Personality and Individual Differences 50 (2011) 840–844

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Personality and Individual Differences

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The relation of behavioral inhibition and perceived parenting to maladaptiveperfectionism in college students

Lisa A. Turner a,⇑, Paul E. Turner b

a Department of Psychology, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL, USAb Department of Psychology, Lipscomb University, Nashville, TN, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:Received 20 July 2010Received in revised form 16 December 2010Accepted 8 January 2011

Keywords:PerfectionismParentingBehavioral inhibition systemBehavioral activation system

0191-8869/$ - see front matter � 2011 Published bydoi:10.1016/j.paid.2011.01.006

⇑ Corresponding author. Address: Department of PsAlabama, Mobile, AL 36688, USA. Tel.: +1 251 460 60

E-mail address: laturner@usouthal.edu (L.A. Turne

a b s t r a c t

Maladaptive perfectionism has the potential to undermine physical and psychological health (Enns, Cox,Sareen, & Freeman, 2001). The current investigation focused on the characteristics that put individuals at-risk of maladaptive perfectionism. We investigated the relation of parenting (autonomy granting,warmth, and supervision) and personality (BIS/BAS) to maladaptive perfectionism among college stu-dents. Findings indicate that BIS was positively related to maladaptive perfectionism and parental auton-omy granting was negatively related to maladaptive perfectionism. Interestingly, we observed aninteraction such that among individuals with high BIS, maladaptive perfectionism was predicted byBIS (b = .26) and autonomy granting (b = �.26). By contrast, for individuals with low BIS, maladaptive per-fectionism was predicted only by parental autonomy granting (b = �.42). Findings indicate the impor-tance of investigating broad models that include both personality and family factors as predictors ofperfectionism.

� 2011 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

1. Introduction

1.1. Maladaptive perfectionism

Perfectionism is a multi-faceted characteristic with the poten-tial to impact behavior across the lifespan. Individuals who arehigh in perfectionism tend to set high standards and are concernedwith their mistakes and the possibility of failure. Perfectionism iscomplex and has both positive and negative correlates. For exam-ple, correlates of perfectionism include psychological distress (Al-dea & Rice, 2006), depression (Kawamura, Hunt, Frost, &DiBartolo, 2001; Powers, Zuroff, & Topciu, 2003; Sherry, Hewitt,Flett, & Harvey, 2003), health and alcohol use (Pritchard, Wilson,& Yamnitz, 2007), academic persistence (Zhang, Gan, & Cham,2007), anxiety (Wu & Wei, 2008), worry (Chang et al., 2007), con-scientiousness (Enns & Cox, 2002), and grade point average(Kawamura, Frost, & Harmatz, 2002).

Because of the multi-faceted nature of perfectionism, research-ers have argued that it is important to differentiate between themore adaptive (striving) and more maladaptive (performancefears) forms of perfectionism (Dunkley, Zuroff, & Blankstein,2003; Flett & Hewitt, 2002; Stoeber & Otto, 2006). Stoeber’s(1998) analysis of the Frost, Marten, Lahart, and Rosenblate

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ychology, University of South13.r).

(1990) Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale suggests that con-cerns over mistakes and doubts about actions subscales reflectmaladaptive perfectionism. Yoon and Lau (2008) found that thismeasure of maladaptive perfectionism was correlated with depres-sion. In an investigation that combined doubts about actions, con-cerns over mistakes, and socially prescribed perfectionism as ameasure of maladaptive perfectionism, Enns et al. (2001) foundcorrelations with neuroticism, depression, and hopelessness.

Because of the potential of maladaptive perfectionism to under-mine psychological health, it is important to understand the char-acteristics that put individuals at-risk of developing maladaptiveperfectionism. Researchers have frequently focused either on indi-vidual (personality) factors or family factors as predictors of mal-adaptive perfectionism. Specifically, parenting practices havebeen identified as risk factors for the development of maladaptiveperfectionism (e.g., Clark & Coker, 2009; Kawamura et al., 2002).

1.1.1. Maladaptive perfectionism and parentingEarly work in parenting by Baumrind (1989) conceptualized

parenting as varying along the dimensions of warmth anddemandingness (the practice of making age-appropriate maturitydemands) resulting in authoritative, authoritarian, permissive,and indifferent parenting styles. Based on Baumrind’s work,numerous investigators have found that the combined warmthand demandingness portrayed in authoritative parenting is associ-ated with a number of positive outcomes (Bednar & Fisher, 2003;Hickman & Crossland, 2004; Jackson, Pratt, Hunsberger, & Pancer,

L.A. Turner, P.E. Turner / Personality and Individual Differences 50 (2011) 840–844 841

2005; Kim & Chung, 2003). Because of the positive correlates ofauthoritative parenting, research has attempted to ‘‘unpack’’authoritative parenting into its component parts (e.g., Gray &Steinberg, 1999; Steinberg, Lamborn, Dornbusch, & Darling,1992), suggesting that it reflects three dimensions – autonomygranting, warmth/responsiveness, and behavioral supervision. Inthe Steinberg approach, parental warmth is characterized byresponsiveness and involvement. Behavioral supervision is charac-terized by parental monitoring and limit setting. Autonomy grant-ing is characterized by the extent to which parents employ non-coercive discipline, allow individual expression, and personal deci-sion making.

Maladaptive perfectionism is theorized to arise from familiesthat do not grant autonomy and instead engage in controllingbehaviors where personal expression and individual decision mak-ing are squelched (Enns & Cox, 2002). Parental approval is based onmeeting the high expectations of parents. When these expectationsare not met, guilt may follow. Children may respond to these pres-sures by adopting the high, unrealistic standards of their parentsand experience great concern over meeting those standards. Thishypothesis has been supported by a number of researchers whohave found that maladaptive perfectionism tends to be higheramong students who perceive that their parents are low in auton-omy granting (or high in controlling behavior) (Enns, Cox, & Clara,2002; Keeney-Benson & Pomerantz, 2005; Randolph & Dykman,1998). Soenens et al. (2008) reported that parents’ use of psycho-logical control was related to increases in maladaptive perfection-ism in their adolescent children, particularly boys. In a study thatincluded the constructs hypothesized to underlie authoritativeparenting, Soenens et al. (2005) found that psychological controlwas positively related to maladaptive perfectionism, warmth/responsiveness was negatively related to maladaptive perfection-ism and behavioral supervision was not related to maladaptiveperfectionism.

1.1.2. Maladaptive perfectionism and temperament/personalityIn addition to parenting variables, it is interesting to note that

maladaptive perfectionism is related to a number of personalityvariables, including anxiety-related measures (Juster et al., 1996).Gray and McNaughton’s revised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory(RST) (Gray & McNaughton, 2000; See Corr (2008) for a summaryof the original and revised RST) conceptualized personality aslinked to the Fight-Flight-Freeze System (FFFS) which reflects fearand avoidance in response to negative stimuli, the Behavioral Acti-vation System (BAS) which reflects approach to positive stimuli,and the Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS) which reflects anxietyand risk assessment in response to goal–conflict (e.g., approach–approach, approach–avoidance). Research using the Carver andWhite (1994) BIS/BAS scales indicates a positive relation of theBIS scale with maladaptive perfectionism (Chang et al., 2007;O’Connor & Forgan, 2007; Randles, Flett, Nash, McGregor, & Hewitt,2010). Although the Carver and White BIS scale reflects punish-ment sensitivity, including both the FFFS as well as the BIS (e.g.,Beck, Smits, Claes, Vandereycken, & Bijttebier, 2009; Heym, Fergu-son, & Lawrence, 2008), the findings suggest the importance ofindividual differences in punishment sensitivity as a predictor ofmaladaptive perfectionism.

1.1.3. Aims and hypothesesTo better understand the role of personality and parenting in

predicting maladaptive perfectionism, it is important to under-stand the relative contributions and potential interactions of thesevariables to the prediction of maladaptive perfectionism. There-fore, in the current study, we examined the relation of punishmentand reinforcement sensitivity and parenting (autonomy granting,warmth, supervision) to maladaptive perfectionism. We predicted

that punishment sensitivity as measured by BIS would be posi-tively related to maladaptive perfectionism and parental autonomygranting would be negatively related to maladaptive perfection-ism. Additionally, we tested the interaction of punishment sensi-tivity and autonomy granting to determine if the relation ofparenting to maladaptive perfectionism differed as a function ofpunishment sensitivity.

2. Method

2.1. Participants

Participants were recruited from introductory psychology clas-ses at a regional university in the southeast US. Introductory psy-chology students participated in research as an option for coursecredit. Data were gathered on-line through a departmental re-search participant pool. We restricted data analysis to participantsunder the age of 21 years. Therefore, age of participants rangedfrom 16 to 20 (M = 19.8, SD = 0.8). Of the 399 participants, 68%(272) were Caucasian, 15% (59) were African American, 9.5% (38)were Asian American, and 7.5% (30) reported other or did not indi-cate their race. Sixty-eight percent of the participants reported thatthey were female. Sixty-four percent of the participants reportedthat they lived with both of their parents during their senior yearin high school. The remainder of the students reported that theylived with their mother (24%), father (5%), or other adult (7%). Atthe time of data collection, 49% of the participants reporting stillliving with their parent(s).

2.2. Procedure

Participants provided informed consent before completing themeasures and those under the age of 19 years also provided paren-tal consent. Participants completed a number of questionnaires on-line through the university-sponsored website. The current studyfocused on three measures: Maladaptive perfectionism (Doubtsabout Actions and Concern over Mistakes subscales from Frostet al., 1990), Behavioral Inhibition and Behavioral Activation (Car-ver & White, 1994), and the parenting measure (Steinberg et al.,1992). Participants also provided demographic information. Stu-dents were instructed (by the written instructions on the question-naires) to reflect back to their senior year in high school andrespond to the parenting questionnaire based on their experienceswith the parent(s) they lived with during that time. All other ques-tions were to be answered about their current state.

2.3. Measures

The parenting measure (Steinberg et al., 1992) was a 26-itemmeasure composed of three subscales: parental warmth, supervi-sion, and autonomy granting. The warmth subscale consisted of 9items and had acceptable internal consistency in this sample(a = .82). Warmth items addressed the extent to which the adoles-cent perceived his or her parents as loving, responsive, and in-volved (e.g., ‘‘I could count on my parents to help me out if I hadsome kind of problem). The psychological autonomy granting sub-scale consisted of 9 items (a = .77) and addressed the extent towhich parents respected the child and encouraged individuality(e.g., My parents let me make my own plans for the things I wantedto do’’). The warmth and autonomy granting items were reportedon a 4-point rating scale ranging from strongly disagree to stronglyagree. The supervision subscale consisted of 8 items (a = .71) andfocused on supervision and limit setting. The scale differed forthe supervision items with 2 items addressing how late one canstay out on an 8-point rating scale and 6 items addressing how

842 L.A. Turner, P.E. Turner / Personality and Individual Differences 50 (2011) 840–844

much parents know and try to know about their child’s friends andactivities on a 3-point rating scale.

BIS/BAS: The BIS/BAS scales included 21 items which were ratedon a 4-point scale ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree.The BIS scale included 7 items which addressed worry, fear, andcriticism (e.g., ‘‘If I think something unpleasant is going to happen,I usually get pretty worked up’’) and had acceptable internal con-sistency in this sample (a = .79). The BAS scale included 13 items(e.g., ‘‘When I get something I want, I feel excited and energized’’)which can be divided into separate subscales (Drive, Fun, Reward).For this investigation we did not consider the separate subscales,instead the BAS score was the mean of the 13 items (a = .86).

Maladaptive perfectionism: Students completed the Frost et al.(1990) Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS). Items wererated on a 5-point scale ranging from strongly disagree to stronglyagree. This investigation focused on two subscales from the MPS –concern about mistakes (e.g., ‘‘People will probably think less of meif I make a mistake’’) which consisted of nine items and had anacceptable internal consistency (a = .87) and doubts about actions(e.g., ‘‘I usually have doubts about the simple everyday things Ido’’) which consisted of four items and had a moderate internalconsistency in this sample (a = .64).

3. Results

Scores for parental warmth, autonomy granting, and supervi-sion were summed within each subscale. The mean was calculatedfor the Behavioral Inhibition items and the mean was calculated forthe Behavioral Activation Items. Means were calculated for theitems from Doubts about Actions subscale and items from Concernover Mistakes subscale. These means were combined into a meanreflecting maladaptive perfectionism (as done in Clark & Coker,2009; Yoon & Lau, 2008). Table 1 shows the means and the corre-lations among the variables.

Because some studies have reported gender differences in par-enting variables (Fulton & Turner, 2008) and behavioral activationand inhibition (Leone, Perugini, Bagozzi, Pierro, & Mannetti, 2001),we first conducted analyses to determine if males and females dif-fered on the variables in question. A MANOVA with gender as theindependent variable and parental warmth, parental autonomygranting, and parental supervision as the dependent variables re-sulted in a significant effect (F(3, 395) = 8.57, p < .001). Females re-ported significantly higher levels of parental supervision (F(1,398) = 20.09, p < .001; mean of 20.21 and 22.21 for males and fe-males, respectively). Also, a MANOVA with gender as the indepen-dent variable and behavioral inhibition and behavioral activationas the dependent variables resulted in a significant effect (F(2,396) = 8.3, p < .001). Females reported significantly higher behav-ioral inhibition (F(1, 398) = 16.45, p < .001; means of 2.73 and2.94 for males and females, respectively). An ANOVA was con-ducted with maladaptive perfectionism as the dependent variableand gender as the independent variable. Males and females did not

Table 1Correlations for BIS/BAS, parental autonomy granting, warmth, supervision, and maladapt

BIS BAS Autonomy

BIS .12⁄ �.16⁄

BAS �.04AutonomyWarmthSupervision

Maladaptive perfectionismM 2.87 3.05 24.30SD .49 .40 4.85

differ significantly on maladaptive perfectionism (2.81 and 2.71 formales and females, respectively).

To determine the relationship of BIS/BAS and perceived parent-ing to maladaptive perfectionism, we conducted a hierarchical mul-tiple regression with maladaptive perfectionism as the outcomevariable. Because males and females differed on two of the predic-tor variables, we first entered gender as a predictor of maladaptiveperfectionism. The model was not significant (F(1, 397) = 1.75,p = .19). In the next model, BIS and BAS were added as predictors.This model was significant (F(3, 395) = 23.67, p < .001), resulted ina significant R2 change, and accounted for 15% of the variance. Gen-der (b = �.15, p = .002) and BIS (b = .39, p < .001) were significantpredictors. Next, perceived parental warmth, autonomy granting,and supervision were added to the model. The model was signifi-cant (F(6, 392) = 25.78, p < .001), resulted in a significant R2 change,and accounted for 28% of the variance. BIS (b = .33, p < .001), paren-tal autonomy granting (b = �.32, p < .001) and parental warmth(b = �.10, p = .04) were significant predictors of maladaptive per-fectionism. This model indicated that high behavioral inhibition,low parental autonomy granting, and low parental warmth ex-plained a sizable amount of variance in maladaptive perfectionism.Finally, the interaction of BIS with autonomy granting was added totest the hypothesis that the role of autonomy granting would differas a function of BIS. The model was significant (F(7, 391) = 23.22,p < .001), resulted in a significant R2 change, and accounted for29% of the variance. Parental autonomy granting (b = �.89,p < .001), parental warmth (b = �.12, p = .02), and the interactionof BIS with autonomy granting (b = .69, p = .02) were significantpredictors of maladaptive perfectionism (see Table 2).

To better understand the interaction of BIS with autonomygranting, we categorized individuals based on their BIS score. Indi-viduals at or below the median score on BIS were categorized aslow BIS. Individuals above the median score on BIS were catego-rized as high BIS. Because of the distribution of BIS scores (manyparticipants had identical scores clustered near the median), itwas impossible to create high and low BIS groups with equal num-bers of participants in each group. The low BIS group included par-ticipants with a BIS score at or below 2.71 (N = 173) and the highBIS group included scores above 2.71 (N = 224). Next, we ran theregression analyses separately with the new groups. For the lowBIS individuals, gender was entered as a predictor of maladaptiveperfectionism. The model was not significant (F(1, 172) = 3.73,p = .06). In the next model, BIS and BAS were added as predictors.The model was not significant (F(3, 170) = 1.93, p = .13). Next, per-ceived parental warmth, autonomy granting, and supervision wereadded to the model. The model was significant (F(6, 167) = 8.07,p < .001), resulted in a significant R2 change, and accounted for23% of the variance. Parental autonomy granting (b = �.42,p < .001) was the only significant predictor (see Table 3).

For the high BIS individuals, gender was entered as a predictorof maladaptive perfectionism. The model was not significant (F(1,223) = 1.78, p = .18). In the next model, BIS and BAS were addedas predictors. This model was significant (F(3, 221) = 8.10,

ive perfectionism.

Warmth Supervision Maladaptive perfectionism

�.07 .14⁄ .36⁄

.14⁄ �.08 .04

.28⁄ �.10 �.40⁄

.29⁄ �.24⁄

�.05

28.91 21.58 2.745.02 4.22 .66

Table 2Summary of multiple regression analysis for variables predicting maladaptive perfectionism for full sample (N = 398).

Variable Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4

B SE B b B SE B b B SE B b B SE B b

Sex �.09 .07 �.07 �.20 .07 �.15⁄ �.12 .06 �.09 �.11 .06 �.08BIS .53 .06 .39⁄ .45 .06 .33⁄ �.19 .27 �.14BAS �.01 .08 .01 �.00 .07 �.00 �.00 .07 �.00Warmth �.01 .01 �.10⁄ �.02 .01 �.12⁄

Autonomy �.04 .01 �.32⁄ �.12 .03 �.89⁄

Supervision �.01 .01 �.08 �.01 .01 �.08BIS � autonomy .03 .01 .69⁄

Table 3Summary of multiple regression analysis for variables predicting maladaptiveperfectionism for low BIS sample (N = 173).

Variable Model 1 Model 2 Model 3

B SEB

b B SEB

b B SEB

b

Sex �.18 .09 �.15 �.22 .10 �.18⁄ �.12 .09 �.10BIS .23 .16 .11 .25 .15 .12BAS .01 .10 .01 .06 .10 .04Warmth �.01 .01 �.08Autonomy �.06 .01 �.42⁄

Supervision �.01 .01 �.04

Table 4Summary of multiple regression analysis for variables predicting maladaptiveperfectionism for high BIS sample (N = 224).

Variable Model 1 Model 2 Model 3

B SEB

b B SEB

b B SEB

b

Sex �.13 .10 �.09 �.16 .09 �.11 �.08 .09 �.05BIS .61 .13 .31⁄ .52 .13 .26⁄

BAS �.04 .11 �.02 �.08 .10 �.05Warmth �.02 .01 �.13Autonomy �.03 .01 �.26⁄

Supervision �.02 .01 �.13

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p < .001), resulted in a significant R2 change, and accounted for 10%of the variance. BIS (b = .31, p < .001) was a significant predictor.Next, perceived parental warmth, autonomy granting, and supervi-sion were added to the model. The model was significant (F(6,218) = 10.21, p < .001), resulted in a significant R2 change, and ac-counted for 24% of the variance. BIS (b = .26, p < .001) and parentalautonomy granting (b = �.26, p < .001) were significant predictorsas presented in Table 4.

4. Discussion

This investigation centered on the important issue of consider-ing personality and parenting as co-predictors of maladaptive per-fectionism. Previous research has indicated that BIS and parentalautonomy granting predict maladaptive perfectionism (O’Connor& Forgan, 2007; Soenens et al., 2005). Those findings were repli-cated in the current study. However, the current findings extendour understanding of how personality and parenting may work to-gether to put people at-risk for developing maladaptive perfection-ism. The current study indicates that parental autonomy grantingis a significant predictor of maladaptive perfectionism for partici-pants scoring high or low on BIS. However, the relation of parentalautonomy granting to maladaptive perfectionism was stronger forparticipants scoring low on BIS. Among those students, the person-ality variable of behavioral inhibition was no longer predictive of

maladaptive perfectionism, however, autonomy granting wasstrongly related to maladaptive perfectionism. It is not surprisingthat BIS scores were no longer related to maladaptive perfection-ism given the restriction of range in the low BIS group. For thesestudents who were not temperamentally inclined toward fearand anxiety, the environmental variable of parenting was particu-larly influential.

On the other hand, for individuals scoring high on BIS, the tem-perament/personality characteristic was a significant predictor ofmaladaptive perfectionism. This finding may indicate there is somethreshold at which BIS becomes a predictor of maladaptive perfec-tionism. It is important to note that even among these individualswho scored high on BIS, parental autonomy granting was a signif-icant predictor of maladaptive perfectionism. Temperament doesnot account for everything. The environmental factor of parentingis still important.

These findings support the premise that there are differentdevelopmental pathways to maladaptive perfectionism (Enns &Cox, 2002). For individuals not temperamentally inclined to devel-op maladaptive perfectionism, there is ample opportunity for envi-ronmental characteristics, such as parenting, to play a role. Amongthose who are temperamentally inclined to develop maladaptiveperfectionism, the environment may not completely override thepredisposition to fear and anxiety. This is a tentative explanationthat requires further investigation with longitudinal data. In thecurrent study, data were collected at one point in time which doesnot provide a depiction of the developmental processes. In fact, inthe current study, BIS and perceived parenting are likely inter-twined and bi-directionally related. For example, when faced witha temperamentally fearful and anxious child, parents may becomedirective in an effort to encourage the child and to minimize thechild’s anxiety. This tendency to make decisions for the child(and provide little autonomy) may support the child’s fears andprovide few opportunities for the child to successfully engage indecision making. As these children develop, parents’ tendency toprovide little autonomy may reinforce children’s inhibition, teach-ing that adults should be in control and there is much to be fearedabout decision making. This hypothesized bi-directionality de-serves consideration in future longitudinal research.

Even with the methodological limitations, the current study ad-vances our understanding of maladaptive perfectionism by includ-ing both a personality/temperament measure and a parentingmeasure in the same investigation. It is clear that BIS and parentalautonomy granting make unique contributions to the prediction ofmaladaptive perfectionism. This is an important contribution thatinforms our understanding of the development of maladaptive per-fectionism in college students.

Students may be entering college with an entrenched set ofideas about how their world operates. Given that college oftenplaces new demands on students’ initiative and self-regulation,maladaptive perfectionism may become particularly powerful.On one hand, the desire to avoid failure and the concern over per-formance may motivate students. However, if students are unduly

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afraid to fail, they may avoid challenges and find failure debilitat-ing. Numerous studies indicate that students with maladaptiveperfectionism are at-risk for depression (e.g., Sherry et al., 2003).As counselors help students develop more adaptive cognitions, itis important to understand that maladaptive perfectionism maybe rooted in temperament and long exposure to parenting behav-iors and may be slow to change.

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