The Problem of Universals

The Problem of the One and the The Problem of the One and the ManyMany

Recall the principle of identity!Recall the principle of identity!

Each Being is WHAT it is.Each Being is WHAT it is.

Socrates and PlatoSocrates – inquired about the essential Socrates – inquired about the essential

form of particular things, such as form of particular things, such as virtues, courage, matter, substance…virtues, courage, matter, substance…

11stst to identify the WHAT of a thing – to identify the WHAT of a thing – looking at the essential form of particularlooking at the essential form of particularthings – it would be the root cause for each things – it would be the root cause for each premise…its force of necessity to bear upon…premise…its force of necessity to bear upon…

Plato – takes it further and states that Plato – takes it further and states that everything that is intelligible everything that is intelligible

(universal) has (universal) has an essential form…an essential form…meaning, anything meaning, anything intelligible will have intelligible will have an essential quality an essential quality that renders it that renders it intelligible or universal…intelligible or universal…

Plato of Athens (427 – 347 BC) Therefore, to accept the principle “Each being is Therefore, to accept the principle “Each being is

WHAT it is” is to say that each being WHAT it is” is to say that each being (intelligible/universal) thing is in its essential (intelligible/universal) thing is in its essential form…form…

The WHAT of a thing bears upon the The WHAT of a thing bears upon the qualityquality of a of a thing…its thing…its kindkind, , typetype, , nature…itsnature…its essence or essence or essential form…essential form…

This is also known as a “things”…?This is also known as a “things”…? Primary CausePrimary Cause

Plato employed 4 concepts to helpPlato employed 4 concepts to helpidentify a “things” essential quality…identify a “things” essential quality…

Universal Qualities4 terms to help explain a “things” essential quality…

EidosEidos: a things common idea or form.: a things common idea or form. GenosGenos: kind or type, as in “the kind or type of : kind or type, as in “the kind or type of

thing it is”.thing it is”. PhysisPhysis: a things nature or its natural : a things nature or its natural

state/qualities. state/qualities. OusiaOusia: a things essence or being…what is it : a things essence or being…what is it

essentially – its force of necessity.essentially – its force of necessity.

The PROBLEM of the One and the Many

There are many human beings in this classroom, but they are all There are many human beings in this classroom, but they are all human.human.

What makes us different?What makes us different? What makes us similar?What makes us similar?

EUGENICS !!!EUGENICS !!!Is this a particular or Is this a particular or universal universal “thing/concept”?“thing/concept”?

The PROBLEM of the One and the Many There are many different kinds of triangles: There are many different kinds of triangles:

equilateral, isosceles, obtuse, acute, right equilateral, isosceles, obtuse, acute, right angle, but they are all designated under the angle, but they are all designated under the one term. Which is?one term. Which is?

The PROBLEM of the One and the Many There are many different dogs that do not There are many different dogs that do not

look the same, are of various different look the same, are of various different colors, shapes, and sizes, but they are all colors, shapes, and sizes, but they are all designated under the one term. Which is?designated under the one term. Which is?

The PROBLEM of the One and the Many There are many particular trees, I.e., oak, There are many particular trees, I.e., oak,

maple, palm, apple, orange, etc., and they maple, palm, apple, orange, etc., and they all look different. And yet they all have one all look different. And yet they all have one quality in common: each one is still a tree!quality in common: each one is still a tree!

Question to think about

What is this one quality by which all various trees are the same?

What is this one quality by which all the various individual humans are the same?

UniversalsPlato saw that many particular things can belong Plato saw that many particular things can belong to one and the same species, or have one and the to one and the same species, or have one and the same nature, kind, type, essence. If they all same nature, kind, type, essence. If they all belong to one and the same thing, then they belong to one and the same thing, then they must be have a universal quality.must be have a universal quality.

We in this room all have the same physis or We in this room all have the same physis or nature (namely, a human nature). We have the nature (namely, a human nature). We have the same eidos or form, genos or kind—we are the same eidos or form, genos or kind—we are the same kind of being. We are essentially (ousia) same kind of being. We are essentially (ousia) the same out of a force of necessity.the same out of a force of necessity.

Question?

Are all particular individuals in this classroom Are all particular individuals in this classroom really one at some level? Is oneness a reality? really one at some level? Is oneness a reality?

Is there one quality that all humans hold in Is there one quality that all humans hold in common?common?

Or, is oneness just an appearance that results from Or, is oneness just an appearance that results from language?language? For example: we just call every individual For example: we just call every individual

“human”, but outside the mind is there no real “human”, but outside the mind is there no real oneness or sameness.oneness or sameness.

UniversalsIf you answered no, there is no universal quality, If you answered no, there is no universal quality, then oneness is just an appearance that results then oneness is just an appearance that results from employing one word ‘human’…from employing one word ‘human’…

Then all men are not essentially equal. We are not Then all men are not essentially equal. We are not really one and the universal statement “All men really one and the universal statement “All men are mortal” is a fallacy...but which fallacy?are mortal” is a fallacy...but which fallacy?

The fallacy of a double standard…“What’s The fallacy of a double standard…“What’s right/good for me is not right/good for you”right/good for me is not right/good for you”

UniversalsIf you answered yes, then there is a real oneness If you answered yes, then there is a real oneness about us, we really are essentially one, we really about us, we really are essentially one, we really do have the same nature, and this would be the do have the same nature, and this would be the more common sense viewpoint.more common sense viewpoint.

However, the difficulty now is to determine However, the difficulty now is to determine “what” accounts for that oneness.“what” accounts for that oneness.

Rationality? Humanity?Rationality? Humanity?

What is the definition of a human being?What is the definition of a human being?

Properties of essences

In the example of humanity:In the example of humanity: onenessoneness (there is only one humanity, but many humans) (there is only one humanity, but many humans)

universaluniversal (not particular, there is only one human race) (not particular, there is only one human race)

unchangingunchanging (the essence of humanity does not change with (the essence of humanity does not change with the death of 1, 5, or 1000 men)the death of 1, 5, or 1000 men)

IntelligibleIntelligible (not sensible, doesn’t serve the senses): (not sensible, doesn’t serve the senses):

one can sense a human, but one cannot see, touch, or hear one can sense a human, but one cannot see, touch, or hear humanity, or canine, or triangularity. Essences are humanity, or canine, or triangularity. Essences are intelligible, known only by the mind, through reason alone.intelligible, known only by the mind, through reason alone.

Question to think about

If a person is unable to reason, for example, if he If a person is unable to reason, for example, if he is developmentally disabled or in a coma, is he is developmentally disabled or in a coma, is he still human?still human?

Does this person still have an Does this person still have an

essential quality that makes essential quality that makes

them human?them human?

The PROBLEM of the One and the Many

Essences are not particular, they are not Essences are not particular, they are not plural……they are one and the same, they are plural……they are one and the same, they are universal…universal…

This is the real difference between reason/intellect This is the real difference between reason/intellect and sensation…and sensation… Sensation bears upon particulars onlySensation bears upon particulars only The intellect apprehends the essence of a thing The intellect apprehends the essence of a thing

by reasoning through all of its particulars to by reasoning through all of its particulars to understand its very being…its force of understand its very being…its force of necessity…the whole picturenecessity…the whole picture

It is self-refuting do deny that we must It is self-refuting do deny that we must reason through apprehending the essence of reason through apprehending the essence of things…to deny this would mean that things…to deny this would mean that “things” lack a force of necessity…“things” lack a force of necessity…

Therefore, it would be impossible to Therefore, it would be impossible to knowknow the essence of a thing…everything would the essence of a thing…everything would be a matter of opinion…be a matter of opinion…

If this is true and knowledge is impossible, If this is true and knowledge is impossible, then we don’t know what an opinion would then we don’t know what an opinion would be in the first place…be in the first place…

What would things bear upon?What would things bear upon?

DefinitionsDefinitions aim to define “what” something is. To define a thing is to determine the intelligible limits or boundaries of a thing… a “thing” with an essence is a determinate, limited thing that is intelligible by nature…

To question ‘what a thing is’ is to inquire of its essence, or what it is essentially. A force of necessity?

A definition expresses the essence of a thing…a good definition will contain only that which belongs to the essence of a thing…

Definition of a human being?

Every definition is composed of two parts…

Definition

Genus: that which is established essentially of several things but also differ in species.

Specific Difference: that which reduces the genus to a specific species.

Genus + specific difference = species or essence / an interpretation or description of “what” it is essentially.Recall: a good definition will contain only that which belongs to the essence of a thing

Genus

DogDog CatCat HorseHorse HumanHuman BirdBird

Any dog is _____Any dog is _____ Any cat is _____Any cat is _____ Any horse is ____Any horse is ____ Any human is _____Any human is _____ Any bird is _____Any bird is _____

What is predicated essentially of all these things but they differ in species? The answer will be your genus.

Genus Any dog is an animalAny dog is an animal Any cat is an animalAny cat is an animal Any horse is an animalAny horse is an animal Any human is an animalAny human is an animal Any bird is an animalAny bird is an animal

Animal is the genus of the definition of all these things.

What is the specific difference that reduces the genus of animal in each example to their respected specific differences?What is the specific difference for the species ‘human being’?

Ans: Rationality – the ability to reason, which implies the ability to make judgments, which implies the ability to apprehend essences

Definition of a Human Being: a rational animal

Specific difference genus

The Three Acts of the IntellectIntelligence is: the ability to apprehend universal essences. That is why we can make universal statements, such as; All men are mortal.

•However, the definition of a thing is far more than simple apprehension…

•In order to grasp the definition/essence of a thing we must first apprehend the thing’s essence but then go beyond…

•This leads us to the 3 Acts of the Intellect…•It is through these 3 acts that we understand the difference between intelligence and sensation……otherwise, we would not be able to draw rational conclusions…

The Three Acts of the Intellect

Simple Apprehension: Simple Apprehension: The apprehension, The apprehension, awareness, or understanding of the essence. awareness, or understanding of the essence. Example: canine…Example: canine…

Judgment: Judgment: composition and division. For composition and division. For example: combining ‘man’ and ‘mortal’, we example: combining ‘man’ and ‘mortal’, we make the judgment: all men are mortal. Or, we make the judgment: all men are mortal. Or, we can divide or differentiate: some men are not can divide or differentiate: some men are not white.white.

Reasoning: Reasoning: drawing a conclusion from given drawing a conclusion from given judgments. Example: A valid syllogism.judgments. Example: A valid syllogism.

Examples of Definitions AnimalAnimal: Living sentient creature.: Living sentient creature. TriangleTriangle: A plane figure with three sides.: A plane figure with three sides. TemperanceTemperance: The virtue that moderates the : The virtue that moderates the

pleasures of touch.pleasures of touch. FortitudeFortitude: The virtue that moderates fear and : The virtue that moderates fear and

daring.daring. BirdBird: warm-blooded egg-laying vertebrate : warm-blooded egg-laying vertebrate

characterized by feathers and forelimbs modified characterized by feathers and forelimbs modified as wings.as wings.

PolygonPolygon: A closed plane figure made up of several : A closed plane figure made up of several line segments that are joined together.line segments that are joined together.