Natural Resource Managementin Western Australia

The Salinity StrategyMarch 2000

In association with community groupsand government agencies

Government of Western Australia

Prepared by

In 1996, in recognition of the magnitude of the threat salinity poses toagriculture, rural towns and the environment, the Western AustralianGovernment released the first Salinity Action Plan. It provided a blueprint for applying government resources in an integrated and effective way forsalinity management.

The State Salinity Council formed by this initiative has reviewed the SalinityAction Plan and developed a strategy which gives greater focus tocommunity based programs. Partnerships between government, communityand industry will be needed to implement the strategies required to protectour water resources, biodiversity, regional towns and maintain agriculturalproductivity.

All levels of government accept the need for joint action on salinitymanagement. For example, the Commonwealth Government’s NaturalHeritage Trust is important in funding community groups to plan for andtake action against salinity on individual farms and catchments. The WesternAustralian Government makes a significant contribution through its agencies,but it is acknowledged that most of the resources for salinity managementcome from and will continue to come from the private sector.

It is appropriate that the community is well represented in any structureestablished to implement the new Salinity Strategy. Regional NaturalResource Management Groups are fundamentally important in ensuringsalinity management strategies are developed by community groups inpartnership with government agencies.

I congratulate the State Salinity Council, and its Chairman Alex Campbell,on the production of the new Salinity Strategy. It sets clear goals for theplanning and implementation of activities by all stakeholders engaged in the fight against salinity.

Hendy Cowan MLA

Deputy Premier; Chairman of the Cabinet Standing Committee on SalinityManagement and the Natural Heritage Trust

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Foreword

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Contents

Foreword iii

Preface vii

1 Executive summary 9

2 The impact of salinity 13

2.1 The recharge/discharge imbalance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .152.2 Biophysical impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17

2.2.1 Water resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .172.2.2 Biodiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .182.2.3 Increased flood risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19

2.3 Economic impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .202.3.1 Agricultural productivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20

2.3.1.1 Irrigation and high rainfall salinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .212.3.2 Infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21

2.4 Social impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .222.4.1 Individual and family impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .222.4.2 Community impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .222.4.3 Recreation and tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22

3 The strategy 23

4 Strategic approach to addressing salinity 25

4.1 Evolving natural resource management in Western Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .264.2 Regional planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .274.3 Priority setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28

4.3.1 Catchment assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .294.3.2 Focus catchment support teams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31

4.4 Biodiversity conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .324.4.1 Seed collection, storage and databasing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .324.4.2 Protecting fauna from extinction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .324.4.3 Natural diversity recovery catchments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .334.4.4 Protecting other wetlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33

4.5 Water resource recovery catchments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .334.6 Infrastructure protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .344.7 Flood risk assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .344.8 Research and development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36

5 Tools to manage salinity 37

5.1 Land management practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .385.1.1 Changing agricultural practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38

5.1.1.1 Cropping options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .385.1.1.2 Pasture options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40

5.1.2 Commercial farm forestry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40

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5.1.3 Using saline lands productively . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .425.1.3.1 Productive use of saline water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44

5.1.4 Irrigated agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .455.2 Native vegetation management and revegetation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45

5.2.1 Native vegetation management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .455.2.2 Native revegetation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46

5.3 Engineering options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .475.3.1 Surface water management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .495.3.2 Groundwater management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49

5.3.2.1 Deep drains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .495.3.2.2 Groundwater pumping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .505.3.2.3 Relief wells and syphons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51

5.4 Social impact management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .515.5 The way forward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52

6 Community action to address salinity 53

6.1 State Salinity Council . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .546.2 Community and government partnerships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .556.3 Shared investments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .576.4 Options for cost sharing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58

6.4.1 Commonwealth funding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .586.4.2 Corporate funding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .596.4.3 Public contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .596.4.4 Landholder contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60

6.4.4.1 Catchment levies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .606.4.4.2 Land trading within a catchment group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61

6.5 Capacity building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .616.5.1 Solutions for managing the effects on people . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .616.5.2 Participation in decision-making processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61

6.5.2.1 Participatory planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .626.5.3 Communication and information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .626.5.4 Adjusting to change in catchments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .626.5.5 Knowledge building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62

6.5.5.1 Knowledge networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .636.5.6 Information provision and barriers to adoption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .646.5.7 Leadership development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .656.5.8 Community involvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65

6.5.8.1 Indigenous interests and participation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .656.5.9 Support and advisory services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65

6.5.9.1 Community coordinators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .656.5.9.2 Private consultants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66

7 Monitoring and evaluation 67

8 Bibliography 71

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In 1996 the Western Australian Government launched a Salinity ActionPlan with a 30-year vision to address dryland salinity in the State. TheState Salinity Council was formed in May 1997, representing keystakeholder groups with a role in salinity management. The original plan proved to be a robust base from which we could move forward anddevelop the present strategy.

In December 1998, in response to calls for the Salinity Action Plan to be more community-focused, a revised plan was released as a draft for publiccomment. This strategy has been further developed following considerablepublic input. Its release coincides with the restructure of the Salinity Councilthat will allow greater integration between government, industry andregional and local community groups, reflecting a broader approach to salinity management for the future.

Recent research shows that an enormous effort is needed to reduce the impactof salinity significantly. It will not only require large-scale planting of deep-rooted perennials, changing crop rotations and appropriate engineering worksincluding pumping and drainage, but will also see most farmers completelychanging their land use practices. We will not be able to control salinity withoutchanging from the traditional farming practices of annual crops and livestockgrazing to new types of farming across large parts of the agricultural area.

There is encouraging evidence from around the State that these new systemsare potentially more profitable and sustainable, once established. However,there are high social and economic costs to be considered with these changesand the wider community will need to share this responsibility.

With 1.8 million hectares already affected by salinity in Western Australia, we have to accept that some land will be saline in the future and we have tolive with this and learn to manage it. However, the effort we put in duringthe next few years will determine how much more land and resources will be affected and what levels of intervention are appropriate.

Management measures will also be required to help deal with the social effectsof salinity. Impacts on rural families and communities must be acknowledgedand assistance provided during the process of change.

There are crucial questions facing the Western Australian community, as therewill be trade-offs as we develop and implement measures to address salinity.The restructured Council with regional involvement will take a leading rolein tackling these difficult decisions.

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The good news is that we now have a better understanding of appropriatecontrol measures and can more accurately assess where these need to occurwithin each catchment in the region. As we enter the 21st century, we offera vision of hope, that we will be able to manage salinity for economic andenvironmental benefits, and take advantage of new and evolvingmanagement practices for saline land.

During the past three years the community and Government have developeda strong working relationship which will be vital to manage salinity. I believethis strategy will provide a new impetus to help us achieve our goals forsustainable and profitable natural resource management in the future.

Alex Campbell

Chairman, State Salinity Council

Opposite: Planting to rehabilitate the headwaters of a stream, near Mt Barker. Photo: Simon Neville – Ecotones/Water and Rivers Commission

Section 1 Executive summary

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Salinity is the greatest environmental threatfacing Western Australia – 1.8 millionhectares in the south-west agriculturalregion are already affected by salinity tosome extent. Projections show that withoutrapid, large-scale intervention, includingsignificant changes to current land usepractices, about three million hectares willbe affected by 2010-2015 and six millionhectares, or 30 per cent of the region, will be affected by the time a new groundwaterequilibrium is reached.

This document explains what leads to salinityproblems, and their impacts in WesternAustralia. It also sets out a strategy to managesalinity and outlines the tools to be used, inthe light of recent research that indicatedactions must be undertaken across a widerarea, and more quickly than anticipated in the1996 Salinity Action Plan.

The community needs to consider where itwould be possible and/or economic to controlsalinity in the longer term, and for any givenarea whether we should try to reverse salinity(recovery), stop it from getting worse(containment), or learn to live with andmanage it (adaptation).

This strategy builds on the 1996 WesternAustralian Situation Statement and SalinityAction Plan and the 1998 Draft UpdateSalinity Action Plan, and on new research that has been undertaken recently.

The impact of salinity

The area of salt-affected land has already had a serious impact on biodiversity, currentand future water supplies, agriculture andregional infrastructure, including roads, rail,water and wastewater facilities, public andprivate buildings. The impact is potentiallyenormous if the area at risk is allowed tobecome saline. Without intervention, 450 plantspecies endemic to the region will becomeextinct, and three-quarters of the region’swaterbird species will severely decline.

Up to $400 million per year will be lost inagricultural production by 2050. There will beincreased flood risk in many areas, and sealedroad life expectancy will be reduced by up to75 per cent.

Salinity will also affect people. The magnitudeof this effect is difficult to quantify butincludes the cost to rural communities ofdeclining population, loss of business (bothexisting and potential), the cost of ruralrestructure if farms become unprofitable, and increased health problems due to stresson families affected by change.

The strategy

This strategy aims to reduce the impact of salinity in the south-west agriculturalregion of Western Australia. It has as its goals:

• to reduce the rate of degradation ofagricultural and public land, and wherepractical recover, rehabilitate or manage salt-affected land;

• to protect and restore key water resourcesto ensure salinity levels are kept to a levelthat permits safe, potable water supplies in perpetuity;

• to protect and restore high value wetlands and natural vegetation, andmaintain natural (biological and physical)diversity within the south-west region of Western Australia;

• to provide communities with the capacityto address salinity issues and to managethe changes brought about by salinity; and

• to protect infrastructure affected by salinity.

Each of these goals applies across the south-west agricultural region. However, the degreeto which each goal is pursued will depend onthe relative importance of the range of publicand private assets under threat in individualcatchments. Input at the regional level willhelp determine these priorities.

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The proposed actions to achieve these goalsare based on three fundamental principles:

• salinity needs to be addressed by treatingthe causes of the problem, focussing onmanaging recharge and rising watertables;

• developing practical and environmentallysound methods that mitigate the impact ofsalinity by managing the discharge; and

• the strategy needs to be implemented in a partnership approach between allstakeholders at the regional and catchmentscale.

Strategic approach

A strategic approach is essential to managesalinity on the scale facing Western Australia.The key elements of such an approach are:

• working in partnerships that involve allstakeholders;

• analysing risk in different areas over timeto allow appropriate priorities to be set;

• retaining native vegetation and protectingthe remaining biodiversity values;

• adopting an appropriate mix of the toolsavailable to manage salinity;

• helping the farming community to makethe transition to more sustainableproduction systems and building theircapacity to do so;

• addressing equity concerns that arise;

• promoting research and development toimprove salinity management;

• planning to address shortfalls in actionswhere priority biodiversity and other public assets remain at anunacceptable risk, or are significantlyaffected; and

• developing continuous monitoring and evaluation of salinity management actions.

Tools to manage salinity

There is a range of tools available to manage salinity. Each catchment will need to select a combination of these to suit theirspecific needs and to meet their objectives. No one tool is likely to work in isolation and the tools used will need to beappropriately located in all parts of the landscape.

The Salinity Council believes significantchanges to land management practices arerequired to achieve a moderate level of salinitycontrol. It has been estimated that most of the18 million hectares of cleared land in thesouth-west agricultural region will need to be covered by a combination of deep-rootedperennial shrubs and trees, phase farming(rotations which include a perennial phase)and alternative, high-water use enterprisesalongside catchment-scaled surface watermanagement and a broad spectrum ofcomplementary engineering options.

Deep-rooted perennial shrub and tree coverwill be achieved by protecting and enhancingremnant native vegetation, and byrevegetating strategic areas for biodiversityand for commercial returns. The large area ofrevegetation required and the substantial costinvolved means that commercial tree cropswill be an essential part of this strategy.

Opportunities to use saline land and waterproductively will be developed further andpromoted, where appropriate.

Community action to address salinity

The State Salinity Council, which representscommunity and government stakeholders, hasbeen restructured to increase integration insalinity management. The regional naturalresource management groups will berecognised and supported to develop salinitymanagement strategies in the context of theirbroader strategic plans.

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The whole Western Australian community isaffected by salinity and will have to share thecosts and the benefits of managing it. TheState Government currently contributes about$40 million a year to salinity management,and the Commonwealth Government has alsocontributed significantly to programs inWestern Australia. However, the largestinvestment has come from and will continueto be funded by private landholders.

The threat to biodiversity, water resources,agriculture and infrastructure means furtherinvestment is required through corporatefunding, public contributions and newmechanisms for landholder contributions,possibly catchment levies.

Within each catchment, it is the community’scapacity to manage vegetation, soils andwaters that provides the potential forsustainable natural resource management. It isimportant that this capacity is given the bestopportunity to develop, which means that wemust address issues of equity, biophysicaldata and information availability, decisionsupport systems and capacity building(including knowledge building, access to information, leadership development,network building and communityinvolvement).

Monitoring and evaluation

Monitoring and evaluation should be carriedout at the property, catchment, region andState scale and will involve all stakeholders. It will provide information to landholders, the community and government on:

• progress towards agreed goals foragricultural systems, water resources,natural diversity, infrastructure andcapacity-building;

• longer-term biophysical trends and thelikely impact of changes in land usemanagement; and

• performance of landholders, communitygroups and government agencies inmeeting their responsibilities and theobjectives of their plans.

This strategy sets a direction in the face ofincomplete answers. However, considerableprogress is being made in the mapping ofaffected areas, the prediction of areas likely to be affected, and most importantly, thedevelopment of management systems. Newactions to address salinity continue to bedeveloped and refined. Managing salinityrequires persistence because the problem willtake a very long time to abate. There are noquick solutions and fundamental change isrequired in land use and managementpractices throughout the region. Continuingwith just broadacre annual winter crops andpastures systems in their current format willnot manage salinity.

Three other documents are also associatedwith this strategy:

• Salinity actions, which lists new actionsrecommended by the State SalinityCouncil, together with actions begununder the 1996 Salinity Action Plan and1998 Draft Update;

• Salinity: A guide for land managers, whichincludes management options and initialcontacts to help land managers planactivities at the farm and catchment scale; and

• Summary of public submissions on the 1998 Draft Update Salinity Action Plan.

The Salinity Council will prepare annualoperating plans detailing current projects,budgets and monitoring and evaluationinformation. In addition, a series of technicalnotes and options papers will be developedon specific issues and updated as newknowledge comes to hand.

New initiatives are highlighted throughoutthis strategy.

Opposite: The stark impact of salinity on the Avon River at Yenyenning Lakes. Photo: Simon Neville – Ecotones/Water and Rivers Commission

Section 2The impact of salinity

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Most of the salt responsible for salinity inWestern Australia originated in the ocean.Salt, mainly sodium chloride, has been carriedinland by the prevailing winds and depositedon the land in small amounts (20-200 kg/ha/year) in rainfall and dust. The amount ofstored salt in the soil profile is least in thehigh rainfall areas (generally moderate reliefand well drained), and highest in low rainfallareas (generally flat and poorly drained).

Primary salinity develops naturally, mainly inareas where rainfall is insufficient to leach saltsfrom the soil profile and evaporation is high.Over thousands of years, salt slowlyaccumulated beneath the south-west of WesternAustralia, causing changes in biological systemsand landscape form and function.

Secondary salinity (which takes the form ofeither dryland or irrigation salinity) is theresult of clearing native vegetation andreplacing it with shallow-rooted crops andpasture that use less water, causing changes to the hydrology of the landscape. Theindigenous vegetation of Australia isperennial and deep-rooted, well-adapted to surviving both floods and drought andeffective in its use of water. Annual crops andpastures do not use as much of the incomingrainfall and this unused water either runs-off

or infiltrates beyond the root zone andaccumulates as groundwater (recharge).

Much of the land in the south-westagricultural region was prone to salinity priorto clearing. It has been estimated that theregion has an average of about 2000 tonnes of salt stored below every hectare in the soilprofile between the surface and the bedrock,with as little as 300 t/ha in uplands and asmuch as 10,000 t/ha in saline valleys. In manyareas, this accumulation of salt has becomemobilised with the rise in groundwater levels,emerging where water is forced to the landsurface. This secondary salinity is the threataddressed in this strategy.

As saline groundwater comes close to the soilsurface, salt enters the plant root zone leadingto the death of native plants and crops andpastures that are not salt tolerant. Plants alsosuffer from increased waterlogging. Salinegroundwaters discharge at the soil surfaceand are concentrated by evaporation,damaging soils on-site and down slopes,eventually draining into streams, rivers andlakes, degrading wetland habitats and waterresources. Seepage areas and scalds are thesurface expression of salinity, although saltcan also be present in areas where onlymarginal reductions in yield can be seen.

2 The impact of salinity

Figure 1: Typical changes in water and salt balances following clearing.

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Most early settlement in the south-westagricultural region occurred in the valleysnear water courses. These areas, includingmost of the towns in the region, are now inthe areas at highest risk of salinity.

We live in a dry continent, yet fail to use annual rainfall to best advantage. This strategy sets out ways to make bettereconomic use of this precious resource andcorrect the water imbalance that leads tosalinity and waterlogging problems.

2.1 The recharge/dischargeimbalance

The primary cause of salinity is under-use of annual rainfall and the relativelyimpermeable and flat nature of manyWheatbelt groundwater systems. Generallyspeaking, groundwater continues to rise at anaverage rate of 20 centimetres per year in the south-west agricultural region as it isrecharged by rainfall. The rate of groundwaterrise and the spread of salinity can only beslowed or reduced by either reducing theamount of rain that reaches the groundwateror finding ways to remove groundwater in an environmentally sound and practical way.

Land is considered saline when salinegroundwater rises to within one metre of thesoil surface. The expression of salinity varieswith soil type, climate and land use. Coarsetextured soils (for example sands or sandyloams) may produce a reasonable crop withthe watertable at one metre, whereas a finetextured soil (clay or sandy clay loam) maynot produce a crop with the watertable at twometres. Also in higher rainfall areas theadditional leaching of salts by the winter rainswill enable cropping over shallowerwatertables than in the low rainfall areaswhere leaching is not so effective. Thus salineland has a range of visible and not so visiblecharacteristics. It is not all totally bare andencrusted with white salt.

The effect of salinity on plant growth isexacerbated when the soil is also waterlogged.Plants can tolerate much higher levels ofsalinity in well-drained soils. For this andother reasons, such as reducing flood risk and protecting biodiversity, the strategy givesconsiderable emphasis to surface watermanagement to reduce waterlogging.

As recharge and discharge to the groundwatersystem continue to respond to current landmanagement systems, there will be a shifttowards a new (but higher) equilibriumgroundwater level. The estimated time toreach equilibrium varies between zones andcatchments in the region but it could take as little as 30 years in the southern andwestern areas, to as long as 50 to 100 years in the east and north.

The landscape will not be uniformly affected, which makes it difficult to planremedial action. Some areas will never beaffected by salinity (while they could becontributing to recharge) and some areas,despite significant action, will go saline.However, we now know that remedial actionis required over most of the region. Thismakes the scale of implementation muchlarger than the estimated 30 per cent of landcurrently saline or at risk. We need to act very quickly and to make significant changesto current land use practices across large parts of the south-west agricultural region,especially those that have little time untilequilibrium is reached.

In 1999 the State Salinity Council askedscientists from Agriculture Western Australia,Murdoch University and CSIRO1 to undertakean initial assessment of the impact thatreducing recharge would have on the extent of salinity in the agricultural areas of WesternAustralia. They also estimated the impact onrecharge rates of changes to farming systemsbeing proposed in this strategy and already being implemented by some farmers.

1 The Salinity Council would like to acknowledge its appreciation of the following people for this work: Dr Richard George (Agriculture Western Australia), Dr Christopher Clarke (Murdoch University), Dr Tom Hatton and Dr Paolo Reggiani (CSIRO Land and Water).

Their scenarios showed that catchmentsresponded differently to reductions inrecharge. In dissected landscapes, thegroundwaters were more responsive and lower levels of recharge control were required than in areas with flatlandscapes. However, even in these areas,recharge reduction resulted in significantdelays in the onset of salinity (25-100 years)“buying time” for many catchments. Inunresponsive catchments (flat landscapes)recharge reductions in excess of 50 per centare required to reduce significantly the finalarea that may become saline. This level ofintervention is significantly greater than is currently being achieved.

This work showed that change needs tooccur across catchments on a bigger scaleand more quickly than had previously beenconsidered. It is already too late to preventsome areas from developing highgroundwater levels.

The scenario modelling is a generalisation anddoes not provide the picture for allcatchments. Possible high interventionscenarios include:

• A Wheatbelt catchment could revegetate 30 per cent of the total area to woodyperennials with phase farming introducedover the rest of the catchment, as well asappropriate surface and discharge watermanagement. The woody perennials couldbe planted in different ways, such as inalleys across the contours, or at the break ofthe slope and near saline areas, and wouldinclude appropriately managed areas ofnatural bush. Changes in rotations couldinclude warm season cropping and/orphase farming with perennial pastures

• Around 10 per cent of the catchment couldbe planted to a shrub with the remainder of the catchment area planted with two rowsof trees or shrubs (for example oil mallees)at nominal belt spacings of 50 metres.

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Salinity projections for Western Australia

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25%40 years

50% reduction in recharge

Cropping or pasture could continuebetween the alleys. The alleys could bespaced further apart if more rows of trees were added or a higher percentageof the catchment was revegetated.

Engineering options will form an importantcomponent in a number of catchments toprotect high value assets, particularly surfacewater management but also includinggroundwater pumping and deep drains insome instances. However, they will need toform part of an overall strategy and their costmay be a limiting factor in many cases.

The research showed different responses totreatment between catchments, emphasisingthe need for prior investigations that lead torisk assessment, and site evaluations prior to works.

2.2 Biophysical impacts

2.2.1 Water resources

Water is one of our most precious resourcesand potable water is in short supply. Thesalinity of many rivers in the south-westagricultural region has increased significantlyover the years and is likely to continue toincrease in many cases. For example the AvonRiver salinity is increasing at the rate of100mg/L while the Frankland is increasing at40mg/L. Where management practices havechanged to reduce salinity, the increase hasbeen controlled. For example the Collie Riverincrease is close to zero. Stream salt loads arelikely to increase five-fold over the next 50years. As a result, many rivers and wetlandshave become more saline with acorresponding impact on their aquatic andassociated terrestrial ecosystems. Somesurface water systems and fresh groundwaterresources are becoming saline which couldaffect the availability of fresh water for ruraland urban areas in the future.

More than one-third (36%) of the south-west’spreviously divertible surface water resource(suitable for domestic, agricultural or some

industrial use) has become brackish or salineand can no longer be used. A further 16 percent is of marginal quality.

Clearing controls were introduced bylegislation on five catchments during the1970s in response to increasing salinity andover $46 million has been spent oncompensating farmers for not being able toclear their land in these catchments. Three ofthese (Helena, Collie and Denmark Rivercatchments) have been developed for watersupplies, and the others (Warren and KentRiver catchments) are important futuresources. These five catchments have thepotential to yield almost 440 gigalitres perannum (one gigalitre is one thousand millionlitres) in total. This is equivalent to abouttwice Perth’s current water supply. Without increased and continuing action,water quality of the Collie, Warren and Kentrivers will deteriorate and the potential ofthese water resources will be lost or becometoo expensive to restore.

More than $25 million has been spent onsalinity management and research in thesethree water resource catchments.

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Wellington Dam on the Collie River.Photo: Water and Rivers Commission

Replacement storages have been built for theCollie and Denmark rivers in the past eightyears at a cost of $50 million. Costs of over $100million will also be incurred in constructing apipeline into the south-west, instead of usingnearby brackish water sources for Perth.

Rivers other than those used for public watersupplies are also affected or threatened bysalinity. The full impact of salinity on riverineecosystems is not well established, butincludes a loss of fringing vegetation anddecreased water quality. Wetlands are alsosignificantly affected by rising watertablesand salinity is causing major changes inecological and social values.

2.2.2 Biodiversity

Maintaining biodiversity is essential for ourfuture wellbeing. The agricultural sector, forexample, relies on biodiversity to maintain soilhealth, absorb nutrients, allow pollination andhelp control pests. The pharmaceutical, fishing,pastoral and forestry industries also rely onbiodiversity and ecosystem services to survive.Biodiversity also has an intrinsic value.

Salinity is driving the rapid and catastrophiccollapse of existing ecosystems. As root zonescome under the influence of saline groundwater,vegetation and soil fauna decline, habitat is lost,plant and animal populations and speciesdecline, functionally important species are killedand the maintenance of ecosystem processes iscompromised or destroyed.

The impacts of salinity on natural biodiversityare most obvious in the lower parts of thelandscape, and this will continue. The bedsand banks of 80 per cent of the region’s riversand streams are seriously degraded. Thedegradation of wetlands is already severe andthe relief of the region is so low that largeareas are being affected by salinity almostsimultaneously. Valley floors and wetlandscontain plant species that are at mostimminent risk of extinction, for example:

• Flora: The south-west agricultural regionhas a vascular plant flora of over 4000species and approximately 60 per cent areendemic to the region. Of these endemicspecies, 450 occur low in the landscapeand are under threat of extinction fromsalinisation and hydrological changes.

• Fauna: The region also has a diverseterrestrial and aquatic fauna, with high species diversity in areas low in thelandscape, including naturally saline areas.

Of the 61 more common waterbird speciesin the south-west, only 16 prefer stronglysaline (more than 20,000 mg/L) orhypersaline (more than 50,000 mg/L)conditions. An average of five waterbirdspecies use hypersaline wetlands,compared with 20 in saline wetlands and40 in fresh wetlands containing live treesand shrubs. Death of trees and shrubs inmany Wheatbelt wetlands due to salinityhas caused a 50 per cent decrease in thenumber of waterbird species using them.

Over 560 invertebrates have beenidentified in Wheatbelt wetlands duringbiological surveys to date, with 45 per centrestricted to fresh water (with salinity lessthan 3000 mg/L). If all wetlands in theWheatbelt become saline (more than 10,000mg/L), approximately 220 of these aquaticinvertebrate species will disappear fromthe Wheatbelt.

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A new species of Calandrina discovered in the northernWheatbelt as a result of the biological survey begununder the 1996 Salinity Action Plan. Photo:Department of Conservation and Land Management

These predictions of biodiversity loss are based on the results to date of the firstcomprehensive biological survey of the south-west agricultural region, which began underthe 1996 Salinity Action Plan. The results of thesurvey, when completed, will be incorporatedinto the actions taken under this strategy.

Not only does salinity affect naturalbiodiversity, but also physical diversity of landscapes such as that represented by the loss of a variety of lowland forests,woodlands, shrublands and heaths. Riverpools and some estuaries are lost tosedimentation and natural discharge areas are degraded by prolonged periods ofinundation. These in turn, detrimentally affectother values, including aquatic biodiversityand environmental services such as nutrientfixing, soil structure and function, and anability to absorb waste and toxins. It has beenestimated that, without remedial action, up to 80 per cent of small areas of bushland onfarms and up to 50 per cent on public lands(including nature reserves) in agriculturalareas would be lost over time.

2.2.3 Increased flood risk

A consequence of clearing of vegetation,rising groundwater levels and modification of natural river and stream systems is anincreased risk of flooding. The increase inflood magnitudes and frequency in turnincreases the risk of damage to buildings,roads, bridges, embankments, pipes, culvertsand farmland.

Replacing native vegetation with crops andpastures has led to higher run-off rates for agiven rainfall due to:

• lower interception and transpiration of water by crops and pastures; and

• waterlogging of the catchment due to rising watertables, which reducesrainfall infiltration rates.

The following factors also need to be considered:

• control measures such as drainage, unlessproperly designed, can increase surfacerun-off; and

• significant additional recharge ofgroundwater can be caused by floods – in naturally slow draining country (flat, low permeability) any recession ofelevated groundwater levels can be furtherdelayed, reinforcing the undesirable risingof the watertable.

Rain on waterlogged areas causes almostimmediate run-off because infiltration isreduced or no longer possible. Waterloggingoccurs when rising groundwaters reach thesurface, generally due to a recharge imbalancefollowing clearing of a catchment. Generally,the magnitude of the increase in surface run-off depends on the percentage of thecatchment that has a waterlogged surface.While in many parts of the Wheatbelt thegroundwater will not reach the surface in thevalley for many years, there are areas where it is happening now and there are catchmentswhere it will happen relatively quickly.

Modelling carried out on the Blackwood River catchment highlights this effect. The modelling indicates that when thegroundwater levels reach the surface in thevalleys and represent a significant area of thecatchment, there will be increases in flooddischarges of between two-to-four timespreviously observed flood magnitude levels.The critical issue is controlling the extent ofwaterlogging. If this is done with vegetationthen it is likely that salt-tolerant plants will berequired because of the salinity associatedwith the waterlogging.

Direct groundwater contribution to themagnitude of the flood is generally notsignificant compared to the surface run-off, as groundwater is slower to discharge into the stream and will peak days or weeks afterthe surface water peak.

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In addition, backed up floodwaters caneffectively sustain elevated groundwaterlevels as well.

Installing drainage to manage salinity and/orreduce waterlogging also has the potential toincrease flood risk as it modifies the naturaldrainage system. Creating additional channelnetworks and a more responsive river bystraightening, cleaning or training leads toincreased velocities, reduced natural valleystorage, shorter times of concentration andquicker flood response, higher floodmagnitudes, increased erosion andconsequent sedimentation. Any drainagemodification must be designed in such a waythat it does not concentrate storm run-off andthereby increase the potential peak dischargeof the system.

However, well designed surface watermanagement systems can slowly drainsaturated soils between storms and managesurface water flows during storms by usingretarding basins and other techniques.

2.3 Economic impacts

2.3.1 Agricultural productivity

Western Australia’s south-west agriculturalregion produces agricultural goods worthmore than $4 billion annually for local andexport markets on about 18 million hectares

of cleared land. About 10 per cent of this landis already affected by secondary salinity.

If effective management is not developed andimplemented, the agricultural area affected bysalinity is likely to double in 15 to 25 years,and eventually affect 30 per cent of the totalarea. This will have large implications foragricultural production levels, with resultingimpacts on the social and economic structureof the State’s rural industries. By 2050, annuallosses from agricultural production alone willbe $300 to $400 million in present day terms.These production losses would be reflected inlost capital value of farmland, estimated at $3 to $4 billion.

However, not all saline land will becomeunproductive. Salinity will affect land to anydegree from minor levels of salt in the rootzone (causing reduced production) toinundation (no production possible).Production, particularly livestock grazing,will be possible on some saline land (see section 5.1.3).

The increasing emphasis at the internationallevel for “clean and green” production willalso affect agricultural profitability if theimpacts of salinity on the environment are not mitigated. Future export potential couldhinge on how sustainably the natural resourcebase is managed.

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Cereals and other agricultural products worth more than $4 billion are produced each year in Western Australia.Photo: Landcare Vision

2.3.1.1 Irrigation and high rainfall salinity

Although the focus of this strategy is ondryland salinity, irrigation salinity is already aproblem in many irrigated areas, particularlyin those that are poorly drained, eithernaturally or artificially. In Western Australia atpresent, irrigation salinity is most advanced inthe south-west irrigation area, where poorly-drained soils are subject to summer floodirrigation, high salinity reservoir supplies andwinter waterlogging. These factors, whencombined with naturally saline and shallowgroundwaters, lead to a decline inproductivity. In one survey it was estimatedthat salinity caused a 50 per cent yieldreduction in clover-dominant pastures on 25 per cent of the area. In another survey, up to 36 per cent of irrigated land had highand increasing salt levels.

Irrigation salinity also poses a potential threatto parts of the Ord River Irrigation Area.

Some parts of the Swan Coastal Plain (southof Gingin) are recognised as having a highpotential to develop dryland salinitydepending on land use. Salinity riskassessment, using soil-landform maps,indicates about 40 per cent of the land area in the southern portion of the Swan CoastalPlain has a moderate or high salinity risk,with production systems based on saltsensitive species at higher risk than those of lower sensitivity.

Overall approximately 20 per cent of thesouthern Swan Coastal Plain is estimated tobe affected by shallow watertables andincreased soil salinity to some degree and as aconsequence, pasture growth may be reducedthroughout the year or at critical times. Theseareas are also subject to severe waterloggingand inundation during winter and it isdifficult to separate these related factorswithout field measurement.

2.3.2 Infrastructure

Rising groundwater levels are affecting regionalinfrastructure and transport systems in over 30rural towns. A percentage of the State roadnetwork is either currently affected or at risk in the future with sealed road life expectancybeing reduced by up to 75 per cent in areaswith rising saline groundwaters. The cost to the community of salinity is increasing with thegrowing need for maintenance of public andprivate town buildings, recreational facilities,water supplies, parks and gardens, townsiteremnant vegetation, roads, railways, drainagesystems, and waterways. Farm infrastructuresuch as dwellings, fencing, farm roads anddams are also at risk. In addition, salinity mayhave an adverse impact on the quality of rurallife due to the effects on landscape and visualamenity values.

Run-off that causes flooding and seasonalwaterlogging increases recharge and can have a negative impact on townsites due togroundwater levels rising after such events.

Many townsites are subject to additionalrecharge due to the importation of water via a water supply scheme. Watering of parks andgardens, septic systems and leaking storagedams can add between 16 and 52 per cent ontop of average annual rainfall that needs to bemanaged. In the case of Corrigin, theintroduction of scheme water at the expenseof groundwater use contributed to a rise inthe watertable of over 20 metres.

There are also significant impacts from run-offfrom roads and houses. About 30 per cent ofany housing block is covered by roofs, pathsand roads. Roofs recharge groundwaterthrough soak wells and road run-off goes intoroadside verges or into absorption basins orcreeks. Concentrated water rechargespreferentially and it is common forgroundwater mounds to form under towns,with the potential to cause significant problems.

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2.4 Social impacts

2.4.1 Individual and family impacts

Declining water quality, loss of agriculturalproductivity, fewer facilities andinfrastructure, and a loss of landscape andvisual amenity as a result of salinity will haveprofound social ramifications. Life in ruralareas, which for many has been the way of lifefor generations of the same family, may beforced to change. There is a financial andphysical burden in taking remedial action toaddress salinity problems. Maintaining thefamily’s income can require increasingproduction from existing land or purchasingmore land. Individuals and families will feelan extreme social impact if they are forced to move off the land.

Adapting to these changes or coping with thepressure of an uncertain situation can put stresson individuals and families, which in turn canaffect individual health and family stability.

2.4.2 Community impacts

Strong, adaptive communities are those thatcan count on the involvement of residents incivic, cultural, social and educational pursuits.As individual landholders feel the pressurescaused by salinity problems, they are likely tohave less time for community pursuits. Thesense of community will begin to erode asinvolvement declines. If the economic impactson farming are extreme and people move offthe land, the population of some towns maydecline. In the past, this has led to withdrawalof services, closure of businesses and declinein the overall quality of life in a community.

The rural landscape is seen by many residentsas an amenity that improves their quality oflife, and any loss of this amenity would affectthe community.

2.4.3 Recreation and tourism

Water attracts people and rivers and lakes inparticular are important locations for leisureactivities. Changes in fringing vegetation dueto salinity have decreased the appeal of thesewetlands as recreation and tourismdestinations.

This decline has important social and cultural implications for rural communities,particularly given that many of these areashave been used by several generations ofrural people. The visual quality of country life is a marketing tool used in a range oftourism products, particularly chalets andfarm holidays. Land degradation also wouldaffect the likelihood of tourists and residentsusing particular areas for bushwalking,birdwatching, camping or other naturetourism pursuits.

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Yachting on Lake Towerinning, south of Darkan.Photo: Babs and Bert Wells/Department of Conservationand Land Management

Opposite: Belts of trees in an alley farming system.Photo: Agriculture Western Australia

Section 3The strategy

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This strategy aims to reduce the impact of salinity in the south-west agriculturalregion of Western Australia. It has as its goals:

• to reduce the rate of degradation ofagricultural and public land, and wherepractical recover, rehabilitate or managesalt-affected land;

• to protect and restore key water resourcesto ensure salinity levels are kept to a levelthat permits safe, potable water supplies inperpetuity;

• to protect and restore high value wetlandsand natural vegetation, and maintainnatural (biological and physical) diversitywithin the region;

• to provide communities with the capacityto address salinity issues and to managethe changes brought about by salinity; and

• to protect infrastructure affected by salinity.

Each of these goals applies across the south-west agricultural region. However, the degreeto which each goal is pursued will depend onthe relative importance of the range of publicand private assets under threat in individualcatchments. Input at the regional level willhelp determine these priorities.

The proposed actions to achieve these goalsare based on three fundamental principles:

• salinity needs to be addressed by treatingthe causes of the problem, focussing onmanaging recharge and rising watertables;

• developing practical and environmentallysound methods that mitigate the impact ofsalinity by managing the discharge; and

• the strategy needs to be implemented in a partnership approach between allstakeholders at the regional and catchment scale.

3 The strategy

Priority has been given to the following actions:

• Changing land usepractices

• Protecting, improvingand adding to remnantnative vegetation

• Revegetation withcommercial deep-rootedperennials, especially tree crops

• Revegetation with native species

• Catchment planning andmanagement, includingsurface watermanagement

To manage discharge

• Protecting, improving and adding to remnantnative vegetation

• Revegetation withcommercial deep-rootedperennials, especially tree crops

• Productive use of saline land

• Subsurface watermanagement

• Catchment planning and management

To ensure a partnership approach

• Priority catchments toprotect biodiversity,water quality,productive land andinfrastructure

• Community capacitybuilding (locally-basedprofessional support,training and knowledgenetworks)

• State Salinity Council

• Catchment planning and management

Opposite: Revegetation in Tin Dog Creek catchment, Dowerin.Photo: Agriculture Western Australia

To manage recharge

Section 4 Strategic approach toaddressing salinity

The magnitude of the challenge that drylandsalinity poses in the south-west agriculturalregion requires a strategic approach.

Many catchments in the south-westagricultural region of the State are alreadysignificantly affected by salinity. Within eachcatchment, it is the community’s capacity tomanage vegetation, soils and waters thatprovides the potential for sustainable naturalresource management. It is important that thiscapacity is given the best opportunity todevelop, which means that we must addressissues of equity, biophysical data andinformation availability, decision supportsystems and capacity building2. We also needto emphasise integration and partnerships.

Some lands and waters will need directgovernment support to protect high prioritypublic assets. However, private landholders andcommunities have the largest role in managingcommunity and private lands and waters. To dothis successfully, the sustainable management oflarge parts of catchments is essential.

The key elements of the Salinity Council’sstrategic approach are:

• working in partnerships that involve allstakeholders;

• analysing risk in different areas over timeto allow appropriate priorities to be set;

• retaining native vegetation and protectingthe remaining biodiversity values;

• adopting an appropriate mix of the toolsavailable to manage salinity;

• helping the farming community to makethe transition to more sustainableproduction systems and building theircapacity to do so;

• addressing equity concerns that arise;

• encouraging research and development to improve salinity management;

• planning to address shortfalls in actionswhere priority biodiversity and otherpublic assets remain at an unacceptablerisk, or are significantly affected; and

• developing continuous monitoring andevaluation of salinity management actions.

4.1 Evolving natural resourcemanagement in Western Australia

The Western Australian Government isdeveloping a State natural resourcemanagement (NRM) framework policy thatwill include as a key element the developmentand implementation of regional strategicplans. Salinity is one issue in the broadercontext of natural resource management.Through regional strategies linking into thisstrategy, regional natural resourcemanagement groups will contribute to theimplementation of programs and projects thataddress salinity issues and ensure localrelevance of State programs.

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4 Strategic approach to addressing salinity

2 "Capacity" refers to the ability of a community or a group of people to pursue their own development. Capacitybuilding is generally recognised as including knowledge building, access to information (and removal of barriersto adoption of that information), leadership development, network building and community involvement.

Monitoring rising water tables at Koolanooka.Photo: Agriculture Western Australia

The importance of natural resourcemanagement in regional development isrecognised in the State’s RegionalDevelopment Policy. The policy includesstrategies to strengthen the partnershipsbetween government and community,increase knowledge and understanding ofnatural resource management options, andhelp ensure community groups can buildtheir capacity to manage the natural resource.

This salinity strategy provides a blueprint for action through a partnership approachbetween the State Government and itsagencies and landholder groups, landholdersand the community. This partnership needs to be based on a clear understanding of therespective roles, responsibilities and interestsof each party. This is particularly relevant inthe consideration of respective contributionsin any shared investment in salinitymanagement to reflect best the balancebetween private and public benefits.

Regional groups are well placed to managesalinity issues at the landscape level, and it is primarily at the regional, catchment andfarm scale where the impacts of managementpractices are felt and the responses best directed.

The partnership framework also incorporatesindustry and other sectors. The rural industry,including agri-business, must play a largerrole in addressing salinity and in developingnew and innovative agricultural products.Sustainable management practices underpinthe productivity and profitability of theseindustries. Industry can play a valuableleadership role through developing codes ofpractice, developing environmentally-soundproduction systems and enhancing theknowledge and skills of their members in managing natural resources better.

4.2 Regional planning

A key issue in the management of salinity is effective and integrated planning at acatchment level that addresses the broadissues of land and water management, andeconomic, environmental and social concerns(including equity considerations).

Land use planning is important in salinitymanagement. The Western AustralianPlanning Commission is involved in land use planning, including natural resourcemanagement, through the State PlanningStrategy, regional planning strategies andregional schemes. Local governments areresponsible for the preparation andadministration of local planning schemes that regulate land use and development and address land use conflicts.

The protection, enhancement and repair of theenvironment and sustainable use of resourcesare critical to the State Planning Strategy.Regional planning strategies can ensure thatsalinity management is taken into account at a formative stage in the planning process.Regional strategies, for example, can identifyexisting and potential areas affected bysalinity and recommend planning measures.

Local government planning schemes can alsoprovide mechanisms to address salinitymanagement through special control areaprovisions. These allow detailed land userequirements to be prescribed for a particularsite or particular areas. Special control areaprovisions for salinity management inschemes could, for example, identify areassubject to salinity, facilitate their stabilisation,encourage revegetation and ensuredevelopment is undertaken in a way whichbrings about a reduction in salinity recharge.

A framework for the effective management of dryland salinity within the context of landand water resources requires:

• The involvement and ownership by theregional and local community in developingstrategies and plans for land and waterresources within their region or locality.

• The integration and coordination ofeconomic, social and environmentalobjectives on a regional and State basis.This allows for the management of landand water resources within a catchmentestablishing a set of management goals and targets for dryland salinity.

• Setting priorities for the management of land and water resources.

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The State Government will work with andassist regional and catchment groups todevelop their role and skills in settingregional goals and strategies to coordinateactions to address salinity and othernatural resource management issues.

The Western Australian PlanningCommission will address salinitymanagement in regional strategies andpromote measures to address salinitythrough regional strategies and planningschemes.

The State Salinity Council will berestructured to reflect the broadercommunity and regional roles andresponsibilities in salinity management.

• Helping community groups identifymanagement options and supporting the actions of groups of land managerstowards their shared goals.

• Monitoring the effectiveness ofmanagement strategies.

Strategies and targets need to be specifically defined at each level and bereflected by landholders in their propertymanagement plans. To achieve the bestsalinity management outcome, these different actions and plans need to beconsistent with an overall regional strategic approach.

4.3 Priority setting

An effective response to salinity at thecatchment scale requires sound information,clear objectives, targets and priorities that areowned and supported by all stakeholders.

We need to consider where it would bepossible and/or economic to control salinity in the longer term, and for any given area the stakeholders should consider whether we should try to reverse it (recovery), stop it from getting worse (containment), or learnto live with and manage it (adaptation).

Four key aspects should be considered whendeveloping objectives and target outcomes forindividual catchments:

• sustaining the land and water resourcesbase, reducing further deterioration, andwhere possible, restoring land and waterqualities;

• conserving natural diversity, protectingremaining natural areas and their flora and fauna, and restoring a representativerange of natural environments on aregional scale;

• reducing the economic and financial lossesto the individual, the community and theState, reducing the costs associated withlosses in agricultural production, waterresources, environmental values, andinfrastructure; and

• equity of impacts on landholders across thecatchment that may need some mechanismsto redistribute the economic hardship asdistinct from the physical actions.

The relative importance of each of theseaspects will vary depending on the public andprivate assets at risk and what is achievable inthe individual catchments and districts, andpriorities agreed between the Government,catchment groups and the community.

Knowing the best possible prediction for“what it is going to take” is vital for makingan informed choice of the strategic goal foreach catchment. For example, what are theenvironmental costs downstream for thepossible interventions, and the costs andbenefits expected, in choosing recovery,containment or adaptation as the response?

The Department of EnvironmentalProtection will work with agencies andcommunities to develop environmentalobjectives and criteria for identifyingpriority environmental assets whenplanning salinity action at property,catchment, regional and State level scales.

The 1998 State of the Environment reportidentified priority environmental issues for each region as well as environmentalindicators.

4.3.1 Catchment assessment

Individual landholders and groups oflandholders are receiving salinitymanagement support within severalcategories of priority catchments. Thesepriority catchments, designated under the1996 Salinity Action Plan, include focuscatchments, mainly to protect agriculturalland, and three types of recovery catchmentsto protect water resources, natural diversityand rural infrastructure.

The risk of salinity to these values, bothgeographically and over time, must be

assessed objectively throughout the south-west agricultural region.

Once the risk has been assessed, advice will be required on treatments that might be adopted and their impact. All farmers inagricultural catchments need some appraisal oftheir risk, the generic treatments they mightadopt and the impact of these treatments ongroundwater levels. The most effective scale forthis to be undertaken is at the catchment scale.

It is both urgent and vital that landholdershave a better understanding of the salinityrisks of each catchment so that remedialaction can be implemented on a priority basis.It is already too late to save some areas butwe do not yet have a clear understanding ofthe high priority areas that must be dealt withnow to conserve high value resources.

At the same time as the environmentalassessment is being conducted, a socio-economic assessment will also be carried outto identify potential social impacts in thecatchment, and help develop ways to managethese impacts.

A rapid assessment of catchments throughoutthe south-west agricultural region to provideinformation to landholders will be undertakenwithin five years, to:

• provide a statewide assessment of salinityrisk in terms of the areas, the environmental values and theinfrastructure likely to be affected, and when they will be affected;

• cover all agricultural catchments wherefarmers are involved in the determinationof their risk and the strategies they mightadopt to either avert the risk, delay theonset of salinity (giving time for thedevelopment of new technologies) or adapt to increasing salinity; and

• identify social, economic andenvironmental impacts and developmitigation strategies.

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Left: A water quality monitoring site established by the Gabby Quoi Quoi Catchment Groupand the Water and Rivers Commission. Photo: Landcare Vision

This process would work in tandem with the focus and recovery catchmentactivities and the Land Monitor project. Therapid assessment process will help to identifybetter the priority catchments in terms of bothtotal public and private asset value and needfor rapid intervention. It will provide earlyindications of appropriate remedial activitythat could be undertaken in partnershipbetween all stakeholders. Catchmentscompleting the rapid catchment assessmentwill be provided with follow up supportranging from entering the focus or recoverycatchment process to mentoring, dependingon the prognosis for the catchment.

A pilot study is currently being undertaken inthe upper Blackwood and western south coastas part of the National Land and WaterResources Audit (funded through the NaturalHeritage Trust). Known as Salt Scenarios 2020,this project is determining the total costs ofsalinity and the cost effectiveness of availablesolutions up to 2020.

To undertake rapid assessments of catchments,the community and rapid assessment teamsrequire data at scales that allow quickinterpretation to a local level. Over the pastdecade, government agencies have beenbuilding the 14 key datasets required and thecapacity to interpret each of them. With thecompletion of the Land Monitor project in2001, accurate elevation data and salinity mapswill be added to the list.

Only three datasets remain to be collected;magnetics, radiometrics and electromagnetics,known collectively as airborne geophysics.Magnetics determines the nature of thebedrock and radiometrics the nature of thesoils. Electromagnetics measures a combinationof the thickness of the soil and weathered rocklayer, its salt content, and groundwater salinity,but currently cannot separate these factorswithout additional drilling and sampling,which reduces the cost-effectiveness of thetechnique. At this stage, airborne magneticsand radiometrics are considered more worthyof collecting for the agricultural area thanelectromagnetics.

Many airborne geophysical surveys have beenundertaken in Western Australia, reducing thearea still to be surveyed, and improving thelikely spin-off from data acquisition in newareas. Magnetics and radiometrics arefundamental tools in mineral exploration andsurveys for salinity risk assessment mayprovide other benefits. These datasets willallow interpretation of salinity risk and soilproperties down to the farm level, significantlyimproving the scale and speed at which salinityadvice can be provided.

However, complementary development workwill be required to link the wide range ofdatasets through targeted research.

Water management plans will need to bedeveloped for each catchment to consider the best means to manage both surface andgroundwaters to prevent degradation and use excess water in productive ways. These plans should include identification and agreement from all stakeholders on what are and are not acceptable receivingpoints for any proposed drainage. Trade offs,where some environmental, social oreconomic values may be reduced, will need to be considered.

Water management is best planned on acatchment basis, having regard for regional strategies.

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Preparing for an airborne geophysical survey in the Wheatbelt.Photo: Agriculture Western Australia

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Planning at this scale allows coordinated andstrategic delivery at the farm scale. It requiresagreement by landholders within thecatchment (including local governmentauthorities and government agencies withland holdings) and by the governmentagencies responsible for the various aspects of land and water management. Agreementwill be easier when the implications ofimplementing the management plan are better known.

Water management plans will consider a wide range of land and stream issues such as flooding, water erosion, waterlogging,inundation, in-stream processes(eutrophication, sedimentation) and recharge-discharge processes. Such plans will include:

• identification of the resource and itsdegradation hazards;

• identification and agreement on acceptableand non-acceptable water receival points;

• assessment of risk under current land use;

• assessment of risk with the predictedexpansion of salinity in the catchment;

• modelling of earthworks and detentionbasin designs in the catchment to reducerisk; and

• advice on the options available forindividuals to manage their water as partof the integrated plan.

The SS2020 project will be expanded tocover the remaining 15 million hectares ofthe south-west agricultural region, includingan estimation of salinity risk and cost ofsalinity for each catchment, and the costeffectiveness of options within five years.

The results of the Department ofConservation and Land Management’sbiological survey of the south-westagricultural region will be examined inlight of the results of the SS2020 project to help determine biodiversityconservation priorities.

Airborne magnetic and radiometric datacollection will be undertaken over afurther nine million hectares in the nextfive years.

Eight catchment assessment teamsconsisting of hydrologists, soils specialists,agronomists, economists, biologists, GISanalysts and extension specialists will beset up to undertake rapid catchmentassessment in all catchments in the south-west agricultural region. This work will be completed within five years andundertaken on a priority basis.

Water management plans will be designed and modelled for catchments in the south-west agricultural region over the next five years.

4.3.2 Focus catchment support teams

Following a rapid assessment, catchmentgroups may become a focus catchment wherea high level of planning and technical supportand capacity building is provided for up to ayear to help residents adopt land use practicesfor catchment objectives and improve theirability to manage change.

Focus catchments were introduced in 1996,with catchments joining the process on avoluntary basis through a partnershipagreement with government agencies. The Government has provided technical and business advice and support throughcatchment support teams and AgricultureWestern Australia’s Better Business Program tohelp in advanced planning and provide site-specific advice for on-farm implementation.

The focus catchment program is beingcontinually refined, especially as new datasetsand decision support tools become availableto the teams.

The focus catchment support teams willcontinue and be subject to periodic review.

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4.4 Biodiversity conservation

Conserving biodiversity requires action on anumber of fronts, including protection andmanagement of native vegetation,watercourses and wetlands as part of anintegrated catchment approach. Variousstrategies and programs throughout the Stateaddress biodiversity conservation. ThisSalinity Strategy focuses on selected keyactions to conserve biodiversity values atgreatest threat from increasing salinity.

4.4.1 Seed collection, storage and databasing

While in situ conservation of biodiversity is the primary objective, ex situ conservationcan be used as “insurance” against extinctionand to provide seed for the production andtranslocation of plants into safer sites. TheDepartment of Conservation and LandManagement’s Threatened Flora Seed Centrewas established for this purpose in 1992.

Accurate, up-to-date information onthreatened flora populations is essential foreffective management of current andpotentially saline environments. There isincomplete information on many taxa as towhether they are threatened species or not.

The Department of Conservation andLand Management will establish andmaintain a long-term storage facility forseeds of rare and threatened plant specieslocated in saline environments.

Work will continue through a number ofmechanisms including the SustainableSeed Banks project run by GreeningAustralia (WA) to ensure adequate seedsupply to satisfy large-scale revegetationrequirements.

Further data will be collected andanalysed on priority flora taxa of thesouth-west agricultural region that maybe threatened by increasing salinity.

4.4.2 Protecting fauna from extinction

Many native fauna species require action to ensure they do not become extinct. The endangered Carnaby’s cockatoo is a “flagship” species that illustrates thedependence of native fauna on landscapehealth. The cockatoo’s preferred nesting site,the salmon gum, is now quite rare in thenorthern Wheatbelt due to land clearing foragriculture and secondary salinity.

Yellow eyebright is almost extinct in Victoria, Tasmaniaand South Australia. The largest known population growsin Western Australia’s Lake Muir Recovery Catchment.Photo: Department of Conservation and Land Management

The conservation of Carnaby’s cockatoodepends on the conservation of remnanteucalypt woodlands and the adjacent banksiaheathlands in which it feeds, and thecorridors of native vegetation that link the two types of habitat.

The protection of existing remnant vegetationand the encouragement of native revegetationare essential for protecting endangered fauna,such as the Carnaby’s cockatoo, from extinction.

The Department of Conservation and LandManagement will implement a program tosave threatened species such as Carnaby’scockatoo in cooperation with landholders.

A database of threatened and priorityfauna in saline areas of the south-westagricultural region will be completed.

4.4.3 Natural diversity recoverycatchments

Recovery catchments, a key measure forbiodiversity conservation under the 1996Salinity Action Plan, are based on theidentification of major, high priority publicassets that are at risk from salinity and warrantsignificant, ongoing investment in theirrecovery and protection.

Recent modelling has shown that very highlevels of intervention, which may include upto 80 per cent of a catchment being covered orfarmed in a rotation with perennial speciesplus engineering options, may be required toprotect and conserve key areas of biodiversity.

The Department of Conservation and LandManagement will continue to implement acoordinated Natural Diversity RecoveryProgram. This program already targets theToolibin Lake, Lake Muir-Unicup system,Lake Warden system and Lake Bryde-EastLake Bryde catchments.

The Natural Diversity Recovery Programwill target at least six more catchments by2005, based on biological survey findings.

4.4.4 Protecting other wetlands

In addition to the wetlands that will beprotected under the Natural DiversityRecovery Program, the Water and RiversCommission will coordinate the developmentand implementation of management plans forother high priority wetlands at risk fromsalinity outside the conservation estate (for example wetlands on private land or onland vested with local government). This willbe done in partnership with the communityand where appropriate, the managementplans will include wetland catchments.

Although biodiversity and the level of risk from salinity will be key considerationsin the selection of wetlands, other factors suchas physical uniqueness, cultural andrecreational values will also be consideredtogether with the capacity of the community to support the development andimplementation of the management plans.

The Water and Rivers Commission, inpartnership with the community, willdevelop and implement management plansfor high priority wetlands located outsidethe conservation estate.

4.5 Water resource recovery catchments

We currently have adequate water resources inthe south-west to meet water supply demandsinto the middle of the 21st century. However,as demands for water grow, there will be anincreasing requirement to manage waterresources in such a way as to keep them withinsalinity levels suitable for the region’s drinkingwater supply needs. Extensive rehabilitationwork may be required to recover fresh waterresources in the future.

Action has already been taken to preventsalinisation and restore water quality in fivekey water resource catchments of theMundaring Weir (Helena River), WellingtonReservoir (Collie River), and the Warren, Kentand Denmark rivers.

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Future management will concentrate on highwater use farming systems based onintegrated catchment plans including actionsfor ground and surface water management,waterway management, remnant vegetationprotection, farm forestry, improved annualcropping and pasture and conservationplantings next to discharge areas.

The target for the Collie River inflow to theWellington Dam is to have potable water by2015. The targets for both the Kent and Warrenrivers are for potable water at sites suitable forfuture dams by 2030.

Water quality in the Helena and Denmarkrivers will be regularly monitored andrecommendations made on requirements for action on salinity control.

The Water and Rivers Commission will:

• arrange implementation of plans based on a cost-sharing framework that considers public benefit; and

• encourage and facilitate the fencing of remnant vegetation.

4.6 Infrastructure protection

The State Government established the Rural Towns Program under the 1996 Salinity Action Plan.

The aim of this program is to help localgovernment authorities develop strategiesthat will guide the community to addressrising watertables in the catchment, establishwater use plans for the towns and puteducation programs in place to promote“water wise” programs to protect assets. The program provides funding on a sharedbasis for detailed investigations, developmentof a salinity management strategy, planningand implementation of salinity and watercontrol measures.

The Rural Towns Program includes:

• a structured program in which localcouncils can operate;

• coordinated delivery of strategy outcomeswhich are integrated with other recognisednatural resource management projects;

• salinity management services provided bytechnical specialists; and

• up to 50 per cent funding subsidies forworks approved as part of a SalinityManagement Strategy prepared for the town.

The Rural Towns Program will service 30 towns for the next three years withadditional towns supported progressivelyover the following four to 10 years.

4.7 Flood risk assessment

Increased flood risk from the development of groundwater discharge areas has majorimplications for infrastructure and communities.

A flood risk study for the Blackwood Riverassessed the potential increases in flood flowsdue to the full expression of waterloggingwithin the catchment. The predicted increasein flood flows was two-to-four times higherthan recorded flood magnitude levels, but the modelled situation need not be reached.

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Buildings, roads, rail and water facilities are all at risk from salinity.Photo: Department of Conservation and Land Management

An unfortunate aftermath of flooding is thesurcharging, or the boosting of groundwaterlevels by the floodwaters. After the surfacewater has receded the groundwater will alsotend to drain away, but the rate will bedelayed by the generally flat terrain thatinfluences the hydraulic gradient.

Further work will be undertaken to look atother catchments at risk, such as the Avon,Murray and Collie rivers. The mainmanagement approaches to reducing flood risk are:

• limiting the extent of waterlogging withina catchment by planting any vegetationthat will survive and use water, and/or by using drainage; and

• managing surface run-off to limit flooding,recognising that the processes that increasethe risk of flooding are already operatingin many catchments.

The intent is to convert the waterloggedground back to more natural ground to delayrun-off when rain falls. This could beachieved by growing saltbush, for example, in a previously waterlogged area. If the topfew hundred millimetres of soil can absorbrainfall it will offset the flood risk due towaterlogging.

There will also be situations where properlydesigned drainage can be used, but it isimportant that any drainage option does not add to the flood risk in itself. Any futuredrainage proposals will be assessed with this in mind.

Undesirable processes are already operatingin many catchments, sometimes with well-intentioned but equally undesirable humaninterventions. There needs to be a combinedapproach to control and reduce waterloggedareas and improve flood mitigation featuresof existing natural and artificial drainagesystems. In addition, any new drainageendeavours must be appropriately designed.

The informed approach to reducing flood magnitudes involves slowing run-offwherever possible, using on-farm surfacewater management, dispersed retardingbasins that mimic the natural valley storage of mature natural rivers and limit trainingnatural river channels or developing drainagenetworks. There is a need for betterexplanations of the processes at work and advice on how to combat the undesirable effects.

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The Moore River in flood, 1999. Photo: Water and Rivers Commission

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The Water and Rivers Commission will:

• increase awareness of these hydrologicimpacts by undertaking further studyon the impact of waterlogging on floodrisk and vice versa. This study willassess the increase in flood risk for theAvon, Murray, Collie and othersouthern rivers from catchment landuse and the full impact of landclearing and waterlogging;

• provide advice on the optimum use ofvegetation and/or drainage to controlwaterlogging;

• provide advice on drainage design toachieve flood mitigation.

4.8 Research and development

Further research is needed to help refineexisting activity and to help us move forwardinto new areas of opportunity. The high levelof media and political interest in salinity hasensured an ever-increasing national source offunds for research in this area and provides anopportunity for this State.

Western Australia may attract much of thisfunding as we are experiencing the effects ofsalinity at an earlier stage than much ofeastern Australia. Also, the level of awarenessand understanding is higher here andprovides a conducive atmosphere for theresearch sector. However, research activityoften requires matching funds or in kindsupport which strain agencies’ budgets andprove difficult for farm-based groups.

Testing eucalyptus oil content in different species of oilmallees. Photo: Department of Conservation and LandManagement

The Salinity Council will continue to facilitateand encourage research activity andcoordinating applications between agenciesand private groups in order to optimise thebenefits for salinity management in the State.

Government agencies will expand their capacity to host and attract researchactivity to this State.

Opposite: Morbinning Catchment Group members collect seedlings for landcare plantings. Photo: Landcare Vision

Section 5Tools to manage salinity

There is a range of tools available to managesalinity. Each catchment will need to select a combination of these to suit their specificneeds and to meet their objectives. No onetool is likely to work in isolation and thetools used will need to be appropriatelylocated in all parts of the landscape. In addition, land use will have to changesignificantly across the whole agriculturalarea. Sources of further information aboutthese tools are listed in Salinity: A guide forland managers.

Wherever possible, the tools described areeconomically beneficial to the landholder inthe longer term. However, there are transitioncosts in establishing these new systems anddelays in cash flow. This aspect is addressedin section 6.4, “Options for cost-sharing”.

5.1 Land management practices

Current annual farming practices requiresignificant change so that they either use more water, or they help to use saline lands or water in a productive way. Change needsto be effected across the landscape.

Deep-rooted perennials have a high water use potential, and are therefore the primary tool to control salinity. Their extended growingseason and deep root systems provide thecapacity to use more annual rainfall as well asexploit water available at depth within the soilprofile. They provide an opportunity for incomeand diversification, while addressing salinity.

There is potential for the development of new and more productive rural enterprisesproviding funding is available to help withresource assessment, technical information,research and market identification, as well asassociated transition costs. Benefits will accrue atboth the regional and individual scale. While theprimary target is salinity management, collateralbenefits should occur in the longer-term throughincreased profitability and farm viability.

Financial incentives for investment in woodyrevegetation are needed, such as through acarbon offset scheme to provide carbon sinks forpurchase by industry to offset carbon emissions.

Further emphasis must be put on thesignificance of the profitability of farmingsystems as an important component infinding and implementing solutions forsalinity. It will be important to ensure thatlandholders have available to them theinformation they need to understand theoptions they have for reducing recharge, the likely impact of those options on rechargeand salinity, and the practicality and financialimplications of implementing them.

Developing integrated decision support tools that deal with these issues will allowlandholders to make decisions for their ownsituation, in contrast to the general solutionsthat are desirable for a region or catchment.

5.1.1 Changing agricultural practices

5.1.1.1 Cropping options

A highly effective way of reducing recharge isthe widespread implementation of profitable,practical farming systems that use more waterthan current systems. This will not beachieved by manipulating existing farmingsystems, but by developing new systems thatinclude a considerable area of deep-rootedperennial species.

Recent measurements and models haveshown that there is generally only limitedpotential to decrease recharge by modifyingexisting annual crop and pasture systems. The effectiveness of high performance annualcrops and pastures in reducing rechargevaries with soil type and climate and in themedium to low rainfall areas on finer texturedsoils a doubling of crop yield may only reducerecharge by five per cent (4mm out of anaverage of 20mm).

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5 Tools to manage salinity

However, it is important to maximise wateruse of annual plants by aiming for:

• higher performance cropping and pasturesystems such as those developed for theWheatbelt and South Coast (for examplewheat, lupin and canola rotations); and

• the selection of plants with a longergrowing season and increased rootingdepth (for example serradella cultivars).

Warm season cropping has the potential tooffer more than increased water usingcapacity. Early trials show variable results inrecharge reduction, but other benefits includethe recycling of nutrients, breaking down of“hard pans”, extending the rooting depth offollowing crops, assisting in future seasons’weed control and helping slow the chemicalresistance of weeds. These benefits haveattracted significant grower support. Warmseason crops are under early stages ofdevelopment in farming systems and needfurther extensive research, development andfield trials. At present these systems are mostsuited to the southern agricultural area and towaterlogged areas, but are being trialedthroughout the Wheatbelt.

The Western Australian No Tillage Farmers’Association is providing leadership in warm

season cropping and high attendances at theirseminars indicates a strong interest by farmersin these new systems. The Natural HeritageTrust and the Salinity Council have supportedthe work of the Association.

Further research, development and extensionsupport will be given to optimise the potentialof new farming systems and will be activelypromoted by the Salinity Council.

The Western Australian No TillageFarmers’ Association is targeting warmseason cropping over 15 per cent of thepotential cropping area within five years.

The Grains Research and DevelopmentCorporation and the Land and Water ResourcesResearch and Development Corporation haverecognised the need to reduce recharge underproductive farming systems and, throughinvestments in the National Dryland SalinityProgram, are funding significant amounts ofwork in this area.

The development of more salt-tolerant cropswould delay the effects of salinity, providingextra time and income for implementationactivity. However, the effects of waterlogging inthe root zone would still need to be managed.

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Tagasaste, a perennial fodder shrub.Photo: Agriculture Western Australia

Lucerne pasture growing on a Borden property. Photo: Agriculture Western Australia

5.1.1.2 Pasture options

Perennial pastures, particularly deep-rootedlucerne, can also play a role in reducingrecharge as a profitable farming system. The particular advantage of perennial pastureplants is that grazing industries able to usethem are already in place. They could alsoform the basis of new products and providethe option of cattle production in areaspreviously considered as unsuitable.

The development of new farming systemsbased on perennial shrubs or trees andperennial pasture will require an innovative,holistic approach to research and developmentwhich relies on strong participation by farmers.Groups such as the Western AustralianLucerne Growers and the Saltland PasturesAssociation are currently promoting moreextensive use of perennial grasses and herbs.

The potential for perennial pastures andfodder shrubs is high in the medium rainfall“wool belt”, as is the potential for agroforestrysystems. This presents an opportunity for anew timber-based industry to developalongside a more intensive grazing systemusing a perennial pasture base. Such higherwater use systems, incorporating commercialtree crops, need not be at the expense oftraditional grazing, but as an addition to it.

5.1.2 Commercial farm forestry

Broad-scale planting of perennials isrequired to control salinity. Woodyperennials will only be effective if they are strategically distributed across theagricultural landscape, and thereforeefficiently integrated into the agriculturalsystem. The large area of revegetationrequired and the substantial cost involvedmeans that commercial returns fromrevegetation will be essential to achievelarge-scale adoption. Initial transition costs may require community support.

Woody perennials range from shrubs to talltrees. Their longevity is linked with deeper,more extensive root systems and tallercanopies, which generate a higher water usepotential than perennial grasses, herbs andwarm season growing crops. Farm forestryalso offers the potential to incorporate soundbiodiversity principles (for examplepreference for native species and more diversemixtures of species in production systems).

Commercial tree crops have emerged, mostnotably bluegum in the higher rainfall areas,and others such as maritime pine and thefodder shrub tagasaste in intermediate rainfall areas.

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The Department of Conservation and LandManagement will continue to implement amajor maritime pine program in the 400 to600 mm rainfall region.

Oil mallee is under development as a treecrop for the low rainfall areas. A joint projectbetween the Department of Conservation andLand Management and Agriculture WesternAustralia is examining the selection anddevelopment of multiple purpose species forlarge-scale revegetation.

Economic diversification requires the creationof new industries that inevitably haveextended development and adoption periods.For example, the Oil Mallee Association andthe Oil Mallee Company are actively workingto develop a eucalyptus oil industry with by-products of charcoal and electricitygeneration. Trials of other commercial optionsinclude sandalwood, floriculture products,native foods, medicines and olives.Government and venture capital support is critical in establishing new industries,particularly for research and seed capital.

Commercial revegetation opportunities needto be given priority consideration in the lowto medium rainfall areas. Native foods,floriculture and specialty timber commercialopportunities exist and are being tested atexperimental levels by landholders andagencies.

Public investment in larger “commercialspeciality clean and green” revegetationprojects needs to be encouraged.

The 1996 Salinity Action Plan set a target of anextra three million hectares of trees and shrubsplanted across the agricultural region over 30years. Subsequent scientific assessment hasshown that greater levels of intervention arerequired and this target needs to be revisitedafter community consultation and debate.

The State Salinity Council will pursue atarget of more than three million hectaresof woody tree crops in the south-westagricultural region, at an accelerated rateand will continue to review this target inthe light of new information.

The Department of Conservation andLand Management and AgricultureWestern Australia will undertakedevelopment of a range of new woodyperennial crops and industries, whichwill focus on the commercial use ofnative species in low rainfall areas.

The Oil Mallee Association is targetingone million hectares of commercialmallee plantings by 2015.

Opportunities for commercial publicinvestment in large-scale projects will besupported through business planning andfeasibility studies.

Woody perennials such as bluegum, pines,tagasaste and oil mallees have each requiredmany millions of dollars of capital to developas commercial crops.

There are major problems in funding thedevelopment of new commercial woody plant species, products and industries. The investment required is large andinherently risky. This indicates a fundamentalrequirement for both government and privateinvestment in the development phase ofcommercial woody perennial crops, especiallyin low rainfall agricultural regions. S

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Maritime pine planted as a commercial crop on already cleared farmland.Photo: Department of Conservation and Land Management

Any interest in a promising prospect will bebased, at least partly, on the salinity controlbenefit, a return that is not readily available tohelp motivate private enterprise. Newprospects will not have an establishedindustry lobby, and will have to face theproblem of building up a sufficient resourcebase before commercial development canemerge. Furthermore, landcare and relatedfunding programs often explicitly excludecommercial development projects, though itshould be noted that the Natural HeritageTrust has contributed significant funds inrecent years.

The potential for carbon credits andgreenhouse emission trading, to becoordinated at national and internationallevels, would also add extra returns torevegetation options. It should be noted thattransaction costs would preclude smallparcels of vegetation and favours cooperativeor corporate entities, such as the WesternAustralian Landcare Trust and the Oil MalleeAssociation. An investment in greenhouseplantings in high priority catchments withvaluable public assets may well give a doublereturn, of saving those assets by using morewater while attracting greenhouse credits.

5.1.3 Using saline lands productively

While more land will be affected by salinity,there are increasing opportunities to use someareas productively. The Saltland PasturesAssociation believes that about one millionhectares, or 50 per cent, of land currentlyaffected by salinity could potentially berevegetated using saltland pastures or salt-tolerant trees and shrubs over the next decade.Additional work on the economics of the use ofsaline land still remains to be done. However,land that has become saline needs to be fencedand separately managed for both productionpurposes and biodiversity value.

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Saltbush growing successfully on salt-affected land. Photo: Landcare Vision

Oil mallee species growing at CALM's Narrogin nursery. Photo: Department of Conservation and Land Management

Recent studies by The University of Western Australia indicate that successfuldevelopment of profitable enterprises forsaline land would bring significant returnsgiven the extensive areas affected by salinitynow and into the future.

There will be five outcomes fromproductively managing saline lands:

• improved economic outcomes forlandholders with large areas of saltland;

• stabilisation of saltland, reduced erosion of degraded watercourses;

• limited local drawdown of salinewatertables and reduced potential forflood risk;

• improved nature conservation; and

• improved visual and amenity aspects.

Saltland in Western Australia presents a rangeof landscape opportunities (niches) with widevariation in levels of salinity, waterloggingand inundation, and in soil texture.

These different niches present diverseopportunities to develop new salineagricultural industries (for example saltlandpastures, seed harvesting, wood for pulp,brushwood, essential oils and aquaculture).

Many landholders in the low and mediumrainfall regions have been revegetatingsaltland with salt-tolerant annuals andgrasses, herbs and woody perennials. The Saltland Pastures Association was formed in 1997 to help promote and advance this activity.

These activities are receiving renewedimpetus thanks to the recognition that theinclusion of an annual understoreysubstantially increases productivity whengrown in conjunction with salt-tolerantwoody perennials such as saltbush species.

Saltland pasture adoption is expected toincrease dramatically with the release of newshort-season balansa clover varieties in the

year 2000 and adoption of technology toincrease productivity from these pastures.

The Saltland Pastures Association hasalready demonstrated great potential forthis resource and is targeting one millionhectares of productively-managed salineland over the next decade.

There are also a number of salt-tolerant treesand shrubs with potential for growth onmarginally saline and waterlogged land in Western Australia, including Eucalyptussargentii, E. occidentalis, E. spathulata, E.loxophleba, E. camaldulensis, Melaleuca uncinata,M. thyoides, Acacia saligna and Casuarina obesa.In fact, E. camaldulensis is the world’s mostused hardwood for pulp production. This offers a timber-pulp opportunity forsaline lands in the 500 to 700mm rainfall zone.

Targeting different saline agricultural optionsto particular landscape niches is an importantissue that will require continuing research,development and extension. In order to meetnature conservation outcomes, research anddevelopment should be focussed on nativeplants that grow locally on saline lands. These include a range of eucalypts, wattles,paperbarks, ti-trees, saltbushes and samphires.This is especially important in the south-westagricultural region given the high turnover ofnative plant species across the landscape.Species from elsewhere will have a reducednature conservation benefit and a higher weedpotential, although they may have significantroles for controlling watertables.

In deciding on the use of saline lands, account needs to be taken of the fact thatnaturally saline wetlands and theirfloodplains are diverse ecosystems withintrinsic value for nature conservation.

It will be important to ensure that farmersand other land managers can access the best possible advice on what can be done to manage salt-affected land and to examinealternative, innovative uses that may have a private and/or public benefit.

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All salt-affected land is not the same, and some areas will not respond at all totreatment. Reducing waterlogging, forexample, can significantly enhance productionfrom slightly salt-affected land. Currentknowledge needs to be assembled in thecontext of the different classes of salt-affectedland and an information package developed.

Agriculture Western Australia will helplandholders with salt-affected land by:

• developing a system for classification of salt-affected land;

• developing an information package for management of salt-affected land;

• examining alternative uses for salt-affected land; and

• establishing eight salt-affected landdemonstration sites.

5.1.3.1 Productive use of saline water

A review of aquaculture operations interstateand overseas by Fisheries Western Australiaand Agriculture Western Australia found arange of opportunities for commercialaquaculture in inland saline waters.

For example, in China, Chile and Taiwanminimal management techniques are used inthe large-scale production of seaweed for foodand chemicals.

In this industry a range of seaweed species isgrown in near stagnant, low salinity ponds.At the other end of the spectrum, carefullymanaged greenhouse tank systems in Israelare used to farm fish in water too salty foragricultural irrigation.

There is little commercial aquaculture usinginland saline water in Australia, and currentlyfew initiatives in Western Australia. Severalresearch projects are in progress in New SouthWales, Victoria and South Australia.

The initial work is using rainbow trout as a lead species. Trout has been farmed in Western Australia for over 50 years and it is the only species which has establishedcommercial production in the State and which can tolerate a wide range of salinities.However, recent research by MurdochUniversity on black bream suggests that this species could also be commercially viable in saline water sources such as dams.

Care will be needed when introducing newspecies to ensure that they do not establishferal populations.

Fisheries Western Australia and AgricultureWestern Australia will continue the OutbackOcean Project.

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York gum and everlastings at Arthur River.Photo: Department of Conservation and Land Management

5.1.4 Irrigated agriculture

South West Irrigation (SWI) has beendeveloping sustainable irrigation farmingsystems to increase their sustainability andalleviate irrigation salinity effects. A levysystem has been implemented whereirrigation farmer shareholders raise funds to undertake activities to reduce salinity.

South West Irrigation will undertakework on sub-surface drainage as a meansof reducing salinity effects and increasingfarm productivity; monitoring the qualityof water flowing through the south-westirrigation area and undertaking salinitymapping to delineate and prioritise areasof salinity risk.

5.2 Native vegetation managementand revegetation

An important component in any salinitymanagement plan is to conserve the nativevegetation that still exists in the landscape.This helps to save our natural heritage anddevelop sustainable systems of perennialagriculture. There is an urgent need fornatural biodiversity to be promoted,preserved and integrated into WesternAustralian farming systems.

Revegetation in its many forms offersopportunities for all Western Australians towork together to help protect what remains of our natural heritage from the worst-caseimpacts of salinity.

5.2.1 Native vegetation management

Retaining native vegetation in good health is a first step in recharge control as it is easierto look after the plants that are already in theground and using water than it is torevegetate. Remnants have the added bonusof being existing wildlife habitat. The abilityof remnants to maintain a range of plants andanimals may be improved by increasing thearea of bushland or by improving its quality.

Native vegetation is vital for biodiversityconservation and particularly valued forsalinity control where:

• individual remnants are large enough to reduce recharge at a catchment or sub-catchment scale; and

• smaller remnants occur on high rechargezones (for example deep sands and aroundrocky outcrops) or discharge zones (forexample drainage lines, swamps and lakes).

Native vegetation is not only important as anecosystem driver, it is also important in itsdiversity of native plants as well as being ahabitat for a whole suite of invertebrate andvertebrate animals. Accordingly, the need toretain native vegetation in the agriculturalareas is essential not only because of the part it plays in the hydrological balance but alsobecause of its intrinsic importance as a habitat.

Native vegetation also contributes to waterand soil conservation and provides animportant genetic resource for developmentof new plants for commercial production. It is important as the strategic building blocks of landscape revegetation and repair.Remnant vegetation protection andmanagement, and its integration with othervegetation strategies, will be a significantcomponent of salinity control systems.

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Successful flooded gum regeneration in the Blackwoodcatchment after fencing to exclude stock.Photo: Water and Rivers Commission

The State Government has progressivelytightened clearing regulations, with additionalmeasures implemented early in 1999. Clearingremnant vegetation under normalcircumstances is no longer acceptable giventhe issues of salinity, biodiversity, nativehabitat and global warming. However, it isrecognised that there are equity issuesassociated with preventing further clearingand these are being addressed.

The Native Vegetation Working Group was set up by the Minister for Primary Industry to develop mechanisms that minimise theeconomic burden carried by individuallandholders in the protection and retention ofprivately-owned bushland in agricultural areas.

The long-term value of remnant vegetation forsalinity control and biodiversity conservationdepends on management of a range of threatsapart from salinity. For example, managementof feral animals, weeds and disturbanceevents such as fire, and protection fromdieback disease (Phytophthora species) inmany areas, are essential to maintain values in the long term. Protective fencing,rehabilitation of degraded remnants andimproved management will maintain orenhance water use.

The State Government will continue to protectand manage native vegetation on land itcontrols as well as providing advisory andsupport services to landholders conservingnative vegetation. These services will includethe Land for Wildlife Scheme, RemnantVegetation Protection Scheme, voluntaryconservation covenants and by working with Natural Heritage Trust programs such as Bushcare.

Additional measures to encourage nativevegetation management and to addressinequities associated with clearing bans will be addressed throughrecommendations of the Native VegetationWorking Group in conjunction with thisSalinity Strategy.

5.2.2 Native revegetation

As well as protecting and managing nativevegetation, revegetation with native species is also vital for salinity management andbiodiversity conservation. Revegetation has significant benefits forwildlife if it is well planned. Using nativespecies where possible and including a varietyof flowering trees and shrubs increase the valueof such areas for a range of native animals.

Many of the revegetation methodsimplemented in recent years were developedin the south-west agricultural region. Farmers,their community groups, agencies andorganisations have been active in laying solidfoundations for the range of approaches andscales of implementation that we now knoware possible.

Revegetation and proper management ofnative revegetation have benefits in additionto biodiversity, including erosion control(wind and water), stock shelter, buffer zonesand recharge management.

The reintegration of native species intoagricultural systems on the required scale will require access to robust direct seedingtechnologies.

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Native fauna, such as the tammar wallaby, will be lostfrom the agricultural region unless action is taken.Photo: Babs and Bert Wells/Department of Conservationand Land Management

While some direct seeding technologies areavailable, further substantial research anddevelopment is required to develop thesetechniques.

Much of our native fauna will be lost from theagricultural region unless isolated remnantsare buffered and joined by appropriate bushcorridors. Revegetation in riparian areas suchas creeks, rivers or wetlands should beundertaken with local native species, as an integral part of these bush corridors. In addition, native revegetation needs toinclude understorey plants to reconstructnatural habitats.

Imaginative approaches are required for thedevelopment of bush corridors. In some cases,it may be possible to develop corridors bywidening and revegetating road reserves.

In other cases it may be possible to re-engineersaline agricultural farming systems so thatrevegetation of saltland and river systemsconserves biodiversity and generates income.

Reintegrating native plants into farmingsystems will require the availability of majornew seed resources. For many extensivelycleared agricultural areas, it may not bepossible to provide enough seed forrevegetation from existing bush remnants.

Revegetation technology research anddevelopment will be supported, anddelivered through partnerships betweengovernment, industry and communityorganisations.

The Salinity Council will investigate atargeted program of research anddevelopment including those low rainfallareas where direct seeding presently haspoorest results.

Further research and development will be undertaken to determine the corridorrequirements of different fauna speciesand the opportunities that exist for thedevelopment of corridors with dual roles.

A program for the establishment andmanagement of seed nurseries of suitablelocal revegetation species will be developedin cooperation with relevant communityorganisations such as Greening Australia(WA) and local community groups.

5.3 Engineering options

High water tables have developed overmuch of the south-west and rechargecontinues to be significantly greater thandischarge. For this reason, engineeringoptions may be needed to complementagronomic and vegetation options. However,options must be implemented with fullknowledge of their on-site and off-siteimpacts and practicality, and within theframework of a catchment plan.

Catchment hydrology has altered significantlysince the land was cleared for agriculture.Some forms of drainage works have thepotential to alter catchment hydrologicalcharacteristics further in some types ofcatchment, for instance by reducing flooddetention capacity and increasing floodfrequency, particularly if those forms ofdrainage are adopted as common practicethroughout the catchment. In othercatchments, drainage may have relativelyinsignificant off-site impact, or even reduceflood risk by creating greater water retentioncapability in the surface soils.

Under suitable hydrological conditions,engineering options can be useful in theprotection or recovery of high value assets,such as areas of high agricultural productivity(including irrigation areas), areas of biologicalsignificance, wetlands, town buildings orother infrastructure.

Surface water control systems are alreadywidely recommended, while deep drains,groundwater pumping, relief wells andsyphons provide enhanced discharge, but need more care in their design andimplementation.

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For example, drains may become blocked withsediment and iron-fouling bacteria and createsignificant erosion risk and sedimentation ifnot well designed and installed. Engineeringoptions need to be developed in the context ofcatchment plans and in association with otherfarming systems.

A new approach to engineering optionsincludes a best practice environmentalmanagement package to help landholdergroups develop catchment-based drainageproposals. Improvements will also be made tothe statutory assessment process to give priorityto proposals that are comprehensively andcarefully thought out on a catchment basis anddesigned according to the following process:

• calculating the increase in catchmentdischarge of salt and water required tomaintain or improve production and protectenvironmental and infrastructure assets;

• evaluating and selecting watermanagement practices for the differentareas in the catchment in order to meetboth short and long-term objectives;

• considering the cumulative impacts (for example regional flooding) of allengineering proposals on the catchment;

• selecting the lowest risk engineeringdesign; and

• demonstrating that all impacts on theenvironment downstream (for examplenature reserves, wetlands, remnantvegetation, surface and groundwater) have been fully considered and will beminimised, monitored, and remediated if necessary.

There is a need to develop a newauthorisation process to ensure that:

• engineering proposals are based on theprocesses and information packagediscussed in the technical note, so that theymeet the Government’s aim of integratingengineering options with other essentialwater management practices to increasewater use and to reduce accessions togroundwater;

• all private and public stakeholders directlyaffected by such proposals are consulted;and

• the proposal improves the condition ofrelevant assets in the catchment withacceptable offsite impacts.

A process will be needed to refer proposals torelevant agencies for assessment where onearea is sacrificed in order to save another area.

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This open deep drain is stable, with no slumping anderosion. Photo: Water and Rivers Commission

5.3.1 Surface water management

Water is a resource that can become a problemwithout appropriate management. Waterponding on the soil surface and waterloggingwithin the soil profile inhibit plant growth, andencourage groundwater recharge. Directingwater along grade lines using drains, banks orcultivation rows improves plant growth, reduceserosion and potentially recharge, particularly inwet years when most recharge occurs.

These systems are characterised as being overthe whole farm/catchment, having particularemphasis on landscape water management,but can include discharge management in thelower parts of the landscape. Systems thatharvest and manage water are critical.Examples of this are shallow drains builtalong contour lines that channel water into aseries of dams and include several rows oftrees or shrubs planted on the lower side ofthe drains.

These systems can lead to increases inproduction on the land between the drainsand tree belts, as well as providing shelter for stock and birds and can often be the mostcost-effective form of engineering works. A well-designed system will ensure there is no leakage due to low gradients, or overtopping and erosion.

Farming systems based on permanent raisedbeds are being tested and can producesignificant yield increases on waterloggedland. These systems have been successfullyapplied to saline waterlogged land elsewherebut have not yet been used in this State.

Excess water harvested from a catchment caneither be used for drought-proofing watersupplies or to support new farm enterprises

such as aquaculture, horticulture or summerirrigation, or will require careful disposal sothat impacts on the environment or propertydownstream are within acceptable limits. The use of detention storages may helpmaintain catchment flow characteristics and aid in flood mitigation.

While management of surface water in this way is recommended for widespreadadoption, it should be complemented by otherstrategies that directly increase water use andreduce discharge of saline groundwater.

5.3.2 Groundwater management

Groundwater management in discharge areas is distinguished from surface watermanagement systems in that it targetsremoval of the permanent groundwatersystems. Methods include deep drains thatmay be either open (constructed by anexcavator) or closed (for example buriedslotted pipe), pumping systems, relief wellsand syphon wells.

5.3.2.1 Deep drains

Deep drains are constructed at depths ofabout one to three metres depending on site conditions. Deep open drains are mosteffective in permeable formations that resistslumping and erosion (for examplelimestone). Many agricultural soils have a low permeability (for example clays) or are unstable (for example loose sands) andtherefore an evaluation of site responsivenessis very important before construction.

Sites with a low permeability have a verysmall zone of influence of the groundwaterbut may improve surface water managementand salinity close to the drain.

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Well-designed deep drains have a role insalinity management. When deciding if adeep drain is suitable for a particular site,landholders should:

• Assess the potential cumulative impact ofthe drain, including careful and ongoingmonitoring and evaluation of the drain’seffectiveness;

• Ensure disposal of drainage water offsitemeets specific criteria, particularly with the risk of increased flooding andsedimentation downstream, and withimpacts on ecosystems receiving waterthat is different in quality and/or quantity;

• Assess the potential for damage to otherproperties or reserves. Landholders haveto accept a duty of care to ensure theirmanagement actions do not degrade otherprivate or public assets. Currently there areinadequate mechanisms to deal with thecumulative impacts of drainage waters on adjacent landholders or on theenvironment.

• Ensure the drainage forms part of acomprehensive catchment water plan.

• Ensure the drainage design adequatelyprovides for managing surface run-off, so as not to accelerate erosion or increaseflood risk.

In some instances, water may be dischargedinto natural streams and salt lake systems if it can be demonstrated that the discharge willnot affect current or future water supplies andwill cause no significant environmentalimpacts, and that the discharge is acceptableto all potentially affected landholders andrelevant agencies and statutory authorities.

Another option for disposal of drainage watermay be storage on site in carefully sited,designed, constructed and managedevaporation basins. Sometimes this storedwater may be used for other purposes suchas aquaculture if the water quality is suitable.

Any drainage proposal should incorporate the cost of salt control.

A drainage review initiated by theGovernment will lead to the development ofdrainage design and assessment criteria bygovernment agencies.

Deep drains must be considered within thecontext of an overall water managementstrategy, including flood risk management,to develop and implement longer-termsolutions, and that is agreed to by affectedlandholders and relevant agencies andstatutory authorities.

5.3.2.2 Groundwater pumping

This form of engineering option refers tobores drilled down to bedrock or intopermeable aquifers and situated in low partsof the catchment with various forms ofelectric or compressed air pumps. They are usually costly to install and maintainand are therefore most often suited toprotecting high value assets. Theireffectiveness is heavily dependent on soilpermeability, which determines how manypumps and how much power is needed toachieve the outcome. Bore field arrays andcollector systems can be quite extensive insome circumstances.

The disposal of water from these systems andthe offsite impacts have the same constraintsand requirements as discussed under deepdrains. Groundwater pumping is usually usedin conjunction with other tools, although likeother drainage systems it may be appropriateto start with these options if the salinity risk isimmediate.

Groundwater pumping is being evaluated at Toolibin Lake and in some rural towns.

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5.3.2.3 Relief wells and syphons

This form of engineering option involvesgroundwater under pressure being dischargednaturally from bores drilled to bedrock.Discharge through polythene pipes intowaterways prevents erosion and thesesystems may be the most easily managed of the engineering options, however offsiteimpacts of saline water disposal still need to be considered.

Agriculture Western Australia and theWater and Rivers Commission aresupporting the Gordon River FocusCatchment in an evaluation of thistechnique.

5.4 Social impact management

Various actions will ensure bettermanagement and mitigation of the socialimpacts associated with salinity:

• Structural adjustment should be institutedthrough a process of analysis and planning,and allocation of appropriate resources tocarry out the changes required.

• Family and financial counselling shouldcontinue and be linked to programs thatprovide training in farm business skills.

• Community planning processes should beconducted at a local scale so that residentsand landholders are able to identify futureactions which need to be undertaken toensure their ongoing economic andcommunity development.

• Information must be provided to peoplewho are likely to be affected so that theyare able to make the best possibledecisions. This information must besuitably presented for the audiences.

• The level of service delivery in the regionsacross a range of agencies must bemonitored and alternative service deliverymethods should be investigated.

The Salinity Council will commissionstudies to determine the social impacts ofsalinity and provide support andresources for existing social services todeliver appropriate financial, personaland family counselling.

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A relief well installed on a Frankland farm. Photo: Water and Rivers Commission

5.5 The way forward

None of the tools summarised in this sectionoffers the sole solution, rather they need to beused in an integrated manner.

Generally, it is most effective to plan andaddress salinity at the catchment scale. This is particularly important when actions in onearea may have an impact elsewhere.

Where there may be impacts outside thecatchment area, some decisions may need to be undertaken at the regional level. The regional natural resource managementgroups, through their regional strategies, will be in a position to help in decision-making at this level.

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Opposite: Morbinning field day, a chance to share knowledge.Photo: Landcare Vision

Revegetation under the Greening Challenge program,sponsored by Western Power.Photo: Agriculture Western Australia

Section 6 Community action toaddress salinity

The present organisation of communities andgovernments means that economic, social,industry development and natural resourcesmanagement issues are decided along sectorallines, with responsibilities and decision-making at local and State levels based onindustry or interest. Salinity managementrequires an integrated cross-sectoral approachon a catchment or landscape basis.

The regional and local communities’ capacityto initiate and manage change needs to beenhanced and regional communities need tobe empowered to develop and implementnatural resource management strategies in anintegrated manner.

The successful implementation of thisstrategy requires clear partnership betweenall stakeholders, including government,industry and the community at all levels. It is important that the efforts of individuallandholder to manage salinity are part of the larger strategy at catchment, regional or State level.

6.1 State Salinity Council

The review process of the 1996 Salinity ActionPlan identified strong community involvementas an essential component for future salinityand natural resource management in Western Australia.

Through workshop consultation, a newstructure and management arrangement hasbeen put into place.

The State Salinity Council has a role inleading and supporting the community inaddressing salinity. The Council is formed ofrepresentatives from both community andgovernment stakeholder groups and providesa forum for interaction between these groups.The Council is an advocate for action onbehalf of the community in its dialogue withgovernment.

Dealing with salinity forces new ways ofdoing business in terms of strategicdevelopment and planning. A cross-sectoralapproach is needed if activities are to becomplementary. The works on the ground are mostly done by private landholders usingtheir own resources, with some grantassistance, and by government (local andState) on lands they control and throughprograms they run. The new structure of theState Salinity Council has been developed tofacilitate the involvement of all stakeholdersin planning and prioritising activities.

All stakeholders need to be involved in the collection, assessment and sharing ofinformation and experiences to build asalinity management strategy. Eachstakeholder then takes from the Council theinformation and commitment relevant to theirown responsibilities, having the assurancethat it is compatible with other strategies. The structure and method of operation isindicative of the way in which salinitychanges the way that society needs to dealwith a landscape issue.

The role of the Council is to:

• provide leadership;

• provide strategic advice to the CabinetStanding Committee on SalinityManagement;

• coordinate decisions and activities betweenstakeholder groups; and

• monitor and evaluate the success of theSalinity Strategy.

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6 Community action to address salinity

Members of the Morbinning Catchment Group collect their bulkorder seedlings. Photo: Landcare Vision

The Council consists of representatives from the following organisations, with theChairperson appointed by the Government.However, the membership of the Council isnot fixed and may be varied in the future:

- Chairperson

- Avon Working Group

- Business in Western Australia, representedby Alcoa World Alumina Australia

- Conservation Council of Western Australia

- Environmental community group

- Environmental Protection Authority

- Greening Australia (WA)

- Indigenous representative

- Irrigation representative (initially from the South West)

- Lands and Forest Commission

- National Parks and Nature ConservationAuthority

- Northern Agriculture IntegratedManagement Strategy Group

- Oil Mallee Association

- Pastoralists and Graziers Association

- Rural Adjustment and FinanceCorporation

- Saltland Pastures Association

- Soil and Land Conservation Council

- South Coast Regional Initiative Planning Team

- South West Catchment Council

- Swan Catchment Council

- Water and Rivers Commission Board

- Western Australian No Tillage Farmers’Association

- Western Australian Farmers’ Federation

- Western Australian Municipal Association

- Agriculture Western Australia

- Department of Environmental Protection

- Department of Conservation and LandManagement

- Water and Rivers Commission

The Council in turn elects an executive fromits membership, which is endorsed by theCabinet Standing Committee on SalinityManagement. The executive comprises:

- Chairperson (same as Chair of Council)

- One person with experience in primaryproduction

- One person with experience in regionalnatural resource management

- One person with experience in localgovernment

- One person with experience inconservation issues

- Three additional members (based on merit)

The Chief Executive Officers of AgricultureWestern Australia, Department ofConservation and Land Management,Department of Environmental Protection and Water and Rivers Commission sit on the Executive in an ex officio capacity as full members.

The Council and executive can co-opt peoplewith expertise to help progress particularissues. (The Western Australian PlanningCommission would be a good case in point.An appropriate relationship between theWAPC and the Council will be developed.)The executive will be empowered to managesalinity within the context of this strategy. Aset of operating rules governs the operation ofthe Council, executive and other committees.

The Council will receive governmentfunding support and will makearrangements with the agencies forsecretarial and executive support.

6.2 Community and governmentpartnerships

The structure and function of rural andregional community groups have beenadapting to accommodate natural resourcemanagement and in particular salinitymanagement issues during the Decade of Landcare.

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Over the past 10 years groups of rurallandholders have begun working together toachieve mutual salinity management andenvironmental goals. Over 700 catchment andlandcare-related groups operate throughoutWestern Australia. They have beendeveloping local strategies and plans andundertaking works in partnership with localand State Government agencies, some withsupport from community landcarecoordinators.

The activities of local landholders and groupsare important to the implementation ofsalinity management plans on individualfarms and local catchments. Any Statestrategy will not succeed if action at the locallevel is not supported.

The capacity of these individuals and groupsto achieve change is increasing through alearning process that occurs in the companyof their neighbours. There is less risk forindividual landholders in trying newapproaches for salinity management if theyhave the involvement of their neighbours,readily available locally-based technicalsupport and the opportunity to learn fromother farmers’ successes and failures.

Regional natural resource managementgroups have since evolved in recognition ofthe need for an integrated, coordinated and”systems” view of natural resourcemanagement issues.

They provide an umbrella network for thesmaller landcare, environmental andcatchment groups and open the possibility ofregionally-developed and implementedstrategies to address a variety of environmentalissues. In the south-west agricultural region ofWestern Australia there are five regionalnatural resource management groups: TheSouth Coast Regional Initiative Planning Team(SCRIPT), the South West Catchment Council(SWCC), the Swan Catchment Council (SCC),the Avon Working Group (AWG) and theNorthern Agriculture Integrated ManagementStrategy Group (NAIMS). These groupsprovide the opportunity to develop effectivepartnerships between the community, industryand government at the regional level,providing the best means to address salinity.

Natural resource management groups musthave increased access to information, skills inconflict resolution and group management inorder to be most effective in managing land.In particular, such groups need financialsupport to identify and implement theirstrategies to protect natural heritage.

Several production groups also focus onsalinity management through their activities.They include the Western Australian NoTillage Farmers’ Association (WANTFA), theSaltland Pastures Association (SPA), the OilMallee Association (OMA) and the WesternAustralian Lucerne Growers (WALG).

The development and implementation ofactions to achieve this Salinity Strategy will beundertaken through partnerships between allstakeholders, including community groupsand individuals from both the urban andrural areas, industry, and Commonwealth,State and local government.

The Government will recognise regionalnatural resource management groups.Partnership agreements that clearly setout the roles and responsibilities of allparties to the agreement will beestablished between the regional groupsand government agencies.

South Yoting Catchment Group is one of more than 700landcare groups in Western Australia.Photo: Landcare Vision

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6.3 Shared investments

The issue of equity needs to be addressedbecause some landholders will be moreaffected than others. The whole WesternAustralian community will be affected andwill have to share the costs and the benefits ofmanaging salinity.

The issue of social change and industryadjustment in relation to dryland salinity iscomplex and more work is required in thisarea. It is the subject of current research anddevelopment under the National DrylandSalinity Program (NDSP).

Landholders have a duty of care to ensure thatnatural resource degradation does not occur asa result of their action or lack of action, and toundertake remedial works as required. As thegreatest beneficiaries of any efforts to combatsalinity, they should have a large investmentin salinity activities. However, the issue ofequity arises. Some landholders have alreadymade significant investments and should notbe penalised by being expected to continue toinvest at the same level as those who havedone little to date.

The equity issue also relates to the position ofthe landholder in the catchment, either fromthe perspective of having the greatestpotential benefit from any remedial activities,or from the perspective of having to lose thelargest area of land to existing activities.

Two main resource issues need to beaddressed: the need to coordinate andprioritise investment to ensure maximumimpact on salinity; and the need to ensure acontinued investment in the long term. This inturn raises the issues of incentive and equity.

There are four key parties in any investmentstrategy for works on the ground:

• landholders;

• general public;

• industry; and

• government (local government, State and Commonwealth).

Any or all of these parties may becontributors to activities at the catchment orregional scale. The question is, how muchshould each party contribute and how canthey be encouraged to make the investment?

The following points provide a generaloverview of the principles that should beconsidered when developing animplementation plan and consideringcontributions from relevant parties. Thesehave been modified from a paper developedfor the Standing Committee on AgriculturalResource Management (1998), Principles forshared investment to achieve sustainable naturalresource management practices.

All natural resource users and managers have a duty of care not to damage the naturalresource base. However, the landholders whofirst cleared the land were acting on bestpractice advice at the time and cannot be held accountable for these past actions. This exemption should not apply to thosewho continue to clear or exacerbate salinity in the light of current knowledge.

The Government will generally contribute toactivities to a level sufficient to trigger furtherinvestment towards self-correcting, self-perpetuating natural resource managementsystems that operate effectively, providing the activities are technically sound, produceoutcomes consistent with identified prioritiesand the benefits justify the costs.

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Gabby Quoi Quoi farmers growing their own trees and shrubs forrevegetation. Photo: Landcare Vision

In cases where the work being undertakendoes not financially benefit the landholder(s)and there is no duty of care, it is appropriatefor beneficiaries to provide some funding.Beneficiaries fall into two categories, andshould pay according to the potential levelof benefit that the activities will provide:

- Direct beneficiaries are landholders (publicor private) whose potential income and/orcapital value will be increased as a resultof the activity.

- Indirect beneficiaries are those who willenjoy qualified benefits, such as improvedbiodiversity, recreational benefits, off-siteagricultural benefits, etc.

Activities should generally be undertaken in a partnership between all stakeholders.However, it is accepted that salinity may be only one of a number of issues to beaddressed by any catchment or regional planand that investment, particularly by thelandholders, may cover other issues as well.

Coordination of investment should beundertaken at the regional and catchmentscale so that resources can be integrated andfocused on the priority issues. Regionalstrategic plans will guide funding priorities ata broad level and catchment managementplans should be the primary framework toguide investment at the implementation stage.

The provision of structural adjustment fundsthrough the State or the Federal Governmentshould be recognised as an investment insocial equity for the whole of the State.

6.4 Options for cost-sharing

The Western Australian Government currentlycontributes about $40 million a year to combatsalinity. However, the largest investment hascome from and will continue to be funded byprivate landholders. Many landholders havealready spent large amounts of money andeffort on farming practices and landcare

projects to benefit their own properties,catchments and public lands such aswaterways and remnant bush. However, somelandholders have not contributed significantlyto date and, as this strategy has shown, aconsiderable increase in investment is required.

6.4.1 Commonwealth funding

The Commonwealth Government has alsocontributed significantly to date throughearlier programs such as the NationalLandcare Program and the Federal WaterResources Assistance Program, and now theNatural Heritage Trust (NHT). TheCommonwealth has helped raise awarenessand set new directions, and these fundingsources have significantly helped to developstrategies and implement on-ground worksaimed at addressing landcare and naturalresource management issues.

There is a compelling case for continuedCommonwealth financial support for theSalinity Strategy. Western Australian urbanand rural communities are expected toincrease their commitment to help in naturalresource management and salinitymanagement and there is a good case for apost-NHT increase of strategic investmentfrom the Commonwealth Government. Thereis a need for assistance with wider communityissues such as conservation of biodiversity aswell as the public benefit component ofregional implementation activities. WesternAustralia is further advanced than the MurrayDarling Basin in addressing dryland salinityissues and while catchment scaledemonstration may be appropriate in theEastern States, our more mature strategywarrants assistance to regional naturalresource management catchment groups.

There are increasing opportunities forresearch funding through the NationalDryland Salinity Program, the Land andWater Resources Research and DevelopmentCorporation, the Grains Research andDevelopment Corporation and the Rural

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Industries Research and DevelopmentCorporation. In addition there is considerableinvestment by organisations such as CSIRO,universities and farm production groups intovarious aspects of salinity management.

6.4.2 Corporate funding

In a recent survey by Landcare AustraliaLimited, 78 per cent of Australians said theywould change products if they were linked tolandcare. In contrast, only 11 per cent wouldchange products if it would provide fundingfor sport, and three per cent for the arts.

Corporate funding has been and will continueto be an important component of this strategy.The Western Australian Landcare Trust offerscompanies an opportunity for tax incentiveswith sponsorship of landcare and othernatural resource management activities.

The Alcoa Landcare Vision model provides agood example of shared investment between acompany and landholders. Farmers, throughtheir catchment groups, are supported byagency technical advice and benefit fromexternal financial assistance. This modeldemonstrates that properly targeted externalfunding can achieve results. In addition tosignificant professional support, the sixcatchments in this project received $40,000 peryear over five years, followed by $10,000 ayear for a further five years. Members of eachcatchment group, averaging 15 per catchment,contributed approximately five times thisamount during the same period.

Thus, each farmer in the group “received”around $2600 for priority catchment projectsand contributed around $13,000 for each yearof the project.

The likely development of carbon credit andgreenhouse emission trading will also providenew industry funds for revegetation activitiesthat have the collateral benefit of helping toaddress salinity problems. Carbon farmingwould form part of the future diversifiedagricultural systems. However, it should benoted that economies of scale will precludemost farmers trading in their own right andwill favour cooperatives or corporate entitiessuch as grower cooperatives or the Oil MalleeAssociation, which in turn would pass on the benefit.

There is already corporate investment in thebluegum industry through lease and sharefarming arrangements, following initialinvestment by the Department of Conservationand Land Management. There will need to be aconcerted effort to extend these arrangementsinto other industries, particularly in themedium and lower rainfall areas.

6.4.3 Public contributions

The general public, particularly in urbanareas, has contributed considerable amountsindirectly through taxes, to combatingsalinity. The threat to biodiversity, publicamenities, water resources and infrastructuremeans more direct input is essential. This would form a shared effort betweenurban and rural Western Australia.

It is proposed that members of thepublic, and in particular the urbanpopulation, be encouraged to makevoluntary contributions to aid inimplementation activities. One option that will be explored is a small voluntary levy on a broad-based service.

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Tammin’s Alcoa Landcare EducationCentre is the result of sponsorship fromAlcoa Australia. Photo: Landcare Vision

Public funding for implementation activityneeds clear reporting and monitoringmechanisms, so that there is confidence in theoutcomes of the investment. It is proposedthat the Western Australian Landcare Trust isan ideal vehicle to provide this independentrole, with the Salinity Council beingresponsible for determining priorities and bestuse of these funds.

However, it is recognised that voluntary public contributions will not be sufficient bythemselves, and that an on-going structuredsource of funds will also be required to helprural landholders with the public benefit aspectof their on-ground actions to combat salinity.

Public contributions to salinity through avoluntary levy, to be held by the WesternAustralian Landcare Trust andadministered jointly by the Trust and theSalinity Council, will be investigated.The allocation of all funds collectedthrough voluntary contributions wouldbe reported publicly on an annual basis.

The State Government will establish asignificant ongoing funding source forimplementation activities aimed atcombating or adapting to salinity.

A marketing strategy will be developed toraise the urban community’s awareness ofand participation in the Salinity Strategy.

6.4.4 Landholder contributions

Most salinity management funding willinevitably continue to come from landholders.However, new mechanisms are needed inorder to address equity issues. The SalinityCouncil has developed an options paper thatoutlines different mechanisms available tocatchment and regional groups to collect local contributions to implement local and regional plans.

It is expected that groups and individualswanting to access public funds (as describedearlier in 6.4.1) will have to demonstrate aconsiderable local contribution as well ashaving the proposed activities form part of acatchment or regional implementation plan.

Two specific options are outlined below.Groups will be encouraged to consider raisinglevies as outlined.

6.4.4.1 Catchment levies

An effective mechanism currently available toraise landholder contributions is through leviesdetermined by Land Conservation DistrictCommittees under the Soil and LandConservation Act and administered at localgovernment level. Government should considerdeveloping a mechanism to allow such levies tobe raised at a catchment or regional scale, onthe basis that the catchment or region wouldmake the decision to raise the levy.

At present the Soil and Land ConservationAct allows contributions to be based on apercentage of gross unimproved value of theland, or as a flat or variable rate on a perproperty basis. In order to deal with the issueof equity, particularly where somelandholders have already undertakenconsiderable work, provision should be madefor other mechanisms, to be determined bythe catchment or regional group setting upthe levy.

One possibility that needs furtherdevelopment is to devise a system wherebyeach landholder is levied an amount thatreflects management practices and high wateruse in that location. Landholder levies couldcomplement a structured public contribution.

The Soil and Land Conservation Councilwill investigate the option of differentiallevies on landholders and will promoteand encourage their adoption.

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A support scheme will be developed andimplemented by the State Government tohelp landholders in:

• developing innovative land/water use systems;

• community capacity building; and

• planning and implementing catchmentmanagement projects.

6.4.4.2 Land trading within a catchment group

Land trading would enable catchment groupsto discuss the natural turnover of farmersfrom their area, and see if it can also beorganised to allow for:

• specific land “niches” to attract newowners and land uses, includingconservation buyers for bush but alsopossibly some more intensive industries;

• aggregating the cleared and non-salineland into viable properties, the larger areasof uncleared land into viable reserves andsalinised land into viable areas to allow forproper management options;

• developing binding cross-boundaryarrangements for managing and trading in the excess water; and

• constructively addressing the future ofproperties becoming non-viable due tosalinity.

The Salinity Council will work with theWestern Australian Planning Commission and regional groups in order to optimisethe potential of market-based landtrading solutions.

6.5 Capacity building

“Capacity” refers to the ability of acommunity or a group of people to pursuetheir own development. The Salinity Strategytargets capacity building activities to thosekey areas to do with people that willempower, motivate and enable them, throughthe provision of skills, resources,

networks and information, to protect theState’s natural heritage.

6.5.1 Solutions for managing the effectson people

The nature of communities and of peoplemeans that they are different, with differentneeds, varying perceptions and ideas of whatwill work. It is important that people who areaffected by salinity are able to identify thoseimpacts likely to affect them, and be involvedin developing solutions to them. The role ofthe catchment appraisal teams will be integralto achieving this objective.

6.5.2 Participation in decision-makingprocesses

The salinity strategy relies on rural peopleembracing the need for change, whether it isin the ways they manage their land, or therole they play in making decisions for thefuture of agriculture and rural areas. People’swillingness to take on additionalresponsibility or to try something new cannotbe imposed from the outside. Participation inmaking the decisions – in deciding whatneeds to be done and how to do it – is integralin solving the problems associated withsalinity. Decision-making support systems,research, or solutions for change must all bedriven by input from people who will beaffected by them.

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The layout of this alley farming system is clearly seen from the air.Photo: Agriculture Western Australia

6.5.2.1 Participatory planning

Farmers work in catchment groups, usuallycontaining 15 to 25 properties. Participatoryplanning processes used by these catchmentgroups have led to a more commonunderstanding by the group of landscapedegradation processes and potential land use options.

During the planning process the catchmentgroup moves from developing greatertechnical understanding of their own andtheir neighbours’ farms and together buildcatchment knowledge. This shared knowledgebase at the catchment level is then used tobuild individual farm plans that focus oncross-boundary actions to achieve salinitymanagement outcomes at a catchment level.

A sense of community is developed by thecatchment group members through thisparticipatory planning process. The planningprocess becomes ongoing with continualresetting of their visions and goals. The individual risk of trying new treatmentsis also reduced as experience and knowledge are shared.

Participatory planning processes are thefundamental basis of developing salinitymanagement plans on a catchment and farm basis.

6.5.3 Communication and information

There are many communication andinformation services and processes alreadybeing used by some of the people affected bysalinity. These processes include workshops,seminars, papers and videos. A great deal ofresearch has been done into the uptake ofinformation by farmers and rural people, andthe findings should be applied to ensure thatall users have access to the information theyneed, in a form they can use.

6.5.4 Adjusting to change in catchments

In the extreme case of salinity impact orwhere massive changes to land use over acatchment are required to manage salinity,some people may need to move off the landor radically change the land use basis of theirincome. This will require a process to analyse,plan and allocate appropriate resources forstructural adjustment. Confidential ruralfamily support services need to be developedand made available to each farming family.

6.5.5 Knowledge building

For people to be constructively involved inmanaging land resources, they must knowabout natural resource management andrelated economic and social issues, and havethe skills to carry out the required work.

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Volunteers at a Wheatbelt river restoration workshop. Photo: Water and Rivers Commission

Educational opportunities are alreadyavailable, but resources must be provided to enable more people to gain the necessaryskills. There is also a need to support andexpand access to alternative forms of trainingdelivery, such as use of the Internet and othertelecommunications opportunities. There is a need for increased involvement oflandholders in research and developmentwithin the framework of setting priorities andcatchment assessment identified earlier in theSalinity Strategy.

Resources should be allocated through the use of new technology, for example, or information sharing forums.

6.5.5.1 Knowledge networks

A great store of knowledge, experience andinformation on salinity management is held byagencies, landholders and catchment groups inregional areas. This information can be basedon science, experience or landscape data.

Most regional natural resource managementgroups have supported the development ofknowledge networks linked to agencylandscape data resources. Collecting, storingand managing salinity information for the useof landholders is important to accelerate theadoption of appropriate land managementpractices.

Community-based knowledge networksprovide easily-accessible information. In thelong term, landholders will use theseknowledge networks, for example the SouthCoast Regional Information Centre (RIC), AvonCatchment Network and the Swan CatchmentCentre, to rebuild their own managementplans. They will also store and update theirown farm and catchment plans through thesetypes of facilities at the regional level. Salinitymanagement knowledge networks will besupported at the regional level.

Building capacity in the community to managesalinity is a key strategy. To achieve this,improved training opportunities are required.

Several government agencies, educationalinstitutions and other organisations involvedin natural resource management provide arange of training courses relevant to salinitymanagement and better linkages will beestablished between them. The scope ofcourses is wide and targets formalprofessional training through to very practicalrequirements in the community.

Formal training courses in the agricultural,environmental and natural resourcemanagement areas exist to train professionaladvisers. However, many advisers need furthertraining as new techniques and methodologiesemerge. There is also a growing demand fromlandholders for competent technical advice onimplementing salinity control measures on afarm-by-farm basis. However, there are limitedagency and private industry resourcesavailable to help landholders address theirspecific issues on a one-to-one basis. For thispurpose, training of community landcarecoordinators and technicians, bushcareworkers, advisory personnel from agriculturalservice firms and prospective consultants fromthe farming community itself is essential.

The State Government will continue torecognise and support important industrygroups such as WANTFA, WALG, OMA, SPAand regional plantation committees.

A concept gaining interest is the establishmentof a network of experienced landholders orgroups who are backed with some formaltraining and are acknowledged as a crediblesource of practical advice and support. This peer advice would complement andintegrate with other sources of support.

A customised local course should bedeveloped to equip practising farmers andgroups involved in catchment managementwith the knowledge and confidence to makeinformed decisions on their own land andwater management, and also the confidenceand credibility to be consulted, and possiblyemployed, by other landholders.

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It is proposed that educational institutionscollaborate with the Salinity Council andagencies to develop the concept and establishthe framework for such a course. TheMelbourne University’s Master TreeGrowerscourse has gained wide support from aroundAustralia and it is anticipated that the proposedcourse could also attract national interest.

The Salinity Council will approach TAFEto coordinate, co-develop and implementtechnical courses for community landcaretechnicians.

Agriculture Western Australia willconduct courses on Salinity as aLandscape Problem throughout theagricultural area.

The Salinity Council will initiate afeasibility study, and subsequentdevelopment if appropriate, of a MasterLand and Water Managers course.

6.5.6 Information provision and barriersto adoption

To be involved successfully in natural resourcemanagement, landholders must have goodinformation about the types of support andgovernment services available and how toaccess them, relevant details about their region,

and advice on available management optionsand strategies. However, there are also barriersto adoption once information is available.

While much is known about the biophysicalaspects of salinity, comparatively little isknown about the impact of salinity onindividuals and communities, and the barriersto adopting salinity control measures. The basic assumption is that landholders aremotivated to do something about salinity andall they need is economic and locally relevantoptions for them to act.

Access to information is only one of the barriersto adoption of salinity management practices.Factors such as the economic state of the farmbusiness, changing market requirements andspecifications, family unit and landscape groupdecision-making processes, attitude to risk,resistance to change and other pressures makethe decision more difficult.

A better understanding is required of how tohelp farmers’ decision making on naturalresource management and sustainability atthe farm and catchment scale, and howassociating with peers through membership ofproduction groups and catchment groupsmay affect these processes. The Land andWater Resources Research and DevelopmentCorporation is funding national research inthis area and the results will be taken intoconsideration by Council and research groups.

There is a need to look at what motivates thefarmers who are investing now, and how theylearn and make decisions. This hasimplications for communications, teachingand extension methods. Organisations thatprovide financial and advisory services tofarmers also need to understand theimplications of salinity for farm businessesand communities and the concepts of naturalresource management and sustainability.Successful landcare works performed byfarmers will eventually be reflected in thevalue of their properties.

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Green manuring with sorghum, a warm season crop. Photo: Agriculture Western Australia

6.5.7 Leadership development

Leadership within a community is a keyfactor in developing salinity projects andnetworks, and in involving others. Existing leadership programs have beensuccessful in building the pool of leaders inregional areas, but more resources need to bededicated to identifying leaders, especiallyamong young people in regional areas. Theconcept of what constitutes a leader must alsobe expanded to include people outsideestablished groups, and embrace differentleadership styles.

The Rural Leadership Programs initiatedby the Minister for Primary Industry willcontinue to develop leadership skills inthe community.

6.5.8 Community involvement

Successful natural resource managementrelies on the participation of the landholdersas well as the wider community. Communitiesmust become collectively motivated andmobilised to act together to achieve aims andobjectives they have identified. Theinvolvement of communities in naturalresource management is essential if thewishes and preferences of the community areto be respected in decision making. A greatdeal of work is being done in this area atpresent, but wider community recognition ofthe challenges facing rural areas through

salinisation of land, and greater communityinvolvement in implementing the solutions isneeded. Effective community participation innatural resource management must continueto be developed through financial support ofidentified endeavours, good technical supportand expertise, and the involvement of a widerange of people, including young people.

6.5.8.1 Indigenous interests and participation

Aboriginal people have a strong connection tothe land and are concerned that issues such assalinity must be effectively addressed. Theymust be given the opportunity to participatein remedial measures to achieve sustainableland use management.

There has been Aboriginal representation onthe Salinity Council’s Reference Group and anAboriginal representative will be a member ofthe restructured State Salinity Council.

6.5.9 Support and advisory services

6.5.9.1 Community coordinators

Facilitators and advisors such as CommunityLandcare Coordinators (CLCs), Bushcare,Rivercare, Land for Wildlife and revegetationstaff, are now a major resource in manycommunities. They offer many opportunitiesto their communities to focus on resourcemanagement strategically at the landscapelevel. It is extremely important that allsupport staff work together to address theissues of the Salinity Strategy.

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These trees have been strategically located to create a windbreak, as well as increase water use.Photo: Agriculture Western Australia

For example, the Natural Heritage TrustBushcare program has provided funds for theappointment by Greening Australia (WA) andthe Department of Conservation and LandManagement of Bushcare officers to helpcommunity groups with the development,implementation, monitoring and evaluation ofBushcare projects. These Bushcare officers are based throughoutthe south-west and provide advice tocommunity groups and landholders onremnant vegetation protection andrevegetation.

Similarly, Rivercare officers are employed bythe Water and Rivers Commission under theNatural Heritage Trust Rivercare Program.These officers ensure that the Waterways WAprogram is integrated with other naturalresource management programs such asBushcare and Landcare.

The Government provides support for CLCs, Bushcare, Rivercare, Land for Wildlife and other workers and their management committees.

These positions have been important in the development and implementation ofactivities that address both salinityremediation and broader natural resourcemanagement outcomes.

It is crucial that both Commonwealth andState Governments continue to fundcommunity support services.

6.5.9.2 Private consultants

Western Australian farmers use the services ofprivate consultants more frequently and for awider range of services than in any otherState. While they access financial, agronomy,chemical and animal husbandry services fromthe private sector, little use is made ofresource management advice. There is anincreasing number of consultants eitherspecialising in this field or adding this serviceas a component of wider advice and this trendneeds to be encouraged. The opportunity fornew diversified industries and the increasedcapital values of land saved from becomingsaline are powerful incentives.

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Gabby Quoi Quoi farmers and the Land for Wildlife coordinator checking remnant vegetation. Photo: Landcare Vision

Opposite: Monitoring water levels on a property planted with bluegums. Photo: Department of Conservation and Land Management

Natural Resources Management in Western Australia

Section 7 Monitoring and evaluation

A successful monitoring and evaluationscheme for salinity action must be objective,widely understood, consistently applied and relevant to decision-making at all levels.At grass roots level, monitoring provides afocus for broadening community involvementin salinity action and the outcomes of plansand management responses. The process must be transparent and cost-effective, so that progress can be readily audited andevaluated and informed decisions made.

The monitoring program will provideinformation to landholders, managers, the community and government on:

• progress towards agreed goals foragricultural systems, water resources,natural diversity, infrastructure andcapacity building;

• longer-term biophysical trends and thelikely impact of changes in land usemanagement; and

• performance of landholders, communitygroups and government agencies inmeeting their responsibilities and theobjectives of their plans.

Monitoring and evaluation should be carriedout at the property, catchment, region andState scale and will involve all stakeholders.The information and awareness it generates isfundamental on many levels. As a part ofinitial catchment assessment, adequate dataon hydrological status and rates of change areneeded to develop accurate synopticinformation on salinity status across aparticular catchment. Monitoring andevaluation will enable us to gauge the successof property, catchment and regional levelplans and activities, and their specificenvironmental, social or economic targets and outcomes.

Experience to date shows that on-the-groundmonitoring provides many opportunities forbroadening community involvement insalinity action, through meaningfulcontributions (through work effort orsponsorship) from young people, specialinterest groups, schools and communityorganisations as well as from the corporateand industrial sectors.

The Department of Environmental Protectionis developing a list of indicators to monitorand evaluate the actions implemented underthe Salinity Strategy. They include input and output measures and environmentaloutcomes for the strategy and forenvironmental management as a whole beingundertaken against the background of salinity.The draft indicators are being examined byboth Government and private enterprise andassessed for their ability to monitor andevaluate the needs of the strategy effectivelyand efficiently. The methodologies used andthe costs involved with implementing amonitoring program for each indicator willalso be defined.

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7 Monitoring and evaluation

Soil testing on a Wheatbelt property.Photo: Agriculture Western Australia

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An inventory of existing government salinitymonitoring programs will be extended from areview of current resourcing for monitoringactivities to anticipate the future levels ofmonitoring required and to examine alloptions for their funding.

A specific program of monitoring a sample ofwetlands and their associated flora and faunathroughout the south-west agricultural regionwas put in place under the 1996 SalinityAction Plan and will continue consistent withthe overall Monitoring and Evaluation Plan.

The Department of Environmental Protectionwill help agencies, regions and catchmentcommunities to determine environmentalobjectives and criteria for salinitymanagement, and to monitor theirincremental achievement.

The monitoring and evaluation sub-committee of the Salinity Councilwill produce a Monitoring and EvaluationWork Plan.

The State Government will continue tosupport projects such as Land Monitor,Saltwatch and Ribbons of Blue.

Salinity Council and government agencysupport for farm monitoring tools, such as those developed by the LandManagement Society, will be maintained.

Testing salinity levels at Cuballing.Photo: Water and Rivers Commission

Barrett-Lennard, E.G. and T. Griffin, and P. Goulding (1999).“Assessing areas of saltland suitable for productive use in the Wheatbelt of WA: A preliminary assessment for the State Salinity Council”, Perth.

Clarke, Christopher, Richard George, Paolo Reggiani and Tom Hatton(1999). “The effect of recharge management on the extent and timing ofdryland salinity in the Wheatbelt of Western Australia: Preliminary computermodelling”. Results of a six-week modelling study carried out for the StateSalinity Council, Perth.

George, Richard, Christopher Clarke, Tom Hatton, Paolo Reggiani, Alan Herbert, John Ruprecht, Sally Bowman and Greg Keighery (1999).“The effect of recharge management on the extent of dryland salinity, floodrisk and biodiversity in Western Australia: Preliminary computer modelling,assessment and financial analysis”. Results of a two-week modelling contractcarried out for the State Salinity Council, Perth.

Government of Western Australia (1998). Western Australian State of theEnvironment Report, Perth.

Government of Western Australia (1998). Western Australian Salinity ActionPlan Draft Update, prepared by the State Salinity Council in association withcommunity groups and government agencies.

Government of Western Australia (1996). Western Australian Salinity ActionPlan, Perth.

Government of Western Australia (1996). Salinity: A situation statement for Western Australia, Perth.

National Dryland Salinity Program (1998). Management Plan 1998-2003,Canberra.

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8 Bibliography