monument.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Stirling_Bridge_and_Wallace_Monument.JPG  License: Public Domain Contributors: Janfrie1988File:The Battle of Stirling Bridge.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_Battle_of_Stirling_Bridge.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Auntof6, Kim TraynorFile:Battle of Bannockburn.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Battle_of_Bannockburn.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Kim Traynor, Lampman, Lx 121File:Royal Arms of England (1198-1340).svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Royal_Arms_of_England_(1198-1340).svg  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-Sharealike 3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0  Contributors: SodacanFile:Blason Humphrey de Bohun, Comte de Northampton (selon Gelre).svg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Blason_Humphrey_de_Bohun,_Comte_de_Northampton_(selon_Gelre).svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors:User:Jimmy44File:Battle from Holkham Bible.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Battle_from_Holkham_Bible.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Ian BremnerFile:Mapbannockburn1.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mapbannockburn1.svg  License: Public domain  Contributors: Ardfern, Lucien leGrey, Magog the OgreFile:Mapbannockburn1.2.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mapbannockburn1.2.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Andrei nacuFile:Fm bannockburn monument.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fm_bannockburn_monument.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:en:user:Finlay McWalterFile:Robert the Bruce statue, Bannockburn - geograph.org.uk - 1538090.jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Robert_the_Bruce_statue,_Bannockburn_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1538090.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 2.0 Generic Contributors: Kilom691, Kim TraynorFile:Wikisource-logo.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wikisource-logo.svg  License: logo  Contributors: ChrisiPK, Guillom, INeverCry, Jarekt, Leyo, MichaelMaggs,NielsF, Rei-artur, Rocket000, SteinsplitterFile:Declaration of arbroath.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Declaration_of_arbroath.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Scotland baronsFile:Declaration of Arbroath translation 1.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Declaration_of_Arbroath_translation_1.JPG  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Kim TraynorFile:Declaration of Arbroath translation 2.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Declaration_of_Arbroath_translation_2.JPG  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Kim Traynor

License 99

LicenseCreative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0//creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/