ISLAM AND TERRORISM AS FILTERS OF PROPAGANDA IN NIGERIAN

JOURNALISM: A STUDY OF THE COVERAGE OF THE 2009 BOKO HARAM CRISIS

IN SELECTED NEWSPAPERS

BY

IBIKUNLE, TAOFEEK OLAWALE

070902044

BEING A RESEARCH PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF MASS

COMMUNICATION, FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES, UNIVERSITY OF LAGOS,

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE, B.SC (HONS.), DEGREE IN MASS COMMUNICATION,

UNIVERSITY OF LAGOS

AUGUST, 2011

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DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this research has not been accepted in substance for any other degree and is

not being submitted concurrently for any other degree. It is a product of my intellectual

investigation written by me and not copied from any past work. I also declare that published

materials directly used in the research work are appropriately acknowledged.

NAME: IBIKUNLE, TAOFEEK OLAWALE

SIGNATURE: _________________________

DATE: __________________________

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CERTIFICATION

I certify that this project written by Ibikunle, Taofeek Olawale has been approved by me as

having satisfied the requirement of the Department of Mass Communication of the Faculty of

Social Sciences, University of Lagos, for the award of Bachelor of Science (B.Sc. Hons) degree

in Mass Communication.

_______________________ ________________

Mrs. Ifeoma Amobi Date

Project Supervisor

________________________ ________________

Prof. Ralph A. Akinfeleye Date

Chair/Head of Department

______________________ ________________

EXTERNAL EXAMINER Date

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DEDICATION

I dedicate this to every Muslim who has died Shaheed, Sumayah the first of them, Hamzah, their

leader…and My Parents whom I envisage such for

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

All praises are for Allah the Cherisher and Sustainer of the Universe and all that is in them and

between them He it is who taught man speech and everything. May Allah send salutations upon

Prophet as well as exalt his mention, and also on his household and the generality of Muslims.

I appreciate the Head and Chair of the Department of Mass Communication, University of

Lagos, Professor Ralph Akinfeleye for his academic acumen which has influenced many of us.

I sincerely appreciate the efforts of my supervisor, Mrs. Ifeoma Amobi, who painstakingly

examined my project giving me the necessary advice whenever I needed it.

Thanks is also due to those who tutored me: Dr Abayomi Daramola, Dr. Victor Ayedun Aluma,

Dr Abigail Ogwezzy, Dr Olubunmi Ajibade, Dr Ismail Ibrahim, Dr Tejumaiye, Dr, Oloruntola

Sunday, Dr. Alabi, Mr. Taslim Lawal, Ms. Joy Rita Mogbogu, Mr. I.S Popoola, Mrs. Khadijat

Aledeh-Momodu, Mrs. Adepate-Mustapha Koiki, Mr. Akinyemi Taiwo, Mr. Charles Onwunali,

Mr. Otunfodunrin, Mr. Fassy Yusuf, Dr Innocent Okoye and other lecturers whose books have

been very useful.

I will always be grateful to my aunt Alhaja Agbaje who through the Librarian of the Court of

Appeal Lagos granted me full access to the library of the court.

The class of 11 (first 11 best 11) also contributed to my success. Thank you guys

I appreciate my dad and mum who have been the best parents, best teachers, best friends and best

everything; my dad for his acuity, my Mum for her uniqueness.

Someone who deserves special mention is my uncle, Mr. Abdullah Durodola who advised me to

take up this research. All thanks to his wife Safiat, and kids, Abdusamad and Toyibah who gave

me all the fun I could not get anywhere, not even in Disney Land. I can’t forget my brother

AbdulQuadri and Sisters – Mum Enoch, Mrs Abaniwonda and Azeezat – the team

The MSSN UNILAG cannot be forgotten – she gave me the greatest platform to link town with

gown. The brothers and sisters I have met directly and indirectly are wonderful people.

And to others, Jazakumullah kayran

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ABSTRACT

While the debate about the existence or non-existence of objectivity in news reportage

lingers on, a new discourse embedded in the concept of propaganda is necessary. This

work rested upon the fifth filter of the propaganda model (anti-ideology) specifically

studying Islam and Terrorism in the reportage of the Boko Haram crisis. The research

was built upon the propaganda model making special reference to the filters of

ownership as well as anti-communism (anti-ideology). This work found out that Islam

and Terrorism have started taking roles as anti-ideologies as represented in the study of

The Guardian and The Trust. In the final analysis it was found out that ownership is a

factor in the representation of Islam as an anti-ideological filter in the two newspapers. It

also found out the name-calling tool of propaganda was used excessively as well as the

use of unequal number of sources concerned to the stories in relationship to other

sources used. The content analysis method of analysis was used. This work also did not

study intent as it is an impossible task in the study of propaganda; it solely rested on the

existence of a pointer to propaganda. The findings support the model of propaganda that

ownership especially as related to prestige, resource and profitability dictate the flow of

media messages. Findings also support the model in relationship to anti-ideology.

Definition of concepts was structured on the concept of ideology. Islam and terrorism as

global ideologies were studied as well as Boko Haram who represents ideologues of a

particular ideology. Recommendations were however, made for subsequent studies,

journalists as well as academics to develop a standard parameter as well as the need to

develop courses to suit reporting conflicts.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Title Page i

Declaration ii

Certification iii

Dedication iv

Acknowledgements v

Abstract vi

Table of Contents vii

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

Background to Study 1

Statement of Problem 5

Objectives of Study 5

Research Questions 6

Scope and Limitation of Study 6

Operational Definition of Terms 6

References 10

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Review of Concepts and Existing Literature 13

Islam: A Dominant World Ideology? 13

Terrorism: Ideology or Ideological Channel? 17

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Boko Haram: Its Adherents, the Crises 19

Theoretical Review 21

Propaganda Model 22

Empirical Review 25

References 28

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Research Design 32

Population of Study 32

Sampling Method 32

Sample Size 33

Sampling Procedure 33

Data Collection Instrument 34

Units of Analysis 34

Variables 34

Duration of Study 35

Method of Data Collection 35

Coding Guide 35

Inter-coder Reliability 35

Method of Data Analysis 36

Brief Profile of Sampled Newspapers 36

References 37

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CHAPTER FOUR: DATA ANALYSIS

Analysis of Data and Discussion 38

References 48

CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Summary 49

Conclusions 50

Recommendations 52

Suggestions for Further Studies 53

Bibliography 55

Appendices 62

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

Propaganda, as inverted patriotism, draws nourishment from the sins of the enemy. If there are

no sins, invents them; the aim is to make the enemy appear so great a monster that he forfeits the

rights of a human being – Sir Ian Hamilton quoted in Oladimeji (2008).

The world has lived with conflicts ever since creation. The devil dared to disobey his lord

leading him into a conflict with his creator which made him condemned by the Almighty for the

rest of his existence. This perhaps led to the differences existing today in peoples’ definition of

good and evil; while the creator is associated with good, the one who dared to get into a conflict

with the creator – the devil – is associated with prompting men to do evil. Alabi (2010) says that

conflicts and crises are permanent features of live which we have come to live and cope with and

resolve from time to time.

Beyond celestial conflicts, man had his own worries. The worry for survival, power, and

grandeur bothered man. He was concerned on how to dominate others for his own benefits, and

this led the world into a state of chaos (Hassan, 2010). Wars were fought for the sake of

dominance and power. Slaves were amassed in numbers and man degraded the humanity of his

fellow man; man was in the state of nature where life was nasty, short, brutish, poor and solitary

(Hobbes in Appadorai, 1974). It was also stated that man is essentially selfish; he is moved to

action not by his intellect or reason but by his appetites, desires and passions (Appadorai, 1974).

But as civilization came, first spurred by religion, the focus for wars changed. Man was

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concerned about bringing other men to the worship of God, and he did this through wars; this is

peculiar to the Jewish, Christian, and Islamic religions (Guilday, 1999).

The Saracens (largely Arabs) engaged the Crusaders (the Army of the Pope) in war (Guilday,

1999). The papacy, when the power of the protestant was waxing stronger, had to devise a means

and that means, which was to propagate the stance of the Pope led to the birth of the word

Propaganda, and also its practice (Guilday, 1999). The word propaganda was actually first used

in 1622 when Pope Gregory XV issued the Sacra Congregatio de Propaganda Fide to counter the

growing Protestant threat in order "to re-conquer by spiritual arms" those areas "lost to the

Church in the debacle of the sixteenth century" (Brahm, 2006). The concept became one of the

factors that came into play during World War I and World War II especially through the exploits

of Lippmann and Bernays in the USA and Goebbels in Germany (Brahm, 2006).

After the major wars that polarized the world into two blocs, (communist and capitalist)

(Akinboye & Ottoh, 2007), the world embarked on another war – an ideological one (Klaehn,

2006). Both sides (communist and capitalist) employed the tools of propaganda to first, devalue

the ideology of the opponent and second, win over “converts” to their side (Klaehn, 2002). Anti-

communism would later become one of the models of Propaganda as explained by Herman and

Chomsky in describing the American press (Klaehn, 2002).

Now the world is undergoing another major conflict – a crisis between cultures; the Western

culture is at war with the Islamic culture (Huntington, 1996). While the West sees the Islamic

culture as barbaric, Islam sees the Western culture as unholy. (Hoffman, 2010). The West wants

to win the war and Islam does not want to be a party to the insolence to The Almighty

(Hoffmann 2010).

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Terrorism is another ideology the West has had to combat with in recent times (Karim, 2003).

Some scholars opine that those who use terrorism as a way of response are only responding to

the structural violence created in the first place by the ruling party (Karim, 2003). The ruling

class hates it that the people respond to the injustices meted out to the masses so they call the

political violence of those who seek to upset the status quo as terrorism (Karim, 2003).

While it is not so difficult to assert that the two concepts of Islam and Terrorism have taken a

global trend and are already ideologies hated by the West especially as explained by (Flood,

Nickels, Hutchings & Miazhevich, 2007) in their study of the BBC, it is difficult to assert that

the concepts have roots in Nigeria especially in the absence of an empirical statement. This

research studied the existent of propaganda not the intent of the journalists, and as explained by

Chomsky and Herman in Klaehn (2002), “deliberate intent (‘conspiracy’) and unconscious

hegemony (‘professional ideology’) are for the most part unknowable and immeasurable.”

Herman (2000) goes on to call intent an immeasurable red herring.

Here in Nigeria, there have been series of crisis and most of them have religious backgrounds.

We have had the Maitatsine crisis, the Boko Haram crisis, the Jos Crisis, and many other

religious crises (Hassan, 2010). Since most of these crises take place in the North, many have

been termed religious, and since the inhabitants of the North are predominantly Muslims, many

people think they have been orchestrated by Muslims against non-Muslims.

Muslim Scholars claim that these acts are not Islamic and that a Muslim’s violence does not

make other Muslims violent (Karim, 2003). Some scholars lay claim to a statement of Prophet

Mohammad that may totally exonerate Islam (not Muslims) from terroristic actions. The Prophet

Mohammad said:

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…and my followers will be divided into seventy-three sects which will all be (punished) in

Hell-fire with the exception of one."

When his Companions asked him to identify the one, he replied, "Those who are upon that

which my Companions and I follow." (Ahmad, 1984)

Scholars of Islamic Jurisprudence refer to that one sect as the saved sect and they are given the

name Al-Sunnah wa Jammah (those who follow the Prophet in everything he did) (Naasirud-

Deen, 1990). The questions then arose, what sect is giving the order to kill in the North? What

sect is legalizing all these carnages? These are questions needing answers before anybody can

publish that these acts are endorsed by Islam. It is therefore possible that the sects legalizing

these acts are deviated, and according to scholars of Islam, won’t judge according to Islamic

rulings based on the Quran, the Sunnah (practice of the Prophet) and the understanding of the

pious predecessors (As-Salaf As-Saliheen) of Islam (Naasirud-Deen 1990). Though established

that the acts are not endorsed by Islam, the perpetrators are largely Muslims, and no one may call

them non-Muslims until some facts are proved against them, and this is the opinion of many

Islamic scholars (Naasirud-Deen, 1990). If we go by the standards of Islam, the Boko Haram

group is engaged in actions that cannot be ascribed to pure Islam, one of them is destruction of

public properties and the other taking laws into their hands and these actions are forbidden with

emphasis in Islam (Ibrahim, 2011, track 14).

On terrorism, questions as to the lifestyle, state of well being of the people in question must be

brought to the fore. Karim (2003) writes that the political violence of those who seek to upset the

status quo is characterized as terrorism. But there arose a question and it is that can a response to

poverty, corruption, and unemployment be termed terrorism?

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This research looked at how the media covered the issues of Islam and terrorism and tested

scientifically if the concept of anti-ideology has taken roots here in Nigerian journalism, using

the Boko Haram crisis as a case study.

STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

The mass media serve as channel of communication, meant to partner with government in

development. The media should be a market place of ideas where battles are ended not started;

problems are solved not aggravated; racism is destroyed not pronounced and a place where

objectivity thrives not abused. The Media should be an entity that reports, not support; the Media

should be a place where fairness, accuracy, objectivity, and balance thrive.

Since the media may have failed in some of its duties, they may have allowed for propaganda

(klaehn, 2002). And those factors that give room for propaganda as explained by Chomsky and

Herman include the sources of media messages, the funders of mass media organizations, the

opinion of the people, the ownership of a medium, and the disliked ideology of the period in

question. Since studies have shown that in Nigeria the first four filters exist (Enahoro, 1990), it

became necessary to see if the fifth filter has a place in Nigerian journalism.

In view of the Boko Haram crises and the reportage it has generated, this researcher became

interested in determining if Islam and Terrorism qualify as anti-ideology filters in Nigerian

journalism.

OBJECTIVES OF STUDY

The aim of this work was to first ascertain the position of ownership in portraying Islam as an

anti-ideology in the reportage of the Boko Haram crisis by Nigerian newspapers.

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The other objective was to see the how the tools of propaganda were used to portray Islam and

Terrorism as anti-ideology filters of propaganda in the reportage of the Boko Haram crisis by

Nigerian newspapers

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

1. To what extent does media ownership influence the representation of Islam as anti-

ideology in the reportage of the Boko Haram Crisis?s

2. To what extent was Islam represented as anti-ideology in the coverage of the 2009 Boko

Haram crisis?

3. To what extent was Terrorism represented as anti-ideology in the coverage of the 2009

Boko Haram crisis?

SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF STUDY

This work focused on two newspapers, The Guardian and The Trust and this was based on

ownership as well as outlook and circulation of the newspapers. This was premised on the need

to first, study ownership as it relates to the fifth filter of the propaganda model, and put the

concepts of terrorism and Islam in appropriate perspectives. A total of 62 editions were tested.

The major limitation was based on the fact that globally, not many scholars have worked on the

fifth filter making it difficult for an appropriate parameter to be set making the results gotten in

the course of this study a personal effort of the researcher’s considerations.

OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF TERMS

The terms used in this project were defined to explain what the project studied. Since according

to Baxter & Babbie (2004), we are in the post-modern world of philosophical thought where

people see things differently, the terms were defined to reflect what the project discussed.

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ISLAM: This is normally defined as the religion of peace since the logic is that it is got from the

Arabic word (salama) which means peace. Scholars of Islam explain that while the definition

above is not wrong, it is too simplistic. It means the religion of submission since it is premised

on the fact that Islam is also got from the word salama (with vocal emphasis on the syllable “la”)

which means to submit. So Muslims are those who submit to the command of God and Islam is

the religion of submission to God. For the purpose of this project, Islam was simply treated as

the religion of Mohammad, son of Abdullah, the Prophet of Allah (may Allah exalt his mention).

TERRORISM: The Oxford advanced learners dictionary, international student’s edition (7th

edition), defines terrorism as the use of violent action in order to achieve political aims or to

force a government to an act. To bring it to suit this study, it was defined as government’s

contrivance against those willing to upset the status-quo (Karim, 2004).

PROPAGANDA: This is a model of propaganda developed by Herman Chomsky and Edward

Herman to explain how media messages are manipulated by some factors to allow for

propaganda. For the purpose of this research, they are filters of propaganda are the factors that

affects media messages and they are, source, ownership, flak, funding and anti-communism.

DOMINANT IDEOLOGY: A dominant ideology belongs to the class of ideologies that is the

most popular amongst people of the world, and it is limited to place, time and context. For the

purpose of this research, the prominent world ideologies treated were the Western ideology,

Islamic ideology and terrorism.

JOURNALISM: this is the practice of gathering, processing, writing and publication of

information of any event in a society. These events could be international or local as well as

normal and abnormal. This research treated journalism simply as what journalists do.

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BOKO HARAM: This group has been defined as a group whose main focus is to fight Western

civilization. This was premised on the fact that Boko in Hausa language is education while

Haram in Islam is forbidden. But for the purpose of this project, Boko Haram was defined as a

group of Northerners who, being Muslims, are trying to fight for the supremacy of the ideology

they believe.

BOKO HARAM CRISIS: for the purpose of this project, the Boko Haram crises are crises that

have involved members of the Boko Haram sect in the Northern part of Nigeria. The 2009 crisis

was studied.

EDITORIAL: this refers to the opinion of the media organization in question. They are

normally carried once every day by newspapers and they represent the voice of the newspaper.

They can also be represented through cartoons and witty statements. This project treated

editorials as the opinion of the newspaper represented in whatever form.

OPINION: this refers to the personal writings of individuals which are published in pages of

newspapers. For the purpose of this research, opinions were treated as above even if the writer is

a staff of the medium in question.

FEATURES: these are in-depth analysis of an issue in the media and they go farther than the

normal news stories. The above definition was the guide used in this research.

NAME-CALLING: this is a technique of Propaganda used by people knowingly or

unknowingly and this refers to ascribing to a particular people, place or idea what is a general

term which is derogatory, ignoring the specific terms. For the purpose of this research, Islam and

terrorism were tested. Examples may be substituting the word Islam for Boko Haram, and

terrorism for crisis or violence.

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ISLAMIC COMMENTATORS: these refer to sources of newspaper organizations who are

Muslims by virtue of their mentioning it or the mentioning of it by the medium in question.

Anybody who is an apparent Muslim was treated as an Islamic commentator.

SECURITY EXPERTS: they are those responsible for the security for this nation as well as

private individuals who are experts in the fields of security, including professors and lecturers

who specialize in security related fields.

NON –ISLAMIC AND NON- SECURITY EXPERTS: this project treated these sets of people

as persons not covered by the above definitions of Islamic commentators and security experts.

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REFERENCES

Ahmad, H. (1984). Sunan Abu Dawud, (English Trans.). Lahore: Sh. Muhammad Asharaf

Alabi, A. O. (2010). Management of conflicts and crises in Nigeria: Educational

planner’s view. Current research journal of social sciences 2(6): 311-315

Al-Faruq, A., U. (2003). Islamaphobia: The story of fear and hate by the West. Lagos: Salsabil

Akinboye, O. S & Ferdinand, O. O. (2007). A systematic approach to international

relations. Lagos: Concept publications

Appadorai, A. (1974). The substance of politics. Delhi, Bombay: Oxford University Press

Baxter. L. A. & Babbie, E (2004). The basics of communication research. Canada,

Thomson: Wadsworth

Baydoun, A., Al. (2001). Students dictionary: Arabic – English. Beirut: al-Limya

Bernays, E. (1928). Propaganda. [pdf Reader version] retrieved from adobe database

Brahm, E. (2006, August). Propaganda. Retrieved February 13, 2011, from

http://www.beyondintractability.org/

Enahoro, A. (1990). The Nigerian journalist – A praise singer or the watchdog. In

R. A. Akinfeleye (Ed.), Media Nigeria – Dialectic issues in Nigerian Journalism (pp. 17-

28). Lagos: Nelson Publishers

Flood, C.G., Nickels, H.C. & Miazhevich, G. (2007). The ideological dimensions of the

propaganda model – A case study of public broadcasting and the war on terror. [Pdf

Reader version]. Retrieved March 16, 2011, from Adobe database

Guilday, P. (1999). The sacred congregation de propaganda fide. Catholic Historical

Review 6, 480

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Hassan, H. I. (2010). Is Boko Haram? Asking the Fodios. Jos Journal of

Humanities 4(1) 11-28

Herman, E. (2000). The propaganda model: A retrospective. Journalism studies 1(1): 101-12.

Herring, E. & Robison P. (2003). Too polemical or too critical? Chomsky on the study of

the news media and US foreign policy. Review of international studies, 29, 533-568

Hoffmann. M. (2010). Islam – Ideology of the future? [Pdf Reader version]. Retrieved

March 16, 2011, from Adobe database.

Huntington, P. S. (1996). The clash of civilizations and the remaking of world order.

New York, Simon & Schuster

Ibrahim, A. (2011). Abu Nasir on Abdulai Al-Faisal. On foundations of the Sunna. Lagos:

Al-Fruqan Islamic centre.

Karim, H. K. (2003). “Making sense of the Islamic peril”: Journalism as cultural

practice. In B. Zelizer & Allan (Eds.), Journalism after September 11(pp. 101-116). New

Fetter Lane, London: Routledge

Klaehn, J. (2002). A critical review and assessment of Herman and Chomsky’s

‘propaganda model’. Ontario, Canada: Sage

Naasirud-Deen al Albaanee, M. (1990). A return to the Sunnah. In defence of the Sunnah series.

Oladimeji, O. (2008). War without missiles: the need for effective communication. In R.

A. Akinfeleye (Ed.), Contemporary issues in mass media for development and security.

(pp. 37-54). Lagos: Malthouse Press

Wehmeier, S. (Ed) (2005). Oxford Advanced learner’s dictionary: international students

edition. 7th ed. Great Clarendon: Oxford university press

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CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Any good research on issues relating to propaganda must be premised on relevant propositions

and scholarly expositions by scholars who have studied the intricacies of the concept.

Considering the fact that this work is locally situated, intellectual justice must be done by

explaining different concepts and reviewing the relevant works of scholars.

REVIEW OF CONCEPTS AND EXISTING LITERATURE

ISLAM: A DOMINANT WORLD IDEOLOGY?

Klaehn (2009) had stated while trying to explain the fifth filter of propaganda, anti-communism,

that since communism is no longer an ideology to worry about, the best name to give the fifth

filter is the dominant ideology and that is why this section was titled the way it is. And as stated

by Chomsky and Herman, “this ideology helps mobilize the populace against an enemy, and

because the concept is fuzzy it can be used against anybody advocating policies that threaten

property or support accommodation with Communist states and radicalism” (klaehn, 2009).

In the Clash of civilizations by Huntington (2004), he explained that “the great divisions among

humankind and the dominating source of conflict would be cultural”. He writes that the world

has experienced the death of ideology and the world is moving into a stage where civilizations,

not ideology would lead to a clash. He premised his thought on the fact that communism and

capitalism, off-shoots of the western civilization, came into conflict, so the present clash is not of

ideology. He writes, “The conflicts of the future will occur along the cultural fault line separating

civilizations”. While most people will not disagree with Huntington, they would think analysis is

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so simplistic because an ideology is an off shoot of a civilization. The Islamic ideology is

opposed to the Western ideology and it is all based on their definitions of civilization (Hoffman,

2010). Hoffman (2010) opines that “only two world views are left which compete for the heart

and minds of the Western man – post-modern secularism and Islam.

From the above, it is discernable that the current clash between Islam and the West is that of

ideology as well as of civilizations. Huntington (2004) in his book explained that the world is

faced with eight ideologies of which one is possible to emerge as the dominant ideology in the

future. The ideologies include: Western, Confucian, Japanese, Islamic, Hindu, Slavic-orthodox,

Latin American and possibly African civilization (Huntington, 2004). In what seems like a

predicted slant, Huntington concludes that religion would pose the major threat and in what

seems like a proposition, Huntington (2004) writes, and “The West’s next confrontation is

definitely going to come from the Muslim World”. Corroborating this, Hoffman (2010) writes

that “Islam might become the leading ideology of the 20 th century”. This is also inferable from

the thoughts of leaders in the Arab world. Most notable is the statement of Ayatollah Khomeini

who said that “the struggle against American aggression, greed, plans and policies would be

considered as a Jihad” (Huntington, 2004). This statement of Khomeini may represent the idea

behind the clash of ideologies but many scholars may disagree.

To further accentuate the fact that Islam is a world ideology, and perhaps, threatening the

Western ideology, Ul-Hadurat (2002) quotes two former Presidents of the United States, Nixon

in his book The Favourable Opportunity who wrote that “Islam is not merely a civilization;

rather it is a basis for a great civilization.” Nixon also went on to say that “Islamists are

ideological enemies”. Clinton says that “our enemy in the Middle East is extremism and he

rejected the idea of the clash of civilization” (Ul-Hadurat, 2002). All these assertions point to the

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possible conclusion that Islam is a world ideology seeking the attention of the West, and perhaps,

in the future, would dominate the world (Hoffman, 2010).

It became pertinent to ask questions on why should Islam be a world ideology posing a threat to

Western Civilizations. Explaining using historical references, Huntington (2004) traced conflicts

from the war of kings, to wars of people and then wars of ideology. The wars of kings was

largely characterised by need for power and expansion while the other two was dominated

mostly by economics. Islam has its motivating force and it is largely because it is a religion that

did not leave any aspect of human life untouched (Ul-Hadurat, 2002).

According to the Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life (2009), Muslims are present on all

continents and constitute 23% of an estimated 2009 population of the world put at 6.8billion. The

figures show that Muslims are important factors in world affairs considering the fact that the

remaining percentage would be shared amongst Christians, Jews, Hindus, Buddhists,

Zoroastrians, Atheists and Secularists. Number may however not be the motivating factor.

Hoffmann (2010) argues that an attempt to interpret the world developed into religions. He goes

ahead to claim that while the West in conjunction with Christianity has legalized sodomy with

the advents of homosexual priests and female Bishops, Islam retains the very tenets of its faith

and as such, Islam may become the leading ideology of the 20 th century (Hoffman, 2010). Kavli

(2001) does not agree that the clash may be based on divinity but says, “Both communist and

Islamic ideologies provide persuasive intellectual response to the national crisis, economic

hardship and individual alienation…” created by the Western ideology (Kavli, 2001). From this

angle Islamic ideology is responding to the perceived failure of capitalism.

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The clash may also be Islam’s response to the definition of modernity which contradicts divine

revelation (Ul-Hadurat, 2002). The Western Civilization had worked to spread its concepts of

nationalism, patriotism, democracy, freedom, manmade canons and imaginary borders amongst

Muslims, all of which are alien to the religion (Ul-Hadurat, 2002). And supporting the assertions

that the clash is an intellectual one (Kavli, 2001), Ul-Hadurat (2002) concludes that, “this

(Islamic-Western ideological clash) is a violent intellectual clash between the two civilizations –

Islamic and Capitalism. To conclude Huntingdon (2004) says the source is cultural and his

thought is captured below:

The great divisions among humankind and the dominating source of conflict would be

cultural. Nation states would remain the most powerful actors in world affairs, but the

principal conflicts of global politics would occur between nations and groups of different

civilizations. The fault lines between civilizations will be the battle lines of the future

(Huntingdon, 2004).

Here in Nigeria, it is not inaccurate to say that Islam is becoming an ideology and it is taking a

dominant nature. The three main factors could be the call for Sharia, the alternative of Islamic

Banking and the membership of the Organization of Islamic states which are ideals of the

Islamic religion finding opposition amongst non-Muslims in the country (Hassan 2010). Many

other issues gradually coming into the picture are putting Islam in an important position.

And as rightly concluded by Oladimeji (2008), it is on record that propaganda captures the

historical essence of how through religious evangelism… (Not peculiar to Islam alone) had

contributed to ensure the state of Africa.

24

TERRORISM: IDEOLOGY OR IDEOLOGICAL CHANNEL?

In order to study terrorism as a filter of propaganda, it was necessary to determine if it is a

dominant ideology or a tool for any ideology trying to exert influence. If it is an ideology, would

it be a replacement for the current world ideology, and if it is a channel for ideological rebirth,

would it serve a filter of propaganda where the ruling class would employ all methods including

the media to demonize the concept?

The use of terror to achieve goals has been in existence ever since creation the only difference is

the methodology and intention. Garrison (2004) writes that though there are difference between

terrorists and waves of terror, the utility of terror is not different. And as a matter of definition,

terrorism is a tool used to achieve a specific outcome by using force or violence on one segment

of the society to make change in that society (Garrison, 2004). Here it is clear that terrorism is an

ideological tool – one of change.

Supporting the above assertion in a conventional study of the comparisons and differences

between secular and classical terrorism, Fine (2008), explains that “comparison, between

terrorist groups with secular and religious agendas, however, suggests that ideology matters for

both and that downplaying religious inspiration for terrorism in an effort to emphasize tactical

motivations is both inaccurate and dangerous”. It can be clearly inferred that terrorism is not an

ideology but a platform for which ideological groups use to achieve their goals.

To argue the points more incisively, Fine (2008) is of the opinion that inattention to the

ideological upbringing of terrorists is counter-productive. He then goes on to conclude that

although the empirical tools of political science are ill-equipped to assess culture, ideology and

motivation, difficulty in quantifying these factors does not mean they do not exist (Fine, 2008).

25

Explaining that terrorism is not an exclusive tool of the ideology seeking a change but also of the

ruling ideology, Robert Fisk in Karim (2003) states that:

“Terrorism” no longer means terrorism. It is not a definition; it is a political contrivance.

“Terrorists are those who use violence against those using the word. The only terrorists

whom Israel acknowledges are those who oppose Israel. The only terrorists the United

States of America acknowledges are those who oppose the United States or their allies.

The only terrorists Palestinians acknowledges – for they too use the word – are those

opposed to the Palestinians.

The above statement implies that terrorism is not only a channel for the burgeoning ideology but

also of the ruling ideology. Though the statement is normative, it formed the basis for this

research.

To relate this to Nigeria and the Boko Haram crisis, we must first look at the statement of Fine

(2008) that comparison between terrorist groups with secular and religious agendas, however,

suggests that ideology matters for both and that downplaying religious inspiration for terrorism

in an effort to emphasize tactical motivations is both inaccurate and dangerous (Fine, 2008).

It must be understood that Boko Haram is a Muslim group and their agitations are based on a

preconceived notion that western education is forbidden. While their calls may look surprising in

the 21st century it is not new to Nigeria (Hassan, 2010). Quoting Achebe, Hassan (2010)

explains that in opposing western education the northerners were cautious probably believing

that the white man was clever and they were not amused at his foolishness. The North responded

to his offer of education with education with antagonism and simply labelled it as Boko (deceit).

26

The Boko Haram crises are a respond to what the group calls a contamination of the Islamic

creed and the moral corruption of the environment (Hassan, 2010). The group is against such

concepts such as Darwin’s evolution theory as well as rules and policies not based upon the

Sharia (Hassan 2010). Their perceived thoughts on education may be based on a wrong

understanding considering one of the actions of the Prophet of Islam, Mohammad, who allowed

non-Muslims to teach Muslims, but continually warned the Muslims against knowledge that is

not beneficial. In fact he prayed against unbeneficial knowledge (Ali Nadwi, 1979).

BOKO HARAM: ITS ADHERENTS, THE CRISES

It became relevant that the word Boko and Haram are explained as well as members of this

group, the crises that have been named after them as well as their basic tenets. Hassan (2010)

explains that Boko is a Hausa word referring to Western (modern) education. He goes on to

explain that the word has an original literal meaning from which it is drawn to apply to western

education. By simply referring to the Hausa online dictionary, Boko means something false and

applied to this study, Boko was labelled Western education. The Hausas believe it is a ploy

(Boko) to convert them into Christianity (Hassan, 2010) and Danjibo (2009) affirms this when he

wrote that Boko means anything Foreign or western.

Haram is simply anything that is forbidden in Islam that would warrant punishment if done

(Danjibo, 2009). Some of those things declared Haram in Islam in the Quran include taking

alcohol, gambling, consuming usury among other things (Ali, 1930). In Islam, Haram refers to

what Allah forbids, hence unlawful and sinful. Avoiding it with the intention of obedience to

Allah attracts (spiritual) reward and doing it attracts threat of punishment (Hassan, 2010).

27

Danjibo (2009) concludes that Haram simply means forbidden. So by logic, it was inferred that

Boko Haram means that Western Education is forbidden.

The group Boko Haram was founded by Muhammad Yusuf. He claimed that he started his group

after reading the opinions of many Islamic scholars (Hassan, 2010). He also claimed that he

learnt his concepts from Ibn-Taymiyah, Hassan Al-Banna and Sayid Qutb. According to Hassan

(2010), some of these scholars have been precursors to Northern Nigerian ideologues of

forbidding western ideology. The group was founded in 2002 in Maiduguri by Ustaz Mohammed

Yusuf. In 2004 it moved to Kanamma, Yobe State, where it set up a base called "Afghanistan",

used to attack nearby police outposts, killing police officers (Hassan, 2010).

The crises according to Hassan (2010) started in 2004 when the group attacked a police post in

Kanamma and another one in Damaturu. They then attacked again in 2007 in Kano where they

engaged the police in several gun battles. Danjibo (2009) explained that the crisis that was most

severe took place between July 24 and July 28 2009 when the group attacked people in six states

– Borno, Benue, Yobe, Gombe, Kano and Katsina. This crisis was the focus of this research.

It was during these riots that their leader, Mohammad Yusuf, about 32 years old, was arrested by

the military, handed over to the police who later announced his death to the public (Danjibo,

2009).

The real name of the group is Jama'atu Ahlis Sunna Lidda'awati wal-Jihad, which in Arabic

means "People Committed to the Propagation of the Prophet's Teachings and Jihad" (Chothia,

2011). But the fact that their name starts with Ahlis Sunna does not mean that they act according

to the Sunnah and this is related to the statement of Ibrahim, (2011, track 14) who says that the

mere keeping of the beard and wearing trousers above the ankles do not translate to the Sunnah,

28

and considering the statements of Nasirudeen (1990), the activities of the Boko Haram negate the

Sunnah (Practice of Islam as the Prophet practiced it).

Timeline of terror

2002: Founded

2009: Hundreds killed when Maiduguri police stations stormed

2009: Boko Haram leader Mohammed Yusuf captured by army, handed to police, later found dead (this period is under study)

Sep 2010: Freed hundreds of prisoners from Maiduguri jail

Dec 2010: Bombed Jos, killing 80 people and blamed for New Year's Eve attack on Abuja barracks

2010-2011: Dozens killed in Maiduguri shootings

May 2011: Bombed several states after president's inauguration

Jun 2011: Police HQ bombed in Abuja

Aug 2011: UN HQ bombed in Abuja

Source (bbc.co.uk)

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

For a lucid presentation and critical analysis of relationships between concepts, this research

was based on a model that serves as an explanation to how the ruling ideology uses the media for

its own benefits. To do this they may demonize the enemy by using and overusing certain words

or refer to the enemy as a group to be feared. Many of these tools abound but they cannot be

understood without first looking at the theories that explain them. The Propaganda Model was

examined.

29

PROPAGANDA MODEL

The propaganda model was advanced by Edward Herman and Noam Chomsky in 1988 in their

book Manufacturing Consent: The political Economy of the Mass Media and it posits how

propaganda, including systemic biases, function in the media (Wikipedia, 2011). The model

sought to explain how the media is used for propaganda purposes and in Chomsky and Herman’s

concept, how the ruling class uses the media to manufacture consent, social, political and

economic, in the way they want (Herman, 2000).

The concept of the propaganda model explains that there are five filters that determine the type

of news that is presented in the news media (klaehn & Mullen, 2010). The filters include

1. Ownership

2. Funding

3. Sourcing

4. Flak

5. Anti-ideology; substitutes for anti-communism.

For the purpose of proper analysis, Klaehn & Mullen (2010) explained that the model is

analytical and conceptually concerned to theorize the intersection between communicative power

and political economy in contemporary capitalist society. The five filters were treated and special

emphasis was given to the filters of ownership and anti-ideology which formed the focus of this

research.

On ownership, the hypotheses forwarded by the scholars themselves were brought to the fore.

The propaganda model proposes three hypotheses and is based upon five operative principles

(Klaehn & Mullen, 2010). The second hypothesis represents the filter of ownership in the media

30

when they posited, “the essential ingredients of our propaganda model, or set of news filters

which fall under the following heading: the size, concentrated ownership, owner’s wealth and

profit orientation of the dominant mass-media firms (Herman, 2000).

Klaehn (2009) explains that the proponents of the model observe that most mainstream media are

themselves typically large corporations, “controlled by very wealthy people or by managers who

are subject to sharp constraints by owners and other market-profit-oriented forces”.

In the book Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media, Chomsky and

Herman explained that the media is tiered and are measured by prestige, resources and outreach.

The scholars then concluded that the prime objective with the help of the pressure from investors

is profitability (Klaehn, 2009).

The propaganda model also proposed that advertising is a factor that influences news stories. The

propaganda model shows that advertising is the principal source of revenue for most mainstream,

commercial media, thus media discourses tend to reflect the interests of advertisers and the

market (Klaehn, 2009). Klaehn and Mullen (2010) wrote that money and power are able to filter

out the news fit to print. In this case, the advertisers influence the news.

On sourcing, the model explains that influential sources are bound to influence the media

messages. Klaehn & Mullen (2010) explain that this is caused by the reliance of the media on

information provided by governments, business and ‘experts’ funded and approved by these

primary sources and agents of power. Herman (2000) argues that a reduction in the resources

devoted to journalism means that those who subsidize the media by providing sources for copy

gain greater leverage.

31

Flak represents what public opinion can do to journalism and this is captured in the words of

Herman Edward. Explaining the role of Public relations as an agent of public opinion, Herman

(2000) wrote that there is, “by one count, 20,000 more public relations agent working to doctor

the news today than there are journalists”.

Klaehn (2009) explains that the first four filters dominate ‘real-world’ news production

processes. He concludes that while the four filters operate on individual basis, they also

continuously interact with one another.

Analytically, the fifth filter is extremely useful and applicable to a range of studies (Klaehn

2009). Flood et al (2007) explained that the operational usage of the ideological filter in the

propaganda model assumes a working definition of ideology without spelling it out.

The anti-ideology filter is extremely useful and applicable to a range of case studies (Klaehn

2009). It may play out in different ways at different times, contingent upon specific time/place

contexts, and is extremely broad (as are many other concepts within the social sciences, such as

hegemony and/or patriarchy, for instance) Klaehn & Mullen (2010). That the fifth filter is so

generalized makes it relatable to a range of social phenomenon, and creates space for the

Propaganda model to be utilized in a variety of social scientific research; for instance, it could

provide a framework for assessing othering in the mainstream media (Klaehn 2009).

The basis of the fifth filter is captured in the words of Herman and Chomsky quoted in Klaehn

(2009) that, “This ideology helps mobilize the populace against an enemy, and because the

concept is fuzzy, it can be used against anybody advocating policies that threaten property or

support accommodation with Communist states and radicalism”. And since the research dealt

with Islam and Terrorism, we replace the concepts of Communism and radicalism with the two

32

concepts of Islam and Terrorism. The ownership and anti-ideology filters formed the basis for

this research with anti-ideology as the major framework. Ownership was tested in a bid to justify

the existence of an anti-ideology filter. According to Klaehn (2009), the anti-ideology filter is yet

to be fully explored but will almost certainly provide a foundation for much empirical research in

the future.

EMPIRICAL REVIEW

It is always normal but unethical that when an issue such as religion and propaganda are

discussed, sides are already predicted especially when the researcher has sympathy towards the

religion which is under study. To escape from this was to base the research itself on reliable

social scientific methods of inquiry as well as using the work of preceding scholars to explain the

study empirically.

In a study by Flood, Nickels, Hutchings, and Miazhevich (2007) titled The Ideological

Dimension of the Propaganda Model – a Case Study of Public Service Broadcasting and the

War on Terror which was presented at the conference: 20 years of Propaganda? Critical

Discussions & Evidences on the ongoing relevance of the Herman & Chomsky Propaganda

Model between May 15 and 17, 2007 at the University of Windsor, communication studies,

Windsor, Canada, the authors examined the anti-ideology filter of the propaganda model in

relationship with Islam.

The research examined BBC, a public service broadcasting (PSB) organization. It examined the

space between the propaganda model and the PSB ethos through an examination of the BBC’s

coverage of news stories relating to a number of court trials concerning Islamism and the war on

terror (Flood et al, 2007).

33

The period studied by the researchers was between November 1 2006 and 31 January 2007.

Within that period, it was found out that news stories relating to Islam were significantly longer

than other news stories with an average length of 2:41 minutes for the former, compared to 2:19

minutes for the latter. The researchers also found out that of a total of 779 stories, 212 were

devoted to Islam with almost 40% related to stories from Iraq (Flood et al, 2007).

The study found out that 526 different actors (including Muslims mentioned 141 times) were

mentioned 6845 times, 477 different issues (including terrorism mentioned 92times) mentioned

6849 times and 246 different locations mentioned 2992 times. The study also found out that

Muslims were rarely given time to have a voice in the news because out of a possible chance of

hundred to be quoted directly or indirectly, Imams were quoted once compared to Legal

representatives who were quoted 44 times and government agents quoted 22 times (Flood et al,

2007).

The authors explained that:

The analyses of the news stories relating to the sentences and hanging of Saddam Hussein

revealed that the BBC’s coverage is not strictly impartial.

The researchers conclude that the analysis revealed five dimensions along which news coverage

of Islamism and the war on terror is organized in BBC news and they are

1. Their Islamism vs. our peace-building, liberal values

2. Their intolerance and racial hatred vs. our tolerance and respect for freedom of speech.

3. Their sectarianism and mutual loathing vs. our secularism and respect for one another

4. The Iraqi government’s juridical incompetence vs. our judicial process

5. The USA’s aggressive clumsiness vs. our measured approach (Flood et al, 2007).

34

The researchers concluded that

With regard to the ideological dimension of the propaganda model, it appears that an

anti-Islamism filter does operate in BBC news. This filter postulates the Violent Muslim

Extremist Other who not only threatens Britain/the west and its values, but also attacks

them physically and symbolically by means of terrorism. This filter offers an

approximation of clash of civilizations, or at the very least a clash of values, where

Britain claims the moral high ground: Islamism is a backward, repressive ideological

model with flawed morals, the expansion of which has to be stooped (Flood et al, 2007).

35

REFERENCES

Ali, A., Y. (1930). The Holy Qur’an: Translation and commentary. Lahore: Muslim

World League

Ali Nadwi, S. A. (1979). Muhammad Rasullulah. Lagos: Alaselsa Islamic Publications.

Baxter. L. A. & Babbie, E (2004). The basics of communication research. Canada,

Thomson: Wadsworth

Brahm, E. (2006, August). Propaganda. Retrieved February 13, 2011, from

http://www.beyondintractability.org/

Chothia, F. (2011, August 26). Who are Nigeria’s Boko Haram Islamists? BBC

[online] retrieved October 03, 2011, from http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13809501

Danjibo, N. D. (2009). Islamic Fundamentalism and sectarian violence: the

“Maitatsine” and “Boko Haram” crises in Northern Nigeria. Peace and conflict studies

programme, Institute of African studies, University of Ibadan, 1-21

Daramola, I. (2003). Introduction to mass communication. 2nd ed. Lagos: Rothan Press Ltd.

Fine, J. (2008) Contrasting secular and religious terrorism. Middle East Quarterly 9(2) 25-37

Flood, C.G., Nickels, H.C. & Miazhevich, G. (2007). The ideological

dimensions of the propaganda model – a case study of public broadcasting and the war

on terror. [Pdf Reader version]. Retrieved February 13, 2011, from Adobe database

Garrison, A. H. Defining terrorism: Philosophy of the bomb, propaganda by

deed and change through fear and violence. Criminal Justice Studies 17(3), 259-279

Hassan, H. I. (2010). Is Boko Haram? Asking the Fodios. Jos Journal of Humanities 4(1) 11-28

Herman, S. (2000). The propaganda model: a retrospective. Journalism studies 1, pp. 101-112

36

Hoffmann, M. (2010). Islam – Ideology of the future? [Pdf Reader version].

Retrieved March 16, 2011, from Adobe database.

Huntington, S. P. (2004). America in the World. The Hedgehog review 3, 1-12

Ibrahim, A. (2011). Abu Nasir on Abdulai Al-Faisal (track 14). On foundations of the

Sunna. Lagos: Al-Fruqan Islamic centre.

Karim, H. K. (2003). “Making sense of the Islamic peril”: Journalism as cultural

practice. In B. Zelizer & Allan (Eds.), Journalism after September 11(pp. 101-116). New

Fetter Lane, London: Routledge

Kavli (2001). Protest in the name of God: Islamist movements in the Arab

world. Perceptions journal of international affairs 5(2) 1-9.

Klaehn, J. (2002). A critical review and assessment of Herman and Chomsky’s

‘propaganda model’. Ontario, Canada: Sage

Klaehn, J. (2009). The propaganda model: Theoretical and methodological

considerations. Westminster Papers in Communication and Culture 6(2), 43-58

Klaehn, J. & Mullen, A. (2010). The propaganda model and sociology:

Understanding the media and society. SCAC Vol 1( 1), pp. 10-23

Naasirud-Deen al Albaanee, M. (1990). A return to the sunnah. In defense of the Sunnah series.

Oladimeji, O. (2008). War without missiles: the need for effective communication. In R.

A. Akinfeleye (Ed.), Contemporary issues in mass media for development and security.

(pp. 37-54). Lagos: Malthouse Press

Pew forum (2009). Mapping the global Muslim population. Pew forum on

religion & public life, Washington.

37

Propaganda (2010). Retrieved March 16, 2011 from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propaganda"

Ul-hadharat, S. H. (2002). The inevitability of the clash of civilization. Al-Khilafah

publications, Gloucester London.

38

CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The study of propaganda, especially if the focus of discussion is an ideological one, is

cumbersome. For a reliable result, it was important that findings were premised on the most

appropriate technique.

For a detailed analysis of the practice of journalism based on the product of the journalists

themselves, content analysis has been adjudged to be best method. This probably is the reason

Akinfeleye, Amobi; Innocent & Oloruntola (2011) used the content analysis in their study of the

coverage of the USA and Ghanaian elections by the Nigerian media. For the purpose of proper

analysis, this study used the content analysis method.

Historically, the use of content analysis can be traced to the 18 th Century (Krippendorff, 1980).

This is related to the period the Swedish scholars and clergy analysed a collection of non-

orthodox hymns called the “Songs of Zion” to determine whether the songs blasphemed the

doctrines of the Swedish state church (Krippendorff, 1980).

Tejumaiye (2003) quotes Walitzer and Wenir (1978) that content analysis is “any systematic

procedure designed to examine the content of recorded information”. This definition explains

that whatever method used, it must be systematic as well as created to analyze content of any

information that has been preserved in any form and this may include newspapers, cassette tapes,

video tapes, compact disc, magazines and many others.

Shobowale (2008) gives a better description when he wrote, “content analysis helps the

researcher to look at existing records, detect a pattern and arrive at some conclusions regarding

39

the attitude of the writers of the records or the originators of the messages contained in those

records”. This summarizes the methodology of this research which looked at the existing records

on the Boko Haram crisis

RESEARCH DESIGN

This is a quantitative research which used smaller samples of subjects, in this case newspapers.

The method employed was content analysis where text was analysed. This was based on the fact

that the study involved recorded information where the existence of a pattern was the main focus.

According to Shobowale (2008: 18) only messages that have been coded by way of formal

presentation can be content analysed. He also said that its major unit of analysis is the written

message and other records.

Newspaper records for the month of August, 2009 were content analysed.

POPULATION OF STUDY

The population of study comprises all registered newspapers in Nigeria based on ownership.

The other criteria used include circulation and area of coverage. It was presumed that the

newspapers with national circulation have a national outlook and thus was appropriate for this

research.

SAMPLING METHOD

The sampling method was purposive. This was employed because of the following reasons

1. Ownwership based on religion, considering the fact that other newspapers owned by

Muslims do not have the required national reach.

40

2. The need to meet the criteria set of ownership, area of coverage and circulation strength

SAMPLE SIZE

The sample size was two newspapers which represent the criteria set perfectly. The sample size

was deemed suitable for the purpose of this study.

Henn, Weinstein & Foard (2006) noted that it would be wrong to assume that increases in

accuracy will follow proportionately with increases in sample size, or that sample size should be

in proportion to the size of the population. Similarly, there is no optimum sample size – often it

will be driven as much as by the level of research and resources available to the researcher. It

must be stated however, that the conclusions were made based on the findings of the two

newspapers without unnecessary generalization.

SAMPLING PROCEDURE

As stated, the population of the study was newspapers published in Nigeria based on ownership,

coverage and circulation strength. Following the principle of Wimmer & Dominick (2006), an

entire population cannot be examined due to time and resource constraints. This is why the

newspapers were chosen based on purposive sampling method.

A period of one month (31) days was studied. 31 editions of each newspaper were analysed for

this period. Consequently, a total of 62 editions were content analysed. The researcher made

studied the period because the event happened some few days before the month of August and

within that period; the crisis was a major issue in the media. The periods between August 1 and

August 31, 2009 were studied.

41

DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENT

The major instrument used was the coding sheet constructed by this researcher based on the

analysis used. So to do the coding, the researcher relied on the statement of M’Bayo (2010),

citing Budd, et al (1969) quoted in Akinfeleye et al (2011) that a content analysis must consider

three requirements in the development of content categories – (1) categories must accurately fit

the needs of the study (2) they must be exhaustive relative to the study, and (3) they must be

mutually exclusive.

Using the above concept the following categories were developed: news stories, features,

editorials, opinion articles, name calling propaganda technique, and numbers of commentators.

UNITS OF ANALYSIS

Basically the unit of analysis was text examined through the following

A. News

B. Opinions

C. Editorials

D. Features

VARIABLES

The following research variables were measured in this study.

The number of Islamic commentators allowed to comment in relationship with non-

Islamic commentators

The number of Security experts allowed to comment in relationship with non-security

experts

42

The number of times the propaganda tool, name calling, was used in all the analysed

materials

The number of times non-Islamic scholars as well as non-security experts were allowed

to comment.

DURATION OF STUDY

The study was about the reportage of the Boko Haram crisis and thus, the month immediately

after the 2009 crisis was studied.

The duration was from August 1, 2009 to August 31, 2009. In all a total of 62 newspapers were

content analyzed.

METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION

The researcher personally visited Libraries to retrieve the sampled newspapers. The National

Library Lagos, The Court of Appeal Library and the Daily Trust Library were personally visited

by the researcher. The papers were perused through text examination.

CODING GUIDE

In order to facilitate understanding and interpretation at a glance, the researcher employed a

dynamic method by using a positive (+) sign which showed existence of variable and negative (-)

sign which showed absence of variable.

INTER-CODER RELIABILITY

Coding was personally done by the researcher after scrutinizing the samples. The assistant of a

student of Mass Communication at the Lagos State Polytechnic was however sought. The

43

researcher ensured that variables fit perfectly into the categories set after a thorough evaluation

of the coding process.

METHOD OF DATA ANALYSIS

The data got was analyzed using tables, percentages and mean. Comparison and conclusions

were drawn out of percentages. The frequency of a particular variable was used to answer the set

research questions.

BRIEF PROFILE OF SAMPLED NEWSPAPERS

THE GUARDIAN was founded in 1983 by Alex Ibru of the Ibru family. The newspaper which

prides itself as the flagship of Nigerian journalism is a general interest paper touching virtually

all areas of society from straight news to the economy, law, maritime and others. The

newspaper’s motto is conscience nurtured by truth, and it is registered in the Ibru Group.

THE TRUST is published alongside Weekly Trust. It was founded in January 2001 and became

the first newspaper from the Federal Capital Territory. According to observers, it is an

innovative, versatile and market driven newspaper. The newspaper is printed and published by

Media Trust Nigeria Limited. The newspaper is currently managed by Kabiru, A. Yusuf, a

former University Lecturer.

Source: (http://nigeriandailynewspaper.com/">)

44

REFERENCES

Akinfeleye R. A., Amobi I. T., Innocent, E. O., & Oloruntola, S., (2011). 30 years after

NWICO: Assessing the structure of global news flows through a comparative analysis of the

coverage of the 2008 United States and Ghana Presidential elections by the Nigerian media.

[Pdf Reader version] Retrieved March 16, 2011, from Adobe database.

Baxter. L. A. & Babbie, E (2004). The basics of communication research. Canada, Thomson:

Wadsworth

Henn M, Weinstein M., Foard N., (2006). A short introduction to Social Research. Sage

Publications Ltd.

Krippendorff. K. (1980). Content Analysis: An introduction to its methodology. Beverly Hills,

CA: Sage

Shobowale, I. (2008). Scientific journalism. Lagos, OOU: Idahosa Konsult

Tejumaiye, A. (2003) Mass communication research: An introduction. Ibadan: Scepter Prints

Wimmer D., Dominick R. (2006), Mass media Research: An introduction. Thompson

Wadsworth.

45

CHAPTER FOUR

DATA ANALYSIS

In this chapter, the researcher analysed the reportage of the two newspapers concerning the 2009

Boko Haram crisis. Here the data got was used to make inferences.

The following newspapers were selected based on ownership in relationship to religion

1. The Guardian (owned by Alex Ibru, a Christian)

2. The Trust (owned by Kabiru A. Yusuf, a Muslim)

A total of 62 editions for the month of August 2009 were studied as they concerned the Boko

Haram crisis.

The analysis was guided by the coding sheet accessible in the appendix, and the analysis was

tailored to answer the research questions as constructed in chapter one of this research.

RESEARCH QUESTION ONE

To what extent does media ownership influence the representation of Islam as anti-ideology in

the reportage of the Boko Haram Crisis?

The question was answered based on frequency of reportage, usage of propaganda tool called

name-calling and the use of Islamic sources.

46

TABLE 1:

EDITORIAL CONTENTS OF EACH NEWSPAPER

Newspaper News stories Opinions Editorials Features Total Percentages

GUARDIAN

TRUST

46

65

13

40

2

4

5

10

66

119

35.68

64.32

TOTAL 111 53 6 15 185 100

From the table above, The Trust devoted more editorial space than the Guardian to the crisis. The

Trust devoted 119 (64.32%) editorial contents of a total of 185 to that of the Guardian which

devoted 66 (35.68%) editorial contents to the crisis.

The large difference in figures showed that ownership influenced by religion may cause Islam to

be an anti-ideology filter in the newspapers’ reportage. The Trust, owned by a Muslim devoted

more straight news stories, more editorials, more opinion articles and more feature stories than

the Guardian without the Guardian surpassing in any section. This showed that ownership may

be an influence in the treatment of Islam especially as it is related to the Boko Haram crisis of

2009.

This research, however considered other factors that could have influenced the large number of

reportage. The two major factors identified were geographical and psychological proximity.

The Trust is situated in The North (Abuja) and its location may necessarily be a factor in the

large volume of reportage. In relationship to psychological proximity, the newspaper is owned

47

by a northerner, the crisis is happening in the Northern part of the country, and some Northerners

have died, and this may have a psychological effect on the newspaper ownership. While the

researcher did not ignore these factors, the figures above showed that ownership may have

influenced the reportage in relationship to Islam.

TABLE 2: NAME-CALLING (ISLAM) TOOL OF PROPAGANDA AGAINST THE

BOKO HARAM SECT

NEWSPAPER USE OF NAME CALLING

TOOL OF ISLAM

PERCENTAGES

GUARDIAN

TRUST

45

18

71.43

28.57

TOTAL 63 100

The technique between both newspapers was used 60 times in the month under study. The

Guardian used it 43 times representing a total of 71.67% of the total usage of the technique. The

Trust used the technique 17 times representing 28.33% of the total usage based on percentages.

It became relevant here to explain what the name-calling tool is and how the researcher arrived at

the figures. Name-calling was employed in the reportage every time the Boko Haram group was

referred to as Islamic. This was by calling the group an Islamic sect or an Islamic group or any

other related appellation.

This was arrived at based on the definition of Islam in the conceptualization of terms where the

researcher defined Islam as the religion of Mohammad, Son of Abdullah, and Messenger of

Allah. It was also stated clearly in previous chapters that the group contradict Islam’s tenets

48

when the researcher cited Ali Nadwi (1979) who wrote that Mohammad allowed non-Muslims to

teach Muslims, an action that contradicts what Boko Haram preaches.

However, every time the group was referred to as Muslim was not counted. The reason was that

while the religion forbids the action, those perpetrating the actions are Muslims and there is no

error if they are referred to as Muslims or Muslim fundamentalist, not Islamic fundamentalist.

TABLE 3: USE OF ISLAMIC COMMENTATORS BY THE TWO NEWSPAPERS

NEWSPAPER NUMBER OF TIMES ALLOWED FOR

ISLAMIC COMMENTATORS

PERCENTAGES

GUARDIAN

TRUST

26

55

32.1

67.9

TOTAL 81 100

The number of persons allowed to comment on an issue is very important in the study of

propaganda. While the Trust allowed more Islamic commentators to comment, the Guardian

allowed less. The Trust allowed 55 commentators representing 67.9 % of the total as against the

Guardian’s 26 representing 32.1% of the total, more than half of the Guardian’s.

The researcher concluded that the use of sources has influenced the way Islam was treated in the

coverage of the Boko Haram crisis. The researcher did not deny the fact that the reason could be

as a result of the propinquity of The Trust to the North where majority of the population are

Muslims.

49

And as was stated in the course of this research, the researcher did not test for intention but for

the existence of the anti-ideology filter, Islam in this case. From the results above, the researcher

concluded that ownership influenced the treatment of Islam as regards the Boko Haram crisis.

RESEARCH QUESTION 2

To what extent was Islam represented as anti-ideology in the coverage of the 2009 Boko Haram

crisis?

Two parameters were used to answer this question and the first was the usage of the tool of name

calling by ascribing the group to Islam. The mean in relationship to the number of days studied

was used to determine the extent.

TABLE 4: USE OF NAME CALLING TOOL (ISLAM) BY THE TWO NEWS PAPERS

NEWSPAPER USE OF NAME CALLING TOOL

OF ISLAM

PERCENTAGES

GUARDIAN

TRUST

45

18

71.43

28.57

TOTAL 63 100

The table above showed that the news papers used the tool 63 times. To find the extent at which

Islam was represented as an anti-ideology, the mean in connection with the number of the days

studied was found.

MEAN: Total number of usage of name calling tool against Islam/total number of days studied

63/60 = 1.05

50

From the above, the two newspapers used the name-calling tool, which made it necessary to

determine the extent of usage using the mean, as a statistical measure.

Through the mean found, it was visible that between the two newspapers, there was the tendency

to use the tool of name-calling at least 1.05 times per day. This means that Islam was slandered

against its wish approximately at least once a day by any of the two newspapers in connection to

the Boko Haram crisis.

TABLE 5: USE OF ISLAMIC AND NON- ISLAMIC SOURCES BY THE TWO

NEWSPAPERS

NEWSPAPE

R

NUMBER OF TIMES

ALLOWED FOR ISLAMIC

COMMENTATORS

NUMBER OF TIMES

ALLOWED FOR

NON-ISLAMIC

COMMENTATORS

TOTAL

GUARDIAN

TRUST

26

55

109

120

135

175

TOTAL 81 229 310.

The data is best explained through a comparison between the totals of the two newspapers

TABLE 6:

51

COMPARISON OF THE USE OF ISLAMIC SOURCES AS AGAINST NON ISLAMIC

SOURCES

TOTALS OF THE ABOVE VARIABLES FIGURES PERCENTAGES

TOTAL NUMBER OF TIMES ALLOWED

FOR ISLAMIC COMMENTATORS

TOTAL NUMBER OF TIMES ALLOWED

FOR NON-ISLAMIC COMMENTATORS

81

229

26.13

73.87

TOTAL 310 100

The table above showed the extent at which Nigerian journalist would give room for non-Islamic

commentators than Islamic commentators in an issue that has direct link with Islam. Here a total

of 229 (73.87% of total) was given to non-Islamic sources as opposed to the 81 (26.13% of total)

devoted to Islamic sources.

The number of those who could really explain the issues, who could give an insight on how to

deal with the Boko Haram crises, were relatively few compared to non-Muslims who may have a

connection to the story but in the long run, tilt the structure of the story and the real event.

The Newspapers gave close to three times the space given to Islamic commentators to non-

Islamic commentators. While the researcher concluded that the number of sources used in the

editorial contents of the newspapers made Islam fairly represented, the factors of geographical

and psychological proximity were not ignored.

RESEARCH QUESTION 3:

52

To what extent was Terrorism represented as anti-ideology in the coverage of the 2009 Boko

Haram crisis?

The same parameter set above was used although, name calling was directed towards terrorism,

while the number of times security experts were allowed to comment was the focus.

TABLE 7: USE OF NAME-CALLING TOOL (TERRORISM) BY THE TWO

NEWSPAPERS

NEWSPAPER USE OF NAME CALLING TOOL OF

TERRORISM

PERCENTAGES

GUARDIAN

TRUST

21

15

58.33

41.67

TOTAL 36 100

The same method of using the mean was employed here.

Mean: Total number of times name calling used/total number of days under study

36/62 = 0.58

The figure above showed that the filter of terrorism couched in the propaganda tool of name

calling featured 0.58 times every day the crisis was covered.

Words such as ‘crises’, ‘structural violence’ and related terms were ignored, considering the fact

that the crisis clearly represents some of these words. The figures above showed that for at least

0.56 (approximately once per day) times, the two newspapers represented the Boko Haram issue

as terroristic in nature. And since this research rested upon the concept of Karim (2003) that

53

terrorism is a political contrivance, thus a tool of propaganda, the above statistic supports the

proposition.

TABLE 8: NUMBER OF TIMES ALLOWED FOR SECURITY EXPERTS AND NON-

SECURITY EXPERTS

NEWSPAPER NUMBER OF TIMES

ALLOWED FOR SECURITY

EXPERTS TO COMMENT

NUMBER OF TIMES

ALLOWED FOR NON-

SECURITY EXPERTS

AS COMMENTATORS

TOTAL

GUARDIAN

TRUST

37

36

98

139

135

175

TOTAL 73 237 310.

TABLE 9: COMPARISON BETWEEN THE NUMBERS OF TIMES ALLOWED FOR

SECURITY EXPERTS AND NON-SECURITY EXPERTS

TOTALS OF THE ABOVE VARIABLES FIGURES PERCENTAGES

54

NUMBER OF TIMES ALLOWED FOR SECURITY

EXPERTS TO COMMENT

NUMBER OF TIMES ALLOWED FOR NON-

SECURITY EXPERTS AS COMMENTATORS

73

237

23.55

76.45

TOTAL 310 100

The table above showed that the newspapers gave audience to people less knowledgeable about

security issues than they gave to experts. Here, non-security experts were allowed 76.45% of the

total number of sources while security sources were allowed 23.55% of the total showing a great

disparity.

Apart from the fact that a parameter had determined the extent, this showed that the two

newspapers gave more than thrice the space given to security experts to non-security experts.

While the two newspapers allowed 23.55% (73 security experts) to comment, they allowed

76.45% (237 non-security experts) to comment.

Since the researcher stated already that this is a new research where the parameters were

developed exclusively by the researcher, a definite claim was not made. Conclusions were

therefore inferred based on the parameters set which may normally vary from researcher to

researcher.

55

REFERENCES

Ali Nadwi, S. A. (1979). Muhammad Rasullulah. Alaselsa Islamic publications, Lagos

Karim, H. K. (2003). “Making sense of the Islamic peril”: Journalism as cultural

practice. In B. Zelizer & Allan (Eds.), Journalism after September 11(pp. 101-116). New

Fetter Lane, London: Routledge

56

CHAPTER 5

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

SUMMARY

This research was carried out to determine the extent at which Islam and Terrorism are

represented as anti-ideology in selected Nigerian newspapers, and the same time it studied the

role of ownership. The project tried to determine the existence of the anti-ideology filter

represented by Islam and terrorism as well as the extent to which the newspapers portrayed the

two concepts as anti- ideologies.

First, the research was able to find out that ownership played a major role in the representation of

Islam as it concerned the Boko Haram crisis. It found out that the newspaper owned by a Muslim

(The Trust) gave more editorial space to the Boko Haram issue as well as more space for Islamic

commentators that the newspaper owned by a Christian ( The Guardian). It also found out that

The Trust used the name-calling tool against Islam less than the Guardian used it showing that

ownership may be regarded as a factor.

The research however, made it known that other factors that may have influenced this slant could

be psychological and geographical proximity of The Trust to the Northern part of Nigeria where

the crisis took place.

The research found out that Islam and Terrorism are filters of propaganda in the newspapers and

proceeded to check the extent at which the newspapers made the filters visible.

57

First, it was found out that the two newspapers used the name-calling tool against Islam at least

1.05 times a day in reporting and that the two newspapers gave room to non-Islamic

commentators close to three times the space given to Islamic commentators.

Second, the research found out that the name-calling tool against terrorism was used at least 0.58

times per day, and this approximately means once per day. This project also found out that the

two newspapers gave more space to non-security experts more than thrice the space given to

security experts.

CONCLUSIONS

It was found out that Ownership is an influence in making Islam an anti-ideology filter in

Journalism. The facts are that The Trust which is owned by a Muslim had more editorial

materials represented as 64.32% of all the stories examined while The Guardian had 35.68%.

The Trust also surpassed The Guardian on all editorial contents from news stories, to Opinion

articles, editorials and features.

Also judging by the second parameter, The Trust used less of the name-calling tool than The

Guardian. While The Trust of a possible 100% usage used it 28.57% (18 times), The Guardian

used the tool 71.43% (45 times). The third parameter also showed the existence of ownership as

a factor and that was measured through the number of sources used. Of all the total sources used

for the 62 days studied, The Trust used 67.9% of the total while The Guardian used 32.1% of all

the total sources as Muslims.

Based on the facts gotten, it was found out the two newspapers have made-Islam an anti-

ideology filter. But since this research was devoted to studying the extent at which Islam is

represented as an anti-ideology filter, the mean was used and it was found out that the

58

newspapers used the name-calling tool against Islam at least 1.05 times a day which

approximately is once a day.

The other factor used to test the extent of Islam’s representation as an anti-ideology was the use

of sources and this project found out that while the two newspapers devoted 26.13% of spaces

for sources to Muslims; they devoted 73.87% to non-Muslims. The extent got was that the two

newspapers devoted two times the number of space given to Muslims to Non-Muslims in the

Boko Haram crisis.

The last research question was based on terrorism and its representation as an anti-ideology

filter. This project found out that based on the number of times the name calling tool was

employed, the extent was approximately one usage per day. While the Trust took 41.67%, the

Guardian used 58.33%. The extent was found at least 0.58 times per day which is approximately

once per day.

The other parameter was the time devoted to security experts and it was found that security

experts were given three times less than the space given to non-security experts. Between the two

newspapers, 23.55% was devoted to security experts while 76.45% was devoted to non-security

experts.

The findings support the concept of the propaganda model based on the idea stated in the book

Manufacturing Consent: the Political Economy of the Mass Media. Chomsky and Herman

explained that the media is tiered and are measured by prestige, resources and outreach. The

scholars then concluded the prime objective; with the help of the pressure from investors is

profitability (Klaehn, 2009). What the statistics denote is that the closeness of The Trust to Islam

may have made it report the Boko Haram crisis in a slightly different way from the Guardian. On

59

the basis of prestige, it was concluded that the Trust was trying to maintain the relationship with

Islam. Resource was not also ruled out as the newspaper is closer to Northern Nigeria physically.

The findings are also supported by the propaganda model on the filter of anti-ideology. The

model states that ‘This ideology helps mobilize the populace against an enemy, and because the

concept is fuzzy it can be used against anybody advocating policies that threaten property or

support accommodation with Communist states and radicalism”. This was evident especially

with the use of the Name-calling tool of propaganda (Islam and Terrorism) in the reportage of

the Boko Haram Crisis, as well as the difference in the usage of sources

The findings also support the statement of Flood et al (2007) that the operational usage of the

ideological filter in the propaganda model assumes a working definition of ideology without

spelling it out.

RECOMMENDATIONS

The researcher recommends to Journalists

1. That special attention should be given to the choice of words to be used while paying

special attention to the concepts of social responsibility.

2. It must be said that journalists should pay more attention to sources concerned with

stories as they can misjudge issues when sources are not balanced..

3. Journalists should, regardless of whatever emotional connections to a story, remain as

public watchdogs whose aims are seeking the truth, telling the truth and developing the

society.

60

The researcher also makes the following recommendations for journalism educators:

1. Academics in the fields of journalism should train students on the concepts of objectivity

highlighting major pitfalls as it has been created by the international system of

journalism.

2. The universities should start teaching reporting Religious issues as they now constitute

major sources of front page news in recent times. When a standard course is developed,

journalists would become problem solvers. The course could also be taught as conflict

reporting.

SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDIES

The researcher suggests:

1. That the field of anti-ideology in the study of propaganda should be explored in more

pragmatic and dynamic ways so that a standard parameter of testing existence of the filter

is developed.

2. That the periods between every crisis relating to Islam are studied considering stories

related to Islam and not specifically to the crisis because this would be a better way to

represent the anti-ideology filter empirically.

3. That historical analysis is done to see at every period in Nigerian journalism, what

represented the anti-ideology filter. For example the Cold War used to be the anti-

ideology filter in the world but it is now Islam and terrorism. In Nigeria, it could have

been Biafra, Military rule or colonialism. An empirical statement would suffice.

4. Lastly, it is imperative that researchers come together to develop a standard format for

the study of anti-ideology. Standard in the sense that a minimum requirement is set so

61

that results are reliable. This is not to say that dynamism is not encouraged, but it must be

premised on well stated principles.

62

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69

DAY NS OP ED FEA NC (ISLAM)

NC (terrorism)

IC SEC NISEC

1st ++++++++ - - - +++++++ ++++ +++ ++++++++ ++++++++2nd +++++ + - +++ ++++ + +++ +++++++ +++++++3rd + - - + + + + - ++4th + ++ - ++++ ++ ++ ++ +++5th + + + - - - - + ++++6th +++ - - - +++ - ++++ + +++++++++++7th ++ - - - - - - - +++++++8th +++++ + - - ++++++ ++ + ++++ ++++9th ++ + - + ++ + + + ++10th + ++ - - +++ ++ ++ - ++++11th + + + - ++ - + - ++12th - - - - - - - - -13th + - - - + - + - +++14th - - - - - - - - -15th + - - - + + + - +16th + + - - + ++ +++ - +17th - - - - - - - - -18th + - - - ++ - + - +19th - + - - - - - - +20th + - - - - - - - ++21st ++ + - - ++ + - - ++22nd ++ - - - ++ - ++ ++ +++23rd + - - - - - - - +24th + - - - - - - ++ -25th + - - - - - - +++ -26th + - - - ++ ++ - ++ -27th - + - - ++ + - - +28th + - - - - - - ++ -29th - - - - - - - - -30th + - - - - - - ++ +31st + - - - - + - - +TOTAL

46 13 2 5 45 21 26 37 72

APPENDIX I

CODE SHEET FOR THE REPORTAGE OF THE BOKO HARAM CRISIS IN THE DAILY GUARDIAN FOR THE MONTH OF AUGUST, 2009

70

DAY NS OP ED FEA NC (ISLAM)

NC (terrorism)

IC SEC NISEC

1st +++++ ++ - - + + ++ ++ ++++2nd +++ + - - - - ++++ ++ +++3rd +++++++ ++ + - ++ +++ ++++ +++ +++++++++++4th +++++ ++ - + ++ + +++ ++ +++++++5th ++++++ - - - - - +++++++ ++ ++++6th +++ ++ - - - - ++ + ++7th +++ +++ - - - - + ++++ ++++8th ++ + - + - - + - ++9th + ++ - - - - - ++++10th +++++ + - + - + ++ + +++11th +++ - - + - - - +++ ++12th ++ ++ - - - - ++ - +13th + +++ - - ++ - - + ++++14th + + - - - - - - ++15th - ++ - - + ++ + +16th - + - ++ - + + + ++17th - - - - - - - - -18th +++ ++ - - +++ + + ++++ +++19th ++ + - + - - ++++ ++ +20th + + + - - - ++ -21st + ++ - - ++ + + + +++22nd + + - - ++ - +++ + +23rd - - - - - - - - -24th ++++ ++ + + ++ - +++ ++ +25th ++ + - + - - ++ - +26th + ++ - + - - ++ - +27th ++ + - - ++ - ++++ - ++28th + - + - - +++ + - ++++++29th ++ - - - - - + - ++++30th + + - - - - - ++ ++31st - + - - - ++ - + +++TOTAL

65 40 4 10 18 15 55 36 84

APPENDIX II

FOR THE TRUST NEWSPAPERFOR THE MONTH OF AUGUST, 2009

KEY

NS: NEWS STORIES; OP: OPINION; IC: ISLAMIC COMMENTATORS; ED: EDITORIAL

SEC: SECURITY EXPERTS AS COMMENTATORS; FEA: FEATURES; NC (ISLAM): NAME CALLING (ISLAM); NC (TERRORISM): NAME CALLING (TERRORISM)

NISEC: NON-ISLAMIC AND SECURITY EXPERTS AS COMMENTATORS

71