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Unit 6: Romantic Period (1820-1900)

Nationalism…passion…opera…symphonies…social upheaval…middle class…virtuosity…

Music of the Romantic period marks a 180-degree shift from the Classical period. Instead of creating music based on the rules of Enlightenment/reason, as well as strict forms and rules, music of the Romantic period is marked by imagination, emotion and freedom/creativity.

Composers were working almost entirely for themselves, now free to create music that expressed who they were and what they were thinking, instead of creating works that expressed what their patrons wanted from them. The composer truly became an artist to be appreciated in his/her own right, and recognized as a being who expressed their feelings through their musical creations.

National pride is another dominant theme of the period, with composers incorporating elements into their music that represented their homelands – including folk melodies and/or rhythms, as well as elements that made reference to their homeland’s history and politics.

Finally, new instruments were introduced, as well as some existing ones modified, allowing composers to create completely new sounds and new instrument combinations.

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Section 1: Main Musical Forms/Stylistic Elements

Creativity marks the Romantic period, and as such, existing musical forms and stylistic elements were expanded upon, and new ones created to suit the composer’s needs.

Of all the many forms resulting from the period, four stand out as key innovations from the period. Note the increasing length (duration) of many of the works!

“Ethnic” forms: This includes all the different styles representative of specific nationalistic schools of composition. Among these are Hungarian dances, Russian dances, Polonaise (Polish national dance in triple meter), Mazurka (traditional Polish dance in triple meter, with dotted rhythms), and Lieder (German solo vocal work with piano accompaniment). All of the “national” schools of music fall into this broad category.

This overture was written from 1857-1858, and is performed by The Philharmonia, conducted by Yevgeny Svetlanov.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_685c9IvVWA

Program Music: Instrumental works that depict nonmusical ideas, including ones from literature and history. A very broad term, it can also be thought of as instrumental music that tells a story through the sounds it produces.

Mili Balakirev

An example of a work that incorporates “national” or “ethnic” elements is this “Overture on Three Russian Themes” by Mili Balakirev (1837-1910), one of “The Five,” a group of Russian composers that worked to incorporate traditional Russian folk tunes/folk songs into their music. (The other members of “The Five” are Modest Mussorgsky, Alexander Borodin, Nicolai Rimsky-Korsakov, and César Cui.) Balakirev was self-taught, studying the works of western composers, and then working to incorporate distinctly “Russian” elements into these more traditional forms to create a uniquely Russian genre.

P.I. Tchaikovsky

An example of a work that falls into this category is “The 1812 Overture” by Peter Ilyich Tchaikovsky (1840-1893). Although not a member of “The Five,” Tchaikovsky is known for his distinctly “Russian-sounding” music through its use of modal melodies and harmonies. While not a believer in self-expression, Tchaikovsky believed that program music must exist for the sake of expression and wrote in a letter from 1878 that “when a musician, reading a poetic work or struck by a scene in nature, wishes to express in musical form that subject that has kindled his inspiration. Here a program is essential….Program music can and must exist, just as it is impossible to demand that literature make do without the epic element and limit itself to lyricism alone.”

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The “1812 Overture” (Opus 49) was finished in 1880, and was commissioned by the Russian equivalent of the Red Cross for the dedication of the Church of Christ the Savior in Moscow, which had been built to commemorate the Russian victory over Napoleon in the War of 1812. The complete work runs nearly 16 minutes and includes in this order:

• Old Russian Hymn (“God Preserve Thy People”) – recalls the declaration of war that was announced at church services in Russia

• Theme of marching armies, featuring the horns • Snippet of the French national anthem (the Marseillaise) – recalls the early French victories of the

war, including the capture of Moscow in September of 1812 • Russian folk dance theme – commemorates national unity the developed when the Russians beat

back Napoleon • Rapid passages featuring “dizzying spirals” in a gradual decrescendo (quieting) – recalls the

French retreat from Moscow, and their suffering great losses of life due to the horrid weather conditions

• Firing of cannons (16 shots in all in the entire work!) – recalls the Russian military forcing the French back toward the border

• Return of the Old Russian Hymn – gives thanks for the victory and freedom of Russia from France

• Russian National Anthem (“God, save the Tsar”) – heard underneath more cannons, as well as horns that are announcing victory, the appearance of the anthem provides a counterpoint to the earlier statement of the French national anthem.

The recording is in two parts, and is well worth listening to in its entirety. This performance features the Halle Orchestra, as conducted by Mark Elder during the National Favourite Prom concert in 2004 at Royal Albert Hall in London.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rgOGl_OWOqg (Part 1)

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qW4C2h3lPac (Part 2)

Music Drama: In German, “Gesamtkunstwerk.” This is a work of art that combines music and drama, as well as stunning visual elements, into a unified whole.

Richard Wagner

No composer better exemplifies this genre than the great German composer, Richard Wagner (1813-1883). His operas are the epitome of this form. “Die Walküre” is the 2nd of the four operas that comprise “The Ring of the Nibelung” cycle. Premiered in 1870, Wagner created his story from Norse mythology. “Die Walküre” (The Valkyrie) is a three act opera that tells the story of Brünnhilde, a Valkyrie and daughter of a god, Wotan. The Valkyries are minor deities, whose purpose was to determine the victors of wars and battles, as well as to choose the most heroic of those who had died in battle. A tale of secret identities, heroism, and betrayal, the scene found in

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the link is from the start of Act III, following a battle. As the act begins, the Valkyries are seen gathering the soldiers’ bodies in preparation for their trip to Valhalla (final resting place of the heroic dead). This clip stops shortly after Brünnhilde’s entrance, and before her confrontation with Wotan for her disobedience/betrayal. The tune may sound familiar. “The Ride of the Valkyries” is probably one of the most readily recognizable themes in classical music.

The text of this section is: Vindum, vindum vef darraðar, þars er vé vaða vígra manna! Látum eigi líf hans farask; eigu valkyrjur vals of kosti.

Wind we, wind swiftly Our warwinning woof. sword-bearing rovers To banners rush on, Mind, maidens, we spare not One life in the fray! We corse-choosing sisters

This recording is from one of the most famous modern productions of the work at the opera house that Wagner built, Bayreuth. A 1976 production, it is conducted by Pierre Boulez, and features Carmen Reppel as Gerhilde, Gabriele Schnaut as Waltraute, Gwendolyn Killebrew as Schwertleite, Karen Middleton as Ortlinde, Gwyneth Jones as Brünnhilde, Katie Clarke as Helmwige, Ilse Gramatzki as Grimgerde, Jeannine Altmeyer as Sieglinde, Elisabeth Glauser as Rossweisse, Marga Schiml as Siegrune. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1aKAH_t0aXA

Cover of the score of the Schott’s vocal score edition from 1899 (now out of copyright)

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Tone Poem: A one-movement (section) orchestral work with some sort of poem, story or painting serving as the inspiration or the narrative element. Similar to “program music” in that it has a narrative element to it, a tone poem is also known as a symphonic poem. The term “poemes symphoniques” (symphonic poems) was first used by Franz Liszt to describe the thirteen one-movement orchestral works he composed, which were not just symphonic movements per se, since they covered descriptive topics from mythology and literature. This genre was foreshadowed by Beethoven’s 6th Symphony (the “Pastoral”) as well as two of his dramatic overtures, “Egmont” and “Coriolanus.”

In the preface to the work, Liszt wrote: “Tasso loved and suffered at Ferrara, he was avenged at Rome, and even today lives in the popular songs of Venice. These three moments are inseparable from his immortal fame. To reproduce them in music, we first conjured up the great shade as he wanders through the lagoons of Venice even today; then his countenance appeared to us, lofty and melancholy, as he gazes at the festivities at Ferrara, where he created his masterworks; and finally we followed him to Rome, the Eternal City, which crowned him with fame and thus pays him tribute both as martyr and as poet.”

This recording features the State Symphony Orchestra of Tatarstan (Russia), conducted by Vadim Venediktov, in a 2006 performance.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O-3xOGwbQPM

Stylistically, some key elements emerged during the Romantic period. These include expanded melodic and harmonic material, including use of chromaticism (notes outside of the key or scale of the piece, including all twelve pitches of an octave), dissonance (restless, unstable sounds, typically chords that resolve to ease the tension they create), extreme use of dynamics (volume), tempo (speed) and register (range of pitches), as well as increased length or duration of the entire work (usually by greater development of thematic material and repetition of ideas). All of these elements were used in varying ways by the composers of the period to create their own “sound” and to allow them to express their musical and even extra-musical intentions for their compositions.

Franz Liszt Franz (Ferenc) Liszt (1811-1886) wrote his 2nd symphonic poem, “Tasso, Lameno e trionfo” (Tasso, Lament and Triumph) in 1849, with revisions in 1850-51 and 1854. The work uses as its inspiration both Goethe’s and Lord Byron’s portrayals of Tasso, a court poet of the d’Esty family in Ferrara, Italy. Liszt was particularly fascinated by Tasso’s internal struggles, and the seven years he spent in an insane asylum, St. Anna’s Hospital. His work portrays Tasso’s suffering and eventual triumph over his life challenges and mental illness.

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Section 2: Church Influences

The church as driving force behind music was a thing of the past at this point in history. While composers were still writing religious works, like masses, oratorios, and cantatas, they were mostly doing so because they wanted to or else for church “gigs,” not because they had to for their church patrons. Likewise, hymnody was continuing to evolve, especially in America, with a distinctive hymn language for worship music coming very much into its own during this period. In addition, one American hymn writer revolutionized music education, bringing it into the public schools, while also transforming the worship experience to be entirely by the people, for the people.

Handel and Haydn Society of Boston, which was one of the first such groups in America devoted strictly to classical music. The hymnal, despite earlier publisher rejections, turned out to be a big success. It is interesting to note that Mason published it anonymously at first, since he didn’t want to detract from his main career as a banker, fearing it would hurt his career advancement. He in fact wrote later that “I was then a bank officer in Savannah, and did not wish to be known as a musical man, as I had not the least thought of ever making music a profession.” By 1827, though, while still working as a banker, he became the music director for three churches in Boston, became president of the Handel and Haydn Society, and soon was an important figure in Boston’s music scene. Banking thus became a thing of the past. At first, Mason’s emphasis on the classics led to greater use of professional choirs in particular, but with the advent of music in the public schools, also thanks to Mason, he ultimately transformed the worship experience away from the professionals entirely, and solely toward congregational singing that was accompanied by the organ. (See section 3 for more information on how Mason introduced music into the public school system in America.) While concerns and even some controversy surround Mason to this day, he is still an important figure in American religious music. Some historians believe he “choked off” the native, participatory church music coming from the Moravians and others, since he characterized the music as “unscientific,” backwoods, and not worthy of modern Americans’ study or use. Further criticism comes since Mason’s music usually needs organ/keyboard accompaniment to “work,” and since the Mason family also had a keyboard business, it was suspected he steered that way to bolster that business in addition to his composition income. Despite these questions, Mason has undoubtedly made a lasting impact on America’s religious music landscape, with many of his hymns used to this day in man different denominations’ worship. Among these hymns are “My Faith Looks Up to Thee,” “When I Survey the Wondrous Cross,” and “Nearer, My God, to

Lowell Mason (1792-1872)

Born in Massachusetts, Lowell Mason was a leading figure in American church music, and is considered by some historians to be the true father of American church music. Unlike the earlier American church composers of the Baroque period, Mason was committed to drawing from the work of European classical composers like Haydn, Mozart and Handel for inspiration with eye to using that as a model for singing and performing. His first such hymnal was published in 1822 by the

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Thee.” Some historians even wonder if Mason actually wrote “Joy to the World” (instead of Handel), since stylistically it sounds like a hymn inspired by European classical music, Mason’s inspiration. This debate is fueled further by Mason’s arrangement of “Antioch” in the collection, “The Modern Psalmist,” from 1839, which includes very specific directions on how it should be sung.

Note that the melody for “Antioch” is in the tenor part (third line), as seen in the score image below:

Follow this link to a recording of Mason’s hymn, “Nearer, My God, to Thee.” This recording is from the 1953 film “Titanic,” and is just one of many times the hymn was included in the movies, including multiple “Titanic” movies from the 1940s to present, since survivors stated that the hymn was the last song the RMS Titanic’s band played before the ship sank. This is a stirring recording, since even though this is a very powerful hymn in its own right, it gains

The score image of “Antioch” is from an 1848 “repackaging” of the material into “The National Psalmist.” (This volume is something of a forerunner of the many collections of religious music that are continually repackaged and sold as “new” even today!)

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additional emotional impact given the context in which it is being sung. A popular hymn in its day (the hymn tune is known as “Bethany”), the text is based loosely on Genesis 28:11-19, the Jacob’s ladder story in the Bible, where he dreams of a ladder leading from earth to heaven. The text of the hymn was written by a British actress, dramatic poet and Unitarian hymn writer named Sarah Flower Adams in 1841.

The song is often found in use when the situation requires both comfort and strength in times of trial. For example, history reports that President William McKinley, who was assassinated in 1901, reportedly said these last words to his attending physician, Dr. Mann: “ ‘Nearer, my God, to Thee, e’en though it be a cross,’ has been my constant prayer.” The hymn was also played in his honor following a national period of silence on September 13, 1901, as well as at his memorial service. These many uses of the hymn showing its lasting effectiveness as a tool by which to express faith and seek comfort, just as it did when it was first written in 1856.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Hs3d4otu9wE&feature=related

The text for the hymn is as follows:

1. Nearer, my God, to thee, nearer to thee! E'en though it be a cross that raiseth me, still all my song shall be, nearer, my God, to thee; nearer, my God, to thee, nearer to thee! 2. Though like the wanderer, the sun gone down, darkness be over me, my rest a stone; yet in my dreams I'd be nearer, my God, to thee; nearer, my God, to thee, nearer to thee! 3. There let the way appear, steps unto heaven; all that thou sendest me, in mercy given; angels to beckon me nearer, my God, to thee; nearer, my God, to thee, nearer to thee!

4. Then, with my waking thoughts bright with thy praise, out of my stony griefs Bethel I'll raise; so by my woes to be nearer, my God, to thee; nearer, my God, to thee, nearer to thee! 5. Or if, on joyful wing cleaving the sky, sun, moon, and stars forgot, upward I fly, still all my song shall be, nearer, my God, to thee; nearer, my God, to thee, nearer to thee!

For an interesting “bonus” listening experience, follow this link to another performance of “Nearer, My God to Thee,” this time at a shape-note singing festival. Note the freer rhythm in this performance. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4BmP1iW5qQg

Religious works by Romantic period European composers are many, but the works of two composers stand out as particularly representative of the period.

Anton Bruckner (1824-1896)

Remembered now as one of the great symphony composers of the Romantic period, Anton Bruckner, an Austrian composer and organist, a devout Roman Catholic and deeply religious man, wrote exclusively for the church until he was 40 years old. At age 40, he met Richard Wagner, who introduced him to writing on “grander” scales and eventually his writing turned to writing symphonies of “epic” length. Prior to that time, and even after his metamorphosis (thanks to Wagner), Bruckner wrote many religious choral pieces, and even his symphonies reflect the depth of his religious leanings. Indeed, Bruckner is to Catholicism the religious

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musical equivalent of Bach to Lutheranism, with sincerity and depth of spirituality on a par with Bach. Bruckner, like Bach, wrote religious music that transcended the period in which it was written, and remains a powerful part of the church to this day.

Bruckner’s religious music truly depicts the aspects of his spirituality. One aspect is his expression of the human condition, and a recognition that human existence is quite precarious, and indeed, unworthy before God. He also expresses great piety, awareness of the truth of the Gospel, and a kind of motherly warmth from the Blessed Virgin. Technically, Bruckner is quite the devotee of musical forms, especially the sonata-allegro form/symphonic traditions, yet he makes them his own by extending the harmonies through use of dissonances and extended chord relationships, as well as by extensive development of his thematic materials. In some cases, he nearly doubled the typically performance time of the genre, such as the symphony!

In his religious works, Bruckner juxtaposed opposites, expressing his perception of the world, wherein sacred and secular are drawn together, as well as toward heaven. Sometimes, Bruckner’s music can be intimidating or even off-putting, since it can be “heavy” due to its complexity, thick textures, and of course, length. One way to appreciate Bruckner’s work is to view it as some historians have, as a “cathedral of sound.” Viewed that way, one can appreciate the “architecture” of the work, from the musical form at the basis of the work to the rich texture and detailed development that gives “body” to the work.

Bruckner wrote his “Ave Maria” in 1861, one of some thirty motets he wrote. The “Ave Maria” is a supplication to the Virgin Mary, based on a text from the annunciation. Bruckner’s is a seven-part setting; the work includes contrast between the three-part women’s choir and the four-part men’s choir, as well as many passages where all voices sing, especially to proclaim the name of Jesus. Note how the choir grows quieter (diminuendo) when it asks for intervention for all of us sinners near the end of the work. The text of the work follows:

Ave / Maria, / gratia / plena, / Dominus / tecum. Hail / Mary, / of grace / full, / Lord / with you; Benedicta / tu / in / mulieribus blessed / you / among / women et / benedictus / fructus / ventris / tui, / Jesus. and / blessed / fruit / of womb / your / Jesus Sancta / Maria, / mater / Dei, Holy / Mary, / mother / of God, ora / pro / nobis / peccatoribus, pray / for / us / sinners nunc / et / in / hora / mortis / nostrae. / Amen. now / and / in / hour / death / our / Amen

Hail Mary, full of grace, the Lord is with you, you are blessed among women, and blessed is the fruit of your womb, Jesus. Holy Mary, mother of God, pray for us sinners, now and in the hour of our death. Amen.

This beautiful recording features the King’s College Choir of Cambridge in 1997 performance. Note the ethereal quality of the singing, adding to the prayerfulness of the setting. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H-lPXk9IqEU

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signed his letters and work with both last names, but also used just the “Mendelssohn” on many occasions, as well. Interestingly, antisemitism near the end of the 19th century, as well as the early 20th century saw his work being denounced in some quarters, but his creativity and originality shown through and he is recognized to this day as an excellent composer.

As mentioned earlier, “Elijah” was a piece written as an homage to Bach and Handel. While Mendelssohn modeled his work after the Baroque masters, he nonetheless clearly shows his own creativity and the early Romantic style. The work also reflects to some degree the Victorian sentimentality popular during his lifetime. Of additional interest is Mendelssohn’s “take” on the Biblical text given his own conversion from Judaism to Christianity, as some scholars believe this impacted his rather graphic portrayal of the Old Testament’s harshness, for example, when the prophets of Baal were taken away and slaughtered.

Regardless, “Elijah” was popular from its premiere and was frequently performed, and continues so to this day. It is especially popular with amateur choral groups, since it is rather melodramatic, fairly easy, very appealing, and has great big choruses that never fail to rouse audiences. The historian Charles Rosen says this of Mendelssohn’s oratorios: “Mendelssohn’s craft easily surmounted most of the demands of the oratorio, and are the most impressive examples of that form in the nineteenth century.” Interestingly, Rosen also characterized Mendelssohn’s religious works a bit less favorably when he wrote that Mendelssohn was “the inventor of religious kitsch in music,” and that his music “is designed to make us feel that the concert hall has been transformed into a church. The music expresses not religion but piety…This is kitsch insofar as it substitutes for religion itself the emotional shell of religion.”

Kitsch or not, “Elijah” is a powerful and expressive work, telling the story of the prophet Elijah, who brings retribution to the king and queen of Israel for their introduction of the worship of pagan deities (like Baal) and away from the “one true God.” The listening example is from Part 2, near the end of the work. In this closing scene, Elijah’s many exploits and successes are described and celebrated. This recording of “And Then Shall Your Light Break Forth” features the Quincy Choral in a 2007 performance. The text for the closing chorus follows the link.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vCVyegzx8BQ

“And then shall your light break forth as the light of morning breaketh: and your health shall speedily spring forth then: and the glory of the Lord ever shall reward you. Lord, our Creator, how excellent Thy Name is in all the nations! Thou fillest heaven with Thy glory. Amen.”

Felix Mendelssohn (1809-1847)

German composer Felix Mendelssohn created one of the few 19th century oratorios still performed to this day. His “Elijah” was his attempt to fuse the styles of Bach and Handel to further his goal to promote a revival of their music during his lifetime. A composer, pianist and conductor, Mendelssohn was born to a noted Jewish family (his grandfather was the philosopher Moses Mendelssohn) which converted to Christianity. His father, Abraham, actually changed the family surname to “Mendelssohn Bartholdy” to further renunciate his Jewish heritage, and is quoted as having said: "There can no more be a Christian Mendelssohn than there can be a Jewish Confucius.” Felix abided by his father’s wish and thus

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Section 3: Other Influences/Factors

The Romantic period was a time of rapid change in the world as a whole, and not just for music. Among the influences and factors that directly impacted musical evolution during this period were music education and the continuing rise of military music.

Lowell Mason was not only the “father of American church music,” but also credited with introducing the teaching of music into public schools. Mason began by creating and teaching classes for children pro bono, but soon, because of their popularity, he needed to bring on an assistant. This private “school” effort evolved into the Boston Academy of Music, which he helped establish in 1832. Shortly thereafter, music became a regular part of teaching in the Boston public schools, thanks to Mason, and very quickly after that, across the entire United States. He made it a point to continue to evolve the teaching of music, and in 1837 visited Europe to acquaint himself with the newest teaching methods in the various big cities on the continent. When he returned to America, he published his findings in a book called “Musical Letters from Abroad.” In 1838, Mason was appointed music superintendent for the Boston public school system, a post he held until 1845.

Mason’s efforts are credited with popularizing European classical music in the “new world,” and indeed firmly establishing the United States as a classical music hub, especially for the European classics. His efforts, although denigrated by some historians for putting down the “natural” American music, especially in religious sectors, were nonetheless foundational for the teaching of music in the schools, and also the firm planting of European classical music in America. The image below is a sample from one of his teaching books.

A tune from Mason's Handbook for the Boston Academy, 1836 Edition, Page 183

Meanwhile, military music was continuing to be an important aspect, especially in America. Interestingly, the Moravians played a vital role in the development of the “regimental band” and especially the development of brass band music. A brass band of Moravian musicians from Salem, North Carolina served in the Confederate Army during the Civil War, acting as the

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regimental band for the 26th North Carolina troops. Recall the establishment of the Marine Band during the Classical period, and their role. Likewise, many regimental military units had their own bands (regimental bands) to support their efforts, not only outside of battle, but leading them into battle.

This recording is by the 26th North Carolina Regimental Band, which is a subgroup of the Federal City Brass Band. A re-enactment group, they recreate the sounds and look of this particular regimental band. The piece featured here is entitled “Lorena” and is from their CD entitled “Better than Rations or Medicine.” The recording is accompanied by still images of the band in full period uniform.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gGUeqMmKhFo

Frank Johnson was the first African-American composer to have his compositions published as sheet music. He also has other notable “firsts” to his credit, including helping establish a “school” of Black musicians, the first to give public concerts in America, the first American musician (Black or white) to present concerts in Europe (his band participated in Queen Victoria’s ascension celebration), as well as promenade-style concerts in America. In addition, he was the first Black American musician to participate in integrated concerts in America between 1843 and 1844.

The significance of his accomplishments was summarized this way in a 1990 recording of his works by The Chestnut Brass Company and Friends. “The career and musical legacy of Francis “Frank” Johnson…represent one of the most singular achievements in the history of American music. In an era when full-time musicians were a rarity in the United States, Johnson fashioned a career of such variety and importance that it would be the envy of many a modern musician. Even more remarkable is that Johnson, an African-American, was able to achieve such success against a background of racial strife which worsened even as his work progressed.”

Sadly, Johnson was never far-removed from the ugliness of racism and racial persecution. In some parts of the country, white bands refused to play when Johnson’s band was scheduled to appear, too; in Missouri, the band members were arraigned, fined and ordered to leave the state under that state’s laws that prohibited the entry of free Blacks. Even in his home state, racism

Frank Johnson 1792-1844

American composer and band leader Frank (Francis) B. Johnson is another important musical figure in the military scene, as well as for band music overall. Hailing from Philadelphia (although born in Martinique in the West Indies), he was a “free Black” and skilled at playing many instruments, most especially the keyed bugle and violin. He was among the first band leaders to include keyed brass instruments in the United States. Johnson wrote hundreds of published and unpublished compositions, including marches, sentimental and patriotic songs, and numerous other types of works.

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ran rampant. The New York Tribune reported on May 23, 1843 that “At the close of the concert the mob following Mr. Johnson and his company shouting ‘n_______’ and other opprobrious epithets, and hurling brick-bats, stones and rotten eggs in great profusion upon the unfortunate performers….No thanks to the mobocrats that life was not taken, for they hurled their missiles with murderous recklessness if not with murderous intention.”

Despite that, Johnson and his band persevered and created hundreds of works. His band was comprised of some of the most talented African-American musicians of the day, and he and his band were famous for their dramatic performance style, including producing realistic effects to augment programmatic pieces (the style we first saw in the Classical period, where the music tells a story). The band played at his funeral, following his untimely death due to illness, and even continued on, led by one of the band members, until the Civil War.

Johnson was a practical man, and saw fit to reduce his band works to solo piano works, which further extended his publishing opportunities and popularity, since piano sheet music was really becoming all the rage during this period. An example of one of these reductions is seen below. This work was written shortly after a Philadelphia orphanage burned down, for a fundraiser, with the music conveying the manner in which firemen sounded the alarm and responded.

Follow this link for a recording of the “Phildelphia Firemen’s Cotillion:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YezzqlOkiL0

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Meanwhile, the United States Marine Band was continuing to blaze musical trails. Among the highlights of their history during the Romantic period is the premiere of “Hail to the Chief” and the leadership of the band by John Philip Sousa.

“Hail to the Chief” is the official anthem of the President of the United States, accompanying the President at nearly every public appearance. Although the music was not designated by the Department of Defense as the official music to announce the President until 1954, the song actually has its roots in the Romantic period. On July 4, 1828, the Marine Band first performed it when President John Quincy Adams attended the groundbreaking of the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal. Julia Tyler, wife of President John Tyler, suggested the song should be played whenever the President appeared, but it wasn’t until Tyler’s successor, James K. Polk, was inaugurated in 1845 that the song began to announce the arrival of the President.

The work continued to receive regular performance, for example, when the Marine Band accompanied President Abraham Lincoln to Gettysburg on November 19, 1863 for the dedication of the National Cemetery and, of course, his legendary Gettysburg Address. During the Civil War, the Marine Band played concerts in Lafayette Park, across from the White House, in an effort to lift the spirits of the American people during this difficult period in history.

The music for “Hail to the Chief” was written by James Sanderson (1769-1841, and English theatrical songwriter), with lyrics by Albert Gamse (which are rarely sung). The “Lady of the Lake” byline under the main title in the score below is a reference to the original lyrics Sanderson used for the song, by Sir Walter Scott. The “Hail to the Chief” lyrics as we know them follow (the score bears the original setting of the Scott text by Sanderson):

Hail to the Chief we have chosen for the nation, Hail to the Chief! We salute him, one and all. Hail to the Chief, as we pledge cooperation In proud fulfillment of a great, noble call. Yours is the aim to make this grand country grander, This you will do, that's our strong, firm belief. Hail to the one we selected as commander, Hail to the President! Hail to the Chief!

The score will be found on the following page. This recording is by the Marine Band.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oC837oh98_Y

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Perhaps the most musically significant “thing” to happen during the Romantic period with the Marine Band, though, was the arrival of John Philip Sousa (1854-1932) as the group’s 17th leader, in 1880. During the 12 years he led the Marine Band, Sousa took the group on its first concert tour. The band also premiered many of Sousa’s most famous marches, and even produced some of the first phonograph recordings ever made.

It is only fitting that the work by Sousa to listen to as an example of his work is the “Stars and Stripes Forever” march. Truly a symbol of the patriotic American march, by act of Congress, it is the National March of the United States of America. Sousa wrote in his autobiography, “Marching Along,” that he composed the march in 1896, on Christmas Day. Having just learned of the death of the manager of his band, he was inspired to write a march in his memory. Sousa continued to conduct performances of the march at nearly every performance for the remainder of his life. The work follows what is considered the standard American march form, with a main tune, followed by a “trio” section (in this case, featuring the famous piccolo obbligato part), and

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a return of the main tune. This recording features the Marine Band in an October 2008 performance at Camp Pendleton, California on Pier 39 in San Francisco, during Fleet Week 2008. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EOCEe_2Ocns

John Philip Sousa and the Marine Band in April 1892 at the Palace Hotel, San Francisco, California Larsen

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Section 4: Social/Historical Context

The world was rapidly changing during the Romantic period.

The Industrial Revolution was radically changing quality of life and destroying the “old way” of doing just about everything. Having started near the end of the Classical period, and coming fully of age during the Romantic period, the Industrial Revolution impacted agriculture, textile and metal manufacturing, transportation, economic policies, and even society as a whole.

For example, agriculture was forever changed by the introduction of sturdier farm tools (using metal instead of wood), improvements in irrigation, development of new farm crops, better farming techniques (like rotating crops) and increased yields for both plant and animal crops. These changes in turn resulted in more raw materials for textile manufacturing, and coupled with mechanization, saw increased production of dry goods. (One unfortunate side effect of the textile industry was that women and children were usually the persons employed for this work, since they were paid less than their male counterparts, and they suffered under deplorable working conditions.) Eli Whitney, in particular, made a big impact with the invention of the cotton gin (short for “cotton engine”) in 1893, which was a machine for getting the seeds out of the cotton, rather than being picked out by hand, dramatically increasing production.

Improvements were also seen in the iron industry, with the smelting of pig iron with coal, a big breakthrough, since before this, charcoal had been used, and the wood-based charcoal usage had resulted in a depletion of forests, especially in England. Later improvements improved the quality of the iron so it became less brittle, and more suitable for shaping into implements, thereby further improving a host of manufacturing areas.

Transportation was radically improved with the breakthrough of railroads as a means to travel long distances quickly. The development of reliable and effective rail service in turn spawned additional growth in manufacturing, and the economic overall, since it was possible to get goods to their destinations quickly and cheaply, thereby reducing overhead and increasing profit. Likewise, passengers were able to travel by rail and reasonably so, and this, in turn, opened up travel to many more people. The development of steam power and the steam engine (Robert Fulton) in the 1780s was probably the greatest technical breakthrough of the period, since it was applicable to transportation and manufacturing and provided more efficient power at still a better cost than had coal.

The human impact was also significant: populations were growing more rapidly than ever before, in large part due to the increased availability of food (coupled with declining death rates, increased birth rates, and near elimination of plagues, thanks to advances in medicine). Industry also impacted this human “revival” since the better and more consistent wages it provided allowed young people to marry at a younger age, often resulting in more children being produced.

The Industrial Revolution thus directly and indirectly impacted music during the period. The direct impact was that musicians could easily (and rather cheaply) travel to distant places to perform. Indirectly, thanks to advances in farming and industry, and thus improved economic circumstances for many, audiences had more “disposable” income, allowing them the

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opportunity to buy tickets to performances with increased frequency, in turn, allowing musicians to make a living doing music.

Another huge innovation of the period that forever changed the world of music was the advent of phonograph recording in 1877, thanks to Thomas Alva Edison.

this invention by changing over to wax cylinders for recording. Although he originally envisioned its use as a dictating machine for offices, it quickly became a popular entertainment form, and Edison, ever the inventor, ended up offering recorded music for sale through his National Phonograph Company, continuing to improve the cylinder’s durability and sound quality until 1929, when the company ceased operations.

Follow this link to an 1897 cylinder recording of Sousa’s “Liberty Bell March,” as performed by the Edison Concert Band (the Edison recording company “house band”). (Scroll down to the bottom of the page to access the recording.) http://www.tinfoil.com/cm-9702.htm

The photograph below shows the Marine band making a recording around 1897.

Thomas A. Edison 1847-1931

The phonograph was reported to have been Edison’s favorite invention. The result of his years of work on other sound-related inventions (like the telephone), Edison happened upon this invention when he came up with a way to record sound on tinfoil-coated cylinders. The process used two needles, one for recording, the other for playing back. Edison, upon hearing his voice play back from his first tinfoil phonograph is reported to have said “I was never so taken aback in my life - - I was always afraid of things that worked the first time.”

He got over this “fear” by 1887, and resumed work on

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Photography was also a big innovation during the Romantic period. Instead of paintings of musical groups, which were often an approximation or dramatization of how they looked, you could now take a picture and capture their actual image forever! The term was first used in 1839 by Sir John Herschel, and is derived from the Greek words for light and writing. 1839 was also the year that the photographic process itself became public. Although some of the techniques that led to photography, such as the camera obscura, dated back to da Vinci’s time (some 400 years earlier), it wasn’t until a focused lens and mirror was added to the mix, along with chemicals on a metal plate, that photography as we know it became a reality. The first photograph was actually produced by a Frenchman named Nicephore Piepce in 1827, but had problems, since it continued to “develop” and darkened when exposed to light. It wasn’t until Daguerre came along a few years later that the image captured was able to be “frozen” and a chemical process that permanently fixed the image was available to make photography a commercially applicable form. Daguerre was also able to shorten the exposure time, further improving the process. But still, it was a “once only” process, since the image was fixed to metal, and could be quite fragile.

Despite this, photography was extremely popular, despite the warnings of some religious zealots who believed it to be the work of the devil! Artists also found it a threat to their livelihood, since virtually anyone could now have a portrait made and quite quickly, with artists even calling it “the foe-to-graphic art.” (Nice play on words!)

Work continued and soon exposure time was reduced to only seconds, instead of minutes, and thanks to George Eastman in 1884, flexible film became the medium, and multiple images could be produced on light-sensitive paper. By 1888, he also introduced the box camera, and now photography became an “art” of the people, accompanied by Eastman’s slogan, “You press the button, we do the rest.”

Thanks to this innovation, we can finally actually see the musicians, their instruments, and performing conditions, including recording sessions, to even better understand their lives and their art.

Medicine was making great advancements during the 19th Century, including the invention of the stethoscope in 1816, the first successful transfusion of human blood in 1818, and ether and nitrous oxide introduced as general anesthetics during surgery in 1842 and 1844. Probably the most important discovery ever in the development of medicine came in 1867 when Joseph Lister published his work, “Antiseptic Principle of the Practice of Surgery,” promoting the then revolutionary idea that operating rooms should be clean! In addition, the work documented his development of antiseptic surgical methods, using carbolic acid to clean wounds and surgical instruments, and overall cleanliness when operating. Since his methods were so successful in reducing patient mortality, they were adopted quickly throughout the medical world. In a single hospital that adopted his methods, the deaths from infectious disease rate dropped from 60% to just 4%. Another important development came during the 1870s, with Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch establishing the germ theory of disease, wherein they stated that a specific disease is caused by a specific organism (germ). This revolutionized treatment of patients, since before this, doctors didn’t always wash their hands between patients, and inadvertently spread disease themselves as they went from patient to patient! Vaccines for a variety of diseases were developed during the 1880s and 1890s. In addition, aspirin made its debut in 1899 as a pain

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reliever. These many advancements and changes had an exceptionally positive impact on quality of life.

Other innovations were also improving the quality of life, as well as making communication fast and easy. This included the invention of the telegraph in 1832 and the telephone in 1876. The California Gold Rush of 1848 also had a dramatic effect on many lives, both good and bad. In the world as a whole, some eras were coming to an end, with Wilhelm II being crowned the last Kaiser of Germany in 1888 and Nicholas II, the last czar of Russia (crowned in 1894). The world of literature celebrated the likes of Edgar Allen Poe (1809-1849), Herman Melville (1818-1891), Mark Twain (1835-1910) and Leo Tolstoy’s “War and Peace” in 1865. The art world, turn, celebrated the work of Monet (1840-1926), van Gogh (1853-1890) and Picasso (1881-1973). The Eiffel Tower was completed in 1889, a fine example of an architectural masterwork of this period.

In the midst of great change, much of it very positive for humankind, was looming one very large negative: slavery. The issue of slavery came to a head with the onset of the American Civil War in 1861.

To refresh your memory of this time, recall that the war was an overt reaction to what had been long-brewing controversy between free and slave states over the issue of slavery. Slavery wasn’t just a race issue due to the human impact on African-Americans; it also had social, political and economic ramifications, since slavery was so entrenched in the slave states that their very “being” rested on its existence. As a result, these slave states succeeded from the Union and formed the Confederate States of America in protest. Here is a map from historyplace.com that shows how the United States was divided up during the Civil War.

The war proved to be the deadliest in American history, with some 620,000 deaths of soldiers, and unknown number of civilian deaths, and some 50,000 soldiers returning home as amputees due to their injuries. The fighting was fierce and brutal. President Abraham Lincoln, in his

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Emancipation Proclamation of 1863, freed all slaves, and also encouraged Black soldiers to enlist in the Union Army. The war ultimately had two goals: abolition of slavery and preservation of the Union.

The images that follow provide some insight into this war.

Photograph of Union troops Painting of the Black troops of the 54th Massachusetts Regiment, during the assault of Fort Wagner, South Carolina, July 1863

The brutality of the war, coupled with deplorable conditions, made care for injured troops very difficult. Amputations were common, with limbs literally being stacked into big piles outside of the makeshift medical tents near the battlefields. This horror certainly inspired the post-war improvements in medical care and treatment.

The war ended in May 1865, with the surrender of the Confederate troops. The 13th Amendment to the United States constitution was ratified on December 6, 1865, abolishing slavery once and for all. Of course, this was just the beginning of truly recognizing all Black Americans as equal citizens throughout the now-reunited country.

Two African-American musicians from this time period perhaps tell this story best: one a former slave, the other, a free Black.

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By way of background, prior to 1865, slaves sang in church as well as outside of church. They often sang “work songs” or “chain gang songs” to provide a coordinated rhythm to their group work efforts, like hauling a heavy load or moving a tree or working in fields. Despite efforts by slave owners or “drivers” (the overseers) to only allow the slaves to sing songs that weren’t apparently against their masters, slaves still were able to sing “secret messages.” And thus was born the spiritual. Sung in church, home and at work, the meaning was often covert. Not only did the spirituals reflect the relationship between the slaves and God, but also related to escape and freedom. Words like “home” thus had hidden meanings, including heaven, a haven for slaves, a free country, and a safe place where everyone lived free.

After the slaves were freed in 1865, these spirituals remained a part of the musical language, but often embellished or elaborated upon to become jubilees, with a decidedly active participation by the congregation in their singing. In addition, the spirituals became the basis of or inspiration for other musical compositions, including the first Gospel songs. These songs came to full fruition early in the 20th century and will be studied in depth in Section 2 of Unit 7.

Dr. Southall spent more than 25 years of her life researching and writing about this remarkable young man, who was “thrown in” as a bargain to Colonel James Neil Bethune, when he bought Tom’s parents and two brothers at a slave auction in 1850. Tom first demonstrated his musical ability at the age of four when he slipped up to the piano in the “Big House” unnoticed and proceeded to play several tunes he had heard the Bethune daughters play (all of the Bethune daughters were accomplished musicians). One of the Bethune daughters, Mary, became Tom’s first piano teacher, and Tom quickly began writing original songs, as well as imitating sounds of nature and other musical instruments on the piano. Sadly, the Bethune’s soon were showing him off to neighbors like a sort of “household pet.” His first public concert came at age 8, and his performance met with wide public acclaim. The Bethune’s eventually started hiring Tom out as a slave musician to other plantation owners, who in turn, exhibited him. He also gave concerts in Northern cities (like Baltimore and Washington, D.C.). At the start of the Civil War, though, Tom was quickly brought back to the South, and his performances were used to benefit the Confederacy and pro-slavery causes.

Colonel Bethune, realizing a Union victory was likely by 1864, convinced Tom’s parents to sign him and his services over to him for a period of five years, promising them a good home, and a small sum of money each year for doing so. By 1865, legal challenges were being filed on Tom’s behalf, including a guardianship trial, which ended with the judge allowing Bethune, now an ex-slave owner, to keep Tom in what was described as a “neo-chattel” agreement. In essence, then, as was the case in many other instances, ex-slave owners were able to re-enslave their

Blind Tom Thomas Greene Wiggins, also known as “Blind Tom,” was born as a slave in 1849. He also was blind and autistic from birth, but early on displayed musical genius along with a remarkable memory. Tom was described by the late musicologist Geneva Handy Southall as “continually enslaved.” Even after emancipation in 1865, his former owners kept him, with all of the money he earned from his many concerts and sales of sheet music going to his owners and consequently their heirs.

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slaves, contrary to the Emancipation Proclamation. Northern papers, in particular protested the lack of humanity in the court decision, and berated the Bethune family for looking to Tom to support them, asking “Why don’t they go to work?” (Cincinnati Enquirer, July 25, 1865)

Legal proceedings continued, with Tom continuing to make concert appearances and to write and publish all the while. Ironically, the notoriety of the court proceedings drew audiences to his many performances, and further lined the Bethune coffers all the while. Eventually, after a drawn-out court battle, Eliza Bethune, one of the Colonel’s daughters, was awarded custody of Tom in 1887, with Tom’s mother, failing to win the return of her son to her custody. Tom’s performance schedule actually increased under Eliza’s custody, and he provided a robust income for her family. He ended up performing and publishing on their behalf until his death in 1908.

The unfairness of the situation aside, Thomas Wiggins was most certainly a remarkable musician and a gifted composer despite his blindness and apparent autism. Despite the Bethune’s attempts to bill him as an “idiot” or “savage” with a raw talent, Tom was well trained not only in performance, but also theory and technic, and even traveled with a music tutor through much of his adult career. Two of his works represent his remarkable talent.

The first is “The Battle of Manassas.” Written in 1861, it includes some of the imitation of sounds Tom was famous for, in this case, the sounds of the battle occurring in Manassas. A retelling of Colonel Bethune’s account of how the piece came about will be found at the link below as well as a recording of the piece. Click on the icon and “listen to the complete piece” to

http://artofthestates.org/cgi-bin/piece.pl?pid=274

The second work is “The Rainstorm.” A technical masterpiece, the work depicts Tom’s impressions of a rainstorm. This performance features pianist John Davis in a 2008 performance at the Annual Blind Boone Ragtime and Early Jazz Festival.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U8k3g4icEv0

Oberlin was dedicated to providing a “substantial education” at the lowest possible cost to both male and female students. After completing his studies at Oberlin, Holland ultimately moved to Cleveland and established himself as a teacher of guitar, mandolin, piano and flute, and became the city’s first Black professional. He also was active in the early iterations of civil rights causes,

Justin Holland (1819-1887)

By stark contrast, Justin Holland, born a free black in 1819, was not only a successful musician, but also a humanitarian who worked tirelessly throughout his life to promote and advance causes of his race. He believed that education and assimilation were the best ways to overcome racism and prejudice, and immersed himself in the middle class structure of his time. Born in Virginia, he moved to Boston to study guitar, flute and piano, and despite receiving good musical training, as well as enjoying a nice income, he couldn’t receive the education he wanted, so he moved to Ohio to attend the Oberlin Collegiate Institute.

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working beside activists such as Frederick Douglass, and also worked with the Underground Railroad.

Even though Holland rarely performed in public, he had a national reputation as both a composer and arranger for guitar. He has to his credit more than 350 published compositions for the guitar, including two renowned method books (to facilitate learners), of which only about a third are still in existence. The listening example, “Carnival of Venice Fantasie” is from 1871, and is one of Holland’s best known arrangements. This was a popular tune during the period, and was especially popular to be made into variations that exhibited the instrumentalist’s virtuosity. Holland’s arrangement is certainly a good example of this virtuosity. The performer is Jimmy Everett Moore.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P4aauF1ZB8c

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Section 5: Instruments

The Romantic period is marked by the introduction of two extremely unique sounding instruments that not only provided a new palette of sounds for the orchestra, but also new genres, especially in the following century. The new instruments of the Romantic period are both wind instruments: the saxophone and the tuba. In addition, existing instruments enjoyed increased creativity with sounds and sound effects they could create, as well as continuing to explore the technical abilities of each instrument.

The enhancements to the orchestra, in particular, looked like this during the Romantic period:

Woodwinds: increased number of bassoons, oboes, flutes and clarinets (at least two, usually more); added “color” instruments like the piccolo, English horn, contrabassoon and bass clarinet. Likewise, the new instrument of the period, the saxophone, was used by some composers as a distinctive “color” instrument. In “L’Arlesienne Suite No. 1,” the French composer Georges Bizet (1838-1875) makes use of several of the “color” instruments to weave his rich palette of sound. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JzKaJ5G-Rp4

Brass: used instruments with valves, allowing greater range and versatility to the notes played. The section was expanded beyond the trumpet, horn and trombone to include the tuba.

Percussion: The tympani continued to enjoy extensive use, and was joined by several auxiliary percussion instruments, including bass and side drums, as well as “color” instruments like xylophone, celesta, gong, cymbals, castanets, bells, chimes, and triangle.

Strings: The number of each instrument (violin, viola, cello, bass) increased significantly to balance out the additions in the woodwind and brass families.

Because the saxophone is played like a clarinet (uses a single reed mouthpiece), it is considered a member of the woodwind family, even though is it made out of brass. It is the only woodwind instrument that was never made out of wood at any point in its existence. The player changes pitch by opening and closing keys. The most popular model of the saxophone is the alto saxophone. There are several other types of saxophones, all varying in size, and corresponding in pitch range, and to some extent, sound quality. The saxophone has a lovely duet with the flute in Georges Bizet’s L’Arlesienne Suite No. 2. This recording features the Yorba Linda Symphony, conducted by Dr. Robert Frelly. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W1mlguROeS8

Saxophone

Adolphe Sax (1814-1894), a Belgian musician and instrument maker, decided in 1840 that he would construct an instrument to fill in the middle range sounds of the standard military band. The sound he was looking for was something between the woodwind sound of a clarinet and the brassy sound of a trumpet. After moving to Paris in 1842, he continued his work and in 1845, presented the new instrument, which he named the saxophone. French orchestral composers (like Bizet) loved the sound and quickly included it in their works. The instrument also quickly became a staple of military bands, and by the 20th century was the “voice” of the new American genre, jazz. The image is a statue of Sax with his invention in front of his birthplace in Dinant, Belgium.

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the bass saxhorn. Although his work in this instrument family was limited, his goal was to add a low range instrument to complete the family of brass instruments. He met and demonstrated it to the German composer Richard Wagner, who very much liked the rich sound of the instrument and began to include it in his orchestral works. Wagner had just begun work on “Das Rheingold” when he discovered the tuba’s sound, and it is features in the opening to Scene 2, announcing the “Valhalla” theme. Wagner’s “Ring” cycle was the first major orchestral work to feature the tuba, and his desire to have tenor and bass sounds from this instrument results in 4 being specially built for his use, thus the birth of what became known as the “Wagner tuba.”

Between 1893 and 1898, John Philip Sousa, at the suggestion of J.W. Pepper, grafted a directional bell onto a predecessor of the tuba (the helicon), and the instrument became known as the “Sousaphone” and is a mainstay of marching bands to this day.

Russian composer Modest Moussorgsky (1839-1881), in his masterwork, “Pictures at an Exhibition,” features the tuba in the 4th “picture” entitled “Bydlo” (Polish for cattle). The image is one of “a Polish cart on enormous wheels, drawn by oxen.” “Pictures at an Exhibition” was written in memory of an artist friend of Moussorgsky who had died suddenly and at a young age, and was inspired by the artist’s works. (Moussorgsky also helped organize an actual exhibition of the artist’s work, too.) This recording features the Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra in an August 2008 concert in Amsterdam. The group is conducted by Mariss Jansons. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cgeIQzY7Who

Tuba Although the tuba was a new instrument during the Romantic period, it had at least three “lives” or versions during that period, alone, as composers and instrument makers sought to take full advantage of the sound this massive brass instrument could make.

The picture is an image of the Pullman Band’s tuba player in 1885. (Even the train companies were getting into the music business!) This image portrays a later form of the instrument.

The tuba was first patented in 1835 by a Prussian bandmaster (Wilhelm Wieprecht) and a German instrument maker (Johann Gottfried Moritz). It was quickly adopted by the British brass bands, and soon quickly spread to the rest of the world’s military-style bands. Adolphe Sax, of saxophone fame, built an instrument in 1843 that he named

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Section 6: Key Figures

There are literally dozens of potential “key figures” from the Romantic period. This section is therefore a sampling of the “best of the best” from the period. Here you will find individual composer profiles, as well as a grouping of composers known as “nationalists” who incorporated elements of their native countries’ music to create their unique sound.

Schubert’s songwriting was truly magnificent. In his short 31 years of life, he really “set the bar” for lyrical songwriting, and set the stage for the expressive qualities of the Romantic period. He was born into a “musical” family and received formal training in music throughout most of his childhood. His teachers included Antonio Salieri (recall his role and relationship with Mozart in the Classical period). Sadly, despite his gift of writing beautiful melodies was not really appreciated during his lifetime; he made a little money from publishing his work, and gave some private music lessons, but relied heavily on support from family and friends. He is believed to have died from complications of syphilis.

Interestingly, Schubert’s work gained acclaim during the decades following his death, being championed by composers like Robert Schumann, Franz Lizst, and Felix Mendelssohn, who discovered and collected his works. Even into the 20th century, composers weren’t always quick to embrace his ability. Ernst Krenek, a 20th century composer, wrote in 1947, that he had for a time, as had many of his peers, found Schubert to be an “easy-going tune-smith who did not know, and did not care, about the craft of composition.” After studying Schubert’s works, though, Krenek noted that they contained “a great wealth of technical finesse” and showed Schubert in a different light: “far from satisfied with pouring his charming ideas into conventional molds; on the contrary he was a thinking artist with a keen appetite for experimentation.”

That experimentation reached its height during 1825, which proved to be a prosperous and happy year for Schubert. He was enjoying more publication of his works, and therefore, increased economic freedom, and also took a tour of Upper Austria, where he received great acclaim. During that tour, he produced a work called “Songs from Sir Walter Scott.” This song cycle contains a piece entitled “Ellens dritter Gesang” (“Ellen’s Third Song”), a German translation of Scott’s hymn from his “The Lady of the Lake.” (It is interesting that two such diverse works as “Hail to the Chief” and “Ave Maria” had as their root inspiration “The Lady of the Lake.”) The Scott text opens with a greeting of “Ave Maria” and also uses it for the refrain (the lyrics open with “Ave Maria! Maiden mild! Listen to a maiden’s prayer.”). The beauty of the melody,

Franz Schubert (1797-1828)

The saying goes that a picture is worth a thousand words, and indeed this one truly provides a quick snapshot of Schubert’s life and production, showing him accompanying a singer. In his short life, this German composer wrote nearly 1,000 songs, as well as other choral works, nine symphonies, plus string quartets and chamber music. And that’s just the music we know about! Schubert was a sloppy record-keeper, and often lost his manuscripts or left works incomplete. Historians continue to find “lost works” to this day.

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coupled with this opening “Ave Maria” inspired substitution of the Scott text by an unknown writer with the complete Latin text of the traditional Ave Maria prayer, similar to how the Scott text was substituted out in “Hail to the Chief.” Ave Maria or Salutatio Angelica, is the traditional Catholic/Orthodox church prayer that calls for the intercession of Mary, the mother of Jesus.

This recording is of “Ave Maria,” using the Latin text. The performance is by the late, great Luciano Pavarotti, and is, in a word, exquisite.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bPvAQxZsgpQ

Robert and Clara’s courtship was quite clandestine, in that they weren’t allowed to see each other, and Schumann ended up communicating with her via piano masterpieces (which she was allowed to play!). Theirs is probably the first love story with a soundtrack! After they married in 1840, Schumann focused on songs, and then back to the piano, including the composition of the “Album for the Young” for his own children. (The work remains one of the most enduring teaching tools, used to this date to teach young pianists.)

Schumann also recognized the need to compete with other musicians for ticket and sheet music sales by the middle class audience that continued to be a driving factor in musical development. As such, his early pieces, especially, were quite picturesque or prone to fantasy, depicting imaginary beings and activities. In addition, he referenced or page homage to other musicians, such as Chopin, Paganini, Mendelssohn, Schubert and Beethoven, and even his beloved Clara. He was also the editor of the “Neue Zeitschrift fur Musik” and served as a music critic. In that publication he introduced the world to Chopin, as well as Brahms.

Despite his successes, he suffered a bout of depression in 1844 after going on a Russian tour with Clara. He grew increasingly unstable emotionally, and by 1854, the depths of his depression were such that he jumped into the Rhine in an apparent suicide attempt. Modern sources speculate he was actually suffering from bipolar disorder, since he had intense periods of creativity between his bouts of deep depression. Whatever the cause, he sadly went downhill over the next two years, sliding into what some described as “madness” and he died in 1856. Despite his mental illness, he continued to compose until almost the end of his life.

“Faschingsschwank aus Wien,” Opus 26 (“The Carnival Jest from Vienna”) was written in 1839 near the peak of his extremely creative piano writing. Written in five movements, the work has

Robert Schumann 1810-1856

Seen here with his wife, Clara, who will be studied in Section 7

Some historians view the German composer, Robert Schumann, as the “purest embodiment” of the early Romantic style in music. His earliest musical inspiration came from German Romantic literature by authors such as E.T.A. Hoffman. In addition, his first ten years of compositions were essentially a journal of his courtship of the daughter of his piano teacher. Clara Wieck was 9 years younger than Schumann, and a gifted pianist and composer in her own right.

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been described by one critic as a “musical portrayal by allusion and quotation” (Eric Sams, The Musical Times, June 1969), with Schumann/the performer serving as the “master of ceremonies of the imagination.” Nicknamed the “grand romantic sonata,” the work is really more of a suite with well integrated musical thoughts throughout. The example here is the First Movement, an allegro, which is subcaptioned “Sehr lebhaft” or “very lively.” The performer is Soviet pianist Sviatoslav Richter (1915-1997), considered one of the greatest pianists of the 20th century, especially for his virtuosic technique (a must for this piece), as well as his interpretation – he really brings music to life, and definitely does so in his performance of this movement. This movement is almost a dance suite in and of itself. Listen for the distinctive main theme (in ¾ time), which alternates with six contrasting sections. The recurring main theme really unifies the work. In addition, you may hear some familiar tunes from this and other musical periods, since Schumann liked to quote or allude to other composers, and in this work, he is heard giving the nod to Mendelssohn, Chopin, Schubert, Beethoven, and his wife, Clara.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f0Cb_JuF7GE&feature=related

music and country traditions of Poland, and he wrote down these folk songs, learned and performed the dances, as well as a folk instrument similar to a double bass, and became quite knowledgeable about the authentic folk forms of Poland as a result. His early and late mazurkas used these materials as inspiration. He eventually attended the Warsaw School of Music (part of the Conservatory), where he studied composition. His teacher was a composer named Jozef Elsner, who summarized Chopin’s course work thus: “Chopin, Fryderyk, third year student, amazing talent, musical genius.” By 1830, his “Variations” on a theme of Mozart was published in Vienna, his first publication abroad, and later that year, he left Poland for Vienna. Shortly after arriving there, there was an uprising in Warsaw against the presence of the Russian Tsar on the Polish throne, and the Russo-Polish war was underway. Rather than join the insurgent army, Chopin chose to stay in Vienna, eventually going on to Paris by way of Munich. Upon hearing of the capture of Warsaw by the Russians in August 1831, he wrote in his diary: “The enemy is in the house…I here, useless! And I here empty-handed. At times I can only groan, suffer, and pour out my despair at my piano!”

After arriving in Paris, Chopin was reunited with many of his fellow Poles, including writers and poets, who took exile there after the defeat. Together, they formed the Polish Literary Society. Chopin’s artistic reputation grew even greater shortly after he arrived in Paris, and his works were published in Germany as well as England. His main income, interestingly, came from giving lessons. Even though he was considered one of the greatest pianists of the period, he

Frédéric Chopin 1810-1849

This Polish composer and pianist, born Fryderyk Franciszek Chopin, displayed exceptional musical talent from a young age, and was even compared with the childhood genius of Mozart. By the age of 7, he had already written two polonaises, was featured in the Warsaw newspapers, and was also the featured performer for a variety of receptions as well as public charity concerts. He attended the Warsaw Lyceum, where his father was a professor, and spent his summer vacation in other parts of the country at the homes of school friends. These trips introduced him to the folk

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chose to teach rather than perform, since he disliked public performances! Chopin lived in Paris as a political refugee, and could only meet his parents/family outside of Poland due to the Russian rules now in place in Poland. In 1837, he met the famous French writer George Sand, with whom he enjoyed an intense relationship for ten years. Sand, six years his senior, was a divorcee with two children, one of whom ultimately broke up what was characterized as a “deep love and friendship” between Chopin and Sand. His health continuing to fail (he suffered from tuberculosis for many years), Chopin gave a final concert late in 1848, and died in the fall of 1849 from pulmonary tuberculosis. He was buried in a Paris cemetery, but, as per his will, his heart was taken from his body after death, and brought by his sister to Warsaw and placed in an urn in a Warsaw church, allowing Chopin to finally return home from political exile.

Stylistically, Chopin is difficult to characterize. His work is, without a doubt, brilliant. He is able to unfold gorgeous, expressive melodies amid harmonies that were frequently dissonant. In addition, his use of rubato (freedom of movement) created a unique sense of rhythm to his music, which, coupled with the use of harmonic chromaticism (half-steps), can leave the listener “floating” at times. In all, his is a very sophisticated sound. The English musicologist and also a biographer of Chopin, Arthur Hedley (1905-1969), summarized his “sound” this way: Chopin “had the rare gift of a very personal melody, expressive of heart-felt emotion, and his music is penetrated by a poetic feeling that has an almost universal appeal.... Present-day evaluation places him among the immortals of music by reason of his insight into the secret places of the heart and because of his awareness of the magical new sonorities to be drawn from the piano."

Because of the complexity and uniqueness of his piano music, his contemporaries were often at odds on its place. Robert Schumann, for example, wrote of Chopin that “he alone begins and ends a work like this: with dissonances, through dissonances, and in dissonances,” and that he heard in Chopin’s music “cannon concealed amid blossoms.” Franz Liszt, on the other hand, viewed Chopin as a “gentle, harmonious genius,” and even wrote a biography of his life.

Chopin’s “Heroique” Polonaise (Opus 53) was written in 1842 and is one of his most popular works. To perform it, one must have extraordinary technical skill and virtuosity to play it correctly. Sometimes also known as the “drum” polonaise, it actually isn’t a real polonaise. Although it does have two sections with polonaise rhythm, it is otherwise not at all in the style. Some historians believe that Chopin wrote the work as a political statement, with a once again free and powerful Poland in mind, thus why he labeled it a polonaise (Polish dance). The work is in three main parts, and following a flashy chromatic introduction, proceeds to a dance-like theme. The middle section is more march-like, and the main theme returns to conclude the work in a more dramatic fashion. Chopin indicates on the score that the tempo should be “Alla polacca e maestoso” (“like a polonaise and majestic”). The work has enjoyed many popular, contemporary uses, including in several movies, television shows, as a game soundtrack, and most humorously done in a “funk” version on the “Muppet Show” by the “house band,” Dr. Teeth and The Electric Mayhem.

This recording features the imminent pianist, and interpreter of Chopin, Vladimir Horowitz, in a 1987 recording, made when the pianist was 84 years old. Horowitz, who had a Polish grandmother, was often heard noting that he was “half as much a Pole as Chopin” and was clearly very fond of this composer’s work. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iFvqvZOtCF0&feature=related

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the classical period (like he and Schumann did), and those who wanted to look totally toward the future (like Wagner and Tchaikovsky). Tchaikovsky really disliked Brahms, writing, “I have played over the music of that scoundrel Brahms. What a giftless bastard!” In probable response to his peer-critics, Brahms is quoted as having said after a performance “If there is anyone here whom I have not insulted, I beg his pardon.” Despite peer criticisms, Brahms continued to write his powerful music that clearly has ties to the classical past. His reverence of Beethoven is evident in his work, and he so much admired Beethoven that he waited until late in life to write his first symphony, fearing it wouldn’t live up to his “idol’s” work. Critics immediately nicknamed the work “Beethoven’s Tenth Symphony” and with the confidence that inspired, and despite continuing peer criticism, Brahms quickly wrote three more symphonies. (A writer from the period, Edward Lorne, noted in a critical piece that “Art is long and life is short; here is evidently the explanation of a Brahms symphony.”)

Brahms is often referred to as one of the “Three B’s” in classical music, Bach and Beethoven being the other two. He certainly is deserving of this honor. He upheld classical form, while embracing romantic enhancements that allowed him to create distinctive and beautiful melodies, as well as powerful works of music. Brahms said of his own music: “Straight-away the ideas flow in upon me, directly from God, and not only do I see distinct themes in my mind’s eye, but they are clothed in the right forms, harmonies, and orchestration.” He further noted that “It is not hard to compose, but what is fabulously hard is to leave the superfluous notes under the table.” (Ever the classicist at heart, he writing is spare compared to some of his contemporaries, whose virtuosic passages left many “superfluous” notes on the table indeed!)

Brahms’ ongoing relationship with Clara Schumann is an interesting one to look at, as it likely influenced his work. Brahms never married, but clearly was deeply fond of Clara from the time he met her until her death less than a year before his. In a letter to Clara in 1856, written shortly after Robert’s death, he wrote: “I wish I could write to you as tenderly as I love you and tell you all the good things that I wish you. You are so infinitely dear to me, dearer than I can say... If things go on much longer as they are at present I shall have sometime to put you under glass or to have you set in gold. If only I could live in the same town with you and my parents... Do write me a nice letter soon. Your letters are like kisses.”

Clara certainly didn’t want to get married again, as she was 13 years his senior, and was very interested in performing fulltime, since her children were now pretty much grown up.

Johannes Brahms (1833-1897)

German composer Johannes Brahms was the son of a town musician. A talented pianist, he gave his first public recital at age 14, and made a living playing in taverns, brothels, and dance halls by the time he was fifteen. He used the money to pay for a good musical education. He quickly impressed one of these teachers, who sent him to Robert Schumann for further instruction. Brahms “clicked” with the Schumann family, with Robert immediately declaring Brahms to be a musical genius, and Clara being impressed by his “God-given” talent. Brahms and Clara became especially good friends. With Robert Schumann’s help, Brahms quickly became famous across Germany. Unfortunately, both he and Robert soon became “victims” of the conflict between those upholding the beliefs of

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Nonetheless, she was clearly very fond of him, even loved him, and most certainly admired him. Clara kept a journal that she wrote to keep a record of her life, especially what she wanted history and her children to know about her, and most definitely about her relationship with Brahms. In the journal, also in 1856, she wrote: “He came as a true friend, to share with me all my sorrow; he strengthened my heart as it was about to break, he lifted my thoughts, lightened, when it was possible, my spirits. In short, he was my friend in the fullest sense of the word. I can truly say, my children, that I have never loved a friend as I loved him; it is the most beautiful mutual understanding of two souls. I do not love him for his youthfulness, nor probably for any reason of flattered vanity. It is rather his elasticity of spirit, his fine gifted nature, his noble heart that I love... it was really Johannes who bore me up... Believe all that I, your mother, have told you, and do not heed those small and envious souls who make light of my love and friendship, trying to bring up for question our beautiful relationship, which they neither fully understand nor ever could.”

When Brahms received news of Clara’s death in 1896, after she had been ill for several months, he composed “Four Serious Songs,” a series of gut-wrenching, almost agonizingly loving tales, which show Brahms’ compassionate side, and seemingly were an expression of his deep grief at her passing. Brahms himself died just 11 months later at the age of 63.

Examples of Brahms’ piano music, as well as a double concerto for violin and cello will be found in the “further listening” section. For the purposes of appreciating Brahms’ sense of form as well as his beautiful melodies, instead we will listen to an arrangement of “Hungarian Dance No. 5” for violin and piano. Brahms wrote his set of 21 “Hungarian Dances” as a series of lively dance tunes, most of which are derived from actual Hungarian themes. The fifth dance is the most famous of the set. The dances are short (last from 1-4 minutes) and remain among Brahms most popular compositions. He also made a great deal of money off of sales of sheet music for these works. Written first for piano four hands, he later arranged them for solo piano and also for orchestral ensembles. The violinist Joseph Joachim created this arrangement of Dance No. 5 for violin and piano.

The performer is U.S. born Yehudi Menuhin (1916-1999), a violinist and conductor extraordinaire. Menuhin’s playing was even featured in popular films of the 1940s, including “Stage Door Canteen” (1943). He was widely video-recorded, allowing modern listeners to appreciate his excellent technique and expressiveness, as well as exposed listeners to the great classics.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G11hBjd9eME

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His ability won him many prizes and resulted in an introduction to Franz Liszt, who became one of his closest friends. By age 16, he had written his first symphony, and by age 18 enjoyed the performance of his second symphony to critical and peer praise. Hector Berlioz, who also became one of his close friends, commented upon this rather precocious accomplishment thus: “He knows everything, but lacks inexperience.”

Saint-Saëns, as a result of his early successes, as well as his adherence to classical forms, made him either a friend or enemy to his peers. He remained a close friend of Liszt throughout his life, as well to his student, Gabriel Faure. Despite his advocating for French music, he openly dislikes several of his French peers, including Franck, d’Indy and Massenet. Most of all, he disliked the music of Debussy, telling a music critic, “I have stayed in Paris to speak ill of ‘Pelleas et Melisande.’” As the dislike was clearly mutual, Debussy retorted by saying, “I have a horror of sentimentality, and I cannot forget that its name is Saint- Saëns.” (Debussy, however, later admitted he admired Saint- Saëns’ musical ability!)

Saint-Saëns was also an early supporter of Richard Wagner’s music, premiering some of it in France. However, even though he appreciated the power of Wagner’s work, he made it clear he wasn’t an “aficionado” and by 1886, lost performance gigs and received negative reviews in Germany because of his anti-German comments regarding the French production of Wagner’s “Lohengrin.” (Saint- Saëns went even further after World War I, making both French and German lovers of Wagner angry with ruthless attacks on Wagner. He also made headlines in 1913 for storming out of the premiere of Igor Stravinsky’s “Rite of Spring,” angry over what he believed was misuse of the bassoon during the opening measures of the work!)

Even though Saint- Saëns began his career as something of a musical pioneer, by the end of the 19th century, he was really considered an ultra-conservative, who was clinging to the old ways at the time when change was rampant in the musical world. (Consider that Chopin and Mendelssohn were the “stars” in his youth, and by his death, the jazz age was underway.) In response to this criticism, in 1907, Saint-Saëns wrote this in a letter to a friend: “What gives Sebastian Bach and Mozart a place apart is that these two great expressive composers never sacrificed form to expression. As high as their expression may soar, their musical form remains supreme and all-sufficient.” Saint-Saëns, then, produced works that were technically flawless and certainly elegant, however, some critics have described them as dry, uninspired and lacking emotion, as opposed to those of his peers. Others have described his work as logical and clean, polished, professional, and not excessive. Whatever the description, many of his works are most certainly virtuosic in nature, requiring top notch technical skills to play well. In addition, he did

Camille Saint-Saëns (1835-1921)

French composer, organist, pianist and conductor Charles-Camille Saint-Saëns was one of the foremost child prodigies of his time, exhibiting perfect pitch at age 2, and also starting piano lessons at that age. By age 4, he had written his first work, a little piece for the piano. He made his performing debut at age 5, accompanying a Beethoven violin sonata. His debut solo piano recital came at age 10, when after playing a rigorous concert, he offered as an encore to play any one of Beethoven’s piano sonatas (there are 32 of them!) by memory. His reputation as a piano prodigy quickly spread across Europe and even to the United States.

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expand his musical language as time went on, and became more progressive harmonically, and also more deeply expressive.

Most important to his compositional process, though, is his keyboard ability. Saint-Saëns, in his time, was described as “unequalled on the organ” as well as the piano, with a cool, restrained delivery, sitting very still at the piano, even while playing the most technically magnificent passages. (There are recordings from the end of his life that support these descriptions.)

Written in 1886, at what was the highpoint of his career, his “Symphony No. 3, Op. 78” is also perhaps one of his best known works, save for his “Carnival of the Animals.” This symphony, which is also known as the “Organ Symphony,” is really a symphony with pipe organ, using the instrument in two of the four sections. In describing his composition of this work, Saint-Saëns wrote that he had “given everything to it I was able to give.” It was as if he knew it was to be his final symphonic work, and is rather autobiographical: it includes virtuoso piano passages, a big pipe organ sound, and orchestral writing that is quite characteristic of the Romantic period. He dedicated the work to his friend, Liszt, who had died early that year. The work note only features pipe organ, but also two-handed and four-handed piano passages, as well as thematic development like Liszt’s, in that the main themes evolve throughout the life of the symphony (also known as cyclic thematic material).

This symphony has enjoyed popular use during the 20th century, being used in several films, as well as in the French exhibit at Disney World’s Epcot Center. It has even been adapted and used in a 70s pop music work.

This performance features organist Diane Bish with the West Point Military Band, performing at the West Point Military Academy in West Point, New York. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QnxdpIynSLU

Interestingly, he married Alma Schindler (1879-1964) in 1902, a musician and composer in her own right. However, Mahler forbade her to pursue her art, and instead, she made clean manuscript copies of his scores. Instead, Mahler interacted creatively with other women, especially performers, all the while telling Alma she should only attend to his needs! (Not an unusual situation at this time, as we’ll see in Section 7.) Mahler died at age 50 from a streptococcal blood infection. Alma outlived him by more than 50 years, and became

Austrian composer and conductor Gustav Mahler was born in Bohemia to a German-speaking, Ashkenazic Jewish family. Of his 13 siblings, only six survived past infancy. Mahler began piano lessons at age six, having demonstrated musical talent. By 15, he began studying piano and composition at a conservatory, followed by studies in music, history and philosophy while at Vienna University. Mahler really made his reputation as a conductor, securing various jobs at opera houses from the age of 20. He held several prestigious conducting posts for most of his life, composing all the while.

Gustav Mahler (1860-1911)

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instrumental in promoting his life and work, although not without criticism for “tampering” with history to her own suiting, especially in portraying Gustav negatively on many fronts.

Life’s drama aside, Mahler proved to be the last in the line of “Viennese Symphonists” that began with Haydn and Mozart, went through Beethoven and Schubert and Brahms. He clearly builds on their foundation in his work, while embracing ideas from peers like Robert Schumann and Felix Mendelssohn, with his most major influence being Richard Wagner, whom he declared to be the only composer after Beethoven to truly have “development” in his music. Influenced as he was, Mahler wrote in only two genres: the symphony and songs.

One of Mahler’s greatest works incorporated both genres. “Das Lied von der Erde” (“The Song of the Earth”) is a synthesis of the symphony and song cycle genres. Influences of Schumann and Schubert’s “lied” (song) writing are clear in his work, especially in terms of melodic development and expressiveness. Attracted by Catholicism in later years, Catholic influences will be found in his music (such as the use of “Veni Creator Spiritus” in his 8th Symphony). In addition, his Jewish roots will be found in his use of Klezmer-like tunes, such as in his 1st Symphony. Generally speaking, Mahler combined concepts such as program music, use of folk materials, spirituality, connection with nature, expressive harmony, and use of the resources of the fully developed symphony orchestra to create works, especially symphonies, that he described thus: "A symphony must be like the world. It must contain everything.”

His work thus tends to be on the “long” side, since he was the consummate craftsman, always working to find ways to extend his symphonic expression, all the while with clearly careful planning or “laying out” of the material because of his study of previous and peer composers. His work is also extremely emotional, compounded by his “stretching” of the limits of conventional tonality for the sake of expressiveness. (This is sometimes referred to as “progressive tonality,” wherein it is moving through a variety of keys in ways not usually done in conventional tonality, achieving incredible tone color and sound.)

“Das Lied von der Erde” was written between 1908-1909. In the fall of 1907, he received a collection of translations by Hans Bethge of original Chinese verses. Mahler’s increasing preoccupation with death (he had learned he had a heart condition that fall) and the after-life, coupled with the language of these works are the likeliest inspiration. The work sends a clear message that, since the earth and its magnificence can renew themselves year in, year out, that our own deaths shouldn’t be feared, but rather accepted calmly, since the earth and nature will go on without us. Interestingly, even though this was a symphony (albeit a “song-symphony”), Mahler wouldn’t name it his “9th” symphony, since so many previous composers had died after writing their 9ths! Instead, he gave it a descriptive title. The example here is the final 10 minutes of this hour-long work. The finale or sixth movement, is essentially a thirty minute meditation on departing the earth, with a funeral march at its center, and at the end, as heard in this passage, the singer comforts the listener by saying “everywhere the lovely earth blossoms forth in spring and grows green again…forever, forever, forever.”

This performance features Christa Ludwig, contralto and Rend Kollo, tenor, accompanied by the Israel Philharmonic Orchestra, conducted by the legendary Leonard Bernstein.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pf__uq2C2Mg

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To fully appreciate Mahler’s role as a late romantic composer, as well as his musical language, one of his song cycles also bears study. “Kindertotenlieder” (“Songs on the Death of Children”) is a song cycle that Mahler wrote mostly in 1901 on a set of five poems by Friedrich Rückert. Rückert had written them in 1833 as an outpouring of his grief over the death of his two children. Interestingly, of the 425 poems Rückert wrote, Mahler chose the five which had a theme of light as part of their language. Despite the desperate “darkness” and sadness that is expressed in these songs, there is still the underlying “hope” of the light. These songs also represent Mahler’s late romantic voice, and the songs are extremely sad and full of grief. The cycle is not just a masterwork for this composer. It is believed by historians to be something of a catharsis for him as well. The question of why he wrote such a cycle has interested historians since there was never a clear indication from Mahler himself. Some speculate that his own near-death experience early in 1901 (from an abscess in his abdomen) got him to thinking about his own mortality, as well as the death of so many of his siblings from his childhood. Whatever the inspiration, it is also ironic that his own daughter died at the age of four from scarlet fever a year after he finished the work (and Alma is reported to have begged him to not finish the work for fear of it coming true). Mahler wrote to a friend about the work: "I placed myself in the situation that a child of mine had died. When I really lost my daughter, I could not have written these songs any more." History sadly repeated itself in the early 1940s, when his niece, Alma Rose (his sister Justine’s daughter) was deported to Auschwitz, where she was forced to conduct the girls’ orchestra which had to accompany the Jews to the gas chambers. “Nun will die Sonn’ so hell aufgeh’n” (“Now the sun will rise”) is the first song in the cycle. It paints a picture of a child dying at night, but also has a clear theme of hope and light in the new day (not just physically, but spiritually as well). This performance features the State of Mexico Symphony Orchestra, with baritone soloist Jesus Suaste, and conductor Kenneth Woods. The text follows the video link.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hqTyEKB64EE

"Now the sun will rise as brightly as if nothing terrible had happened during the night. The awful thing happened only to me, but the sun shines equally on everyone. You must fold the night into yourself, and immerse it in eternal light. A little star went out in my heaven! Greetings to the joyful light of the world."

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Opera During the Romantic Period Opera enjoyed the reintroduction of “fantasy” and supernatural elements during the Romantic period. Gone were the Classical period’s fixation on form and structure, replaced by music dramas based on mythology and conveying philosophical and political ideas as main structural materials. In addition, the works featured an important new unifying device: recurring themes. First introduced by Carl Maria von Weber in Germany, these concepts saw full fruition in the works of Richard Wagner. In Italy, Giuseppe Verdi was likewise taking Italian opera to its next level by replacing the structures with looser styles, and introducing ordinary people and their problems and emotions as subject matter (which also saw full fruition by his successor, Giacomo Puccini).

direct impact on future composers with his innovations. Although his family moved around a lot when he was young, von Weber nonetheless received an excellent education, which included musical instruction. (His cousin was Mozart’s wife, Constanze.) He received several prestigious posts as a performer and conductor, and managed to remain successful as a composer, despite several scandals, including an arrest for fraud and debt! He even incurred the wrath of the reformers working to re-establish traditional liturgical chant for his religious music, especially his Catholic Mass settings.

One of his big successes was “Der Freischütz” (“The Freeshooter” or the “Marksman”), an opera premiered in 1821. The work was performed all over Europe as well as in the young country of

Carl Maria von Weber (1786-1826)

German composer, conductor, pianist and critic Carl Maria von Weber is credited as one of the first “significant” composers of the Romantic period, as well as a German national hero for liberating German opera from the French and Italian influences that had marked its development during the Classical period. He also laid the foundations for change in opera across the board, using subject matter that had fantastic or supernatural bases, as well as creating new orchestrations. In addition, by introducing recurring themes as a unifying device to his works, it provided the basis for Wagner’s later use of “leit motifs.” von Weber clearly had a

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America, and was very popular. It used familiar central European folk tunes, coupled with colorful harmony and novel use of the orchestra to create a new sound that was well received by audiences. In addition, the libretto, which was quite “gothic” (gloomy), including an appearance by the devil in a forest at night, added to the popularity with audiences. The work remains a part of opera companies’ repertoire to this day.

“Der Freischütz” was derived from a folk tale, and tells the story of a man who sold his soul to the devil in return for magic bullets that would allow him to win a shooting contest, with the winner also getting the hand of his beloved. The story features “normal” people and life in villages, along with a prince and a hero, and most of all, the supernatural in the form of the devil. All these characters and settings combine to create a spell-binding story, and exciting opera.

The scene in the example is the finale for Act 1. At this point in the story, the hero, Max, is at a point of desperation since he has not been shooting well and has to win every event on the following day in order to win his beloved’s hand, as well as the competition. The villagers have poked fun at him for his poor performance and he is feeling quite frustrated. As darkness comes over the village and nearby forest, Max is approached by Kaspar, another forester, who lets him shoot his gun, which has “magic” bullets in it, and Max is again a great marksman. The scene closes with Max agreeing to meet Kaspar to mold additional magic bullets the following morning, so he can win the competition.

In this recording from the Theatro Sao Pedro, Sao Paulo, the role of Max is played by Rubens Medina, with Fernando Gazzoni as Kaspar. The orchestra is conducted by João Maurício Galindo.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OwAoyIpL-7E&feature=related

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In 1850, Richard Wagner (1813-1883) premiered “Lohengrin,” in a performance conducted by his friend Franz Liszt. The work was immediately a popular success, based on a fairy tale from medieval German times. In the story, Germany has been invaded, and king has gone to Antwerp to raise an army to fight them. Act 1 sets the stage: The king finds the duchy in chaos, with leadership being claimed by Frederick, who has married Ortrud, the prince’s daughter. Another young woman, Elsa, is accused of murdering the heir to the duchy, and she is left to defend herself against the accusations. She imagines a knight who will rescue her, who appears in a swan-drawn boat, and agrees to marry her on the condition she never ask his name or from where he came. He proves her innocence as Act 1 ends. The opera ended up inspiring other art works: King Ludwig II of Bavaria ('Der Märchenkönig' – “The Fairy-tale King”) was so moved by the work he built a fairy-tale castle and named it “New Swan Stone” after the swan knight. (Ludwig became a significant patron of Wagner, providing the money and opportunity to build Bayreuth-his own theater, as well as to stage the monumental cycle, the “Ring of the Nibelung.”) This example features Elizabeth Connel as Ortrud, with Peter Hofmann in the title role (Lohengrin) in a 1982 performance from the Bayreuther Festspiele, accompanied by the Bayreuther Choir and Orchestra, with conductor Woldemar Nelsson. Listen for the richness of Wagner’s harmonic language and his increasing use of dissonance to add to the emotionality of the scene.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gYVvYuY7Bcc

unnecessarily, the untrodden path, attempting to fly where a rational person would walk with better results.” While he did lean toward less adventuresome harmony, he nonetheless made great use of the orchestra’s capability, including orchestral sound effects such as humming and wailing tones. Verdi’s opera catalog remains a staple of opera companies the world wide to this day since they are so very accessible, as well as popular with audiences. Verdi received his first composition lessons at a young age, and by age 20, took private lessons in counterpoint as well as attended opera performances to enhance his knowledge. His studies convinced him he should pursue a career as a theater composer. By age 23, he became a town music master, married and had two children by age 25. Sadly, both children died in infancy, and his wife died in 1840. His second opera debuted shortly after her death, and was a flop, and in

Giuseppe Verdi (1813-1901)

In Italy, Giuseppe Verdi was staging his own operatic “coupe.” Something of the antithesis of Wagner, with both being the leaders of their respective compositional styles, Verdi’s work was described critically as being harmonically more diatonic than chromatic, focused on melodies, and even melodramatic, with Wagner himself saying after hearing Verdi’s “Requiem,” that “It would be best not to say anything.” Verdi definitely made heavy use of his gift for writing extraordinary melodies for the sake of expressiveness, even though he really was a master at orchestration. Although Wagner and Verdi never met, they clearly didn’t like each other’s work, as evidenced when Verdi said of Wagner “He invariably chooses,

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his grief and despair, he decided to give up composing. A friend convinced him otherwise, and he wrote “Nabucco” (which proved to be the start of a series of successful and top-notch operas which remain a part of opera repertoire to this day). Verdi died an old man (age 87), enjoying wealth and fame during his lifetime for his magnificent works. Verdi worked painstakingly on his plots and texts as well as his music. He worked closely with the librettists and assured that the libretto was stripped of unnecessary detail and extraneous characters for the sake of dramatic expression, and assuring that the characters that were portrayed were able to be passionate. His grand opera “Aida” is a good example of this. The Khedive of Egypt, Ismail Pasha, commissioned Verdi to write the opera. The first performance took place on Christmas Eve, 1871, delayed by the Franco-Prussian War. (Contrary to popular history, the work was not written in celebration of the opening of the Suez Canal because, as Verdi put it, he did not write “occasional pieces.”) “Aida” is a female Arabic name that means “visitor” or “returning.” In the case of this opera, Aida is a slave who also happens to be the daughter of the King of Ethiopia. The opera is set in ancient Egypt, and centers around three main characters: Rhadames (captain of the Egyptian guard), Amneris (daughter of the Pharoah), and Aida (her slave). In a classic love triangle, Act 1 reveals that Rhadames and Aida are in love, but Amneris also loves Rhadames. War is underway between Egypt and Ethiopia, and Rhadames is selected to lead the Egyptian army, fights the enemy and comes home as a conquering hero. Aida is left to secretly mourn for her country, as well as her father, who was taken prisoner. In the scene in this example, from the beginning of Act 2, Egypt’s victory is being celebrated in a grand parade. The “Triumphal March” is played for this parade, which is followed by a celebratory dance. This is a 1989 performance from the Metropolitan Opera House.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bc2RsoJ0ljc

He also makes further advances in the use of the orchestra’s ability to “paint” images of sound, often using the orchestra to help create a scene’s atmosphere, even more so than the scenery on stage. His structure is also interesting, in that while he still has “numbers” (like Verdi) that can be lifted out, his work has more of a continuous flow to it, with sections connecting or flowing into one another, similar to Wagner’s scoring. Also like Wagner, he used leitmotifs that connote specific characters. Unlike Wagner, though, he doesn’t develop this “tunes” into more complicated language as the characters unfold, but rather keeps them pretty much the same as they were originally stated throughout (in some ways, then, foreshadowing modern musical theater!). While Puccini is recognized for his beautiful melodies, he also has another distinct

Giuseppe Puccini 1858-1924

Puccini is considered the most important Italian opera composer in the generation that succeeded Verdi. Descended from a musical family (a fifth generation musician!), he saw a performance of Verdi’s “Aida” at a young age, and became inspired to write opera. In total, he wrote twelve operas. Interestingly, despite his music clearly continuing in the tradition of Verdi from a popular standpoint, he also clearly shows strong influence of Wagner in his orchestrations.

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technique in his writing that foreshadows some of the techniques that arise in the 20th century, wherein characters sing short phrases to each other, as if they were talking to one another.

Puccini had a unique gift of creating impressive art that was very accessible and popular. As modern critic Lloyd Schwartz perhaps summarized Puccini’s place in history best when he wrote: “Is it possible for a work fo art to seem both completely sincere in its intentions and at the same time counterfeit and manipulative? Puccini built a major career on these contradictions. But people care about him, even admire him, because he did it both so shamelessly and so skillfully. How can you complain about a composer whose music is so relentlessly memorable, even – maybe especially – at its most saccharine?”

Sadly, by the end of 1923, chronic sore throats of the chronic smoker Puccini led to a diagnosis of throat cancer. He received the then new radiation therapy treatment given the seriousness of his condition, but died at the end of 1924 from complications of the treatment. Despite his untimely death (prior to the completion of his final opera, “Turandot,” his operatic legacy is impressive, with such masterworks as “Manon Lescaut,” “La boheme,” “Tosca,” and “Madama Butterfly” remaining part of opera companies’ repertoire to this day.

“Madama Butterfly” premiered disasterously in 1904, but after some reworking on Puccini’s part became widely successful. It is the story of love betrayed: in it, the innocent Japanese heroine (Madama Butterfly, aka Cio-Cio San) is deserted by her philandering American husband, and ultimately commits suicide. “Un bel di vedremo” (“One beautiful day”) is from Act 2. In this scene, Butterfly says that on “one beautiful day” she will see her husband again. She tells her maid, Suzuki, that she sees a vision of a ship entering the harbor and a man walking up the hill toward the house and he will call out the names he used to call her, such as “little one,” “dear wife,” and “orange blossom.” At this point, she still has faith that the faithless one will return! It is a poignant scene, and in this recording, Japanese soprano Mika Mori plays the title role in a 1997 National Beograd Theater production, conducted by Giorgio Croci.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s_L0m1vYrmk

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Nationalism

The word nationalism, when used in a musical context, refers to musical ideas that have an identity with a specific country or ethnicity. This can include folk elements such as folk tunes, rhythms and harmonies, but can also include the use of folktales as the basis for the work’s story (such as in operas and program music). Nationalism reached its height during the Romantic period, and its development coincided in large part with the emerging identity and self-determination of the nations that experienced struggles for national destination during the 1800s. in particular, nationalism is linked to music of Czechoslovakia, England, Finland, France, Norway, Russia, Spain, and the United States.

Czechoslovakia Czechoslovakia resulted as a combination of the former Bohemian, Moravian and Slovakian territories, gaining national identity in 1918. In order to preserve their native language, a Provisional Theater was opened to promote the Czech language, composers, folk music, and use of national themes. Antonín Dvořák (1841-1904) was the most successful of the Czech nationalists. A native of Bohemia, his work incorporated Bohemian and Moravian themes and idiomatic traits (like rhythm). He wrote operas, as well as symphonies, chamber works, and choral music. Although he is probably best known now as the composer of the “New World Symphony” from his time in New York, it is his “Slavonic Dances” (1879) and “Slavonic Rhapsodies” (1880) that really convey his nationalist spirit.

England/Great Britain Nationalism, per se, was actually more prevalent in Scotland, Ireland and Wales than in England, since these entities had a stronger connection to their heritage, and consequently incorporated these folk elements into their work.

Antonín Dvořák

The “Slavonic Dances” is a set of 16 pieces first written for piano four-hands and then orchestrated at the request of Dvořák’s publisher. Inspired by Brahms’ “Hungarian Dances,” Dvořák used them as a model, but instead of using actual melodies like Brahms did, Dvořák used only the characteristic Slavic folk rhythms, and created his own melodies. Though the works are overtly nationalistic, they were immediately a huge success, and even appear in popular culture to this day. This recording is from Opus 72, No. 2, a dance subtitled “Starodávny” (ancient). The featured performers are Itzhak Perlman and Yo-Yo Ma, with conductor Seiji Ozawa.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bc2RsoJ0ljc

Charles Stanford

Irish composer Charles Stanford (1852-1924) lived in England for most of his life. He was born in Dublin, the son of gifted amateur musicians (his father was a singer and cellist; his mother a pianist). He learned to play the piano, violin and organ, and was also taught composition at a young age. He showed excellent ability and by the age of ten was studying in London. After completing his collegiate studies, he was first a college organist, and then conductor of the Cambridge University Musical Society. He became recognized as a composer beginning in 1876 with some incidental music for a dramatic performance at the Lyceum.

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From there, he went on to write operas and a variety of symphonic works, including seven symphonies, six “Irish Rhapsodies,” and also various works for organ, violin, cello, clarinet and piano, as well as chamber works and string quartets. He also wrote many songs, and his church music is used to this day in Anglican worship, most especially his “Evening Services.” He became professor of composition at the Royal College of Music in 1883, filled various conducting posts, and was also a professor of music at Cambridge. His students included such notable Modern Period composers as Gustav Holst, Ralph Vaughan Williams, and Samuel Coleridge-Taylor.

Stanford’s compositional style not only uses Irish folk elements as inspiration but also distinct influence stylistically by Brahms and Schumann. Overall, he was not interested in the modern developments in composition, and his work was neglected after his death, and has just recently enjoyed a revival of sorts. Critics, in fact, charged him with being “unoriginal” and described him as “Brahms with an Irish accent.” Additionally, his failure to embrace the “new” musical developments of the Modern Period made others suggest he lacked inspiration and sparkle! (An accusation that could be lodged against many composers, since composing does adhere to the old adage about 1% inspiration and 99% perspiration.) As did many other composers, Stanford most certainly composed music of his time, but his work is beautiful and the richness of his melodies and his nods to his Irish heritage, as well as Brahms and Schumann in their creation make his work well worth the listen. Perhaps his greatest legacy is the work he did with composers of the succeeding generation, most notably the three cited previously.

This musical example is entitled “The Blue Bird” from his Opus 119. Stanford wrote this work for SAATB (women’s and men’s voices) based on a poem by the British novelist and poet Mary Coleridge (1861-1907). The poem evokes definite images for which Stanford paints distinct pictures, all the while creating a magical atmosphere where feelings of cold and warmth occur at once, as well as images of clouds and sun. This performance features Laetitia Nova, a small choir that specializes in Romantic songs (as well as Renaissance church music!). The text follows the video link.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vXHpzCROML4

Text for “The Blue Bird:”

The lake lay blue below the hill. O'er it, as I looked, there flew Across the waters, cold and still, A bird whose wings were palest blue. The sky above was blue at last, The sky beneath me blue in blue. A moment, ere the bird had passed, It caught his image as he flew.

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Finland Finland didn’t gain its independence until 1917, first as a part of Sweden until 1809, then from 1809 until independence in 1917, as an “autonomous Grand Duchy” of the Russian Empire. The yearn for national identity and independence was strong in Finland, especially during the lifetime of its greatest nationalist composer, Jean Sibelius.

Sibelius enjoyed a long life and was an extremely productive composer whose work also shows the influence of composers such as Bruckner and Tchaikovsky, especially in terms of orchestration and use of the “palette” of sounds available from the orchestra. Harmonically, he was very fond of using pedal points (sustained bass notes that are held out under the melodic and other voices’ movement) creating an underlying slow pace to his work. In addition, he moved away from formal structures such as sonata form, and instead used an idea of continuously evolving cells and fragments of melodic material that slowly developed or evolved throughout the course of the work. (Essentially then, he had a sophisticated theme and variations concept that created magnificent melodies and works which were clearly unified throughout.)

As with many other Romantic period composers, Wagner had a strong effect on Sibelius. He wrote to his wife, after hearing “Parsifal” performed at Bayreuth, that “Nothing in the world has made such an impression on me, it moves the very strings of my heart.” That inspiration resulted in Sibelius working on an opera, but he quickly lost his “glow” about Wagner, and most especially rejected the leitmotif technique as too deliberate and calculated compared to how he liked to let his melodies evolve. He didn’t finish his opera, and reused some of the material instead in another work.

In addition, Sibelius was clearly touched by his life events in his music. For instance, after a near-death experience in 1911 due to throat cancer, his production from the immediately succeeding time took on a slightly darker quality. On a happier note, he enjoyed a 64-year marriage to his wife, Aino (1871-1969) and together they had six daughters. Sibelius also drew influence from the Finnish landscape as well as nature, and commented on one of his pieces that incorporated these inspirations that it “always reminds me of the scent of the first snow.” Overall, Jean Sibelius saw himself as a “tone painter and poet” who drew inspiration from his beloved Finland.

Of his many work, perhaps the best known is his tone poem “Finlandia.” Written in 1899, it was composed specifically for the Press Celebrations of 1899, which were actually a covert protest against the growing censorship of the Russian Empire. (Sibelius was very political, albeit on a

Jean Sibelius

A late Romantic composer, Jean Sibelius (1865-1957) was an important composer of both the 19th and 20th centuries. His music literally helped form the Finnish national identity. Born “Janne,” he changed his name to its French form, “Jean” during his student years, inspired by one of his uncles. Contrary to popular practice of the day, he attended a Finnish language school which influenced him for his entire life, and was most certainly a crucial part in his nationalistic leanings, both artistically and politically. Even for all his nationalist tendencies, he is also remembered as a modern classicist, who viewed himself as a “tone painter and poet.”

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covert basis!) This work, in particular, became something of a recurring joke in Finland, since it was renamed for concerts to avoid Russian censorship, the most sarcastic or flippant of which was “Happy Feelings at the awakening of Finnish Spring.”

In actuality, the work evokes the national struggle of the Finnish people during its more turbulent and rousing sections, but ends in calm, with a beautiful hymn, the peaceful “Finlandia Hymn.” Although folk-inspired, the hymn is actually an original work by Sibelius. Following Finnish independence, the hymn was reworked into a stand-alone piece and became one of its most important national songs. The work is not only an inspiration in Finland. It also inspired William Saroyan’s story of the same name, the music is heard in the 1990 film “Die Hard 2” and the Indigo Girls include an a cappella version of the hymn at most of their concerts. The hymn can also be found in many Protestant hymnals.

As you listen to the work, not only appreciate the richness of Sibelius’s melodic craftsmanship, but also the underlying desire for national freedom, including the struggles and ultimate calm. This recording features the Pan Asia Symphony Orchestra, as conducted by Dr. Yip Hai, in a 2004 performance at the Conert Hall of Hong Kong City Hall.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CpVUwrGbhYo&feature=related France After enduring its own internal struggles during the late Classical period (the French Revolution, 1789-1799), France was fairly confident in its national identity. As such, French composers weren’t particularly concerned about being “French” so much as developing their own musical language. One composer, though, stands out as representative of France during the Romantic period: Hector Berlioz (1803-1869). at heart, Berlioz was smitten with all things Romantic, from literature to music, and he displayed this most significantly in his various love affairs. Forced to study medicine at age 18, he was immediately disgusted a viewing human corpses being dissected, and instead took advantage of the surrounding Parisian community, and most especially the opera and concert halls. He also spent a great deal of time in the Paris Conservatory’s library, studying scores, and making copies for further study and ultimately, inspiration. He was especially taken with the music of Christoph Gluck and Ludwig van Beethoven. Eventually, despite his parents’ disapproval, Berlioz left medical school to become a composer. After mixed results in his early years, he eventually won important prizes and received a five-year pension that would assure his solvency in his early years as a composer. He also worked as a chorus singer at a vaudeville theater for extra income. During that time, he met his future wife, Harriet Smithson, who was an actress

Hector Berlioz

Berlioz was both a composer and conductor, and made significant contributions to the modern orchestra through his use of vast orchestral forces in his works, as well as his “Treatise on Instrumentation”. He also wrote songs for voice and piano. Berlioz didn’t begin studying music until age 12, and wrote small pieces and arrangements. His father discouraged this, however, nad he never learned to play the piano, quite unusual and both a benefit and detriment to him as a composer. He was proficient on guitar and flute, however. A romantic

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and playwright. (Interestingly, at this time, she found his advances so overtly passionate that she refused him!) Despite her refusals, he was inspired to write his “Symphonie fantastique” (Opus 14) in 1830 because of his obsession with her. The work also shows his passion for the work of Beethoven, as well as Carl Maria von Weber. (On a side note, after Harriet’s refusals, he became involved with another young lady to whom he even became engaged for a time!) Around this time, Berlioz had the good fortune of meeting Franz Liszt, who so liked the work that he transcribed it for piano so it would receive a bigger audience and play. Berlioz was particularly inspired by Beethoven’s ability to be so expressive with instrumental music and the power it could bring. In describing the impact that had on his writing, he noted in his “Memoirs” that “In an artist’s life one thunderclap sometimes follows swiftly on another…I had just had the successive revelations of Beethoven and Weber. Now at another point on the horizon I saw the giant form of Beethoven rear up…Beethoven opened before me a new world of music....” Berlioz also saw in Beethoven the means by which to create the dramatic manner he desired in his music. While Gluck, Weber, and even Mozart had given him great inspiration, he realized he could go farther in developing his own orchestral language, thanks to what he heard in Beethoven’s work. As he put it, “Now that I have heard that terrifying giant Beethoven, I know exactly where my musical art stands; the question is to take it from there and push it further.” Thus liberated, Berlioz went on to be one of the most influential composers in the development of symphonic form, use of programmatic and literary ideas in music, and expanded instrumentation, all key features of the Romantic period. The “Symphonie Fantastique” is a five movement work, with each movement bearing a descriptive title. The work shows that Berlioz knew his audiences well. He even included a descriptive program to tell the story behind the music, which with the elements of fantasy, unbridled passion, a wild opium dream, and overall romantic self-expression made for a big departure in symphonic writing! The story Berlioz used to accompany it was that it tells the tale of a man who fell hopelessly in love with his idealized woman and he is tormented by thoughts of her. In a fit of despair, he poisons himself with opium, and has some wild narcotic-induced dreams of death and execution. Certainly a shocking scenario in 1830, it even turns heads in the modern age! This recording from “Symphonie Fantastique” features the 2nd movement, which is titled “Valse: allegro non troppo” (a waltz, which should be played fast, but not too fast) or as it is programmatically known, “Un bal” (“A ball”). The performance is by the Orchestre National de France as conducted by the legendary Leonard Bernstein. This is a 1976 performance, in Paris, of the work.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=npg11G8ZkAY

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Norway In Norway, Edvard Grieg (1843-1907) was inspired to compose nationalistic music after meeting Ole Bull (1810-1880), a violin player and an early ethnomusicologist (he researched folk music), as well as Norway’s first international musical star. Grieg was a friend of Franz Liszt, who gave him some tips on orchestration. In addition, he was acquainted with Tchaikovsky, who praised the beauty, warmth and originality of Grieg’s work. Grieg found Tchaikovsky himself to be full of sadness! In 1903, Grieg made some recordings of his piano music, and even with the limited fidelity of the period, still demonstrate his masterful command of the piano and his artistry. Grieg died at the age of 64, and in accordance with his wishes, both a funeral march he wrote, as well as Chopin’s famous funeral march were played. His funeral procession was memorable: the ship that carried his body was led by 15 steamers and hundreds of smaller vessels, and some 30-40,000 persons lined the streets of his home town in his honor. Grieg’s most popular work is his “Piano Concerto in A minor, Opus 16.” First championed by composer and pianist Percy Grainger, who played it often, it has become a staple of piano repertoire the world over. The work is often compared to Robert Schumann’s piano concerto, as it is in the same key, and uses a similar opening flourish. Stylistically, it is also reminiscent of Schumann, and ten years before he wrote it, in 1858, he heard Clara Schumann play Robert’s concerto. The work also is quintessential Grieg, showing his interest in Norwegian folk tunes. The opening flourish is uniquely Norwegian in character because of its use of two specific intervals that are typical of Norwegian folk music: the main idea is based around a falling second, followed by a falling major third. Grieg uses this same idea in several of his other works. Another uniquely “Norwegian” characteristic of the work is in the final movement, where he creates sounds similar to that of a Hardanger fiddle (the Norwegian folk fiddle), as well as the halling (folk dance). This recording presents the third movement of the work. Captioned “Allegro moderato molto e marcato”, it moves from a very quick tempo to an andante maestroso (rather majestic) and cycles through a variety of keys and moods, beginning in A minor, than moving through F major, back to A minor and ending in A major for a glorious finish. The pianist is the great Arthur Rubinstein, age 87 at the time of the recording, accompanied by the London Symphony Orchestra, with Andre Previn conducting.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xfJHrFg3pF4

Edvard Grieg

Grieg drew his inspiration from Norwegian folk music, and his many short piano pieces based on folk tunes and dances led him to be nicknamed the “Chopin of the north.” His music for Henrik Ibsen’s play, “Peer Gynt” is probably some of his best known, and ironically, the work with which he was most unhappy. He was especially displeased with one of the big “hits” from the work, “In the Hall of the Mountain King,” of which he wrote: “I have also written something for the scene in the hall of the mountain King - something that I literally can’t bear listening to because it absolutely reeks of cow-dung, exaggerated Norwegian nationalism, and trollish self-satisfaction! But I have a hunch that the irony will be discernible.”

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Russia Even as Russia was making things difficult in other countries, a cultural battle of sorts was going on at home. Until the 19th century, foreign musicians had dominated the music scene, due in large part to Peter the Great’s introduction of imported foreign musicians to “modernize” his kingdom. Thus, prior to this time, there were few Russian compositions in the European tradition. This changed with the arrival of Mikhail Glinka, and the uniting of “The Five,” a group of Russian composers whose goal was to compose music in a uniquely Russian style. The “up” side of the previously “foreign” influence was that works by Beethoven, Haydn, Mozart and Weber were known and performed with frequency, providing an excellent background in European classical music style. We have already explored the music of Mily Balakirev earlier in this unit. In this unit, we will meet Mikhail Glinka and Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov, two excellent representatives of the new Russian nationalistic voice. serfs, playing violin and flute. The child of a retired captain, he was able to attend a privileged school for the children of noblemen, where he was able to take music listens, and go to the opera, often hearing works of Mozart and Rossini. He continued to play with his uncle’s orchestra as well. Well-educated, he spoke six languages, allowing him to readily communicate with fellow musicians across the world. He was also reputed to be very friendly and easy going, further allowing him to readily interact with other people, and most especially other musicians. He eventually became acquainted with Berlioz and Mendelssohn, and after visiting them, decided he was going to write a Russian opera. He had great fun writing the opera, using a peasant as the heroic character, and celebrating Russian patriotism via characteristic Russian nationalist music. The result was the first “real” Russian opera and it was very successful. In 1842, Glinka began work on what would become one of his greatest works, the opera “Ruslan and Ludmilla.” Based on a fairy tale poem by Alexander Pushkin, and was also successful. He even took it “on the road” to France and Spain, which further increased his European popularity, where they referred to him as the “Russian genius.” Igor Stravinsky went so far in later years to say that “All music in Russia stems from him.” “Ruslan and Ludmilla” was unique in that Pushkin agreed to the task of turning his massive poem into an opera libretto. His untimely death resulted in Glinka starting to compose before a libretto could be completed by some friends, one of who claimed, according to Glinka, that he drew up a complete scenario “in a quarter of an hour while drunk.” However the libretto actually got completed, it is true to Pushkin’s original characters and scenes, and tells the story of Ruslan’s efforts to rescue the kidnapped Ludmilla, and ultimately win her hand in marriage. It contains mystical elements such as an evil dwarf, potions, and a magic sword and ring. Glinka’s score is recognized to this day as the definitive start of a Russian operative language. Set in Kiev, it also includes other imaginary and fantasy-based settings.

Mikhail Glinka

Mikhail Glinka (1804-1857) is considered to be the father of truly Russian music. He was the first composer to create musical works using Russian folk motifs, and he passionately expresses Russian love, hate, joy and sorrow, going from darkness to light seamlessly. Glinka was able to create music that “worked” in the mainstream of European classical music without sacrificing its Russian national identity. Glinka began his musical “career” playing with his uncle’s orchestra of

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The “Overture” is the opening to the entire opera, and is probably one of the most recognizable pieces in classical literature. This performance features the Israel Philharmonic Orchestra with Paavo Järvi conducting in a 2001 performance in Tel Aviv.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fjUijyeFMu0 Thirteen years before Glinka’s death, another great name in Russian nationalistic music was born: Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov (1844-1908). His command of this area resulted in his serving as Professor of harmony and orchestration at the conservatory in St. Petersburg for decades, and he shaped the musical language of many consequent composers, including Stravinsky, Prokofiev, and Glazunov. He was born into an aristocratic family and showed musical talent from an early age which his parents dismissed as a “prank.” Becoming a composer was especially an unsuitable career choice for someone from his societal position, and he ended up joining the Imperial Russian Navy at his parents’ insistence. He still managed to take piano lessons, though, and gained exposure to the great classical symphonic works. His teacher recognized his talent, and acquainted him with Glinka and Schumann’s works, and also assured he got lessons in composition. His teacher also introduced him to Balakirev, who encouraged him to compose and even taught him whenever he was ashore. Balakirev introduced him to the other composers who would become known as “The Five,” and with their encouragement, he decided to pursue a career in music. When his first work was successfully premiered, he was still in the navy, and the audience was surprised to learn that a naval officer had written such a magnificent piece. As his naval duties began to take up less time, Rimsky-Korsakov was able to devote more time to composing. He also became acquainted with Tchaikovsky, with whom he became friendly, despite his being trained at a Western-oriented school. Rimsky-Korsakov became very interested in Russian folk songs by 1874, creating collections of the tunes, and eventually incorporating aspects of their tunes and rhythms into his own work. In 1905, near the end of his life, Rimsky-Korsakov lost his professorship in the February Revolution for siding with the students expelled for participating. He eventually won his professorship back due to widespread public support, but suffered from censorship as political

Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov

Another member of “The Five,” Rimsky-Korsakov was extremely skilled in orchestration and also leaned heavily on folk and fairy-tale subjects as his inspiration. His skill in orchestration is believed to have been influenced, in part, by his synesthesia, a condition where normally separate senses are cross-wired, resulting in his case that he perceived colors as associated with major keys. For instance, “C” was white, “D” was yellow, and so on.

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tensions increased in Russia. Also suffering from angina, he died in 1908, due to the toll the angina took, as well as the stress from the February Revolution, and its aftermath (censorship). Rimsky-Korsakov also was very interested in pantheism (pantheism is a metaphysical and religious position and basically asserts that “God is everything and everything is God”). This inspired him to pursue additional folklore studies, and ultimately led to his discovering the pagan aspects of Russian Orthodoxy. This is all the more significant in that Christian and pagan practices are interwoven in Russian folklore – a sort of “double faith” and the old pagan rites were merely incorporated into the new Christian rites. Rimsky-Korsakov took this interest to its greatest expression in his “Russian Easter Festival Overture” (Opus 36, written 1887-1888). Dedicated to the memory of Mussorgsky and Borodin (two of “The Five”), it bears a subtitle of “Overture on Liturgical Themes.” The tunes are derived from those of Russian orthodox liturgy, and even includes some Biblical quotations. His goal with the work was to express “the legendary and heathen aspect of the holiday, and the transition from the solemnity and mystery of the evening of Passion Saturday to the unbridled pagan-religious celebrations of Easter Sunday morning.” An interesting goal, since he was a non-believer! As you listen to this example, visualize Easter Sunday morning Mass, with a church packed full of people from all walks of life and the joy that abounds after the solemnity of Holy Week. This was Rimsky-Korsakov’s ultimate goal for his audiences as they listened to the work. This recording features the DR Symphony Orchestra, conducted by Dmitrij Kitatjenko. Due to the length of the work, the video clip is in two parts.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=is3TbHGSlB0 (part 1) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hySr24BhQy8 (part 2)

Spain Spain was having something of an identity crisis at the end of the 19th century, resulting in great interest in establishing a Spanish identity, with music playing a large part in this.

rhythmically, as well as musically, since they require a technical hybrid of great power as well as delicate manipulation, especially for the extensive ornamentation he employs. Many have an improvisational quality, adding to the difficulty in mastering them. Many of his piano works have also been transcribed for classical guitar, and are considered some of the loveliest music in classical guitar repertoire.

Enrique Granados

Spaniard Enrique Granados (1867-1916) was a pianist and composer, whose music has a uniquely Spanish “flavor.” He was also a gifted painter, who painted in the style of Francisco Goya, a fellow Spaniard, and noted artist. Born Pantaleon Enrique Constanzo Granados y Campina, Granados wrote piano music, chamber works, songs, and an opera, as well as other miscellaneous works. His piano works are difficult to master,

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Granados enjoyed a successful career, with performances throughout Europe as well as in New York City. The outbreak of World War I unfortunately halted his performance schedule, so he instead went to New York City to premiere his opera “Goyescas” in 1916, and also performed for President Woodrow Wilson on the piano. Before leaving New York, Granados also made his very last recordings: a series of player piano rolls, which survive to this day. When he accepted the President’s invitation to perform, he missed his ship back to Spain, and instead took a ship to England, to be followed by a ferry ride to France on the Sussex. Unfortunately, a German u-boat torpedoed the Sussex on its way across the English Channel, and in a desperate attempt to save his drowning wife, Amparo, he jumped out of his lifeboard, and drowned. There was irony in his death, in that he had a morbid fear of water throughout his life, and was returning from his first-ever ocean voyages. Sadder still, the ship broke in two, and the half where his cabin was located ended up staying afloat and being towed to port, along with most of the passengers. “Goyescas” is considered Granados’ “crowning creation.” Written in 1911, it was first a piano suite inspired by the paintings of Francisco Goya. The work was so successful that he was encouraged to expand it by American pianist Ernest Schelling (who premiered the work in the United States), which he did in the form of an opera, which was completed in 1915. The premiere was delayed due to the war in Europe, and the work ended up being premiered in New York City, the success of which was dimmed by his untimely death, as noted above. Using a Spanish libretto by Fernando Periquet y Zuaznaba, he incorporated melodies from the piano suite for the opera. The story is based on six paintings of Goya, all of which were inspired by the stereotype young men and women of the majismo movement. It’s important to understand where in history the composition of this work was taking place. At the end of the 19th century and into the early 20th century, Spain was having a bit of an identity crisis, as to where it stood in the world, with one side distrusting foreign influence, and the other asserting Spain’s role as a major power in the world. This was further exacerbated by Spain’s defeat in the U.S. in 1898 in the Spanish-American War. As such, Spaniards were searching for national heroes in their past, and Goya was one such character. In particular, the portrayal of a romanticized vision of old Madrid was particularly appealing to Granados and his contemporaries, and Goya’s portrayal of the majo (essentially a swash-buckling male) and maja (his brazen, streetwise female counterpart) resulted in a fascination known as “majismo.” “Goyescas” then paints musical scenes of majos and majas enjoying life, as well as the challenges and controversies they encounter, including love, a duel, followed by a fandango (dance), and eventually another duel, and death of one of the main characters. Throughout the work, the rhythms and sounds of Spain are celebrated, with complex dances and rhythms, and a generally “exotic” quality about the work. Granados summarized his use of Goya as inspiration thus: “I am enamored with the psychology of Goya, with his palette, with him, with his muse the Duchess of Alba, with his quarrels with his models, his loves and flatteries. That whitish pink of the cheeks, contrasting with the blend of black velvet; those subterranean creatures, hands of mother-of-pearl and jasmine resting on jet trinkets, have possessed me.” This recording features the Imperio Argentina in a 1942 performance of the full length version of Goyescas. The Sinfonica y Filharmonica is conducted by Munoz Molleda. The opening credits will provide you with other details regarding the performers and the production of the work.

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While this is a recording which lasts a little more than an hour and a half, it’s worth listening and watching at least 10-15 minutes of it to get a good flavor of the music and “story” woven into the music.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kU1At53Puq4

United States Musically, the United States still had some work to do to create a national identity. While the brass and military bands were certainly making great strides toward creating their own sound, most song-writers were still heavily dependent on their European predecessors or counterparts for their language. Stephen Foster was able to not only create an American song language, but also sought to reform black-face minstrelsy, a popular phenomenon that he found to be denigrating to African-Americans. people, using familiar images, and a musical language that was able to be understood by all groups of people. He worked very hard at his songwriting. His greatest mission in his writing though, was to present African-Americans in particular as human. As such, his songs are not nostalgic yearnings for the old South (his present day,

Stephen Foster

Born near Pittsburgh in 1826, Stephen Foster was the youngest of nine children in a middle-class family. He received a good education and also formal musical training. He was also a member of a secret, all-male club that met twice weekly at the Foster’s home with a main activity being singing. Stephen wrote some of his earliest songs for this group. He was first published at age 18, and by age 24, had 12 compositions in print. Foster used a thick sketchbook to make notes of draft ideas for song lyrics and melodies, studying music and poetic styles from all walks of American life. His goal was to write music of the

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remember!), and certainly not to trivialize the hardship of slavery, but rather to humanize his characters. His goal was to convey a sense that everyone, regardless of ethnic identity, or socio-economic class, shared the same desires, and need for family and home. He also included specific performance instructions, and made clear to white performers of his work that they were never to mock slaves, but rather sing in such a way as to make audiences feel compassion for them. Foster wrote that his goals was to “build up taste…among refined people by making words suitable to their taste, instead of the trashy and really offensive words which belong to some songs of that order.” (He was referring to the offensiveness of the black-face minstrelsy phenomenon that was sweeping the nation during this time.) Foster at first used dialectic language to help portray his characters, similar to Irish and Italian songs of the period. Soon though, finding these “plantation songs” to be just as disrespectful as the “minstrel” songs, Foster dropped dialect completely and began describing his work as “American melodies.” He used a verse and chorus structure for his songs, which made them popular on stage, as well as in homes for the increasingly popular parlor “sing-along” of the period. He also wrote some instrumental music, which paid so poorly that he never pursued this again, instead focusing entirely on song writing. As the Civil War approached, his income starting drying up, too, as contracts ended, and he sold future rights to his songs to pay his bills. He even reverted to “plantation songs” (a genre he had turned away from in the name of decency) to make a “quick buck.” He was clearly desperate. He even wrote some Civil War songs, and collaborated with a lyricist, George Cooper, in an effort to target the musical theater audiences (Cooper wrote light-hearted and humorous texts). Sadly, since there was no music business as we now know it (sound recording didn’t begin until 13 years after he died, with radio coming 66 years thereafter), as well as no performing rights fees, and a much looser copyright protection, Foster earned nothing from arrangements others did of his songs, nor from other publishers’ editions. A man who would be worth millions a year in today’s music industry (think the Beatles!), Foster died in 1864 with just 38 cents in his pocket after collapsing from a fever and gouging his head against the washbasin, succumbing to blood loss and infection. Much of his 100-plus song output in the final years of his life has been forgotten (and probably for good cause!). However, he did produce one gem in 1862 which remains an all-time favorite to this day: “Beautiful Dreamer.” The work was not published until after his death in 1864. This performance features the grand dame of American classical music, Marilyn Horne, in a 1981 recital in Milan. She is accompanied by pianist Martin Katz.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-drAf-BQaRc

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Section 7: Role of Women

As has been noted throughout this unit, women still weren’t holding an equal place with men in society, much less as musicians. Women were certainly working as musicians and composers, but not to any great acclaim. Three notable exceptions stand out from the period, though. Two carried on in the face of living in the shadow of a famous male composer, and the third shines for having overcome the trifecta of being female, American and Black.

Goethe, who included a note that read “For the gifted artist Clara Wieck.” By age 13, she had embarked on her career as a virtuoso pianist, performing repertoire her father chose that was showy and popular, as was the common style of the time. As she grew older, though, she chose her own repertoire and deliberately played the works by the “new” Romantic composers, including Chopin and Mendelssohn, and of course, her then husband, Robert. She also continued to perform works by the less showy, yet “difficult” composers of the preceding periods, including Bach, Mozart and Beethoven.

Despite having seven children to raise, she continued to compose and perform, and was able to extend her own fame beyond Germany when she toured with her husband. In 1853, Clara and Robert met a young Johannes Brahms, who impressed them with his talent, and became a lifelong friend of Clara. He suppored her throughout Robert’s illness, helped care for her children when she went on tour, and even asked her advice on his work. Historians agree that theirs was a deep and life-long love for each other, but not in the physical sense. Despite Brahms clear caring and support for Clara, though, he managed to create something of a rift between them in 1868 when he suggested in a letter to her that she was touring strictly for economic reasons. In a letter to Brahms, Clara wrote: “That letter of yours is not the wall that stands between us…But I cannot help thinking that your view of my concert tours is an odd one. You regard them merely as a means of making money. I don’t!...The practice of my art is an important part of my ego, it is the very breath of my nostrils.” Her gift as a pianist was widely recognized, as Edvard Grieg wrote, she is “one of the most soulful and famous pianists of the day.”

Sadly, though, a few years earlier, she had lost confidence in her compositional ability, and stopped writing at age 36. She wrote that “I once believed that I possessed creative talent, but I have given up this idea; a woman must not desire to compose – there has never yet been one able to do it. Should I expect to be the one?”

Clara Schumann 1819-1896

Born Clara Josephine Wieck, Clara Schumann is a German composer and pianist whose prestige as a concert pianist earned her the nomme de plume of “the high priestess of music.” She enjoyed a 61-year career as a performer and transformed not only the format and music of piano concerts, but also the taste of the audiences. Married to composer Robert Schumann, she had earned a great deal of fame prior to her marriage. She met Robert when she was nine years old (he was eighteen) at a concert where they were both performing. By age eleven, she was performing solo concerts across Germany, and was presented a medal by

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Despite her self-doubt, her works were truly masterpieces and remain a part of the repertoire to this day. They include numerous piano works, and even some choral works and pieces for violin and piano. Her violin and piano pieces, written in 1853, were dedicated to a famous violinist of the time, Joseph Joachim, who declared them to be a “marvelous, heavenly pleasure.” Her husband was likewise supportive of her ventures and creativity, writing “Clara has composed a series of small pieces, which show a musical and tender ingenuity such as she has never attained before. But to have children, and a husband who is always living in the realm of imagination, does not go together with composing. She cannot work at it regularly, and I am often disturbed to think how many profound ideas are lost because she cannot work them out.”

Clara continued to play concerts into her early 70s, and played her last public concert in 1891. She died in 1896 after suffering a stroke.

The example here is written on a text of Johann von Goethe, and was composed in 1853. “Das Vielchen” is the gentle tale of “The Violet.” Schumann’s lieder sets the text in much the same way she played the piano: a singing tone with great depth of feeling and an underlying poetic spirit. She chose her texts from a woman’s perspective, looking for pieces including themes of devotion and passion. Note that she also includes great nuance in her direct expression of the text. Finally, stylistically, her songs lean toward being simple and heartfelt, as will be heard in this example. The performers are soprano Elisabeth Goell, accompanied by pianist Lauretta Bloomwer.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NcuLltRNT2Y

Fanny Mendelssohn Hensel (1805-1847)

German pianist and composer Fanny Mendelssohn was the sister of Felix Mendelssohn, and the oldest of the four Mendelssohn children. Fanny received the same upbringing and musical education as did her brother, showing great musical ability as a child. She also began composing while still young. Despite recognition for her playing and composing, she was limited by the prevailing attitude toward women during this time. Worst of all, her father held this attitude too, and was tolerant, rather than supportive of her efforts, especially as a composer. He wrote to her in 1820 that “Music will perhaps become his [Felix’s] profession, while for you it

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can and must be only an ornament.” Felix, however, was supportive of her playing and composing, albeit in an odd way. He seemed overly concerned about her publishing in her own name, and instead helped to have a number of her songs published under his name! By 1829, Fanny had married a painter named Wilhelm Hensel, who was supportive of her composing. Utlimately, her works became played alongside those of her brother in the concerts held at the Mendelssohn family home.

She made her only known public piano performance in 1838 when she played Felix’s “Piano Concerto No. 1.” She died in 1847 from complications of a stroke, passing just six months after her brother’s death.

All told, she composed 466 pieces, ranging from piano works to songs. Compositionally, her piano works were written very much like her songs, and very lyric in manner, written much as her brother did his “Songs without Words.” (Some historians believe Fanny actually came up with this genre and that Felix copied it on a very successful basis.) Frustrating as it could be for her at times, she remained active until her death. She wrote in 1836 that “I cannot help considering it a sign of talent that I do not give it up, though I can get nobody to take an interest in my efforts.”

Her works are now a part of standard vocal and piano repertoire standing alongside her brother’s on an equal basis, as they should have all along. This example features soprano Rosa Wol performing “Ich wandelte unter den Baumen” (“I roamed under the trees”). The text is from Heinrich Heine, and the work was written in 1838 while she was in England with her husband for an exhibition of his paintings at Buckingham Palace. It was included in a letter she wrote about Queen Victoria’s coronation.

Listen for the use of trills (fast, alternating notes) to describe the birds’ singing. Likewise, note that the work is almost a conversation or dialogue between the writer and the birds, as the writer reminisces about an old love when he hears their singing.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kPlqXQtyArA

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Though Clara and Fanny lived and worked to a great extent in male shadows, they were nonetheless able to create beautiful music on a par with their male contemporaries.

A greater challenge faced the next musician. In Ella Sheppard we hit the trifecta of what you didn’t want to be if you were a musician during the Romantic period: female, American, and Black. Despite these obstacles, she became much admired for her musical talent.

who had recognized her talent, but would instruct only on the condition that she enter her home through the back door and at night. (Prejudice was running rampant in the North as much as the South unfortunately.) When her father died in 1866, Ella began to perform to help support herself as well as her stepmother. Shortly after that, she moved to Tennessee to assit with educating freed slaves. Realizing passion-alone wasn’t enough and that she needed training in order to be a teacher, Ella saved enough money to enroll at Fisk University in 1868. She began helping George White with his choir, and within a year, became an assistant music teacher, and Fisk’s first Black instructor. At age 17, White asked her to accompany his singers on a fundraising tour, and Sheppard’s career really took off.

On the tour, Ella noticed that the white evangelical Christian churches where they sang were more enthusiastic about the occasional slave spirituals they included versus the popular and classical music that comprised most of their repertoire. This was eye-opening, since the songs had an association with the dark memory of slavery as well as had sacred content that didn’t seem like something the public would enjoy. Because of this, Sheppard became responsible for learning as many spirituals as she could, and incorporating them into the Jubilee Singers’ repertoire. Thus, she not only had to accompany and teach, but also compose the arrangements.

She left the Jubilee Singers in 1878 after a severe respiratory infection, and married fellow Fisk graduate George Moore. Her husband became a pastor and also taught theology, and together they were advocates for the social advancement of African Americans, along with their friends Frederick and Helen Douglass and Booker T. and Margaret Murray Washington. By 1892, they had moved back to the Nashville area, and lived across from Fisk’s campus. Ella again assisted with the various University choirs, and even sang herself. Ultimately, she became a researcher and lecturer on African American and women’s issues. She was also extremely benevolent, paying for the education of several Fisk students, as well as caring for her mother, with whom she was reunited following her mother’s freedom.

Her contribution to the repertoire and success of the Fisk Jubilee Singers is significant in that they were the first group to publically perform the songs of slaves and share them with the world

Ella Sheppard (1851-1914)

Ella Sheppard Moore was one of the original Fisk Jubilee Singers, a musician, vocalist and educator. Born to a slave, her mother discovered that their mistress had trained little Ella to spy on her. In despair, her mother ran to the river to drown herself, as well as little Ella. She was rescued by an elder and finally sold to her father, who brought her to Nashville. One of the songs Ella later taught the Jubilee Singers was ‘Swing Low, Sweet Chariot,” attributed to the words of the elder who came to her rescue. Her mother remained a slave in Mississippi, and her father re-married, and the family moved to Cincinnati. In Cincinnati, Ella attended school, and took piano and voice lessons from a white teacher

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as a whole. Her arrangements not only kept alive these songs, but also assured that the legacy of the songs (and of the African American slaves) would be kept alive, too.

This picture is from an 1873 engraving in “The Illustrated London Times,” following a performance in London. The group included only two free-born members, Jennie Jackson and Minnie Tate; the others were born into slavery. The members at this time were: Minnie Tate, Greene Evans (bass), Isaac P. Dickerson (bass), Jennie Jackson, Maggie Porter, Ella Shepard (pianist), Thomas Rutling (tenor), Benjamin M. Holmes (tenor), and Eliza Walker.

Two brief recordings will provide insight into the music of the Fisk Jubilee Singers and Ella Sheppard. The first is a recording of “Swing Low, Sweet Chariot” featuring the ever-magnificent Kathleen Battle and the Boys Choir of Harlem in a concert arrangement of this spiritual.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UVyBjqY3r0k&feature=related

This second recording features the modern-day Fisk Jubilee Singers on “Mister Banjo.” From their tour of Ghana, West Africa, and the consequent album, “Sacred Journey,” this recording features a modern day look at the “roots” of their music making and takes it back past the spirituals in the “new” world to the old country and their ultimate musical roots.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4o8zjBDM7BE

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Section 8: Additional Musical Examples

Use the search engine at “youtube.com” to find hundreds of musical examples from the Romantic period. The examples listed here are some of the author’s favorites, as well as examples that will provide greater insight into the work of the composers studied in this unit.

Anton Bruckner, “Ave Maria.” Features a lovely chorus of singers with a gorgeous, ethereal sound. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-4yb-8o5BKE

P.I. Tchaikovsky, “Nutcracker Suite.” In three parts and worth the time to enjoy this beloved classic. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bpUlVnaejXc

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kHYwVfN3wY4

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NzSGBGWO3r4&feature=related

Johannes Brahms, “Double Concerto, Opus 102.” A work for violin and cello. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O9smJEPjgLg

Gustav Mahler, “Symphony Number 8, 1st movement.” Performance features a youth orchestra in a terrific concert from the 2002 BBC Proms series.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-Wi1j-rpcEw

Gustav Mahler, “Symphony Number 9.” An exciting performance (conducted by Leonard Bernstein) of one of Mahler’s greatest works. Well worth the time to listen and watch all three parts of this video.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4j2mSULqbYg&feature=related (Part 1) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GVnkXi9sbLI&feature=related (Part 2)

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xG2FKHEjsH8&feature=related (Part 3)

Camille Saint-Saëns, “Danse Macabre.” Based on a poem that describes an old French superstition regarding death, it features a dance by death and his skeletons and is quite energetic as well as dramatic, with instruments imitating rattling bones, among other special effects. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YyknBTm_YyM Stephen Foster, “Beautiful Dreamer.” In a rare live recording of The Beatles, with Paul channeling Little Richard, it is an interesting take on what was obviously a familiar song! http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S7INEy-yoeg&feature=related

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Edvard Grieg, “In the hall of the mountain king” from the Peer Gynt suite. Grieg may have described the work as “dung,” but it is still a wonderful piece and worth a listen! This performance by the Deutsches Filmorchester Babelsberg, under the direction of Scott Lawton, occurred at the Musikfestspiele Potsdam Sanssouci.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dRpzxKsSEZg

Nikolai Rimsky Korsakov, “Flight of the Bumblebee.” An exciting work with technical feats galore! This performance is especially fun since it features the Canadian Brass. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zR_GVUWllP4

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Section 9: Resources for Further Study

Just as there are numerous recordings available of Romantic music, there are also numerous opportunities for further exploration of the period. This list is meant to provide a basis for further study. For even more indepth study, also see the bibliography for Unit 6.

“The Grove Concise Dictionary of Music” is a magnificent resource for virtually every topic related to the Classical period, including composers and genres.

Jezic, Diane and Elizabeth Wood. “Women Composers: The Lost Tradition Found,” Feminist Press, 1994. (A marvelous look at women composers not only of the Classical period, but preceding and succeeding periods as well.)

Marrocco, W. Thomas and Harold Gleason. “Music in America: An Anthology from the Landing of the Pilgrims to the Close of the Civil War. 1620-1865,” W.W. Norton & Company, Inc., 1964. (Contains music and information about American music.)

Pendle, Karin. “Women and Music: A History,” Indiana University Press, 2001.

Southall, Geneva Handy. “Blind Tom: The Post-Civil War Enslavement of a Black Musical Genius,” Challenge Productions, 1979. (First of two books on “Blind Tom” by the foremost scholar on the subject.)

Southall, Geneva Handy. “The Continuing ‘Enslavement’ of Blind Tom, the Black Pianist-Composer (1865-1887), Book II,” Challenge Productions, 1983.