The School of Athens 1

The School of Athens

The School of Athens

Artist Raphael

Year 1509–1510

Type Fresco

Dimensions 500 cm × 770 cm (200 in × 300 in)

Location Apostolic Palace, Vatican City

The School of Athens, or Scuola di Atene in Italian, is one of the most famous frescoes by the Italian Renaissanceartist Raphael. It was painted between 1510 and 1511 as a part of Raphael's commission to decorate with frescoes therooms now known as the Stanze di Raffaello, in the Apostolic Palace in the Vatican. The Stanza della Segnatura wasthe first of the rooms to be decorated, and The School of Athens the second painting to be finished there, after LaDisputa, on the opposite wall. The picture has long been seen as "Raphael's masterpiece and the perfect embodimentof the classical spirit of the High Renaissance."[1]

Program, subject, figure identifications and interpretationsThe "School of Athens" is one of a group of four main frescoes on the walls of the Stanza (those on either sidecentrally interrupted by windows) that depict distinct branches of knowledge. Each theme is identified above by aseparate tondo containing a majestic female figure seated in the clouds, with putti bearing the phrases: “SeekKnowledge of Causes”, “Divine Inspiration”, “Knowledge of Things Divine” (Disputa), “To Each What Is Due”.Accordingly, the figures on the walls below exemplify Philosophy, Poetry (including Music), Theology, and Law.[2]

The traditional title is not Raphael's, and the subject of the “School” is actually "Philosophy",[3] or at least ancientGreek philosophy, and its overhead tondo-label, “Causarum Cognitio” tells us what kind, as it appears to echoAristotle’s emphasis on wisdom as knowing why, hence knowing the causes, in Metaphysics Book I and PhysicsBook II. Indeed, Plato and Aristotle appear to be the central figures in the scene below. However all the philosophersdepicted sought to understand through knowledge of first causes. Many lived before Plato and Aristotle, and hardly athird were Athenians. The architecture contains Roman elements, but the general semi-circular setting having Platoand Aristotle at its centre might be alluding to Pythagoras' circumpunct.Commentators have suggested that nearly every great Greek philosopher can be found within the painting, but determining which are depicted is difficult, since Raphael made no designations outside possible likenesses, and no contemporary documents to explain the painting. Compounding the problem, Raphael had to invent a system of iconography to allude to various figures for whom there were no traditional visual types. For example, while the Socrates figure is immediately recognizable from Classical busts, the alleged Epicurus is far removed from the standard type for that philosopher. Aside from the identities of the figures depicted, many aspects of the fresco have been variously interpreted, but few such interpretations are generally accepted among scholars. The popular idea that the rhetorical gestures of Plato and Aristotle are kinds of pointing (to the heavens, and down to earth) is a likely

The School of Athens 2

reading. However Plato’s Timaeus – which is the book Raphael places in his hand – was a sophisticated treatment ofspace, time and change, including the Earth, which guided mathematical sciences for over a millennium. Aristotle,with his four elements theory, held that all change on Earth was owing to the motions of the heavens. In the paintingAristotle carries his Ethics, which he denied could be reduced to a mathematical science. It is not established howmuch the young Raphael knew of ancient philosophy, what guidance he might have had from people such asBramante, or whether a detailed program was dictated by his sponsor, Pope Julius II. Nevertheless the fresco waseven recently interpreted as an exhortation to philosophy and, in a deeper way, as a visual representation of the roleof Love in elevating people toward upper knowledge, largely in debt with the contemporary theories of MarsilioFicino and other neo-platonic thinkers linked to Raphael.[4] Finally, according to Vasari, the scene includes Raphaelhimself, the Duke of Mantua, Zoroaster and some Evangelists.[5]

However, as Heinrich Wölfflin observed, "it is quite wrong to attempt interpretations of the 'School of Athens' as anesoteric treatise ... The all-important thing was the artistic motive which expressed a physical or spiritual state, andthe name of the person was a matter of indifference" in Raphael's time.[6] What is evident is Raphael's artistry inorchestrating a beautiful space, continuous with that of viewers in the Stanza, in which a great variety of humanfigures, each one expressing "mental states by physical actions", interact, and are grouped in a "polyphony" unlikeanything in earlier art, in the ongoing dialogue of Philosophy.[7]

An interpretation of the fresco relating to hidden symmetries of the figures and the star constructed by Bramante wasgiven by Guerino Mazzola and collaborators.[8]

FiguresThe identities of some of the philosophers in the picture, such as Plato or Aristotle, are undeniable. Beyond that,identifications of Raphael's figures have always been hypothetical. To complicate matters, beginning from Vasari'sefforts, some have received multiple identifications, not only as ancients but also as figures contemporary withRaphael.[9]

Luitpold Dussler counts among those who can be identified with some certainty: Plato, Aristotle, Socrates,Pythagoras,[10] Euclid,[11] Ptolemy, Zoroaster, Raphael, Sodoma and Diogenes. Other identifications he holds to be"more or less speculative".[12]

A more comprehensive list of proposed identifications is given below:[13]

The parenthetical names are the contemporary characters from whom Raphael is thought to have drawn his likenesses.

1: Zeno of Citium 2: Epicurus Possibly, the image of two philosophers, who were typically shown in pairs during the Renaissance: Heraclitus, the "weeping" philosopher, and Democritus, the "laughing" philosopher. 3: unknown (believed to be Raphael)[14] 4: Boethius or Anaximander or Empedocles? 5: Averroes 6: Pythagoras 7: Alcibiades or Alexander the Great? 8: Antisthenes or Xenophon or Timon? 9: Raphael[15],[14][16] Fornarina as a personification of

The School of Athens 3

Love[17] or Francesco Maria della Rovere? 10: Aeschines or Xenophon? 11: Parmenides? (Leonardo da Vinci)12: Socrates 13: Heraclitus (Michelangelo) 14: Plato (Leonardo da Vinci)(Archimedes) (thought to be anamalgamation of the three) 15: Aristotle (Giuliano da Sangallo) 16: Diogenes 17: Plotinus (Donatello?) 18: Euclid orArchimedes with students (Bramante?) 19: Zoroaster (Baldassare Castiglione) 20: Ptolemy? R: Apelles (Raphael)21: Protogenes (Il Sodoma, Perugino, or Timoteo Viti)[18]

Central figures (14 and 15)

In the center of the fresco, at its architecture's central vanishing point,are the two undisputed main subjects: Plato on the left and Aristotle,his student, on the right. Both figures hold modern (of the time), boundcopies of their books in their left hands, while gesturing with theirright. Plato holds Timaeus, Aristotle his Nicomachean Ethics. Plato isdepicted as old, grey, wise-looking, and bare-foot. By contrastAristotle, slightly ahead of him, is in mature manhood, handsome,well-shod and dressed with gold, and the youth about them seem tolook his way. In addition, these two central figures gesture alongdifferent dimensions: Plato vertically, upward along the picture-plane,into the beautiful vault above; Aristotle on the horizontal plane atright-angles to the picture-plane (hence in strong foreshortening),initiating a powerful flow of space toward viewers. It is popularlythought that their gestures indicate central aspects of theirphilosophies, for Plato, his Theory of Forms, and for Aristotle, hisempiricist views, with an emphasis on concrete particulars. However,

Plato's Timaeus was, even in the Renaissance, a very influential treatise on the cosmos, whereas Aristotle insistedthat the purpose of ethics is "practical" rather than "theoretical" or "speculative": not knowledge for its own sake, ashe considered cosmology to be.

SettingThe building is in the shape of a Greek cross, which some have suggested was intended to show a harmony betweenpagan philosophy and Christian theology[1] (see Christianity and Paganism and Christian philosophy). Thearchitecture of the building was inspired by the work of Bramante, who, according to Vasari, helped Raphael withthe architecture in the picture.[1] Some have suggested that the building itself was intended to be an advance view ofSt. Peter's Basilica.[1]

There are two sculptures in the background. The one on the left is the god Apollo, god of light, archery and music,holding a lyre.[1] The sculpture on the right is Athena, goddess of wisdom, in her Roman guise as Minerva.[1]

The main arch, above the characters, shows a meander (also known as a Greek fret or Greek key design), a designusing continuous lines that repeat in a "series of rectangular bends" which originated on pottery of the GreekGeometric period and then become widely used in ancient Greek architectural friezes.[19]

Drawings and cartoonA number of drawings made by Raphael as studies for the School of Athens are extant.[20] A study for the Diogenes is in the Städel in Frankfurt[21] while a study for the group around Pythagoras, in the lower left of the painting, is preserved in the Albertina Museum in Vienna.[22] Several drawings, showing the two men talking while walking up the steps on the right and the Medusa on Athena's shield,[23] the statue of Athena (Minerva) and three other statues,[24] a study for the combat-scene in the relief below Apollo[25] and "Euclid" teaching his pupils[26] are in the

The School of Athens 4

Ashmolean Museum of Art and Archaeology at Oxford University.The cartoon for the painting is in the Ambrosiana in Milan. School of Athens Cartoon [27]

CopiesThe Victoria and Albert Museum has a rectangular version over 4 metres by 8 metres in size, painted on canvas,dated 1755 by Anton Raphael Mengs on display in the eastern Cast Court.[28]

Modern reproductions of the fresco abound. For example, a full-size one can be seen in the auditorium of Old CabellHall at the University of Virginia. Produced in 1900 by George W. Breck to replace an older reproduction that wasdestroyed in a fire in 1895, it is four inches off scale from the original, because the Vatican would not allow identicalreproductions of its art works.[29]

Other reproductions include: by Neide, in Königsberg Cathedral, Kaliningrad,[30] in the University of North Carolinaat Asheville's Highsmith University Student Union, and a recent one in the seminar room at Baylor University'sBrooks College. A copy of Raphael's School of Athens was painted on the wall of the ceremonial stairwell that leadsto the famous, main-floor reading room of the Bibliothèque Sainte-Geneviève in Paris.The two figures at the left of Plotinus were used as part of the cover art of both Use Your Illusion I and II albums ofGuns N' Roses.

Gallery

Zeno of Citium Epicurus Averroes and Pythagoras

Pythagoras Alcibiades or Alexander theGreat and Antisthenes or

Xenophon

Parmenides Aeschines and Socrates

The School of Athens 5

Heraclitus Plato Aristotle Diogenes

Bramante asEuclid or

Archimedes

Zoroaster, Ptolemy, Raphael asApelles and Perugino or Timoteo

Viti as Protogenes

References[1] History of Art: The Western Tradition (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=MMYHuvhWBH4C& pg=PT470& dq=TIMAEUS+ raphael+ +

"school+ of+ athens"+ + plato+ Pythagoras& ei=gS47R9vpNY_g6wL7_6XWCg& sig=R4GMVcpACM4NY6zdu-acOEp_tQI#PPT469,M1)By Horst Woldemar Janson, Anthony F. Janson

[2] See Giorgio Vasari, "Raphael of Urbino", in Lives of the Artists, vol. I: "In each of the four circles he made an allegorical figure to point thesignificance of the scene beneath, towards which it turns. For the first, where he had painted Philosophy, Astrology, Geometry and Poetryagreeing with Theology, is a woman representing Knowledge, seated in a chair supported on either side by a goddess Cybele, with thenumerous breasts ascribed by the ancients to Diana Polymastes. Her garment is of four colours, representing the four elements, her head beingthe colour of fire, her bust that of air, her thighs that of earth, and her legs that of water." For further clarification, and introduction to moresubtle interpretations, see E. H. Gombrich, “Raphael’s Stanza della Segnatura and the Nature of Its Symbolism”, in Symbolic Images: Studiesin the Art of the Renaissance (London: Phaidon, 1975).

[3] Heinrich Wölfflin, Classic Art: An Introduction to the Italian Renaissance (London: Phaidon, 2d edn. 1953), p. 93[4] M. Smolizza, ‘’Rafael y el Amor. La Escuela de Atenas como protréptico a la filosofia’’, in ‘Idea y Sentimiento. Itinerarios por el dibujo de

Rafael a Cézanne’, Barcelona, 2007, pp. 29-77. Here you can find a large review of the main interpretations proposed in the last two centuries.[5][5] According to Vasari, "Raphael received a hearty welcome from Pope Julius, and in the chamber of the Segnatura he painted the theologians

reconciling Philosophy and Astrology with Theology, including portraits of all the wise men of the world in dispute."[6][6] Wōlfflin, p. 88.[7][7] Wōlfflin, pp. 94f.[8] Guerino Mazzola et al.: Rasterbild - Bildraster. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, et al. 1986, ISBN 3-540-17267-X.[9] Vasari mentions portraits of Federico II of Mantua, Bramante, and Raphael himself: Giorgio Vasari, Lives of the Artists, v. I, sel. & transl. by

George Bull (London: Penguin, 1965), p. 292.[10] Jürg Meyer zur Capellen, however, qualifies the certainty of this identification writing "eine Gruppe von Lesenden und Disputierenden, die

um eine Sitzfigur, vielleicht Pythagoras, angeordnet ist." ("a group of people reading and debating, arranged around a seated figure, perhapsPythagoras.") Jürg Meyer zur Capellen: Raffael (Munich: Beck 2010), p.49

[11] Again, Meyer zur Capellen is more cautious: "Eine Gruppe von Schülern umgibt einen Lehrer (Archimedes oder Euklid?), der auf einerTafel ein geometrisches Prinzip erläutert" Jürg Meyer zur Capellen: Raffael (Munich: Beck 2010), p.50

[12] Luitpold Dussler: Raphael. A Critical Catalogue (London and New York: Phaidon 1971), p.73[13] Following The School of Athens, "Who is Who?" (http:/ / www. mlahanas. de/ Greeks/ SchoolAthens. htm) by Michael Lahanas[14] Raphael has reused the motif of two women from his earlier work the Vision of a Knight. Raphaël, page 215, Edition 31; Edition 42 of

Chefs-d'oeuvre de l'art: Grands peintres, Taylor & Francis, 1966. or (Federico II of Mantua?)[15][15] Understanding art concise history page 118

The School of Athens 6

[16] The interpretation of this figure as Hypatia seems to have originated from the Internet. Serious sources don't mention it at all. H. J. Mozans(=John Augustine Zahm) specifically regrets that Hypatia doesn't appear in the painting in his book Women in Science (http:/ / www. archive.org/ details/ womaninsciencewi00mozaiala) p.141

[17] Raphael's lover Fornarina is portrayed in a famous painting in the National Gallery of Ancient Art in Rome. This identification has beenintroduced on 2002 by Matteo Smolizza during his cooperation with Lorenza Mochi Onori, former Director of the Museum, in the occasion ofthe Exhibit La Fornarina di Raffaello, Milan, Fondazione Arte e Civiltà, March 14 - June 2, 2002. It was later investigated on the basis of 1)position of the portrait (specular to Raphael's one) ; 2) appearance compared with contemporary Raphael’s drawings; 3) strictly contemporarytexts by Raphael to the woman; 4) fresco's general meaning. Cfr. Smolizza, pp. 68-74

[18] The interpretation of this figure as Sodoma may be in error, as Sodoma was 33 at the time of painting, while Raphael's teacher, Perugino,was a renowned painter and aged about 60 at the time of this painting, consistent with the image. Timoteo Viti is another plausible candidate.

[19] Lyttleton, Margaret. "Meander." Grove Art Online. Oxford University Press, 2012. Accessed 5 Aug 2012.[20] Luitpold Dussler: Raphael. A Critical Catalogue (London and New York: Phaidon 1971), p.74[21] Zeichnungen – 16. Jahrhundert – Graphische Sammlung – Sammlung – Städel Museum (http:/ / www. staedelmuseum. de/ sm/ index.

php?StoryID=241& ObjectID=355). Staedelmuseum.de (2010-11-18). Retrieved on 2011-06-13.[22] Raffaello Santi. mit seinen Schülern (Studie für die "Schule von Athen", Stanza della Segnatura, Vatikan) (http:/ / gallery. albertina. at/

eMuseum/ code/ eMuseum. asp?newaction=advsearch& searchFlag=1& searchpage=6& operatorpeople=Bitte+ wählen+ Sie. . . &people=& operatorTitle=Bitte+ wählen+ Sie. . . & Title=& operatorItemDate=Bitte+ wählen+ Sie. . . & datebegin=& dateend=&operatorMedium=Bitte+ wählen+ Sie. . . & Medium=& operatorNumber=ist& Number=4883& imgquicksearch. x=9& imgquicksearch.y=8Pythagoras) (trans.: Pythagoras and his students (Study for the 'School of Athens', Stanza della Signatura, the Vatican) (inventory number4883)). Albertina Museum. Vienna, Austria, 2008. Retrieved on 2011-06-13.

[23] Raphael (1482 - 1520). Two Men conversing on a Flight of Steps, and a Head shouting (http:/ / www. ashmolean. museum/ ash/ objects/objectviews/ WA1846. 191. html). Ashmolean Museum of Art and Archaeology, University of Oxford, 2011. Retrieved on 2011-06-13.

[24] Raphael (1482 - 1520). Studies for a Figure of Minerva and Other Statues (http:/ / www. ashmolean. museum/ ash/ objects/ objectviews/WA1846. 192. html). Ashmolean Museum of Art and Archaeology, University of Oxford, 2011. Retrieved on 2011-06-13.

[25] Raphael (1482 - 1520). Recto: Combat of nude men (http:/ / www. ashmolean. museum/ ash/ objects/ objectviews/ WA1846. 193. html).Ashmolean Museum of Art and Archaeology, University of Oxford, 2011. Retrieved on 2011-06-13.

[26] Raphael (1482-1520). Euclid instructing his Pupils (http:/ / www. ashmolean. museum/ ash/ objects/ objectviews/ WA1846. 194.htmlRecto:). Ashmolean Museum of Art and Archaeology, University of Oxford, 2011. Retrieved on 2011-06-13.

[27] http:/ / learn. columbia. edu/ raphael/ images/ school_of_athens/ raphael_athens_cartoon_lg. jpg[28] V&A Museum: Copy of Raphael's School of Athens in the Vatican (http:/ / images. vam. ac. uk/ indexplus/ result. html?_IXFIRST_=2&

_IXSS_=_IXFIRST_=1& _IXINITSR_=y& %24%3dIXID=& _IXACTION_=query& %24%3dIXOBJECT=& _IXMAXHITS_=15&%2asform=vanda& %24%3dIXNAME=& _IXSESSION_=J_dKf4opqdR& %24%3dIXPLACE=& _IXadv_=0& search=search&%24%3dIXMATERIAL=& %24%3ds=anton+ raphael+ mengs& %24%3dop=AND& _IXFPFX_=templates%2ft& %24%3dsi=text&%24%3dIXFROM=& %24%3dIXTO=& _IXACTION_=query& _IXMAXHITS_=1& _IXSR_=_5mo6D1dmLJ& _IXSPFX_=templates/ t&_IXFPFX_=templates/ t& s=J_dKf4opqdR). Images.vam.ac.uk (2009-08-25). Retrieved on 2011-06-13.

[29] Information on Old Cabell Hall (http:/ / www. virginia. edu/ music/ cabell. html) from University of Virginia[30] Northern Germany: As Far as the Bavarian and Austrian Frontiers (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=vHg2AAAAMAAJ&

pg=RA1-PA247& lpg=RA1-PA247& dq=school+ of+ athens+ konigsberg+ cathedral& source=web& ots=h21ALhbKl0&sig=WWy7S6bughX2DOr-p44AkR79s1g), Baedeker, 1890, p. 247.

External links• The School of Athens (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ programmes/ b00j7txt) on In Our Time at the BBC. ( listen now

(http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ iplayer/ console/ b00j7txt/ In_Our_Time_The_School_of_Athens))• The School of Athens, Masterpieces of Western Art (http:/ / deimos3. apple. com/ WebObjects/ Core. woa/

Browse/ columbia. edu. 1687767822), Department of Art History and Archaeology, Columbia University• The School of Athens (http:/ / www. wga. hu/ frames-e. html?/ html/ r/ raphael/ 4stanze/ 1segnatu/ 1/ ) at the Web

Gallery of Art• The School of Athens (http:/ / www. clio. unina. it/ ~alfredo/ index. php?mod=05_Interessi/

La_Scuola_di_Atene) (interactive map)• Cartoon of The School of Athens (http:/ / www. learn. columbia. edu/ raphael/ htm/ raphael_athens_cartoon. htm)• The School of Athens reproduction at UNC Asheville (http:/ / www. unca. edu/ news/ releases/ 2007/ athens.

html)• BBC Radio 4 discussion about the significance of this picture in the programme "In Our Time" with Melvyn

Bragg. (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ radio4/ history/ inourtime/ inourtime_20090326. shtml)

Article Sources and Contributors 7

Article Sources and ContributorsThe School of Athens  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=537226744  Contributors: 21655, 44kona44, 9258fahsflkh917fas, 96T, Addshore, Ak169808, Alethe, Alyeliza,Amandajm, Amp71, Andy Smith, Anir1uph, Antique Rose, Apokryltaros, Apple2, Artemisia11564, Asadron, Asisman, Attilios, AustinAsDeidara, Avoided, Ayudante, B3hzad, BD2412, BarretB,Bdaroff, Billytheboy, BjörnEF, Blanchette, BloodDoll, Bobo192, Bowlhover, Brandmeister, BrettAllen, CanadianLinuxUser, Capricorn42, CaroleHenson, Ccord, Christian75, Coffee,CommonsDelinker, Cygnature, D, Damiens.rf, Danny, David Šenek, DennyColt, Derekvanlessen, Dessymona, Dourios, Drmies, E Wing, Ease to mmbr, Eep², El Greco, Enigmaman,Entoaggie09, Eric1337, Ewulp, Extransit, Fconaway, Finell, Flamarande, Flooga, ForgottenManC, Froth, Funeral, GDallimore, GabeIglesia, Galileo01, Gene.arboit, Gesellschaftsspiel,Glacialfox, Gogo Dodo, Gregbard, Grover cleveland, Hank Ramsey, Herk1955, History1976, Hopeoflight, Hoppson, Howcheng, Hypathos, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, ISBN, Inhonoredglory,J.delanoy, JEN9841, JFreeman, Jacques l'Aumône, Jaksap, Jeff G., Jim Douglas, Jjwhalen, John, Johnbod, Jugander, Jwy, Kanon6996, Kansaikiwi, Koavf, Kookoobirdz, Leuko, Life, Liberty,Property, Liquidmetalrob, Lugia2453, Madeleineleigh, Makeemlighter, Mandarax, Margarite tulipe, Materialscientist, Meaghan, Mimihitam, Minimac, MisfitToys, Mlwgsgis1487, Modernist,MrOllie, NameIsRon, Neoman2026, NerdyScienceDude, NineteenEighty, Nishkid64, NittyG, Novangelis, Oxymoron83, P. S. Burton, Pasicles, Paul Barlow, Persian Poet Gal, Peter Gulutzan,Peterbruce01, Pgeisler21, Philip Trueman, Philipp Grunwald, Piano non troppo, Piledhigheranddeeper, Pmj, Pollinosisss, PrincessofLlyr, Prof saxx, Pschmedeman, Pstanton, RR, Rafael gates,Rahulsdp, Rain drop 45, Raven in Orbit, Rcsprinter123, Reaper Eternal, Relinjin, Remember, Rich Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi, Rknasc, Robertvan1, Rtyq2, S0ulreaper, SJP, Sam Medany,SchreiberBike, Sdorrance, Singinglemon, Skarioffszky, Skizzik, Snowolf, Sokrat3000, Sshas75, Sumergocognito, Suruena, Tales23, Techman224, The cookie villan nuber 3, Theinfoman69,Tiddly Tom, TimothyPilgrim, Tnxman307, Tom harrison, Tomisti, Triantap, Vesprcom, Waggers, Wagn3r, Wayne Slam, Wikijosephine, Willisam, Willking1979, Wimt, Xinstalker, Zmaher,Zserghei, 475 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsFile:Sanzio 01.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sanzio_01.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: ArwinJ, Bibi Saint-Pol, Damiens.rf, Gugganij, Harpsichord246,Herald Alberich, Howcheng, Jacobolus, Jic, Julia W, Man vyi, Matthead, Para, Pasicles, Raymond, Sentausa, Suruena, The Evil IP address, Wknight94, 14 anonymous editsFile:Raffaello Scuola di Atene numbered.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Raffaello_Scuola_di_Atene_numbered.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Beao,Bibi Saint-Pol, Fishbone16, JavierSQ, Singinglemon, Tiptoety, 4 anonymous editsImage:Sanzio 01 Plato Aristotle.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Auntof6, Beria, BibiSaint-Pol, G.dallorto, Jacobolus, Kentin, Mattes, MonteChristof, Sailko, Tomisti, Wutsje, 5 anonymous editsFile:Raffael_060.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Raffael_060.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bibi Saint-Pol, EDUCA33E, Mattes, Sailko, 1 anonymouseditsFile:Raffael_070.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Raffael_070.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bibi Saint-Pol, EDUCA33E, Mattes, Sailko, Singinglemon,1 anonymous editsFile:Sanzio 01 Epicurus.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sanzio_01_Epicurus.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bibi Saint-Pol, Bukk, EDUCA33E, Mattes,Sailko, Tomisti, Warburg, 2 anonymous editsFile:Averroes closeup.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Averroes_closeup.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bibi Saint-Pol, Bukk, Denniss, Frank C. Müller,FranksValli, Ilse@, Mattes, Sailko, SparkitFile:Raffael 068.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Raffael_068.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bibi Saint-Pol, EDUCA33E, Mattes, Sailko, Shakko, 1anonymous editsFile:Raffael 059.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Raffael_059.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bibi Saint-Pol, EDUCA33E, JMCC1, Mattes, Sailko, 1anonymous editsFile:Scuola di atene 21.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Scuola_di_atene_21.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: see filename or categoryFile:Raffael 069.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Raffael_069.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bibi Saint-Pol, EDUCA33E, Mattes, Sailko, 1 anonymouseditsFile:Raffael 066.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Raffael_066.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bibi Saint-Pol, EDUCA33E, Mattes, Sailko, 1 anonymouseditsFile:Raffael 067.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Raffael_067.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bibi Saint-Pol, EDUCA33E, Mattes, Sailko, 1 anonymouseditsFile:Raffael 061.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Raffael_061.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bibi Saint-Pol, EDUCA33E, Mattes, Sailko, 2 anonymouseditsFile:Raffael 062.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Raffael_062.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bibi Saint-Pol, EDUCA33E, Mattes, Sailko, 2 anonymouseditsFile:Scuola di atene 23.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Scuola_di_atene_23.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: see filename or categoryFile:Raffael_071.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Raffael_071.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bibi Saint-Pol, EDUCA33E, G.dallorto, Mattes, Pe-Jo,Sailko, 2 anonymous edits

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