The Performance of Automatic Weather Station (AWS) on

Measurement of Meteorological Parameters during a Total

Solar Eclipse of 9 March 2016 in Indonesia

Kadarsah, Ratnasatyaningsih

Center for Research and Development,

Indonesian Agency for Meteorology Climatology and Geophysics (BMKG),

Jl. Angkasa I No. 2 Kemayoran, Jakarta 10720, Indonesia

kadarsah@bmkg.go.id

Abstract. The performance analysis of Automatic Weather Station (AWS) on measuring meteorological

parameter of a Total Solar Eclipse (TSE) of 9 March 2016 in Indonesia is conducted by comparing three

groups AWS locations during 7-10 March 2016. The first group consists of AWS located in total solar

eclipse path (sampling rate of 10 minutes) and plugged in 12 observation stations of Indonesian Mett-

office (BMKG). The second group AWS (sampling rate of 1 minute, 6.30 S, 106.85 0 E), and the third

group AWS (sampling rate of 20 seconds, 05117.5 N, 127 E) in special settings for observation

TSE. Observed meteorological parameters are temperature, humidity, pressure, wind speed and solar

radiation. The analysis showed that the third group of TSE able to analyze the events in detail. The AWS

has net radiation parameter dropped from 356.4 Wm-2 at 9:12:10 LT to -42.23 Wm-2 at 09:52:50 LT.

The condition occurs because the event lasted only a very short TSE especially when it reaches its peak

with duration of less than 4 minutes. Therefore, for special events such as TSE, measurements of

meteorological parameters in the meteorological station should use a shorter sampling rate in order to be

better analysis of meteorological parameters and accurate.

Keyword: Automatic Weather Station (AWS), solar radiation, Total Solar Eclipse (TSE),

Introduction

The total solar eclipse of March 9, 2016, occurred over the southern Pacific Ocean. A solar

eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun, thereby totally or partly

obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. On 9 March 2016 a total solar eclipse was

visible along a narrow corridor which traversed half the Earth, starting in Indian Ocean,

extending across the Indonesia (Sumatra, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, North Maluku), and then ended

near the Hawaiian islands. The umbra traversed the Indonesia passing directly over the Ternate

Island (05117.5 N, 127 E). A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon's apparent diameter is

larger than the Sun's, blocking all direct sunlight, turning day into darkness. Totality occurs in a

narrow path across Earth's surface, with the partial solar eclipse visible over a surrounding region

thousands of kilometers wide. A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between the Earth

and the Sun, casting shadows upon the Earth. It can only take place during new moon. During a

total solar eclipse the Moon fully covers face of the Sun. Although eclipses are astronomical

phenomena, they also draw considerable interest from atmospheric scientists because solar

radiation is the main source of energy to atmosphere. In view of that, solar eclipses provide a

natural ‘laboratory’ for studying Earth’s environment response to the abrupt disturbances in

radiation. The study results may provide potential benefit to radiative transfer model evaluation

or satellite data validation (Maturilli and Ritter, 2016). Variability of surface radiation during

solar eclipses has been extensively studied (e.g. Fernandez et al., 1996; Foken et al., 2001;

Zerefos et al., 2001; Aplin and Harrison, 2003; Kazadzis et al, 2007; Gerasopoulos et al., 2008;

Nymphas et al. 2012; Maturilli and Ritter, 2016). The greatest eclipse, the instant when the axis

of the Moon's shadow cone passes closest to Earth's center, occurred over Pacific Oceans.

Although there are a number of studies and observations carried out during a solar eclipse over

Indonesia, most of them are related to solar physics such as corona (Tanabe et al., 1985; Hiei et

al., 198; Pasachoff and Ladd, 1987) and circumsolar dust (Mizutani et al., 1984; Isobe et al.,

1985). Evidence of atmospheric gravity waves were also reported (Seykora et al., 1985). The

temperature drop reported on other solar eclipse events (e.g. Segal et al., 1996; Anderson, 1999;

Hanna, 2000; Founda et al., 2007, Fernandez et al. 1996). The temperature decline induced by

the eclipses occurred during the hours of the normal temperature increase should be even larger

(Founda et al., 2007). Probably this is caused by the fact that our site was located in a small

island surrounded by sea, similar to Kasteloriza in Greece. According to Founda et al. (2007),

sea surrounded the island minimizes the temperature response due to its larger heat capacity. We

realized the presence of buildings in the vicinity of our measurement site, which may have

affected the wind and temperature profiles (Winkler et al., 2001; Nymphas et al., 2009).

Therefore, if the measurements are conducted under undisturbed conditions, the temperature may

still have been lower. Time lag between mid-eclipse and the time when air temperature reach its

minimum is different from one location to the other and is linked to the thermal inertia of the air

and the ground (Fernandez et al., 1996; Aplin and Harrison, 2003; Founda et al., 2007).

2. Site and Instrumentation

We carried out field campaign on meteorological measurements in Indonesia region (Fig.1,

Table 1) from 7 - 11 March 2016 for the first site. The first site consists of AWS located in total solar

eclipse path (sampling rate of 10 minutes) and plugged in 12 observation stations of Indonesian Mett-

office (BMKG). The second site AWS (sampling rate of 1 minute, 6.30 S, 106.85 0 E) located in the

Jakarta region (Fig 2, Table 2). And the third site AWS (sampling rate of 10 seconds, 0.780N, 127 380 E)

in special settings for observation TSE (Fig.3, Table 3). Similar campaign has been performed during

the 26 January 2009 annular solar eclipse (Hanggoro, 2011). The 9 March 2016 total solar

eclipse has given a unique opportunity to assess impacts of the eclipse on various meteorological

parameters in Ternate, Jakarta and other site in over the Indonesia region. The eclipse duration in

Ternate is relatively longer compared to other sites in Indonesia. Ternate is one of islands in

Maluku, where mean annual rainfall cycle peak in June to July with rainfall amount about 300

mm/month during the peak (Aldrian and Susanto, 2003). Ternate lies close to totality path of the

solar eclipse of 9 March 2016 and experienced 100% obscuration during the solar eclipse. The

eclipse at this location started at 08:36:3.9 LT, with mid-eclipse at 09:52:59.8 LT, and ended at

11:20:50.3 LT. The Local Time is UT+9h (Table 3). We focus for field experiments at the north-

east part of Ternate island (05117.5 N, 127 E). Our measurement site was located in an open

area in a neighborhood. An AWS was installed at this site, equipped with instruments capable of

measuring temperature, relative humidity, pressure, wind speed and net radiation.

Fig.1 The 9 March 2016 total solar eclipse path over Indonesia region. Regions inside the blue

lines experienced the total solar eclipse while those outside the line had partial solar eclipse. Red

four-square in the figure shows the location of measurement site for the first group.

Fig.2 The 9 March 2016 total solar eclipse path over Jakarta region. Regions inside the red lines

experienced the partial solar eclipse with magnitude 0.9-0.91. Red four-square in the figure

shows the location of measurement site for the second group.

Fig.3 The 9th March 2016 total solar eclipse path over the Ternate. Regions inside the red

curves experienced the total solar eclipse while those outside the curve had partial solar eclipse.

The blue line indicates the central line. Red square in the insert shows the location of measurement

site for the third group.

The Specifications of AWS instrument deployed during field campaign is described in Table

4. The data was recorded at a sampling interval of 20 seconds and its acquisition is acquired by

connecting the instruments to the data logger. The field campaign was conducted from 7 March

to 10 March 2016.

Table 1. Timings of TSE of 9 March 2016 for 12 sites Phase of eclipse Time (LT) Altitude Azimuth

Start of Eclipse 06 : 20 : 14.3 -0.20

94.4 0

Beginning of totality -- : - - : -- -- : - - : -- : - -

Maximum -- : - - : -- -- : - - : -- : - -

End of Totality -- : - - : -- -- : - - : -- : - -

End of Eclipse 11 : 20 : 50.3 104.60 69.30

0

Duration of totality -- : - - : --

Duration of eclipse -- : - - : --

Table 2. Timings of TSE of 9 March 2016 at Jakarta, Indonesia Phase of eclipse Time (LT) Altitude Azimuth

Start of Eclipse 06 : 19 : 51.5 94.00

4.5 0

Beginning of totality -- : - - : -- -- : - - : -- : - -

Maximum 07 : 21 : 31.9 92.50 19.9

0

End of Totality -- : - - : -- -- : - - : -- : - -

End of Eclipse 08 : 31 : 42.1 104.60 69.30

0

Duration of totality -- : - - : --

Duration of eclipse 02 : 11 : 50.50.6

Eclipse magnitude at maximum 0.905

Table 3. Timings of TSE of 9 March 2016 at Ternate, Indonesia Phase of eclipse Time (LT) Altitude Azimuth

Start of Eclipse 08 : 36 : 3.90 95.50

28.6 0

Beginning of totality 09 : 51 : 41.6 97.40 47.4

0

Maximum 09 : 52 : 59.8 97.40 47.7

0

End of Totality 09 : 54 : 17.9 97.50 48.0

0

End of Eclipse 11 : 20 : 50.3 104.60 69.30

0

Duration of totality 00 : 02 : 36.30

Duration of eclipse 02 : 44 : 46.40

Eclipse magnitude at maximum 1,008

Table 4. List of instruments deployed during field campaign. Parameter Device Manufacturers Accuracy

Air Temperature Weather Transmitter

WXT520

Vaisala ±0.3 °C

Relative humidity ±3 %RH at 0-90 %RH

±5 %RH at 90-100 %RH

Barometric pressure ±0.5 hPa at 0- 30 °C

±1 hPa at -52 - +60 °C

Wind speed ±3 % at 10 m/s

Net radiation NR-Lite 2 Kipp & Zonen 10 V/Wm-²

3. Summary and Discussion

3.1 Temperature

Generally, the 12 sites show that the temperatures are not clear affected by the eclipse

because sampling rate too long (10 minutes) (Fig.4). The sampling rate can’t to detect the

decreasing of temperature due to eclipse. On the second site at Meteorology Station 745,

Kemayoran Jakarta (Fig.5), the temperature shows affected by the eclipse. The air temperature at

1.5 m decline about 1.94C. A significant drop in diurnal pattern of air temperature during the

solar eclipse of 9 March 2016 is clearly seen. The temperature started decreasing from 27.04 C

at the mid of the eclipse and this cooling during 20 minutes with the lowest temperature 26.74

C. Therefore the total temperature decrease is 0.3 C, which is within the range already reported

on other solar eclipse events (e.g. Segal et al., 1996; Anderson, 1999; Hanna, 2000; Founda et

al., 2007). Hanggoro (2011) reported a temperature decrease of about 4 – 5 C in Lampung

during the annular solar eclipse of 26 January 2009 as observed using AWS. The temperature

decline induced by the eclipses occurred during the hours of the normal temperature increase

should be even larger (Founda et al., 2007). Probably this is caused by the fact that our site was

located in a big city surrounded by building od urban area. We realized the presence of buildings

in the vicinity of our measurement site, which may have affected the wind and temperature

profiles (Winkler et al., 2001; Nymphas et al., 2009). Therefore, if the measurements are

conducted under undisturbed conditions, the temperature may still have been lower. Time lag

between mid-eclipse and the time when air temperature reach its minimum is different from one

location to the other and is linked to the thermal inertia of the air and the ground (Fernandez et

al., 1996; Aplin and Harrison, 2003; Founda et al., 2007).

Fig.4 Time variation of temperature at 2 m measured on 12 stations at 9 March 2016. The beginning

and end of the eclipse event is shown by the vertical lines while the doted line shows the time of solar

eclipse maximum.

Fig.5 Time variation of air temperature at 2 m measured at Jakarta during 8-10 March 2016. Vertical lines

denote the onset, mid, and end of the eclipse.

At the Ternate site (Fig.6), the results show that those parameters are significantly affected

by the eclipse. The air temperature at 1.5 m decline about 2.1C. However this decrease is lower

than the temperature drop reported by Fernandez et al. (1996). The temperature decline induced

by the eclipses occurred during the hours of the normal temperature increase should be even

larger (Founda et al., 2007). Probably this is caused by the fact that our site was located in a

small island surrounded by sea, similar to Kasteloriza in Greece. According to Founda et al.

(2007), sea surrounded the island minimizes the temperature response due to its larger heat

capacity. We realized the presence of buildings in the vicinity of our measurement site, which

may have affected the wind and temperature profiles (Winkler et al., 2001; Nymphas et al.,

2009). Therefore, if the measurements are conducted under undisturbed conditions, the

temperature may still have been lower. The minimum temperature during the eclipse of 9 March

0 4:00 8:40 9:50 11:20 16:00 20:0016

18

20

22

24

26

28

30

32

34

36

Time of day

Tem

pera

ture

( C

)

Balikpapan

Palu

Digi

Bariri

Jekan

Pangkalan Bun

Pulau Baai

Palangkaraya

Palembang

Pangkal Pinang

sampit

Ternate

6.00 6.20 6.40 7.00 7.20 7.40 8.00 8.20 8.40 9.0026

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

Time of day

Tem

pera

ture

(C

)

8 Maret

9 Maret

10 Maret

End 8:31 LT

Mid 7:21 LT

Start 6:20 LT

2016 is lagging to mid-eclipse by about 20 minutes. Time lag between mid-eclipse and the time

when air temperature reach its minimum is different from one location to the other and is linked

to the thermal inertia of the air and the ground (Fernandez et al., 1996; Aplin and Harrison, 2003;

Founda et al., 2007). This result is within the temperature drop reported on other solar eclipse

events (e.g. Segal et al., 1996; Anderson, 1999; Hanna, 2000; Founda et al., 2007). However this

decrease is lower than the temperature drop reported by Fernandez et al. (1996) although both

eclipses are the total solar eclipse and occurred at similar hour of day.

Fig.6 Time variation of temperature at 2 m measured at Ternate 7-9 March 2016. The beginning and

end of the eclipse event is shown by the vertical lines while the dotted line shows the time of solar eclipse

maximum.

3.2. Humidity

Humidity depends on water vaporization and condensation, which, in turn, mainly depends on

temperature. There are quite a number of studies and observations made during solar eclipses.

They include observations of meteorological parameters, such as wind speed and direction, air

temperature, atmospheric pressure, humidity (Anderson etal.,1972; Foken et al.,2001;

Sza"owski,2002; Aplin and Harrison,2003). There are large numbers of previous reported studies

during the earlier solar eclipses which includes observations of meteorological variables, such as

wind speed and direction, humidity, (Nymphas et al., 2009; Krishnan et al., 2004). Their

majority observations show the net reduction in temperature, wind speed, water vapour, while

RH increases in proportion to obscuration of the sun disc. Observation of humidity at 12 sites

(Fig.7) Meteorology Station 745 Kemayoran Jakarta (Fig.8) and Ternate (Fig.9). Increasing

humidity in the 12 sites is not as clearly happened in the Meteorology Station 745 and Ternate.

This happens because the sampling rate at the 12 sites is too large so it cannot capture the

phenomenon of TSE. Humidity at Meteorology Station took about 29 minutes to increase from

85.8 % after the mid-eclipse started and the increase continued until it reached its maximum at

87.2 %. At Ternate, humidity also took about about 13 minutes to increase from 73.1 % to 73.9

%.

0 4:00 6:00 8:36 9:53 11:20 16:00 18:00 20:00 24:0025

26

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

Time of day

Tem

pera

ture

( C

)

10 March

9 March

7 March

Fig.7 Time variation of humidity at 2 m measured on 12 stations at 9 March 2016. The beginning and

end of the eclipse event is shown by the vertical lines while the doted line shows the time of solar eclipse

maximum.

Fig.8 Time variation of humidity at Jakarta during 8-10 March 2016. Vertical lines denote the onset,

mid, and end of the eclipse.

Fig.9 Time variation of humidity at 2 m measured at Ternate 7-9 March 2016. The beginning and end

of the eclipse event is shown by the vertical lines while the dotted line shows the time of solar eclipse

maximum.

0 4:00 8:40 9:50 11:20 16:00 20:00 24:0050

55

60

65

70

75

80

85

90

95

100

Time of day

Hu

mid

ity (

%)

Balikpapan

Palu

Digi

Bariri

Jekan

Pangkalan Bun

Pulau Baai

Palangkaraya

Palembang

Pangkal Pinang

sampit

Ternate

6.00 6.20 6.40 7.00 7.20 7.40 8.00 8.20 8.40 9.0065

70

75

80

85

90

95

100

Time of day

Hu

mid

ity (

%)

8 March

9 March

10 March

Start 6:20 LT

Mid 7:21 LT

End 8:31 LT

0 4:00 6:00 8:36 9:53 11:20 16:00 18:00 20:00 24:0045

50

55

60

65

70

75

80

85

90

95

Time of day

Hu

mid

ity(%

)

10 March

9 March

7 March

3.3 Radiation

The observed temporal variation of net radiation during 7-10 March 2016 at Ternate is

shown in Fig. 3a Abrupt decrease in net radiation caused by cloud coverage occurred several

times on March 7 and on March 10 in afternoon. These net radiation drops were different from

that existed during the eclipse. The main difference between cloud covered sun and an eclipse

lies on the negative net radiation during the eclipse, which is similar to night time condition. In

contrast to experiments conducted by Eaton et al. (1997) during a partial eclipse and by Ahrens

et al. during the total solar eclipse of 11August 1999, this negative radiation is similar to

measurements during the total solar eclipse of 11August 1999 carried out by Foken et al. (2001)

in Germany and by Nymphas et al. (2009) during the total solar eclipse of 29 March 2006 in

Nigeria. At the 12 sites, the decrease is not clear like at Kemayoran Jakarta and Ternate. At

Ternate, It took approximately 36 minutes after the beginning of the eclipse for net radiation to

start decreasing (Fig.12). The net radiation dropped from 356.4 Wm-2

at 9:12:10 LT to -42.23

Wm-2

at 09:52:50 LT.

Fig.10 Time variation of radiation at 2 m measured on 12 stations at 9 March 2016. The beginning and

end of the eclipse event is shown by the vertical lines while the doted line shows the time of solar eclipse

maximum.

Fig.11 Time variation of radiation measured at Jakarta during 8-10 March 2016. Vertical lines denote

the onset, mid, and end of the eclipse.

0 4:00 8:409:50 11:20 16:00 20:00 24:000

500

1000

1500

Time of day

Rad

iati

on

(W

/m2)

Balikpapan

Palu

Digi

Bariri

Jekan

Pangkalan Bun

Pulau Baai

Palangkaraya

Palembang

Pangkal Pinang

sampit

Ternate

6.00 6.20 6.40 7.00 7.20 7.40 8.00 8.20 8.40 9.000

100

200

300

400

500

600

Time of day

Rad

iati

on

(W

/m2)

8 March

9 March

10 March

Start 6:20 LT

End 8:31 LT

Mid 7:21 LT

Fig.12 Time variation of radiation at 2 m measured at Ternate 7-9 March 2016. The beginning and end

of the eclipse event is shown by the vertical lines while the doted line shows the time of solar eclipse

maximum.

3.4 Wind Speed

The observation wind speed at the three locations does not indicate the significant (Fig.13

and Fig.14), even the wind speed at the 12 stations (not shown in the figure).

Fig.13 Time variation of wind speed at 2 m measured at Jakarta during 8-10 March 2016. Vertical

lines denote the onset, mid, and end of the eclipse.

Fig.14 Time variation of wind speed at 2 m measured at Ternate 7-9 March 2016. The beginning and

end of the eclipse event is shown by the vertical lines while the doted line shows the time of solar eclipse

maximum.

0 4:00 6:00 8:36 9:53 11:20 16:00 18:00 20:00 24:00-200

0

200

400

600

800

1000

Time of day

Net

Rad

iati

on

(W

/m2)

10 March

9 March

7 March

6.00 6.20 6.40 7.00 7.20 7.40 8.00 8.20 8.40 9.000

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

Time of day

Win

d S

peed

(m

/s)

8 March

9 March

10 March

Start6:20 LT

Mid7:21 LT

End 8:31 LT

0 4:00 6:00 8:36 9:53 11:20 16:00 18:00 20:00 24:000

2

4

6

8

10

Time of day

Win

d S

peed

(m/s

)

10 March

9 March

7 March

3.5 Pressure

The TSE impact on pressure at 12 locations (Fig.15), Jakarta (Fig.16) and in the Ternate

(Fig.17) showed no significant effect.

Fig.15 Time variation of pressure at 2 m measured on 12 stations at 9 March 2016. The beginning and

end of the eclipse event is shown by the vertical lines while the dotted line shows the time of solar eclipse

maximum.

Fig. 16 Time variation of pressure at 2 m measured at Jakarta during 8-10 March 2016. Vertical lines

denote the onset, mid, and end of the eclipse.

Fig.17 Time variation of pressure at 2 m measured at Ternate 7-9 March 2016. The beginning and end

of the eclipse event is shown by the vertical lines while the doted line shows the time of solar eclipse

maximum.

0 4:00 8:40 9:50 11:20 16:00 20:001003

1004

1005

1006

1007

1008

1009

1010

1011

1012

1013

Time of day

Pre

ssu

re (

mB

ar)

Balikpapan

Palu

Digi

Bariri

Jekan

Pangkalan Bun

Pulau Baai

Palangkaraya

Palembang

Pangkal Pinang

sampit

Ternate

6.00 6.20 6.40 7.00 7.20 7.40 8.00 8.20 8.40 9.001008

1008.5

1009

1009.5

1010

1010.5

1011

1011.5

1012

1012.5

1013

Time of day

Pre

ssu

re (

mB

ar)

8 March

9 March

10 March

Start 6:20 LT

Mid 7:21 LT

End 8:31 LT

0 4:00 6:00 8:36 9:53 11:20 16:00 18:00 20:00 24:001003

1004

1005

1006

1007

1008

1009

1010

1011

1012

Time of day

Pre

ssu

re(m

Bar)

10 March

9 March

7 March

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors thank to Prof.Edvin Aldrian and our colleagues from Division of Research and

Development for Meteorology Jose Rizal, Eko Heriyanto, Tri Astuti Nuraini and Sultan

Babullah Weather Station in Ternate for their support during surveying for the observation site

and installing the instruments.

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