the potential for community management of wildlife resources in the lunda-mkwambi game controlled...

8/14/2019 The Potential for Community Management of Wildlife Resources in the Lunda-Mkwambi Game Controlled Area Bo…

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Summary

Theconclusion fthis report s, in brie{ t}ratcommunity managementof wildlifeis viable within the currentLunda-MlcvambiGameControlledArea adjacent oRuahaNationalPark. Giventheprogressmadeby the currentRuahaEcosystemwildlife ManagementProject @EWMP), the n.Ld to continue facilitating thedevelopment f an institutional ramework or communitywildlife management,and the potential or learning mportant essonswhich wiil assist he Departmentof Wildlife in implementing its new Policy for wildtife Conservation andUtilisation elsewheren Tanzania,t is recomm.na"o hatoDA should continueto provide appropriate technicaland material support to REwMp.



Introduction

l' This eportsoneoftwo whichpresentshefindingsand ecommendationsf a consultancyto assesshepotentialor communitymanagementfwildlife resourcesn theLunda-MkwambiGameControlArea (LM GCA) which lies adjacento the south-easternnd north-easternboundaries

f RuahaNationalark RM) in southem anzania. heconsultancyasundertakenin thesecond alfof october1995 ya tgamcomprisingnecologist, socialanttrropologist,nda representativef the Department f Wildlife (WD) in the tvtinistryof Tourism,NaturalResources ndEnvironmentMTNRE)..A separateeporthasbeenwrittenby theconsultantecologistecausef thepractical ifficultiesnvolvedn Lompiling oint productn the imitedtimeavailableo us. In the ield alargemeasuref agreement as eached etween ll threeconsultantsbouthepotentialorcommunitymanagemintf wildliferesourcesnLM GC,\ andit ishopedhat he

!o reportswill providecomplementaryerspectives,eflectingat thesametimetheauthors'differentareas f concemandexpertise.

Institutions ndCapacity

2' T\e VillageDevelopmentomponentf theRuahaEcosystemWildlife Management roject(REWMP)hasmadesignificant rogressn its communitywork,andhasestablishedsolidfoundation or futuredevelopment. t hasdoneso by initiating "na .*pioiing a rangeofinstitutional echanismsandinkages t ocal,district, ni *idrr levilsdesignedo facilitateheimplementationf thewildlifeDepartment'sWD)newpolicyon theconvlrsion f GCAs ntoWildlifeManagementreas WMAs).

3. Thispolicyswellconceived,nd s widelyunderstoodndsupportedytheWD andothergovernmentfficialsdown o district evelwhohavebeen

ully exposedo it andwhowill beamongtskey mplementers. EWMPhasmadean mportantaddiiionalcontributionowardsdevelopinghispositiveenabling nvironment y collaboratingloselywith theCommunityConservationerviceCCS)of theTanzaniaNationalarks uthorityTANApA),bothat nationalcommitteeeveland hroughheirjoint programmef work n LM GcA.

District andRegional evels

4- Theweakestinks n the nstitutionalhain ie at districtand egionalevels,whereGameOfficers GOs)n particulareel hreatenedya ossof theircontrolover esourcesnderhe new

programme.heWMA concept nd tsarticulationyREWMPwill, however, rovide ignificantresourceenefits, irectlyand ndirectly;o thedistrict and hereforehe "gion;asawhole. Theopposition f individual takeholderss neitherntrinsico norshouldt bea-lasiingeature f thenew nstitutionalramework hichREWMPs helpingocreate,hough arlyactiono resolvehisproblemthrough,or example,ontinuednteractionnddialogueJouid bedesirable.

5. The ormation f aDistrictSteering ommitteeDSC) o adviseREWMpandhelpcoordinatedistrict,WD and1ANAPA efforts o establish Wtue in LM GCA representsmorepositivedevelopmentt his evel.Although till in its nfancy, ll thesigns re hat heDSCwill playanan ncreasinglymportantole. It isenthusiasticallyupportedysenior istrictofficials,ncluiingits chairma4heDistrictExecutiveOfficer (DEb), una nr DistrictNaturalResources fficer(DNRO).



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Community evel

6' At communityevelREWMPhassucceededn facilitatinghe ormation f asmallnumberofvillagewildlifecommitteeswcs),whichhave*..g.0;.llintotheexisti"; fi-;.work ofvillagegovernment' hewcs areas epresentatives heymightbeexpectedobeatthisearlystage ftheirdevelopmentn a contextwhere illages *pti. *idery scattereauu-vilages nd aremarkedlypolyethnicn overallcomposition.women arerepresentedn smallbut similarproportionso otherbranchesf villagegovemment,saremembersf livestock-keepingroupswho areoftennotrepresentednthese ecision-makingodies.REWMp,s olehasbeen oadvise nd acilitateatherhandictate, nd hewcs alreaiyexhibitasftong ense f purposendprovide ivelyforum or debate.Theresno doubt hatiheyhaveboth hewrll and hebasiccapacityo manage ildlife resources,ndshouldcontinueo maturewith appropriateupportfromthe projectandother ocalauthorities.

7' REWMPhasalsobeguno examineheneedor otherkindsof institutionalarrangementndlinkageat local evel.Qiv.enheunequal istribution f landandwildlife resourcesetrveen

villages,ogether ith existing atterns

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openaccesso manyof theirnatural esources,t hasbecome videnthat hesimple illagemanagement odelwill have o becombinedwith othert^ttl3lilts designedoeffect heirclose ollaborationndensurehat heycansharehebenefitsofwildlife utilisationn as airawayaspo^s1ible.hisproblernshighlightra vh. case f LundaNorth LN), henorthem ectionof LM GCA which s cunenttyuiinfused asa touristhuntingblockand, n theoryf not n practice,s out of boundsor humansettlement ndother ormsofutilisation'A proportion f the evenuesromLN hasbeenallocatedo thevillagesn LundaSouth LS),andREWMPauthorisedocollect hemonvillagers'behalf. t remainso bedecidedhow hismoney anbestbedistributed,nda related roil.rn arises verhowother ormsofutilisationmightbe organisedif at all) whenLN becomesartof thewMA.

8' There s no quickandeasy olutiono problems uchas hese.Thishascertainly eenheexperiencef othercommunitywildlifemanagementrojectsn Tanzaniain theSelous ndSerengeti)swell aselsewheren Africa. REWMP's elatively outhful *p"ri"n.. hasbeennodifferent'-Theprojecthasevolved processualpproach,ndshould ontinueo work n thisway' Trialandenormeansust tha! andREWMPhasundoubtedlymade ts fair shareof errorsin theprocess.REWMPhasalsohad ts own institutional robl"rnr, n termsof a lackofunderstanding nd coordinationbetweenODA staff and, within the Village Development

componenttself,a periodicshortfall n the numberof staff with the releiant communityd-evelopmentxperiencendskills. Thishased o theneedor repeatednput, fro* BDDEA inNairobi'andhassometimesroduced less hanhappyworkingenvironment, herewell-intentioned dvice

ndundue xternal ressureavenot-alwayseen asyo distinguish.

SomeShortcomingsn theCunentApproach

9'-on9 essentialspect f communityworkwhichhasbeenneglected asbeenenvironmentaleducationndawareness-raising.hiscanandshould e an ntegral omponent f participatoryandaction-orientedesearch,ndnot anactivitywhich s divoiced rom it. Theparticipatoryproduction fvillagenatural

Jesgurceaps asbiena stepn the ightdirectiorL ut here emainsa lot moreworkof this.kindwhichmightbe undertaken.nsteadherehassometimeseenatendencyo approachhis ssuen formal,almost cademic,erms.To citebut oneexample,hetime-consumingddition f thesemapso aGISdatabase,hileof potential alue-i;; ffi;;;



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where roject esourcesreabundant,ecomes uchhardero ustifo asa priority n a situationwhere oonehasbeen roperlyrainedo useGISand heresultshaveno mmediateelevanceto thevillagerswhodrew heoriginalsexcepto confirmwhat heyalready now. Except n verygeneralerms,elativelylittle ttempt asbeenmadeo findoutandmake onstructiveseofwhatvillagersdo know and think about he wildlife around hem. The absence f a creativeparticipatorypprglchon theprojecthasnotunderminedheviabilityof communitywildlifemanagementn LM GCA,butwell-designednputsof thiskind couldcontriuuiesignificantlyoits mplementation.

10' Anotherand elated hortcomingf thectrrentREWMPapproachs its narrow nstitutionalfocusnthe ocalcommunity.At present EWMP'sworks argitywittr ormalvillagegovernmentinstifutionsnd hevarious lected ndappointedfficialsworkingatdivisional,wardandvillagelevels'Thiswasevident uringhe o*ulian"y in the ypes rmeiingr *ni"tt *"re arrangednda reluctanceo departromformalprocedurendchannils.while it obviouslymustbea priorityfoTREWMPoworkcloselywith ndthroughgovernmentnstitutionsndofficials,heresclearlyscopeor interacting roductivety ith otherocal nstitutionsfor examplewomen,s roups) ndwithvillagers utside f thevillagecentre.

1l' Thisproblem risesn partbecausef REWMP's imited esourcesn termsof personnelndthe physicaldistancebetweenproject headquartersn RNp and the LM GCA villages.Communicationsreaparticular roblem uring hewetseason,nd his sespeciallyhecasenPawaga ivision' argeareas f whichareclosedo road ransport uringand mmediately ftertherains.At presentheonlyprojectworkerbased utsideof RNp isaVSOattachedo REWMpwho lives n Idodivillage in thedivisionof thesame ame).A goodcase anbe made orstrengtheningEWMP's-communityresencendworkbystationing-roject acilitatorsn eachdivisionandequippinghemwithwo-wheeledranspoj.

12' Despitehesemisgivings,t should ereiteratedhatREWMphasmadesignificantprogressin facilitatinghedevelopmentf an nstitutionalrameworkn which heconversionf LM GCAintoa viablewMA can akeplace.Theres still,however, ongway o go, n largemeasurebecausef thecomplexity fthe institutionalssuesnvolved nd heconsequenteed o adoptaconsciously xperimental pproach.

People ndResources

ControlOverResources

13' whatdo hevillagershemselveshink?Theprimary oncern f villagers, nd n particularofthemembersfvillagegovernment,s hedesiri oexerciseontrolover heirown ocalnaturalresources' hecorollary f this s a desireo exclude r controlaccessy outsiderso scarceresources,speciallyesourcesike largegamewhicharebeingexploiteilanJ n manycasesoverexploited)ypeopleromoutsideof thecommunitywith tiuteo, nouppurent enefit o it.Thispointwasemphaticallyaden all of themeetings eldduring treconsuttancy,ncludingmeetings ith localofficialsn villageswhichdonothaiewCs and/or renotamonghesix pilotvillageswhichREwMp is currently ocusingts attentions pon.

14' Thisperceptionf resourceontroland ts potential enefitso thecommunity asnot arisenasaresultofREWMP'swork, houghprojectactivitieshavehelpedo shape o'me lements f



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it' concernsarevoice{{9ut a rangeof resourcessues ndconflictswhichREwMp hasnottackleddirectly,andwhichclearlypredatets recentnterventions. hesessuesnclude hedestructionf localwoodlandsor fuit by tobacco-gro*., fromoutside f LM GcA, and heuseof scarcedry seasonwater esourcesy the groorlng urnb",of livestock-keepersn thearea.villagerskeennterestn acting pon hesessuesasuelled heir eady pLi* of REWMp,s

-game-focusedrogramme, nd heyarewell awareof the linkagesbetweenhem. The newMapogorovillagewc is in factcalledtheKamatiyaKuhl{adhi-Mazingirao wronyo*apori,committeefor theProtectionf theEnvironmentndwildlife' by tsmembers,nd heydescribeits primary esponsibilitiessbeing o protect ndensurehesustainabletiiisation f naturalresourcesn thevillage.

ResidentHunting

15 Manyvillagers[e veryconcernedlbout

the pastandpresent ctivitiesof residenthunters,in particular hose hey dentift, rightly_orwrongly,as embers of theIringabranchof theHuntingAssociation f TanzaniaHAT) Resident unters avehuntedgun.,.nit " LundaSouth(LS)area incehecolonialperio4anduntilrecentlywereallocated ll of itsgamequotahroughlicencesssued y theDistrictandRegionalGameofficers(DGo andRGo). Most of theresident unters re-comparativelyealthy itizenswho ive elsewheren thedistrict. A few areresidentn LS tsel{,but hemajorityof vi-llagersreunableo aflordhunters,icensesnddo notpossessheappropriate eaponsor legalhunting.

l6' This long-standingtateof affairswaschangedn the 1995hunting easonwhichrunsthroughhesecond alf of theyear)when he WD-directedhata portion"ofhegamequotabetansferredoREWMP'ssixpilol villages.Residenthunters avebeenbanned, t least or thetime being,from huntingn thisarea, he dea being hat n future,once he wC, u." up andrunning,hehunters ill haveo negotiate irectlywitf, villagespreparedo sellthempartor allof theirquotja.nitiallya completemoratorium n resident unting n LS wascontemplated.na spiritof compromise,owever,esident unters avebeenallowedocontinue untingn otherareasn tltesouth-westndnorth-eastfLS whereherearealsosignificant oncentrationsfgame'Nonethelessheyhaveemporarilyost egalaccesso the".niul rrunting reawhichtheyfavourmostbecause f its easyaccessiuitity y-road ndopen errain.

17'-Not surprisingly,hismajorshift n resourceccessn favourof theLSvillageshasnot beenwelcomedyFIAI'members. t the imeof theconsultancyesident unters lere till huntingin the closedarea,he RGo andDGo havingsanctioneihem o do so. The conflictandconfi'rsionhichhasarisenhasbeen urtherstokedup by reportsandallegations f continuingmalpracticey resident unters.Villagers,ogether ith ; varietyof otherJbr"*.rr, allege hatnmong thermisdeeds anyhunters hoot nimals ndnumbeis f animalswhich heydo nothaveicensesor, hattheyrequentlybrellhytingregulationsbyshootingromvehicles, nd hatsome f themalsocross ver ntoLN andRNP o-takiadvantaglof the ch pickingswhichcanbehadalongheGreatRuahaRiver.Thegeneraleelingsthat esident unters reoverexploitingthegameesourcesfLM GCAandhavedoneso or ro-" y"urr, with little apparent enefit othevillageswhich heypasshrough n heway.

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18' F{ATofficialsstate learly hat theywouldneversanction uchpractices mong heirmembership,nddenyhat heyhaveeverbeenpartof anyoverexploitationwhichasakenplace.Iruteadhey point o the actthat heyhaveprbvidedmuch-neededinancialandothersupport

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to theWD at district evel,andhave ontributedn variousways o thedevelopmentf someofthevillagesn LS. Needlesso say illagerswhoarecriticalorirnr respondo nrsbysayinghatthecost o them ntermsof overhuntingndextractedaluehas aroutweighedhebenefitswhichtheyhave eceived r beenpromised. ynicsaccuse IATof actingouiof ulteriormotivesnproviding ssistanceo ocalvillages ndndividual ffrcials tdifferentevels.Whateverubstancetheremaybe othese ifferent

laimsandallegations,he esulthasbeen nunhealthyfinosphereof verbal onflict' Thishasbeena difficultsituationorREWMpto dealwith,and n attemptingto do so t hasquitenaturallyakenhesideof thevillagers.

19' Matterseached headust before hestartof theconsultancy, hen hechairman f FLATIringawroteastrongly-wordedetterooDA's VillageDevelopmentdviser vDA) alleginghatREWMPappearedobeworkingagainst IATandagainsthe nterests f wildlife conservationil

!M GCA' Thisprovided nexcellent pportunityor theconsultancyeam o .seethingsattheirworst', o assesshe mplications f thissituationor the futurebf ,o.rrrunity wildlifemanagementnLM GgA and oexplorewaysnwhich hecrisismightbe esolved.Two fruitfulmeetings ereheldwithHAT officialsandmembersn attend*.", Jn, atdistrict evelchaired y

theDNRo' theotherwithMalinzangaillagewC. TheRGo and heDGo werealsopresentnthe first meeting'aswas heDGo in thesecond,ogetherwith a rangeof other key players,.Bothofthesemeetingsawsomeivelyandat timeshiateddebate,ndioth endedon apositivenote.

20' Variousmisunderstandingserecleared p about he institutional atureand role ofREWMP,andabout hepresent tatus nd uture rop. for resident unting n LM GCA in thelightof thewD's wMA policy.FIATand heGosexilained heirdifferent-concerns,ndwaysin which hese ouldbe addressednd heirfuller pariicipationn theplanningprocess nswedwerediscussedndprovisionally greed, swasa more ransparentmechanismy whichF1ATcouldcontinueo supportWD workandvillagedevelopment.heMalinzangameeting

ncludeda ongdebate bout he oleand esourcingf theviliagegame couts, nd h. HAT chairmanpledged ariousorms-ofmaterialupport hich .r" gt .tJd byenthusiasticlapping ndcheersfromthe largeassembly f peoplepresent.

21. While hiswasonlyasmallbeginning,nd heroadaheadwill probablybeas oughas t issmooth,heresanevident eedo continuenteractionsfthis kindandkeep hemomentum fconstructiveiscussionoing.Resident

!ryling doesnot posean ntrinsic hreat o theviabilityofcommunitywildlifemanagement,utchallengesrojectmplementersodevisemeans y whichsuchmajor esourceonflicts anbesettled.Theseonflictscannot lways esolved t ocal evel,and hisunderlinesheneedo facilitatehedevelopmentf institutionaicapacityutsideaswellas

within hecommunitiesn a WMA

Commercial oaching

22' Allegationsf overhuntingrenotonly evelled t resident unters nd hemembersf HAT.Some illages lsocomplairydhata argegang f poachers,umbering smanyas 50-60men,periodicallyame romoutside f LM GCAto raid tr gu*. ,erourc.s. The provenancef thisgangssaidobe hevi.llagef Kipelaand hereaboutsn he road o Iringa.Villagers ay hattheyhavebeen elatively owerlesso actagainsthese oachers, hotravelon footandoff themain oads.However,heynoted hat hegang organgs) avebeenmuch essactiveover hepast ear,attributinghis act o the mpactsof REWMP'Swork. Althoughvillage gamescouts

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have o ar onlybeendeployedn Malinzanga,t seemshat heirpresencendknowledge f theincreasingoncem ndvigilance fvillageauthorities avealreadybeguno deterpoachers.Anumberof wc members ndothers o.king with them reelyadmit o havingpoachedn the pastthemselves'nd herearesignshat heug.oto stratery ftumingpoachersntogamekeepersillworkaswell within the ocalro**unities as t t uilrcrr"r,.r".

23' rn thedecadersobeforehenationwide perationuhai in l9g9 and he nternational anon ivory andrhino horn rade,elephant-andirinopoachingwere rife wiirrin andalong heboundariesf RNP' Thereareno thinot left in RNPno*, but theelephant opulationappearsto be recoveringwell. Recently,however,herehasbeena noticeableLrurg"nr" in ivorypoaching,lbeit tat amuch ower evel han n the past, varioussources llege hat powerfulbusinessnterestsn Iringaare mplicatedn this. o*ring *ith thissituations tearly the ob oftheanti-poactrinsnjljn RNPand ring4 andnotof REivMp, though well functioningwMAmaymake t more.difficultor suchpoacherso operaten thisparticular rea.Given hat hegreatestoncentratio,nf elephantss andalwayswill be n RNp'and headjoiningGRs,whereivory poachers refer o infiltrateduring he wet ,.uron, there s no ,"urin why LM GCA,sviability asa wMA shouldbeaffected,&"n if ivorypourhingcontinues.

PastoralResources

24'-Another ey ssuen thecontol of nahral resourcesevolves roundhe question f accessto these y ivestock-keepers.hevastmajorityofvillagersn LSaremixed armerswho derivemostof their ivelihoodrom hecultivation fiubsisterieandcash rops,hemost mportantofthese eingrrigated.rice.ndeedhepotential or irigated agricultur.^uiongheGreatRuaha,stributaries,nd hehign ertilityof newlyclearlyand, ,ave tkactedmany armersrom hesouthto settlen thisarea.As a resultof this heeconomyndsocialcomposiiion irs arenow verydifferent rom what heywere n theearlycolonialperiod. Livestock-k".pings much essimportantorthe indigenouseheandcoso-t1rant formerlywas,and heyhavebeenoinedbymanyBena,Kingaandotherimmigrant ultivators.The ivelihood f theKosisamba,ormerresidentsfRNPwhoonce eliedmoreheavily nhunting nd ishing, asalsoshifledn thesamedirection' ronically icewas irst ntroduced nd his pricessset n rnotionby a smallgroupofprofessional lephant unters,Makua rom southern anzania.

25' while the indigenous thnicgroupsof LS have ewer ivestockhan n the past,otherimmigrant roups ave ome nto hJareawithsubstantialivestockholdings.The first of theseweremembersf the-Il-ParakuyuBaraguyu) ectionof theMaasai, t o u'"g* to settle n thisarean theearly1950s.Manyof themsubsequentlyookup cultivation swell as ivestock-keeping, s manyothergroups f ll-Parakuyu,iho i". in close ontactwithmixed armershavedone' Over hepastdecade r sootheragropastoralistroups avealsomovedntoLM GCAwith argeherds f cattle.Thesenclude umbers fBaraiaigandsukuma,who havemovedupfrom heUsangu lainso thesouth f RNP. Thedryseason'wateresourcesf theMteraDam,ontheboundary etween SandLN, formaparticuiarattactionto these attleherders, sdo thecrop esidues n rrigatedarmsn LS. Estimatesfthenumber f cattlenow o be found n LMGCAvarybetween 0,000 nd60,000 ccordingo season.At presenthis doesnot seemo bea serious roblem.Themaindangeries n co=ntinuedpillover romusangu,wheregrowingpopulationressurey9 th! imminentgazettementf the UsanguGRmaywell promptanevenlargernfluxof cattleherdersntoLMGCA.



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26' while localconflicts ooccuroveraccesso resourcesetween ultivators nd ivestock-keepersndbetween.differentroups f livestock-keepers,heseareu.*lly;;olved within thevillage' mmigrantlivestock-keepers,owever,orma smallandoftenn.,ouit.minorityof thepopulation'and his s reflectedn their ow degree f representationn villagegovernment,includingthe ewly ormedwCs. Givenhe earolcontinued ncroachmenty ivestock-keepers,some

illagers eehewCs asameans ywhich heycancontrol hisand t"r *y future ide ofimmigration' The livestock-keepershemselvesften feel that their interests re not wellrepresentednd hat heyare hevictimsof ethnicstereotyping.

27' Recent ventsnMlowaward,which ncludesMalinzanga illage, llustrate his. Earlier n1995the Maasai iving in this areawereapproachedy HIMWA (Hudumaya Injiri naMaendeleoa Wafugail,Gospel

Service ndPastoralistevelopment'),Maasai-focusedGobasedn Iringawhichwantedo includehem n its programme.TheMaasaicomplained bouttheir reatrnentyother illagers ndexpressedarticiar concern bout heirexclusionrom alocalareawhich hey-hadreviously een ble o gr*and water heiranimalsn quite reely.Thisbanhadbeeneffectedhree ears arlierat he nstigation f theDGO,andwassubsequentlybacked ythe ocalvillageauthorities.Thereason iv-enor thebanwas hat heirherdswerecompeting ith gameor thesameesources,nd heiewasa dangerhatdiseases ouldspreadfromthe ivestock o wild herds.

28' with HIMWA's encouragementheMaasaiormeda committeeo pressor a reversal f thisbanandallocation f adefined reaof land or theirexclusive se. Theyhavenot done his yetand i'fther actionappearso be awaitingHIMWA's assistance.t is proposedhat heirchairmanshouldirstmeetwiththechairman fMalinzangaWCto discusshe ssue.ThenHIMryA willapproach EWMP odo heszrme. hereaftert is hopedhata meeting f thevillagegovernmentwill becalled o reach finaldecision. f this ails o producehedJsiredesult hen heywillpursuehematter hroughhighergovemment

hanneli.29' Whateverthe utcomemaybe, this case points o thekindsof negotiation hicharebeginning o takeplaceandwhichwill probablybecomencreasingly.""qu"ntas he wMAdevelops. heperceivedoleof theWC, and he

-formationof a .o.iritt.", with NGO help, o

representhe interests f this particulargroupof livestock-keepers,anbe seenasa positivedevelopment.The WCson theirown,with or withoutREWMi's help,cannothope o tackleevery resourcessueand represent verysectionof interestsn the communityLffectively.Women's nterests,.forxample,mightbe betterserved y encouraginghe participation fwomen's roupsn similarways.Otherorganisationsike fniraWe with'sp-ecialoncernswhichfall outside f REWMP's mmediate riefcanalsoplayan mportantole n thisprocess,nd

should eencouragedodoso. To citeanother.*urpl., tlreresobvious copeor collaborationwith the DANIDA HIMA (HifadhiMazingira, ProtecttheEnvironment')project n Iringato

exploreways n whichvillagers' oncem ver hedestuctionof theirwoodlands anbe tackled.Thisprojecthasbeenmplementedhroughegional nddistrictadministrativehannels, nd tsexperiencen thisregard ouldalso orm an mportantasseto REWMp.

CropRaiding

3-0' n additionoexpressingdesireoexerciseontol over heirownnaturalesources,illagersalsocomplain bout rop aidingby wild animals.Whereasn theory

heycancalluponWDofficerso assisthem, hisoftenprovesmpractical,ndvillagers re rustrated y their nability



tohuntverminbecausef the estrictionslaced pon hemby heanti-poachingnitswhichworkutsideof RNP boundaries.This affects n.n unJ *omen farmers hroughoutLS, and isspecially orryingo thosen poorer ouseholdshohaveewartemativeourcesf subsistenceand income' Villagersdo not alwaysdistinguishu"t*""n the differentpark and wildlife

ilj::,TJt"J'and this problem ostersa negative magewhich might ,"uouna upon project

3l' Theresobviously -needn thiscaseor morecareful oordinationetweenhedifferentauthoritiesoncerned ndsome otentialorcreating;;;;" positive iewof theiractivities.oneay odo hiswouldbe o allowvillagersohunt eignised vermin p".i.r r""r, aswild pigs. Inome illages ommunalunting f verminusedou. ina"rtur.en efore lanting, ut hispracticehasbeeneffectivelyorbidden ver he past wo decades.Thereinstitutionof suchhuntscouldforman additionalncentiveo.wc formation, speciallyn vilragesni"r, ur. predominantlyagriculturalndhaveimitedaccesso largegame pecies ithin n"L uo*au.i"r. Actionagainstverminwouldalsoprovidea more mmediate enent o a largerandwidercross-sectionf theopulationhan heprovision f gamemeatdoes.

VillageDevelopment

32' In the meetings eldwith villagersduring he consultancy,he development f villageinfrastructuredid not oom as arge n theageidaas he ssueof resource ontrolandall thatstemsrom this' Thiswas n parta function-of henatureof themeetingshemselves.t alsoreflectedhe act hat evenuesromwildlifeutilisationn LM GCAhaveonlybeguno enteronewc account' nda more mmediate oncernwashow t might undembryonic c activities,especiallyheemployment f villagegame couts.However, illagers reclearlyawarehatcommunitywildlife managementnd he undsderivingrom it canandshouldn futurebechannelledn this direction,andas revenuesncreaset i, tit.ty that this will become nincreasinglymportantncentiveothem-

]he-lnending transfer f revenuesrom ouristhunting

inLN to villagesn LS meanshat hisshourdtupp"niinirtyoon.

33' A number fvillagesn LShavealready enefittedubstantiallyrom undsprovidedhroughTANAPA's scIP (support or community nitiutJ tt"*,rl programme.Theseundshavebeenusedo improveocalschools nddispensarier,nd luu. hada noticeablypositive mpactuponperceptionsf RE\MVIP nd tswork,not omentionhebenefits rovideito usersof thesefacilities'Thecurrent-annualudget f scP for assistin! lrn**itles aroundRNp is Tshs16million,whichexceedsheannual evelopmertrJg.lF"i thewholeof thedistrict c.Tshs2million)' scIPfundsare,however, lso ntended , ur. in villages ear heparkwhichareoutside f LM GCAand ie in otherdisbicts. t isalsonoicertainwhetherheallocationo RNpwill bemaintained,lven hat t makes ossand hat t .r. i, some ressureor moresclp fundsto bedirectedo thenorthern arkswhichgeneratehem.

34' while it isnotatpresentlearexactlyhowmuch evenueN will generateor villagesn LS,onsome redictionshese umsmaywellmatchor even urpasshose rovidedhrough clp.whateverheprecisei-q:res,heviliageswhichbenefitrom hisrevenue ill presumablyeelareatersensef ownershipndwill be ree oallocatehe undsas heywish,which snot hecaseatpresent ith scP funds.Thiswill beevenmore rueof funds irirr, uirtug; generateromtheirownutilisation ctivities.



35' At thesameime heressome angerhat hese illages undswill themselvesecomehesubject f conflictover heircontrolanddisbursement,speciallyf they *.."d othervillagerevenues'Themostobviouspatternof economic iffereniiationn the S villages s linked oethnicoriginandassociated odeof livelihood,whilea loosestratum f relativelywealthyindividuals'ncluding alaried fficials, raders, ndmenwhohaveallegedlymade heirmoneyfromcommercialoachingan

be ound n thevillagecenhes. t wouldbeunfortunatef wildlifeutilisation osteredhe. urtherdevelopment f economic ifferentiationn eitherof thesedirections,swellaswideninghegender ap n accesso resources,hough hismayhappennsomenstances. or hisreasont isall themore mportanto ensurehat he nterestsf differentsections f thecommunity reas ully represente-dn wildlifemanagementndutilisation spossible, hetherhisbeon heWC orvia otherocal nstifutionsndmechanisms.Measuresoenstuemaximum ansparencyndaccountabilityn thehandling f funds erivedromutilisationshould lsobeworkedout n conjunction ith thevillagers.

Wildlife andUtilisation

36' Is thereor will therebe enoughgame n LM GCA to sustain ommunitywildlifemanagement?s thisquestion ill be eatedmore horoughlyn theaccompanyingonsultantecologist'seport, will confinemyselfhereo a number f general bservations. heseall leadto the conclusionhat here s andwill always esufficientgame n thearea or utilisation,1t:gilg that hepattern f institutional evelopmentnd nstitritionalinkages eing ostered yREWMPwill continueo evolven thedirections hich hisreportsuggestsheyShould.At thesameime thecase anbemade hateffectivecommunitywildlife lt'"n"g.-"nt neednot andshould ot evolve roundheutilisation fgamealone: u.n ifth"r. *.r" nJl*g" animals

n LMGCA themanagementndutilisation f other ormsof wildlife andnatural es6urcewouldstillbe viable. Thisbroader erspectives at the heartof theWD's new policy,and t wouldbeinadvisableo take oonarrowa viewof whatcommunitywildlife*unug.*.nt means.

VillageHunting

37' Thecurrent tratery fREWMP n itssixpilotvillages eliesheavilyupon heallocationofaquotaofgameanimalso villageWCswhich heymay,in uhue,useoidiiposeof as heywishfor thebenefitof thevillageand ts inhabitants.nis is a novel nterventionn thehuntingeconomy

fLM GCA. In theoryocal esidentsaven thepastbeen ble o huntpermitted amispeciesn LS, providing hat heypossessheappropriateicense,heappropriaieweapon, ndabide yWD regulationsbouthow,what,when-and here heyhunt. in practiceonlya smallminorityof villagers ossesshe inancialmeansand n some aseshe nclination)o huntunderthese onditions,nd hevastmajorityofresident untersperatingegallynLShavensteadeenrelativelywealthy eoplerom ringa ownandelsewheien the,.gion

38' The ransfer f thegamequota romwealthyesident unterso thevillageWC thereforeenablesorwill enable)morevillagersohunt egallyand/or enefitrom heproJeedsf legalisedhuntinghanhashitherto eenhecase. t alsoslrvis to give heWC a kick-start.The financialproceedsroma huntcanbeusedo fi,rnd therWCactiviiies,ncludingheemploymentf villagegame couts, hile heveryactof hunting ndsellingpreviouslyiorbidden'meatprovideJa



sustainableenefitso thepeopleiving n LS. ThewMA approacheingpioneeredyREWMpoffersmuchbetterchances f su"ceis. As we haveseen,rillug"r, trrr"ougrroutS areclearlyunhappy boutheoverexploitationf localgnme esourcesypoachersndhuntersromoutsideof theircommuniti?l Ey:n in villagesike itununau, rti"rris ou*ide oiirr" piro,anddoesnothaveextensiveand and herefore otential ame).ro*", of itsown,steps avebeen aken omonitor the activitiesof hunters assingrtrougrro huntelsewhere.As a resultpoaching youtsiderss widelyreportedo hauediminished-overhe pastyear.

44' Thereseveryndicationhat heconversionf LM GCA nto a wMA and hedevelopmentof communify-basedanagementystems ill afforda betterevelof protectiono RNp and hegame roundtseasternordershanhaspreviouslyeen ttainable.Theonifuiuul. alternativewouldbea completemoratoriumonhuntingand estrictionof other ormsof human esourceutilisationwhichare ncompatible ith thep.ir.n"" org*n., combined ith effective olicingofthesemeasuresy RNP andotherauthorities.Howeler, t i, i, un option*rrich wouldbothconsumehe imited inancial esourcesf these uthoritiesndoffer ittie in thewayof benetitsand ncentiveso the ocalpopulation.This s precisely t y tlr. WD hasormulatedts wMApolicy.

'J

45' Returning o the questionof gamepopulations ndhuman mpactsupon hem, he mostappropriatetrategy ouldbe o encoutps"t" developmentf monitorlng "tiuitiesat villagelevel' simple ecords f huntingexpeditions,heirsuccesVfailurendkophyqualitycanbekeptbywcs andcollated nd_analysedywD officersasaworkingsubstitu; ior.*p"nrive animalcensuses'nformation f thiskindcanbeusedo helpsetgame uotas:at presenthese eem obebased nnomore han nformed uesswork.

Uilisation Optiow

46' rthasalready eennotedhatvillagen'primary oncernsto establishontroloveraccessonafuralesources,ncluding ameanimats naother ormsof wildlife, so hat t "y "un enjoy hebenefitswhichmayderive rom heirufilisation. n thecase f game,heircurrentconception fdifferent ossibleonnsof utilisations largely hapedytheir ast experi"n""uno heactivitieswhichREWMPhassponsoredo date,ocusing pondiiectconsumption. he act hat elativelylittleconsiderations given o indirect o*urpion andnon+onsumptiveseof game esourcesat thisstage oes otentail hat hey ack easiLility or hat heywilf remainow priorities n thefuture' ndeed, ndasREWMPhas ecognised,nl of itsown uture oleswill be o helpvillagersexplorehediflerentoptionswhichareavailable.For he imebeingREwMp has,quitesensibly,givenhigherpriority o theestablishmentf theWCs,andnotwishedorushvillagersntomakingdecisionsboutdifferent tilisation ptionswhen t is clearly ooearly o,. nefi to do so.

47 Theongoing rogrammef villagegamehuntingexercisess therefore estconceived sameanso anend atherhanasanend n itself It is necessaryosay hisbecause f the endencyof someobserverso udge he projectprematurelyn thebasisof thisactivityalone. Theprovision fgamemeat,or example, hould otbeihought f asmajor actor n assessingheviabilityof directconsumption.Thefact hatpresent nifirtur" huntingquotasareunlikelytohavea significantmpactfPon hesupply f meatn LS s relatively i.frrt^igiu.n thecurrentroleof animalmeatn villagers'dietj.Villagerseporthat heygenerallyatmeatno more hanoncea weekor so. Whenaskedhe easonsor this, heypoinito

its relativelyhighcostand hefact hat t is generallyn shortsupply:cattleandsmallstock renot slaughtereclnadailybasis



in mostof the villages n LS. Gamemeat,poached r otherwjse,s an even ess requentcomponent f the ocaldiet. As far ascanbeestablishedhema;orityoruiirug"r,haveonlyoccasionallytastedamemea! f atall..Villagers afurally xpress desireo eatmoremeat,andareenthusiasticbout heprospect f having eadieru"J"r, to gamemeat lrroughhehuntingquota' Morethananything.else,hough,hii symbolisesheir rlgitimate;;;,"r" of a resourcewhich heycouldonly previously ccesillegiiimatet.

48' Formuch hesameeasorLt is diflicultatpresentorvillagerso contemplateellingontheiron heirquotao the esident unters hom trey eet hemselvesobe n conflictwith. AndwhileFIATofficialshavedeclaredheir willin$esl to p1yhigherfeesor gamehcenses,hesums heyproposeor differenL:p".i"l still representnlyafractiJnof thevalui of the n"u,on hecarcase.Theresthereforetill a wide gulfbetrveenhelnterestsnd ntentionsf theJo partiesnvolved,and t maybesomeimebeforehis gulf canbebridged,evenwith REWMp,sadviceandhelp.In theshort ermat eastt is probablehatdirectconiumptionwill continueo providevillagerswiththebest eturns n heirquota, hought is impossidr.o predictwhatkinis of negotiationmight akeplaceandcompromiseseachedn the uture.

49' WhilesomewC membersrealreadyhinkingabouthepossibility f touristhuntingand/orgame iewing,heresageneralackof knowledge boutwhat his wouldentail. Thevalueofgamerophies,or example,snotwidelyappreciated.his sanother rean whichREWMpcanplayan mportantacilitatoryIo1.,n"1nuisn conjunctionth othernterestedarties ragencies.Theprogrammefvisits o RNPwhichREIVIIP isarrangingorvillager, ,un'b" seenaspartofthisprocess'At presentSvillagers arely nteractwittriorirists,and-RNp oesnot n anycaseattract argenumbers f them.

50' It is generally greedhatpresent amedensitiesn LS are nsufficient or it to beusedasatouristhunting loclq hough ne llicit quasi-touristamp srumouredo havebeenoperated ya resident untern the*.:1in recent ears, ndsmall-scaleegalisedouristoperationsannotberuledoutasa futurepossibility hoddgame umbersncreasendviilagers gree.LN, however,iscunentlybeingused satouristhunting lock,andholds hegreatesipot"itiur or utilisation.Asalludedo above,t alsopresentsnrr-b"r ofproblems, ndvlll provide i-po*nt testcasein the ransitiono communitywildlifemanagement.

5l ' TheFrench ompany hichuses N alsohuntsn theRungwaandKisigoGRs o thewest.Theprofessionaluntersomplainhathumandisturbancen_the outhern artof LN borderingtheGreatRuahaRiverand heMteraDam!ay9

madet unprontableo hunt n this particular rea.As well as being the site of an unofficialsettlement,his area s frequently isitedbyhoney-gatherersswellas ivestock-keepersnd isherswhoexploit ts permanent ater esourcesand hegoodpastures hichborderheJe.Thesoutherntretchof LN is arso efuted o beusedby resident unters.whollegallycrossnto t fromLS. Elsewheren LN, theFrench unterscomplainhat hey indthemselvesompeting ithpoachers hocome nto hehuntingblockfrom hevillageof Ilangali.Thisvillages locatedoihenorthof LN, anda failswithin Dodomaregion.

52' Despitehese roblefs,LN clearlygenerates ore evenuehroughouristhuntinghan scurrently rever ikely obegeneratedhrough ame tilisationn LS. Tourists ayconsiderablymore or their rophieshan esident unters o for their icences r the ,unr, uillugers anraisefrom hesales f gamemeat.-Forexample, hereanordinary uffalo icence ostsTshs6,000peranimal'

and hemeatmightbesold or someTshs50,000,ouristhunters ayUS$g00for the



firstbuffaloshotandus$ 600persubsequentill. In 1994hecompany peratingn LN declaredthat heyhadcollected.US$11,000n trophy ees rom t. Underexisting rrangementsll ofthis evenueasgone o tlre reasury az6"l" ofit suuselulntly laimeoffi" ottrict. Noneofthis revenue asbeenof directbenefit o theviltagers-orlS,a number'ofwhom ived n LNbeforet became GCA n 19g5.

53' Thereareanumber f optionsor the futureof LN. one proposals that t shouldbetakenoutof LM GCAandgivenGRstatus.n thiscase, owever, Svillagerswouldcontinueo bedenied ny ole n itsmanagementnd het_ene{1-sccruingror it. tI is more ikely, however,andconsistent ith thewD's policy, hatLN will bedeveLpedasa wMA in conjunctionwiththe estofLM @A. Thi.s ntion i supported y thechief wardenof RNPaswell asofficialsin thedisfict administation.The qutrfion then emains s o whichfonnsof utilisation n LNwouldbe mostappropriaten future.

54' Thesimplest olution, t eastn theshort erm, s to retainLN asa touristhuntingblock.FollowingnewwDrylicy' aproportion f its 1995 evenuesill bedirectedo thevillagesn LS.

25o/of the evenuesor thecurrent unting eason ill accrueo localvillagers via REwMp),a further20Yoo thedistrictauthorities,nd heremaining55yotothe ieasury.when LNachievesull wMA statushevillagers' harewill in theory ise o 75oA,with 5o/oorthedistrict,l0o/o or theTanzania ildlife Protection.FundTWPF;,andnothing or thetreasury.Thetransfer f theseundsovillagesnLSwill clearlygrvea considerableoJstoany ncomes hichtheymightderive romgameutilisationn LS heff.

55' How o divideout heseunds, rhow o manageccesso LN if villagers realsopermittedto utilisesomeof theresources ithin t, arernJr.aim.ult questionso answer.REWMp'scurrent nderstanding-ishat hevillages fPawaga ivisionhavehistoricaland ightswithinLN,while t is suspected,hough otyetproverLlrat

lomevillagesn Isinrani ivision

whereREWMphasnotworked)mayhavesimilar ights.Sorting ut hiserightson avitiage'uy illagebasiswouldundoubtedlyeatime-consumingndgimcgt taslggiven hehistoricalpatternof villageandpopulationmovementsn thisareaand hedifferent lnas of claimsuporir.rourcesn LNwhichdifferent illages ndsubvillages ouldmake.Some fthecomplexitfusnvolvedemergedduringheconsultancyn adiscussionf this ssuewiththeDNRo *dtn" DistrictBeekeepernld.lgu As suggestedarlier, hebestapproacho this questionwouldseemo beto avoid hevillagisation'of

accesso resourcesherethiss ikely o provecounterproductive,nd o dividethebenefits f utilisation s airlyaspossible etrveeniilages.

Conclusion

56' communitymanagementf wildlife sviable n LM GCA,and he process f convertingtintoa wMA hasalready een et n motionby thewn unJngwMp. The ssuesnvolved recomplex'andbalancinghe nterests f a wideanayof stakeholdersrom communityevelupwards emandsnstitutionalnnovation nd ur.ful facilitation.TheVillageDevelopmentcomponent f REWMPhas playeda key role in this respect, ndhasestabtished goodfoundationor futuredevelopment-t thesameime heresclearlystill a ot of work o bedone.If ODA supportwerewithdrawn t hisstage,t is ikely hat hemomentum hichhasdevelopedwouldbe ost,andunlikely hatanother _"_l"l9oul9it ttregap. If oDA supports maintained,andcurrent hortcomingsddressed,M wMA will havea iruch greater hance f successndthepotentialo actasa model or thedevelopmentf otherwMAs in Tanzania.

| . ,



Recommendations

57. oDA supporto thedevelopmentf LM GCAasa wMA shourd ontinue.

58' Thewiderobjective fthis support'shoulde o assisthewD in implementingtspolicyforwildlife conservation

and(rilistation,with

special eferenceo theconversion f GCAs ntoWMAs.

59' Thespecificobjective hould e he^conversion,deallywithinthe ifetimeof the project,ofLM GCA into a well-functioningWMA

60' Theproject hould eexplicitty oncerned ith thewholeof LM GCA, ncluding heareasin whichREWMPhasneverworked,or examplesimanidivision.This s ;";";ruqy because fthe nterests f Isimani n LN aswell as heMteraDamand therzazarruntingr"u.

61' A phased xpansionf village-levelacilitation tartingromcurrentwork n thesix pilotvillages hould ecombined ith planning nd acilitationrom hedistrict-level ownwards,buildinguponcurrentwork with ihe DSa. The ssueol'LN andvillale airtriuutionof therevenuesrom it shouldbeanearlypriority.

62' Closecollaboration ith TANAPA at national ommitteeeveland hrough he SCIpprogramme t RNP evelshouldcontinue.

63' closer inksshould eestablishedith governmenteparhnentstboth egionalanddistrictlevels'Thisshouldncludemeetings ndcJnsultations, upprop.iate ith ut-lt . departmentsconcerned ithnaturalesourcessuesn LM GCA.

64' Particular ttentionhould epaid o ensuringhemoreeffective articipationfthe Gos andotherofficerswhohave itherto een istancedrim theproject, artlybecausef theirperceptionthat heyhavenot benefiuedrom it but ost someof theii authoritynstead.

65' Particular ttention hould epaid o ensuringhemoreeffective articipationf residenthunters ndespeciallythe embersfHAT FlATispotentialo makea'positive ontributionocommunitywildlife managementhouldbe encouraged,nd uppropriut. hannelsor thisestablished. confrontationalpproachhould eavJided.

66' Closerinksshould eestablishedith otheragenciesndNGos whichareworking n orpreparedo workin L-M-GCA,especiallyhosedealingwith natural esourcessues nd/orstakeholdernterests hichcomplementheconcernsf-the roject.

67 A specialeffort shouldbe made o exploreways n whichwomen,sparticipationncommunity ildlifemanagementanbe mprovid,whether irectly e.g.hrougho*"n,, groups)or through therorganisationsith a focusupongenderssues.

68' Likewisemoreeffortshould emadeo-facilitatehe participation f otherminoritygroups(e'g' mmigrantivestock-keepers,eopleiving n sub-villagesa, outside f thevillagecentre).

69' In viewof the ikelyknock-on frects f developmentsn Usanguhese hould emonitored,if possiblehroughheproposedWorldBankprojeciand/orODA,s nput nto t. In theeventhat



thisgetsoffthe groundhepossibility f close ollaborationn ssues f mutualconcerne.g. hemanagementf resourceonflicts,he problem f theseasonalrying-up f theGreatRuahaRiver)should eexplored.

70' Abroader onceptionf wildlifeand elatedesources,onsistent ith thatespousedy thewD aswellasstakeholderstcommunityevel,shouldnro.rn heproject.Fishing thesubjectof a separateonsultancy)ndhoney-gatheringue"t""fing are hemostobvious dditionalcomponents' ikewisethe ee-dor crop protection nd.unug",n.nt of scarcewater esourcesshould edrawn nto hewildlifeutilisaiionramework,rti.rt has endedn thepast o focusalmost xclusively n argegameanimals.

71' Theprojectshould aveanactiveandcreative wareness-raisingomponent t differentlevels'Thisshouldnclude'among ther hings, xplanationnddiscussionof D policyandproject bjectivestregional nddistrictevel,nd pu.ti.ipuioryexaminationf theprosandconsof differentormsof wildlifeutilisation tcommunityevelandhow hesemightbedeveloped.

72' Apptopriaterainingandsupport hould egiveno wcs to facilitate arious spects f theiroperation'Thisshouldncluderainingofvillagegame coutsin collaboration ith theWD), hedevelopmentf game opulationrnonitoringlrJcedures,udui."on how o operate nfamiliarformsofutilisation ndnegotiate ithextemal iients ndaiencies, ndadvice n t . managementof fundsgeneratedy utilisation.

73' Mechanismsor inter-village C collaborationndcoordination houldbegivenparticularattention, nd heirdevel pmentaci tated.

74' Thepotentialor inter-villageharing f resource tilisation hould e followedup asapriority, ncludingheproposalhatvillages hare uotasndiscrete untingUtort, withinLS.

75' The projectand ts staffshould ebasedwhere heyaremost ikelyto impactuponkeyinstitutionsndstakeholders.eriousonsiderationhould egiven o theproporuthatadvisersbestationednkinga own,withdirectaccesso regional nddistrictevel nstitutionsndagenciesandbetteraccesso thenorthern ivisions f LS than romRNpheadquarters-onsiderationshould lsobegivenothestationingf counteryartsndcommunity oordinatorsithinLS tselfl,and heprovision f two-wheeledransporto them.

the potential for community management of wildlife resources in the lunda-mkwambi game controlled...

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