The Present and Future of Exploration for The Present and Future of Exploration for Deep Seabed Mineral ResourcesDeep Seabed Mineral Resources

Nii Allotey OduntonNii Allotey OduntonSecretary-GeneralSecretary-General

International Seabed AuthorityInternational Seabed Authority

Prepared for World Ocean Forum 2009Prepared for World Ocean Forum 200910-12 November 2009, Bexco, Busan, Republic of Korea10-12 November 2009, Bexco, Busan, Republic of Korea

Established under the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Established under the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea and the 1994 Agreement relating to the Law of the Sea and the 1994 Agreement relating to the Implementation of Part XI of the ConventionImplementation of Part XI of the Convention

The Authority is the organization through which States Parties The Authority is the organization through which States Parties to the Convention shall , in accordance with the regime for the to the Convention shall , in accordance with the regime for the seabed, ocean floor and subsoil beyond the limits of national seabed, ocean floor and subsoil beyond the limits of national jurisdiction ( the Area) to organize and control activities in the jurisdiction ( the Area) to organize and control activities in the AreaArea

Came into existence 16 November 1994 upon entry into force Came into existence 16 November 1994 upon entry into force of the 1982 Conventionof the 1982 Convention

Headquartered in Kingston, Jamaica, the Authority became Headquartered in Kingston, Jamaica, the Authority became fully operational in June 1996fully operational in June 1996..

THE INTERNATIONAL SEABED AUTHORITYTHE INTERNATIONAL SEABED AUTHORITY

Marine areas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction. Marine areas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction. Indicative and not including claims for extended continental shelvesIndicative and not including claims for extended continental shelves

FUNCTIONSFUNCTIONS Its four main functions are:Its four main functions are:

- To govern and administer the mineral resources of the To govern and administer the mineral resources of the international seabed area the Area (seabed, ocean floor international seabed area the Area (seabed, ocean floor and subsoil beyond the limits of national jurisdiction and subsoil beyond the limits of national jurisdiction defined as the common the heritage of mankind);defined as the common the heritage of mankind);

-- To adopt rules, regulations and procedures for the To adopt rules, regulations and procedures for the conduct of activities (prospecting, exploration and conduct of activities (prospecting, exploration and exploitation of the mineral resources) in the Area; exploitation of the mineral resources) in the Area;

-- To promote and encourage marine scientific research in To promote and encourage marine scientific research in the Area, andthe Area, and

-- To protect and conserve the natural resources of the To protect and conserve the natural resources of the Area, and prevent damage to the flora and fauna of the Area, and prevent damage to the flora and fauna of the marine environment.marine environment.

The Assembly, as the sole organ of the Authority to which the The Assembly, as the sole organ of the Authority to which the other principal organs are accountable to. To date, the other principal organs are accountable to. To date, the Authority has 159 members, including the European Authority has 159 members, including the European Community.Community.

THE ASSEMBLYTHE ASSEMBLY

Principal organs of the Authority are an Assembly, a Council Principal organs of the Authority are an Assembly, a Council and a Secretariat. The Authority also has two subsidiary and a Secretariat. The Authority also has two subsidiary organs; a Legal and Technical Commission and a Finance organs; a Legal and Technical Commission and a Finance CommitteeCommittee

THE ORGANSTHE ORGANS

The Council consists of The Council consists of 3636 members of the Authority elected by members of the Authority elected by the Assembly into five chambers as follows. It is the executive the Assembly into five chambers as follows. It is the executive organ of the Authority and has the power to establish specific organ of the Authority and has the power to establish specific policies within the competence of the Authoritypolicies within the competence of the Authority

(a)(a) Four members Four members from among those States Parties which have from among those States Parties which have

consumed more than 2 per cent in value terms of total world consumed more than 2 per cent in value terms of total world consumptionconsumption

(b)(b)Four members Four members from among the eight States Parties which have made from among the eight States Parties which have made the largest investments in preparation for and in the conduct of the largest investments in preparation for and in the conduct of activities in the Area, either directly or through their nationalsactivities in the Area, either directly or through their nationals

(c)(c) Four members Four members from among States Parties which, on the basis of from among States Parties which, on the basis of production in areas under their jurisdiction, are major exportersproduction in areas under their jurisdiction, are major exporters

(d)(d) Six members Six members from among developing States Partiesfrom among developing States Parties(e)(e) Eighteen members Eighteen members elected according to the principle of elected according to the principle of

ensuring an equitable geographical distribution of seats in the Council ensuring an equitable geographical distribution of seats in the Council as a whole as a whole

THE COUNCILTHE COUNCIL

The third principal organ of the Authority is the Secretariat which The third principal organ of the Authority is the Secretariat which is headed by a Secretary-General and a current staff complement is headed by a Secretary-General and a current staff complement of 35of 35

THE SECRETARIATTHE SECRETARIAT

SUBSIDIARY BODIESSUBSIDIARY BODIES

The two subsidiary bodies perform functions of an advisory nature The two subsidiary bodies perform functions of an advisory nature for the Council and Assemblyfor the Council and Assembly. .

Legal and Technical CommissionLegal and Technical Commission

Composed of 24 members elected by the Council, the LTC makes Composed of 24 members elected by the Council, the LTC makes recommendations to the Council on rules, regulations and recommendations to the Council on rules, regulations and procedures for prospecting, exploration and exploitation of procedures for prospecting, exploration and exploitation of mineral resources in the Area to incorporate the protection of the mineral resources in the Area to incorporate the protection of the marine environment and the establishment of monitoring marine environment and the establishment of monitoring programmesprogrammes

Finance CommitteeFinance Committee

The Finance Committee comprises 15 members elected by The Finance Committee comprises 15 members elected by the Assembly from nominations by States Parties and the Assembly from nominations by States Parties and include representatives from the five largest contributors include representatives from the five largest contributors to its administrative budget. The Finance Committee to its administrative budget. The Finance Committee provides recommendations to the Assembly and Council provides recommendations to the Assembly and Council on financial matterson financial matters

ANNUAL SESSIONSANNUAL SESSIONS

The Authority holds one annual session of 2 weeks The Authority holds one annual session of 2 weeks duration at its headquarters. The sixteenth session of the duration at its headquarters. The sixteenth session of the Authority will be held from 26 April to 7 May 2010.Authority will be held from 26 April to 7 May 2010.

ACTIVITIESACTIVITIES The Authority has been engaged in preparing and adopting The Authority has been engaged in preparing and adopting

rules, regulations and procedures for prospecting , rules, regulations and procedures for prospecting , exploration and exploitation for mineral resources in the exploration and exploitation for mineral resources in the AreaArea

The Authority has completed substantive work on the The Authority has completed substantive work on the regulations and procedures for prospecting and regulations and procedures for prospecting and exploration for exploration for polymetallic nodules polymetallic nodules and is currently and is currently working to formulate and adopt similar codes for working to formulate and adopt similar codes for polymetallic sulphides polymetallic sulphides and and cobalt-rich ferromanganese cobalt-rich ferromanganese crustscrusts..

All the codes include a All the codes include a Parallel System Parallel System for the exploration for the exploration and exploitation of deep seabed mineralsand exploitation of deep seabed minerals

Above: Contractor Areas in Above: Contractor Areas in the Indian Ocean (above) the Indian Ocean (above)

Left:Left: Contractor Areas Contractor Areas in the Clarion Clipperton in the Clarion Clipperton Zone (left)Zone (left)

The adoption of the Regulations enabled the The adoption of the Regulations enabled the Authority to enter into contracts with 8 entities Authority to enter into contracts with 8 entities for polymetallic nodules; 1 in the for polymetallic nodules; 1 in the Central Indian Central Indian Ocean BasinOcean Basin ( (Figure 1Figure 1) and 7 in the ) and 7 in the Clarion Clarion Clipperton ZoneClipperton Zone ( (Figure 2Figure 2). By entering into ). By entering into these contracts the Authority took the first these contracts the Authority took the first tangible and highly significant step in the tangible and highly significant step in the exercise of its unique responsibility under the exercise of its unique responsibility under the Convention to administer the deep seabed area Convention to administer the deep seabed area and its resources on behalf of mankind and for and its resources on behalf of mankind and for their benefit.their benefit.

The contractors are the Government of India (Central Indian The contractors are the Government of India (Central Indian Ocean Basin) and the Institut francaise de recherche pour Ocean Basin) and the Institut francaise de recherche pour l’exploitation de la mer (IFREMER) of France; Deep Ocean l’exploitation de la mer (IFREMER) of France; Deep Ocean Resources Development Company (DORD) of Japan; State Resources Development Company (DORD) of Japan; State Enterprise Yuzhmorgeologiya of the Russian Federation; China Enterprise Yuzhmorgeologiya of the Russian Federation; China Ocean Mineral Resource Research and Development Ocean Mineral Resource Research and Development Association (COMRA) of the People’s Republic of China; Association (COMRA) of the People’s Republic of China; Interoceanmetal Joint Organization (IOM), a consortium Interoceanmetal Joint Organization (IOM), a consortium formed by Bulgaria, Cuba, Czech Republic, Poland, Russian formed by Bulgaria, Cuba, Czech Republic, Poland, Russian Federation and Slovakia; the Government of the Republic of Federation and Slovakia; the Government of the Republic of Korea; and the Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Korea; and the Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources at the Federal Republic of Germany (Clarion Resources at the Federal Republic of Germany (Clarion Clipperton Fracture Zone)Clipperton Fracture Zone)

CONTRACTORSCONTRACTORS

1872-1876: 1872-1876: HMS Challenger HMS Challenger expedition travelling 70,000 nm expedition travelling 70,000 nm surveying and exploring. Discovered nodules.surveying and exploring. Discovered nodules.

1925-1927: the Meteor, (1925-1927) a major oceanographic 1925-1927: the Meteor, (1925-1927) a major oceanographic expedition, was launched by Germany and marked the first use expedition, was launched by Germany and marked the first use of echo sounders to survey the mid Atlantic Ridgeof echo sounders to survey the mid Atlantic Ridge

SCIENTIFIC POLICY ADVANCEMENTS IN THE AREASCIENTIFIC POLICY ADVANCEMENTS IN THE AREA

Walvis Ridge

Above: Walvis Ridge, Atlantic OceanAbove: Walvis Ridge, Atlantic Ocean

1947: Albatross expedition investigates ocean depths 1947: Albatross expedition investigates ocean depths in the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceansin the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans

1953: Maurice Ewing and Bruce Heezen discover the 1953: Maurice Ewing and Bruce Heezen discover the Great Global Rift running along the mid Atlantic RidgeGreat Global Rift running along the mid Atlantic Ridge

1957: John Mero publishes an economic discourse on 1957: John Mero publishes an economic discourse on the vast potential of polymetallic nodules as sources the vast potential of polymetallic nodules as sources of nickel, copper, cobalt and manganeseof nickel, copper, cobalt and manganese

1960: Harry Hammond Hess develops the theory of 1960: Harry Hammond Hess develops the theory of seafloor spreadingseafloor spreading

1968: Ocean Drilling Project (ODP) begins and confirms seafloor 1968: Ocean Drilling Project (ODP) begins and confirms seafloor spreading hypothesis by Frederick John Vine and Frummon spreading hypothesis by Frederick John Vine and Frummon Hoyle Mathews published in Hoyle Mathews published in NatureNature..

1977: Hydrothermal vents found in Pacific Ocean confirm 1977: Hydrothermal vents found in Pacific Ocean confirm ecosystems develop without energy from the sunecosystems develop without energy from the sun

1979: Discovery of 3m-long sea worms in hydrothermal vents at 1979: Discovery of 3m-long sea worms in hydrothermal vents at 2,450 m below the Galapagos Islands2,450 m below the Galapagos Islands

1982: Adoption of the United Nations Convention on the Law of 1982: Adoption of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Seathe Sea

1994: Entry into force of the 1982 United Nations Convention on 1994: Entry into force of the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea and the establishment of the International the Law of the Sea and the establishment of the International Seabed AuthoritySeabed Authority

POLYMETALLIC NODULESPOLYMETALLIC NODULES• Polymetallic nodules are small balls, dark-brown colored and Polymetallic nodules are small balls, dark-brown colored and

lightly flattened, 5 to 10 centimeters in diameter, which lay on lightly flattened, 5 to 10 centimeters in diameter, which lay on the seabed at 4.000 to 6.000 meters deep and the seabed at 4.000 to 6.000 meters deep and contain various contain various metals including nickel, copper, cobalt and manganese metals including nickel, copper, cobalt and manganese

The grade and abundance of nodules determine the amount of The grade and abundance of nodules determine the amount of metals contained in a given area in the general range 1.1-1.6% metals contained in a given area in the general range 1.1-1.6% nickel, o.9-1.2% copper, 0.2-0.3% cobalt and 25-30% manganese nickel, o.9-1.2% copper, 0.2-0.3% cobalt and 25-30% manganese with ranges between 5.0-15 kg per square meterwith ranges between 5.0-15 kg per square meter

Figure 6: Nodule FieldNodule FieldNodule Field

POLYMETALLIC SULPHIDESPOLYMETALLIC SULPHIDES

Contain high concentrations of Contain high concentrations of copper, zinc, lead, gold and copper, zinc, lead, gold and silver and are found at inactive silver and are found at inactive hydrothermal vents which hydrothermal vents which typically form along mid-ocean typically form along mid-ocean ridges where tectonic plates ridges where tectonic plates diverge and new crusts form. diverge and new crusts form.

There are more than 300 There are more than 300 hydrothermal venting sites - hydrothermal venting sites - 40% of these are in the “Area” 40% of these are in the “Area” – 65% at mid-ocean ridges, – 65% at mid-ocean ridges, 22% at back-arc basins, 12% 22% at back-arc basins, 12% volcanic arcs and 1% mid plate volcanic arcs and 1% mid plate volcanoesvolcanoes

The first deposits were The first deposits were discovered in 1978 across a discovered in 1978 across a portion of the East Pacific Rise portion of the East Pacific Rise of sulphide mounds up to 10ft of sulphide mounds up to 10ft highhigh

The birth of a chimney or The birth of a chimney or black black smokers smokers start when molten start when molten rock below the seabed heats rock below the seabed heats up water circulating through up water circulating through the cracks which rises, carrying the cracks which rises, carrying dissolved metals - from deep dissolved metals - from deep within the crust. When the within the crust. When the hot, acidic fluid hits near hot, acidic fluid hits near freezing seawater, the metals freezing seawater, the metals form the rocky walls of the form the rocky walls of the chimney. chimney.

COBALT-RICH FERROMANGANESE CRUSTSCOBALT-RICH FERROMANGANESE CRUSTS Occur throughout the world’s Occur throughout the world’s

oceans on oceans on seamountsseamounts, ridges and , ridges and plateaux where currents have plateaux where currents have kept rocks clean of sedimentkept rocks clean of sediment

Crusts are marine mineral Crusts are marine mineral resources that have precipitated resources that have precipitated over millions of years from over millions of years from metals dissolved on submerged metals dissolved on submerged flanks of inactive underwater flanks of inactive underwater volcanoesvolcanoes

Some seamounts called Some seamounts called guyotsguyots are mostly volcanic and found on are mostly volcanic and found on oceanic crust formed near oceanic crust formed near spreading ridges over upwelling spreading ridges over upwelling plumes. Half of the world’s plumes. Half of the world’s seamounts are found in the seamounts are found in the Pacific OceanPacific Ocean

Estimates based on satellite Estimates based on satellite altimetry indicate that altimetry indicate that there are up to 100,000 there are up to 100,000 seamounts over 1000m seamounts over 1000m high. Studies show that less high. Studies show that less than 15 of the than 15 of the approximately 50,000 approximately 50,000 seamounts in the Pacific seamounts in the Pacific Ocean have been mapped Ocean have been mapped and sampled in detail.and sampled in detail.

Seamounts Online estimate Seamounts Online estimate that less than 400 that less than 400 seamounts have been seamounts have been sampled and of these, less sampled and of these, less than 100 have been than 100 have been sampled in detailsampled in detail 3D image of a typical conical 3D image of a typical conical

seamount seamount

3D image of a typical 56 km long 3D image of a typical 56 km long guyot with terraces and a large area guyot with terraces and a large area above 2,500m depth (shown in red above 2,500m depth (shown in red and orange)and orange)

THE FUTURE OF EXPLORATION FOR DEEP SEABED MINERALSTHE FUTURE OF EXPLORATION FOR DEEP SEABED MINERALS

• Prospecting and exploration for marine mineral resources have Prospecting and exploration for marine mineral resources have an ultimate objective – the discovery and delineation of an area an ultimate objective – the discovery and delineation of an area of ocean floor with reserves of sufficient quantity and quality to of ocean floor with reserves of sufficient quantity and quality to support a mining operationsupport a mining operation

• While prospecting concentrates primarily on the collection of While prospecting concentrates primarily on the collection of geological data, an exploration programme also includes the geological data, an exploration programme also includes the development of technology , environmental protection and development of technology , environmental protection and financial analysis of the prospectsfinancial analysis of the prospects

• The Authority completed and adopted rules, regulations and The Authority completed and adopted rules, regulations and procedures for prospecting and exploration for polymetallic procedures for prospecting and exploration for polymetallic nodules on 13 July 2000.nodules on 13 July 2000.

• The regulations differentiate between prospecting and The regulations differentiate between prospecting and exploration in as much as the former does not confer exclusive exploration in as much as the former does not confer exclusive rights over resources in an area, are without time limit and can rights over resources in an area, are without time limit and can be undertaken by more than one entity in the same area. be undertaken by more than one entity in the same area. Exploration however, confers exclusive rights and has to be Exploration however, confers exclusive rights and has to be undertaken under a contract with the Authorityundertaken under a contract with the Authority

• The Authority is currently working on similar regulations for The Authority is currently working on similar regulations for polymetallic sulphides and cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts.polymetallic sulphides and cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts.

• These will provide the framework for prospecting and These will provide the framework for prospecting and exploration in the Area including the provision of exclusive exploration in the Area including the provision of exclusive rights during exploration. With investments secured through rights during exploration. With investments secured through these instruments, a major obstacle for future exploration of these instruments, a major obstacle for future exploration of deep seabed mineral resources will be eliminateddeep seabed mineral resources will be eliminated

CHALLENGES FOR THE INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY CHALLENGES FOR THE INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY TO OVERCOME LETHARGY IN DEEP TO OVERCOME LETHARGY IN DEEP

SEABED MINERAL EXPLORATIONSEABED MINERAL EXPLORATION• Participation of members at the Authority’s annual sessionsParticipation of members at the Authority’s annual sessions

• The inability of member states to see or derive benefits The inability of member states to see or derive benefits from their own EEZ let alone from the Areafrom their own EEZ let alone from the Area

• Lack of trained personnel to ascertain resources available in Lack of trained personnel to ascertain resources available in the areasthe areas

• Requires a concerted effort to facilitate a larger proportion Requires a concerted effort to facilitate a larger proportion of the international community’s participation in marine of the international community’s participation in marine scientific research programmesscientific research programmes

Requires international collaborationRequires international collaboration

Need exists for interested parties to form Need exists for interested parties to form collaborations to develop the requisite mining collaborations to develop the requisite mining technologytechnology

Work together to sustainably harvest the Work together to sustainably harvest the ocean’s mineral resourcesocean’s mineral resources

Thank YouThank You