the quest for political stability: germany, 1871–1991

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The Quest for Political Stability: Germany, 1871–1991A /AS Level History for AQAStudent BookSample

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ContentsForeword

Series Editor profiles

Our offering for AQA

Our resources

• Student Book

• Cambridge Elevate-enhanced Edition

Using the Student Book

Using the Cambridge Elevate-enhanced Edition

Sample material

A_AS_History.indd 1 12/05/2015 19:25

ForewordCambridge A/AS Level History for AQA is an exciting new series designed to support students in their journey from GCSE to A/AS Level and beyond. The resources provide the knowledge, concepts and skills needed for the reformed, linear, two-year AQA History A Level course and its AS Level companion. With an author team of experienced, professional teachers, and series editors with both teaching and academic experience, the series is designed to provide clear and effective support for students as they make the adjustment from GCSE to A Level, and for teachers who may not be familiar with teaching a two-year linear course.

The Student Books not only offer differentiation and challenge to stretch the more able, but also additional scaffolding for those who need it. They make extensive use of textual sources, maps, diagrams and images, and offer a wide range of activities to encourage students to think critically. In the breadth units, students are introduced to a range of historical interpretations, whereas the depth units focus on analysing primary sources.

In putting together this series, we are also concerned with easing the transition for those students who move on from A Level to undergraduate study. A range of features designed to facilitate personal research and investigation, as well as exposure to ‘real’ historical practice, will encourage those who want to explore the subject further.

A_AS_History.indd 2 12/05/2015 19:25

Series Editor profi lesMichael FordhamMichael taught history at Hinchingbrooke School and Cottenham Village College where his department was used as a ‘Good Practice’ case study by Ofsted in 2012. He is a Senior Teaching Associate at the University of Cambridge and was previously an Affi liated Lecturer at the Institute for Continuing Education. Michael is an editor of the Teaching History journal and writes regularly for his popular history teaching blog (www.clioetcetera.com). Michael was the Outstanding-Educator-in-Residence for the Singapore Ministry of Education in 2014, and he has made numerous contributions to professional conferences. He has been involved in a number of consultations with organisations such as the UK Department for Education, the British Council and the Institute for Strategic Dialogue, and he currently sits on the Education Committee of the Royal Historical Society.

David L. Smith David has been a Fellow of Selwyn College, Cambridge since 1988. He has been a Director of Studies in History since 1992, and a Graduate Tutor since 2004. At Selwyn he has also served as Admissions Tutor (1992–2003), and as Praelector (1996–2006). He has been an Affi liated Lecturer in the Cambridge History Faculty since 1995, and an Affi liated Lecturer in the Cambridge Institute of Continuing Education since 2012. He has published extensively on seventeenth-century Britain and was co-editor of the Cambridge University Press Cambridge Perspectives in History series, in which 30 books were published between 1997 and 2003.

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Our offering for AQACambridge University Press is delighted to have entered an approval process with AQA to publish resources for their new 2015 A/AS Level History specifications.

We are driven by a simple goal: to create resources for teachers and students to ignite a curiosity and love for learning. As England enters a new educational chapter, we are publishing a comprehensive suite of print and digital history resources specifically written for the new AQA A/AS Level History specifications for first teaching from 2015.

Our history resources develop students’ confidence and skills in exploring primary texts, historical interpretations and the impact of past events on the way we live today. Encouraging students to ‘think like a historian’, this new series will fully support both students and teachers at A/AS Level, and provide a springboard for further historical study.

Our simple and affordable resources have progression at the heart. Building on subject knowledge, they help prepare students for achievement in the new A/AS Level specifications and beyond.

Components entering the AQA endorsement process.

Student Book Each full-colour Student Book is fully matched to the specification and focuses in on one breadth or depth title.

Cambridge Elevate-enhanced Edition A digital learning resource for students and teachers with customisable content, allowing students and teachers to annotate text, add audio notes and link out to external resources.

Our resources have been written specifically for the new 2015 AQA A/AS Level History specifications. Eighteen print student books with supporting digital licenses will cover the most popular breadth and depth topics in the new 2015 AQA A/AS Level History specifications.

BREADTH Print Digital DEPTH Print Digital

The Age of the Crusades, c1071–1204 ✔ ✔

Royal Authority and the Angevin Kings, 1154–1216 ✔ ✔

Spain in the Age of Discovery, 1469–1598 ✔ ✔

The Wars of the Roses, 1450–1499 ✔ ✔

The Tudors: England, 1485–1603 ✔ ✔

The Reformation in Europe, c1500–1564 ✔ ✔

Stuart Britain and the Crisis of Monarchy, 1603–1702 ✔ ✔

The English Revolution, 1625–1660 ✔ ✔

Russia in the Age of Absolutism and Enlightenment, 1682–1796 ✔ ✔

The Sun King: Louis XIV, France and Europe, 1643–1715 ✔ ✔

Challenge and Transformation: Britain, c1851–1964 ✔ ✔

Revolution and Dictatorship: Russia, 1917–1953 ✔ ✔

Tsarist and Communist Russia, 1855–1964 ✔ ✔

Democracy and Nazism: Germany, 1918–1945 ✔ ✔

The Making of a Superpower: USA, 1865–1975 ✔ ✔

The American Dream: Reality and Illusion,1945–1980 ✔ ✔

The Quest for Political Stability: Germany, 1871–1991 ✔ ✔

The Making of Modern Britain, 1951–2007 ✔ ✔

Our resourcesStudent Book This series of 18 detailed Student Books has been written specifically for the new 2015 AQA A/AS Level History specifications. Each full colour Student Book focuses in on one breadth or depth topic.

Our Student Books:

• offer a ‘pick-and-mix’, customisable approach for schools who offer more than one pathway through A/AS Level

• bring the past to life, supporting students as they take a more reflective approach to their learning

• support students in developing their critical thinking, research and written communication skills

• encourage students to make links between different time periods, topics and historical themes

• go beyond the basics of A Level by including a range of primary and secondary sources, as well as historical interpretation and background material to help students put information into a wider context

• include timelines, family trees, maps, summaries of key events and profiles of key historical figures

• include material that is clearly marked as ‘extension’ and clear differentiation between AS and A Level material

• include differentiated activities to engage students of all abilities.

Using the Student Book

EMPIRE TO DEMOCRACY, 1871–1929

1 The Kaiserreich, 1871–1914

In this section, we will examine the structure of German society from 1871 to 1914 and consider some of the changes that were taking place and how they began to affect the relationship between these different groups. We will look into:

• Social developments

• The class hierarchy

• The condition of the working people

• Elitism and the culture of militarism

• The political, economic and social condition of Germany in 1914

Social developments

The class hierarchyGerman society at the turn of the 20th century was complex. On the one hand, traditional social structures persisted that had their roots in the 18th century or earlier. The aristocracy, many of whom were descended from the kings and princes of the old German states of the Holy Roman Empire, were seen as the pinnacle of society, second only to the royal family of Hohenzollern of Prussia. The old structures of German society were, however, increasingly being challenged.

7

1

The quest for political stability: Germany, 1871–1991

Social developments

The class hierarchyGerman society at the turn of the 20th century was complex. On the one hand, traditional social structures persisted that had their roots in the 18th century or earlier. The aristocracy, many of whom were descended from the kings and princes of the old German states of the Holy Roman Empire, were seen as the pinnacle of society, second only to the royal family of Hohenzollern of Prussia. The old structures of German society were, however, increasingly being challenged. Industrialisation saw the relative decline of the agricultural sector in Germany on which aristocratic power had traditionally been based. The middle classes, who had campaigned for ideas such as liberalism and nationalism in the first half of the 19th century, were cementing their position and status in society.

The working class became increasingly vocal in their call for rights and representation in the late 19th century, with the power of the trade unions and socialist parties growing throughout this period.

1The Kaiserreich, 1871–1914

industrialisation: developing industries in (a country or region) on a wide scale

Key terms


In this section, we will examine the structure of German society from 1871 to 1914 and consider some of the changes that were taking place and how they began to aff ect the relationship between these diff erent groups. We will look into:

• Social developments • The class hierarchy • The condition of the working people • Elitism and the culture of militarism


ACTIVITY 1.1

What were the main features of German industrialisation in the 19th century? Produce a mind map that represents these features. Use specific examples from this book and your own research as examples.

1


Social developments

The class hierarchyGerman society at the turn of the 20th century was complex. On the one hand, traditional social structures persisted that had their roots in the 18th century or earlier. The aristocracy, many of whom were descended from the kings and princes of the old German states of the Holy Roman Empire, were seen as the pinnacle of society, second only to the royal family of Hohenzollern of Prussia. The old structures of German society were, however, increasingly being challenged. Industrialisation saw the relative decline of the agricultural sector in Germany on which aristocratic power had traditionally been based. The middle classes, who had campaigned for ideas such as liberalism and nationalism in the first half of the 19th century, were cementing their position and status in society.


1The Kaiserreich, 1871–1914


Key terms


In this section, we will examine the structure of German society from 1871 to 1914 and consider some of the changes that were taking place and how they began to aff ect the relationship between these diff erent groups. We will look into:

• Social developments • The class hierarchy • The condition of the working people • Elitism and the culture of militarism


ACTIVITY 1.1


3


who did not stand to inherit their father’s estate. These senior military positions were guarded jealously by the aristocracy and seen as their right: there was strong resistance to members of the middle class taking such roles. Members of the aristocracy might also expect to be asked to take on senior government roles. Otto von Bismarck, himself a Junker, most famously occupied the position of Minister-President of Prussia and (from 1871) Chancellor of Germany, but other aristocrats occupied a wide range of advisory and ministerial positions in the German government, at both a national and local level. In Prussia, an aristocrat was nearly always appointed as a Landrat, the local representative of the national government. No one can doubt that the aristocracy exercised considerable power in Germany in the years leading up to the First World War.

This power, however, was increasingly challenged in the years 1871 to 1914. Following the French Revolution, the power of the aristocracy had been called into question in all European countries. The growth of a ‘middle class’ in Germany resulted in a number of calls for greater representation and a liberal constitution. The failed Frankfurt Assembly of 1848, for example, consisted of people from numerous middle-class professions, especially university academics. By the unification of Germany in 1871 it was widely recognised that the middle classes ought to be represented in German government, and liberal ideas about political representation were a key feature in the text of the German Constitution, if not always in its application.

The aristocracy, however, were not ready to hand over power and they were supported in maintaining their control by the government. In the economic crisis of 1873, for example, Bismarck acted to protect the income of the aristocracy by

Figure 1.2: The aristocracy and upper-middle-class Germans typically employed servants to manage their households throughout this period.

Developing concepts

The following concepts are very important in this section. For each one write a definition of the concept and give an example of what it means in the context of German society between 1871 and 1914.• Aristocracy• Middle classes• Working class• Socialism• Trade unionism• Industrialisation• Militarism

Your learning

The specification points covered in the chapter.

Activity

Research/writing activity designed to promote individual student research and consolidate learning.

Key term

Definitions of key concepts and ideas ensure students are familiar with relevant terminology and highlight any areas that need revision.

Developing concepts

Encourages students to think about the definitions of key terms and concepts within a specific historical context.

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Cambridge Elevate-enhanced Edition

Created specifically for the new 2015 AQA A/AS Level History specifications, our 18 supporting digital Cambridge Elevate-enhanced Editions provide you with a flexible solution to deliver the new 2015 qualifications.

Our Cambridge Elevate-enhanced Editions:

• allow students and teachers to:annotate text add audio noteslink out to external resources

• are available online and on tablet devices through the Cambridge Elevate app (iOS 7.1 and higher and Android 4.1 and higher).

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Voices from the past

Werner SiemenssWerner Siemens, who died in 1892, was the founder of Siemens, a technical company that is, over a century later, still an international brand. Werner Siemens is a good example of an individual who benefited from German industrialisation in the 19th century. He did, however, also have a concern for the workers who were employed in his factory. This is an extract from a speech given by Werner Siemens in Berlin on 18th September 1886 to a meeting of the German Naturalists and Physicians society. Take your time in reading this extract as it is challenging, and then answer the questions at the end.

It certainly was the case that industrialisation, as in other countries, brought with it social hardships for the workers who moved to the cities. Factory workers often lived in poverty. In the late 1880s, workers needed to spend around a quarter of their wages just to buy bread. On the eve of the First World War, it was not uncommon for a family of seven or eight people to share an apartment with just one or two rooms. In Berlin, the population quadrupled between 1871 and 1914 and workers were crowded into ‘rental barracks’ with a very low standard of living. In these conditions disease spread easily: in 1880 perhaps half of deaths among 15–40-year-olds were caused by tuberculosis. In 1911, some industrial districts had infant mortality rates of nearly 40%.1

Discussion pointsI. In what ways does Werner Siemens see the

development of technology as centrally important in the development of German society?

II. What problems does Werner Siemens recognise are created by industrialisation?

III. What ideas and organisations does Werner Siemens think might resolve these problems?

For the other and seemingly the most weighty objection of the opponents of our social progress – that by its operation the larger number are condemned to work in large factories, and that in the progressive division of labor no room is left for the free exertion of individuals – for this, also, the natural course of the advance of the scientific age bears the remedy in itself.

The necessity of large factories for the cheap production of useful articles depends essentially on the present imperfection of machine technics. Large machines just now give cheaper effects than small ones, and the introduction of the latter into the houses of workmen is still beset with great difficulties. But ingenuity will certainly succeed in overcoming the impediments in the way of the return to competitive manual labor, by bringing cheapened mechanical powers, the basis of all industry, into the smaller shops and workmen’s homes.

Not a number of great factories in the hands of rich capitalists, in which the “slaves of toil” shall wear out their hard existence, is to be the ending of the development of the age of science, but the return to individual labor, or, where the circumstances call for it, the conduct of co-operative establishments by associations of workmen, for which a sound basis has first been furnished by the general spread of knowledge and training, and the possibility of a cheapened supply of capital.

(Source: http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Popular_Science_Monthly/Volume_30/April_1887/The_Scientific_Age)

ACTIVITY 1.3

Ferdinand Lassalle was a key individual in the development of the socialist movement in Germany. Conduct your own research into this individual and produce a one-page biography of the man, paying particular attention to his beliefs, political ideas and his contribution to the German socialist movement.

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Further readingA good introductory textbook to this period is James Retallack, Imperial Germany 1871–1918, (Oxford, 2008). This book contains a number of essays by leading scholars in the field addressing political, economic, social and cultural changes in Germany between unification and the First World War. If you enjoyed reading Christopher Clark, then you might continue your studies by reading Iron Kingdom, his history of Prussia between 1648 and 1947, and his biography of Kaiser Wilhelm II.

Exploring concepts

The two primary domestic issues that Bismarck faced as Chancellor of Germany were the Kulturkampf and the rise of socialism. Copy and complete the following table and compare the nature of the threats of Catholicism and socialism and how effectively you think Bismarck dealt with them.

Catholicism Socialism

What was the nature of the problem for Bismarck?

How did Bismarck deal with this

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Practice essay questionsI. ‘German society was united by militaristic principles – such as honour and

obedience – between 1871 and 1914.’ Do you agree?II. To what extent did the condition of the working classes improve in Germany

between 1871 and 1914?III. ‘The years 1871 to 1914 saw traditional hierarchies in Germany become more, not

less, fixed.’ How far do you agree with this statement?

Taking it further‘The aristocracy clung to power in the Kaiserreich against all the odds.’ Do you agree with this conclusion?

Chapter summary

After studying this period, you should have mastery over: • the divisions between the aristocracy, middle classes and working class; • the rise of socialism as a political force in Germany; • the attitudes and beliefs of the middle classes; • militarism in German society; • the Kulturkampf, its course and its outcomes; • the growing economic strengths of Germany, particularly the rapid rise of

its industrial sector • the relative decline of agriculture and the impact of this on German

culture.

Voices from the past

Personalises the narrative, profiling a key figure and making students think about how historical events impacted real people.

Stretch activity

Research/writing activity designed to build a bridge to higher education study for more able students.

Further reading

Suggestions for further reading help students foster independent learning skills.

Practice exam style essay questions

Practice questions to help students with revision and essay-writing practice.

What you need to knowA short summary of the content students should understand after working through the chapter.

Speak like a historian

Develops student understanding of key historical interpretations and how and when to use them.

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Using the Cambridge Elevate-enhanced Edition

The user’s data synchronises when online, so their annotations and results are available on any device they use to access the Cambridge Elevate-enhanced Edition.

Students can personalise their resources through text or audio annotations, adding links to useful resources, inserting bookmarks and highlighting key passages.

A_AS_History.indd 10 12/05/2015 19:26

Features available online only

Media galleries and fully searchable content help users fi nd the information they need.

Supports deep links, so teachers can link from the Cambridge Elevate-enhanced Edition to their VLE, and vice versa, helping integrate this fl exible resource into teaching with minimal disruption.

Teachers can send their annotations to students, directing them to further sources of information, adding activities or additional content.

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1 The Kaiserreich, 1871–1914

In this section, we will examine the structure of German society from 1871 to 1914 and consider some of the changes that were taking place and how they began to affect the relationship between these different groups. We will look into:

• Social developments

• The class hierarchy

• The condition of the working people

• Elitism and the culture of militarism


Social developments

The class hierarchyGerman society at the turn of the 20th century was complex. On the one hand, traditional social structures persisted that had their roots in the 18th century or earlier. The aristocracy, many of whom were descended from the kings and princes of the old German states of the Holy Roman Empire, were seen as the pinnacle of society, second only to the royal family of Hohenzollern of Prussia. The old structures of German society were, however, increasingly being challenged.

7

Industrialisation saw the relative decline of the agricultural sector in Germany on which aristocratic power had traditionally been based. The middle classes, who had campaigned for ideas such as liberalism and nationalism in the first half of the 19th century, were cementing their position and status in society.


The growth of the German economyThe signs had been there long before unification. By 1871, Germany was well on track to become the dominant economic power of mainland Europe. Prussia had been the driving force here: industrialisation proceeded rapidly in the mid-19th century, reflected most clearly in the growth of the railway system. By the time ‘Bismarck’s wars’ of the 1860s were underway – against Denmark in 1864 and Austria in 1866 – Prussia’s economic and technological superiority shone through. Prussia was able to mobilise its forces more quickly using its railway network, and its technological advances in weaponry, such as the mass-production of the breach-loading ‘needle gun’, gave the Prussian army the edge in battles. When Prussia defeated France in 1871, and subsequently united Germany behind it, few could have doubted that Germany was now the dominant economic power in mainland Europe, and one that might soon go on to rival Britain as the predominant world economic power.

Figure 1.1: The Krupp family, based in Essen, are a good example of a German industrial family who worked on producing steel and weapons. By the 1880s their factories covered an area the size of a small town.

8

A/AS Level History Germany 1860-1991

Key terms


ACTIVITY 1.1


The aristocracyGermany society between 1871 and 1914 was headed by a landed aristocracy, as was the case in most European countries at the time (Figure 1.2). Aristocracy, as an institution, is based on land, title, privilege and inheritance. In Prussia, a member of the aristocracy was a Junker, meaning ‘little prince’, whose family ruled an estate or set of estates. That land might have been given to the family by the king or emperor in reward for good service, but once obtained it tended to pass from father to son, though the precise rules by which this happened were complex and varied in different regions of Germany.

The power of the aristocracy infiltrated all of the major institutions of German society. The army was the most important. Senior positions in the army were almost exclusively held by members of the aristocracy, often the younger sons who did not stand to inherit their father’s estate. These senior military positions were guarded jealously by the aristocracy and seen as their right: there was strong resistance to members of the middle class taking such roles. Members of the aristocracy might also expect to be asked to take on senior government roles. Otto von Bismarck, himself a Junker, most famously occupied the position of Minister-President of Prussia and (from 1871) Chancellor of Germany, but other aristocrats occupied a wide range of advisory and ministerial positions in the German government, at both a national and local level. In Prussia, an aristocrat was nearly always appointed as a Landrat, the local representative of the national government. No one can doubt that the aristocracy exercised considerable power in Germany in the years leading up to the First World War.

Figure 1.2: The aristocracy and upper-middle-class Germans typically employed servants to manage their households throughout this period.

9


Developing concepts

The following concepts are very important in this section. For each one write a definition of the concept and give an example of what it means in the context of German society between 1871 and 1914.

• Aristocracy• Middle classes• Working class• Socialism• Trade unionism• Industrialisation• Militarism

This power, however, was increasingly challenged in the years 1871 to 1914. Following the French Revolution, the power of the aristocracy had been called into question in all European countries. The growth of a ‘middle class’ in Germany resulted in a number of calls for greater representation and a liberal constitution. The failed Frankfurt Assembly of 1848, for example, consisted of people from numerous middle-class professions, especially university academics. By the unification of Germany in 1871 it was widely recognised that the middle classes ought to be represented in German government, and liberal ideas about political representation were a key feature in the text of the German Constitution, if not always in its application.

The aristocracy, however, were not ready to hand over power and they were supported in maintaining their control by the government. In the economic crisis of 1873, for example, Bismarck acted to protect the income of the aristocracy by raising tariffs on imports of cheaper foreign grain, and by a tactical alliance with leading industrialists. This so-called ‘Corn and Iron Alliance’ spoke politically for the rights of the nobility and attempted to persuade the German population that the paternalistic values of the nobility were an important safeguard for the nation against the threat of disorder.

The middle classesThe middle classes were a complex group in German society. At risk of oversimplification, it makes sense to talk in terms of an ‘upper middle class’ and a ‘lower middle class’, the latter known as the Mittelstand. The upper middle class was made up of educated Germans who occupied key professional roles – such as school masters, university academics and doctors – as well as roles in commerce. Some businessmen were, and still are, household names such as Robert Bosch, Karl Zeiss and Werner Siemens. A strong family unit and civic participation in the local community lay at the heart of middle-class values. Members of the middle class formed themselves into a wide variety of clubs, societies and other organisations representing professions, economic interests, recreation and religion (Figure 1.3). Increasingly, middle-class Germans signed up to militaristic and imperialistic organisations such as the Colonial Society and the Navy League. The political views of the middle class varied: many were followers of Bismarck, including his campaign against the Catholics, and supported the ideas of National Liberalism. Others supported a more radical version of liberalism and campaigned for greater rights and freedoms in society.

In addition to the educated and commercial middle class was the Mittelstand, the lower middle class, which traditionally consisted of artisans, craftsmen and small businessmen. Members of the Mittelstand were often strong supporters of political and economic conservatism, particularly as those with small businesses were most likely to lose out in the face of large-scale industrialisation. This group was perhaps more willing to accept the traditional influence of a paternalistic aristocracy. Although artisans and craftsmen lost out in the face of industrialisation, it nevertheless created new opportunities. The rapid growth of the railways in Germany provided employment for a number of lower-middle-class Germans. The state railway system in Prussia had 25 000 km by 1890 and 37 000 km by 1910. The postal service was another major employer, with responsibility for a growing network after 1890. The taking on by the state of responsibility for

10


Figure 1.3: Unknown boy violinist, Berlin, Imperial Germany c. 1890. Music was very popular among the German middle classes with numerous societies created at a local and national level.

many aspects of life such as roads, lighting, drainage and social services provided additional employment.

Condition of the working peopleOne of the most well-known writers to emerge from Germany in the 19th century was Karl Marx who, with Friedrich Engels, argued that industrialisation and the rise of capitalism was producing a working class – or ‘proletariat’ – that would one day rise up and overthrow its masters. Marx’s analysis of the situation may well have been incorrect, but the socialist ideas that stemmed from his work proved influential in Germany in the late 19th century. At the heart of socialism was a belief that wealth needed better redistribution in society, ‘from each according to his means, to each according to his needs’.

It certainly was the case that industrialisation, as in other countries, brought with it social hardships for the workers who moved to the cities. Factory workers often

11


Key term

socialism: a political and economic theory of social organisation that advocates that the means of production, distribution, and exchange should be owned or regulated by the community as a whole

Voices from the past: Werner Siemens

Werner SiemensWerner Siemens, who died in 1892, was the founder of Siemens, a technical company that is, over a century later, still an international brand. Werner Siemens is a good example of an individual who benefited from German industrialisation in the 19th century. He did, however, also have a concern for the workers who were employed in his factory. This is an extract from a speech given by Werner Siemens in Berlin on 18th September 1886 to a meeting of the German Naturalists and Physicians society. Take your time in reading this extract as it is challenging, and then answer the questions at the end.

Discussion pointsI. In what ways does Werner Siemens see the

development of technology as centrally important in the development of German society?

II. What problems does Werner Siemens recognise are created by industrialisation?

III. What ideas and organisations does Werner Siemens think might resolve these problems?

For the other and seemingly the most weighty objection of the opponents of our social progress – that by its operation the larger number are condemned to work in large factories, and that in the progressive division of labor no room is left for the free exertion of individuals – for this, also, the natural course of the advance of the scientific age bears the remedy in itself.

The necessity of large factories for the cheap production of useful articles depends essentially on the present imperfection of machine technics. Large machines just now give cheaper effects than small ones, and the introduction of the latter into the houses of workmen is still beset with great difficulties. But ingenuity will certainly succeed in overcoming the impediments in the way of the return to competitive manual labor, by bringing cheapened mechanical powers, the basis of all industry, into the smaller shops and workmen’s homes.

Not a number of great factories in the hands of rich capitalists, in which the “slaves of toil” shall wear out their hard existence, is to be the ending of the development of the age of science, but the return to individual labor, or, where the circumstances call for it, the conduct of co-operative establishments by associations of workmen, for which a sound basis has first been furnished by the general spread of knowledge and training, and the possibility of a cheapened supply of capital.

lived in poverty. In the late 1880s, workers needed to spend around a quarter of their wages just to buy bread. On the eve of the First World War, it was not uncommon for a family of seven or eight people to share an apartment with just one or two rooms. In Berlin, the population quadrupled between 1871 and 1914 and workers were crowded into ‘rental barracks’ with a very low standard of living. In these conditions disease spread easily: in 1880 perhaps half of deaths among 15–40-year-olds were caused by tuberculosis. In 1911, some industrial districts had infant mortality rates of nearly 40%.1

It was conditions such as these that led to an increasingly loud voice for the working class. Trade unions began to form from the late 1860s, though they were strongly resisted by employers and the police. Two federations of trade unions had however developed by the 1870s: the Hirsch-Dunker Unions, which were linked to left-wing liberalism, and the Free Trade Unions, which were tied to the Social Democratic Movement. The Social Democratic Movement, which drew directly on the ideas of Marx, became increasingly popular in the period, though it was banned between 1871 and 1890 by Bismarck’s Anti-Socialist Law.

The Social Democratic Party (SPD) was nevertheless able to enter candidates for Reichstag elections and, by 1912, it had become the largest party in the Reichstag.

It would be wrong, however, to paint a purely negative picture of working-class life in Germany at the turn of the 20th century. Some factory owners – such as the Krupp family in Essen – provided parks and schools for workers and cared for the widows and orphans of workers if they died. In response to the rise of the Social Democratic Movement, the government introduced a number of reforms in the 1880s that introduced laws to protect workers such as the 1884 Accident Insurance Law and the 1889 Old Age Pension Scheme. The up-turn in the economy after 1895 saw wages rise significantly, working hours were reduced and, consequentially, the amount of leisure time available for workers increased. On the eve of the First World War, the German working class was better represented and in better conditions than it had ever been.

Rural GermanyThe years 1871 to 1914 saw Germany shift rapidly from being a rural to an industrial state, a change commented on extensively by people at the time. In 1882, agriculture was still the largest employment sector in the German economy; by 1895 it was industry. The rise of railways across Europe made it easier to import cheap grain from abroad forcing German landowners, particularly the Junkers of Prussia, to adapt to growing different crops and raising more livestock, as well as putting pressure on the government to protect German agriculture using tariffs.

As agriculture declined in importance relative to industry, large numbers of Germans moved from the countryside to work in the cities, a process that upset the traditional social structures of rural Germany. Indeed, the loss of traditional rural society was seen by many conservatives as a process to be feared.

Elitism and the culture of militarismThe military, particularly the army, had always been at the heart of Prussian culture. The Junkers, particularly younger sons, saw it as their right to occupy the senior positions in the army, and there was a great deal of status attached to being

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Key term

trade union: an organised association of workers in a trade, group of trades, or profession, formed to protect and further their rights and interest

ACTIVITY 1.2

Use your knowledge of the different groups in German society to draw a diagram that represents German social structure in the late 19th century. Indicate the relationship between the different social groups on your diagram, and provide an indication of how these relationships were changing.

ACTIVITY 1.3

Ferdinand Lassalle was a key individual in the development of the socialist movement in Germany. Conduct your own research into this individual and produce a one-page biography of him, paying particular attention to his beliefs, political ideas and his contribution to the German socialist movement.

an officer in the army. A number of military values – including honour, discipline and service – filtered out into wider society, including the school system that, as in other European countries, took on an increasingly large military feel at the turn of the century. The mid-19th century saw a number of military victories for Prussia – most notably success in the Austro–Prussian War in 1866 and the Franco–Prussian War of 1870–1, which added to the prestige of the army and its reputation in the wider population.

The navy was seen as the ‘second service’ in Germany in the late 19th century. Although Prussia had key interests in the Baltic and North Sea, its primary military concern had been its numerous land borders. This began to change, however, in the years after German unification. The expansion of the German empire overseas required a larger and more powerful navy. Wilhelm II, Kaiser from 1888, looked to Britain as a model. In the early 20th century, growing rivalry between Britain and Germany resulted in an arms race, particularly in terms of producing powerful battleships known as ‘Dreadnoughts’. By the outbreak of the First World War, the navy was seen as vital to German interests, though the army still occupied the premier position.

The wide public support in Germany for the military was reflected in the level of public support for the army and navy. Numerous societies were created in order to raise support and funds for the military. The German Colonial Society, founded in 1887, and the German Navy League, set up in 1898, both aimed to support German imperial expansion, supporting government expenditure on the navy.

Such organisations were very popular with Germans: the German Navy League had over a million members. It would be incorrect to state that everyone in Germany wanted war in 1914. It certainly was the case, however, that the ideas associated with militarism ran deep in German – and particularly Prussian – society at the outbreak of the First World War.

The political economic and social condition of Germany by 1914Just how important was religion in late 19th-century Germany? Germany was overwhelmingly a Christian country in this period, but, since the Reformation, Germany had been divided along confessional lines, between Catholics and Protestants. In the Holy Roman Empire, the southern German states – such as Bavaria – had been predominantly Catholic while the northern states – such as Prussia – were Protestant. The unification of Germany in 1871 under Prussian control raised numerous concerns among Catholics as to their religious freedoms. Equally, protestants – particularly middle-class liberals – were suspicious of the Catholic Church and its external allegiance to the Pope in Rome. The Pope’s declaration of Papal Infallibility at the 1870 Vatican Council, in which it was declared that the Pope could not be challenged on religious and moral issues, served to heighten the fears of Protestants in Germany, not least the political elite of Prussia who now had to govern the Catholic south.

It did not take long after unification for conflict to emerge between Bismarck and the German Catholics, a struggle that became known as the Kulturkampf. Laws were passed in 1871 that allowed the state to prosecute priests who preached

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Key term

militarism: a political and economic theory of social organisation that advocates that the means of production, distribution, and exchange should be owned or regulated by the community as a whole

political messages. In 1872 the state banned Catholic control over schools. The Jesuits, a Catholic group, were expelled from Germany. The May Laws of 1873 placed more controls on training the clergy, and in 1875 civil marriage outside of church was made compulsory across Germany. By 1878 over half of Prussia’s Catholic bishops were in prison or had fled Germany. Catholic newspapers were closed down, clubs and associations shut and priests fined or imprisoned.2

Perhaps unsurprisingly, Bismarck’s assault on the Catholic Church did little to achieve his aims. Although the Catholic Church was hit hard in the 1870s, it responded not by backing down, but by entrenching its position and the Catholics of Germany united in the face of opposition. The Centre Party, a political party representing Catholics across Germany, rapidly grew in popularity during the years of the Kulturkampf. The Centre Party attracted support not just in the Catholic heartlands of the south, but also in other parts of Germany. Even in Bismarck’s own Prussia, the number of Prussian Catholics who voted for the Centre Party increased from 23% in 1871 to 45% in 1874.3 When clergy refused to pay fines they often had their property confiscated and put up for auction, only for loyal Catholics to buy the property in order to return it to its original owner. When Pope Pius IX died in 1878 and was succeeded by Pope Leo XIII, Bismarck took the opportunity to bring an end to a struggle he was unable to win.

Exploring concepts

The two primary domestic issues that Bismarck faced as Chancellor of Germany were the Kulturkampf and the rise of socialism. Copy and complete the following table and compare the nature of the threats of Catholicism and socialism and how effectively you think Bismarck dealt with them.

Catholicism Socialism

What was the nature of the problem for Bismarck?

How did Bismarck deal with this problem?

How effectively did Bismarck solve this problem?

German society on the eve of the First World War had changed considerably since unification in 1871. Economic growth, driven by industrialisation, had turned Germany into a global economic power that challenged Britain’s position as the world’s economic superpower. As in Britain, industrialisation had brought with it social changes that ran through every part of society, perhaps most notably resulting in the rise of the socialist movement that, by the 20th century, had

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become a powerful political voice in Germany that would reach full maturity during the First World War. The changes that swept through German society in this period should not, however, cloud the clear lines of continuity. Prussian military success and Germany’s growing imperial presence reinforced existing militaristic principles that ran deep in society. The aristocracy, though challenged, continued to exercise political, military and social dominance in Germany. Many Germans continued to identify themselves with their religious roots, something that became further engrained for Catholics during the Kulturkampf. This society, in all its complexity, was the one that was shaken to its core by the events of the First World War.

Further readingA good introductory textbook to this period is James Retallack, Imperial Germany 1871–1918, (Oxford, 2008). This book contains a number of essays by leading scholars in the field addressing political, economic, social and cultural changes in Germany between unification and the First World War. If you enjoyed reading Christopher Clark, then you might continue your studies by reading Iron Kingdom,

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Speak like a historian: Christopher Clark

Christopher ClarkChristopher Clark is one of the world’s leading scholars of Germany in the 19th century. The following extract is from his chapter ‘From 1848 to Christian Democracy’ in Religion and the Political Imagination, ed. Ira Katznelson and Gareth Stedman Jones.

Discussion points1. What is Christopher Clark arguing in this passage

about the causes of the Kulturkampf?2. What, on Clark’s interpretation, was the effect of

Bismarck’s assault on the Catholic Church? How successful was this compared to Bismarck’s original aims?

Across the continent, the rise of liberal nation states placed Catholic institutions and Catholic loyalties under increasing pressure. In Prussia, following the foundation of the German Empire in 1870/1, Otto von Bismarck’s government launched a salvo of laws intended to neutralise Catholicism as a political force, triggering a ‘struggle of cultures’ (Kulturkampf) that shaped the contours of German politics and public life for more than a generation…There had of course always been intermittent institutional friction between church and state in central and western Europe, but the conflicts that came to a head in the 1860s and 1870s were of a different kind…

Secularising campaigns in Piedmont, Prussia, Belgium and elsewhere projected the confidence of a liberal elite at the height of its powers. At the same time, however, they reinforced the social and moral authority of the church amongst its mass membership and galvanised Catholic political solidarity. A good example is the German Centre Party (Deutsche Zentrumspartei), the party of Catholics. Although Bismarck did succeed in isolating the Centre Party politically – at least for a time – he could do nothing to prevent it from increasing its share of the popular vote in national elections. The existence of a successful German Catholic mass party was not a cause, but a consequence, of the initiatives launched by Bismarck and his Liberal allies.

Permission pending.

his history of Prussia between 1648 and 1947, and his biography of Kaiser Wilhelm II.

Practice essay questions

1. ‘German society was united by militaristic principles – such as honour and obedience – between 1871 and 1914.’ Do you agree?

2. To what extent did the condition of the working classes improve in Germany between 1871 and 1914?

3. ‘The years 1871 to 1914 saw traditional hierarchies in Germany become more, not less, fixed.’ How far do you agree with this statement?

Taking it further

‘The aristocracy clung to power in the Kaiserreich against all the odds.’ Do you agree with this conclusion?

Chapter summary

• After studying this period, you should have mastery over:

• the divisions between the aristocracy, middle classes and working class;

• the rise of socialism as a political force in Germany;

• the attitudes and beliefs of the middle classes;

• militarism in German society;

• the Kulturkampf, its course and its outcomes;

• the growing economic strengths of Germany, particularly the rapid rise of its industrial sector;

• the relative decline of agriculture and the impact of this on German culture.

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End notes1 Fairnbairn, B., ‘Economic and Social Developments’, Imperial Germany, ed. Retallack, J., (Oxford:

OUP, 2008), pp. 64–5.2 Clark, C., Iron Kingdom, (London: Penguin, 2006).3 Clark, C., ‘Religion and Confessional Conflict’, Imperial Germany, ed. Retallack, J., (Oxford: OUP,

2008), p. 90.

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BREADTH

The Age of the Crusades, c1071-1204

Spain in the Age of Discovery, 1469-1598

The Tudors: England, 1485-1603

Stuart Britain and the Crisis of Monarchy, 1603-1702

Russia in the Age of Absolutism and Enlightenment, 1682-1796

Challenge and Transformation: Britain, c1851-1964

Tsarist and Communist Russia, 1855-1964

The Making of a Superpower: USA, 1865-1975

The Quest for Political Stability: Germany, 1871-1991

DEPTH

Royal Authority and the Angevin Kings, 1154-1216

The Wars of the Roses, 1450-1499

The Reformation in Europe, c1500-1564

The English Revolution, 1625-1660

The Sun King: Louis XIV, France and Europe, 1643-1715

Revolution and Dictatorship: Russia, 1917-1953

Democracy and Nazism: Germany, 1918-1945

The American Dream: Reality and Illusion,1945-1980

The Making of Modern Britain, 1951-2007

AQA A/AS Level History 2015 Titles in this series

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