the origin of language in eighteenth-century philosophy

The origin of languageThe origin of language

in eighteenth-centuryin eighteenth-century

philosophyphilosophySylvain Sylvain AurouxAuroux

LaboratoireLaboratoire dd’’histoirehistoire des des théoriesthéories linguistiqueslinguistiquesUniversité Paris 7 - CNRSUniversité Paris 7 - CNRS

Montréal, Montréal, JuinJuin 2010 2010

1- The «1- The «!!turning pointturning point!»!»

!! In the Western World, the origin of language and ofIn the Western World, the origin of language and oflanguages has been addressed in one way or the otherlanguages has been addressed in one way or the otherin multiple texts since the Antiquity.in multiple texts since the Antiquity.

!! In the Christian Western World, the representationsIn the Christian Western World, the representationsand the discussions have been fed by data from theand the discussions have been fed by data from thebiblical myth: the imposition of language by Adam andbiblical myth: the imposition of language by Adam andthe parallel genealogy of people and languages sincethe parallel genealogy of people and languages sincethe deluge.the deluge.

!! In this view, the In this view, the XVIIIthXVIIIth century marks a turning point in century marks a turning point inour intellectual tradition: this issue has turned into anour intellectual tradition: this issue has turned into anissue of issue of ““natural and/or speculative philosophynatural and/or speculative philosophy””, which, whichavoids implying religion (secularisation) in most cases.avoids implying religion (secularisation) in most cases.

2.1 2.1 –– The philosophical The philosophical

bases of changebases of change

!! A A –– The The CartesianismCartesianism and natural philosophies and natural philosophieswhich followed which followed turned man into turned man into ““naturalnatural”” data, data,an individual subject fitted with universalan individual subject fitted with universalproperties properties ((intellectual intellectual –– today one would saytoday one would saycognitive cognitive –– and affective and affective capacitiescapacities),), even if even iftheirtheir list has remained quitelist has remained quite aa disputeddisputedphilosophicalphilosophical problem (especiallyproblem (especially betweenbetweenrationalistsrationalists andand empiricistsempiricists who do not agreewho do not agreeon theon the primitiveprimitive elementaryelementary properties).properties).

2.2 2.2 –– The philosophical The philosophical

bases of changebases of change

!! B B –– The contacts - since the major discoveries at the The contacts - since the major discoveries at theend of the end of the XVthXVth century and during the century and during the XVIthXVIth century century ––with other civilisations have led to recognise (more orwith other civilisations have led to recognise (more orless strongly) less strongly) diversitydiversity. From then on, for most authors,. From then on, for most authors,there has been a schism between there has been a schism between humanhuman naturenature(minimal universal and diversely defined essence) and(minimal universal and diversely defined essence) andthe different conditions of humanitythe different conditions of humanity, recognised by their, recognised by theirinstitutions (family, society, commerce, etc.). The latterinstitutions (family, society, commerce, etc.). The latter((““culturalcultural”” data) have not remained in their initial nature data) have not remained in their initial nature(natural condition), they have their own origin and their(natural condition), they have their own origin and theirown history (in the modern meaning of the term).own history (in the modern meaning of the term).

3.1 3.1 –– Language and origin Language and origin

!! For most thinkers languages and language areFor most thinkers languages and language arepart of culture, i.e. they have an part of culture, i.e. they have an originorigin and aand ahistoryhistory. The former must hence be subject to. The former must hence be subject toresearches. Most major thinkers will focus onresearches. Most major thinkers will focus onthat topic. In 1769, the Berlin Academy ofthat topic. In 1769, the Berlin Academy ofSciences (chaired by Frenchman Sciences (chaired by Frenchman MaupertuisMaupertuis))put that question to the fellows, therebyput that question to the fellows, therebyofficialising a debate initiated some twentyofficialising a debate initiated some twentyyears earlier:years earlier:

3.2 3.2 –– Language and origin Language and origin

!! ““Supposing that men are left to theirSupposing that men are left to their

natural faculties, are they able to inventnatural faculties, are they able to invent

language? And how will they reach suchlanguage? And how will they reach such

invention? The hypothesis demandedinvention? The hypothesis demanded

must explain the matter clearly and meetmust explain the matter clearly and meet

all the difficultiesall the difficulties””..

4 4 –– What should be meant What should be meant

by by ““originorigin”” of language of language

!! A A –– The beginning or the first occurrence of a The beginning or the first occurrence of a

set of currently observable and distinctly listedset of currently observable and distinctly listed

facts: the origin of French, the origin of thefacts: the origin of French, the origin of the

language of Tahiti (language of Tahiti (originorigin of such or such of such or such aa

languagelanguage).).

!! B B –– The beginning or the first occurrence of the The beginning or the first occurrence of the

complete order of the facts regarding A (complete order of the facts regarding A (originorigin

of languageof language))..

5 5 –– Adjoining questions Adjoining questions

!! - for A: what is French?, etc.- for A: what is French?, etc. ; between L1 and; between L1 andL2, which is the oldest? which language wasL2, which is the oldest? which language wasthe first in humanity?the first in humanity?

!! - for B: what is human language? In other- for B: what is human language? In otherwords: research on the origin of language =words: research on the origin of language =research on the essence (the definingresearch on the essence (the definingproperties) of human language; where is theproperties) of human language; where is thedifference between human language anddifference between human language andanimal language?animal language?

6 6 –– The two models The two models

!! Type-A as well as type-B questions areType-A as well as type-B questions areinfluenced to a vast extent by theinfluenced to a vast extent by thebreakthroughs in the knowledge of worldbreakthroughs in the knowledge of worldlanguages, which French historians oflanguages, which French historians oflinguistics designate as linguistics designate as ““grammatisationgrammatisation””process. Nevertheless, two research modelsprocess. Nevertheless, two research modelsmay be differentiated abstractly:may be differentiated abstractly:

!! I I –– Abstract Abstract or «or « speculativespeculative » » model. model.

II II –– Positive or « Positive or « historicalhistorical » » model. model.

7 7 –– The speculative model The speculative model

(1)(1)

!! ““First of all, let us rule out all factsFirst of all, let us rule out all facts””,,

Rousseau, Rousseau, Discourse of the origin ofDiscourse of the origin of

equality.equality.

!! ““When I am talking of a first language, IWhen I am talking of a first language, I

do not claim to establish that mendo not claim to establish that men

created it, I only think that they mightcreated it, I only think that they might

have created it", have created it", CondillacCondillac, , GrammarGrammar, I.II., I.II.

8.1 8.1 –– The speculative The speculative

model (2)model (2)

!! The aim is to establish a scenario fromThe aim is to establish a scenario from

minimum hypotheses:minimum hypotheses:

!! in natural condition (without society) menin natural condition (without society) men

have no language available as we meanhave no language available as we mean

it, they must create it;it, they must create it;


model (2)model (2)

!! as subjects (individuals) only a number ofas subjects (individuals) only a number ofproperties are available; these properties areproperties are available; these properties areas follows: i) intellectual faculties: reflection oras follows: i) intellectual faculties: reflection orcircumspection (circumspection (BesonnenheitBesonnenheit, in Herder),, in Herder),possibly reason (possibly reason (MaupertuisMaupertuis)) ; and/or ii) more; and/or ii) moresensitive faculties: need (sensitive faculties: need (CondillacCondillac), sociability), sociabilityinstinct or mercy for Rousseau, imitationinstinct or mercy for Rousseau, imitationcapacity; and/or physical properties: ability tocapacity; and/or physical properties: ability toproduce certain sounds according to certainproduce certain sounds according to certainmotivations.motivations.


model (2)model (2)

!! under certain circumstances, men (moreunder certain circumstances, men (more

rarely a man on his own as inrarely a man on his own as in

MaupertuisMaupertuis) create the first language and) create the first language and

make it evolve up to the currentmake it evolve up to the current

languages.languages.

9.1 - The main authors of9.1 - The main authors of

speculative modelsspeculative models

!! The main texts on the origin of languages canThe main texts on the origin of languages canbe found in the empiricist philosophersbe found in the empiricist philosophershandling the origin of knowledge (Hobbes,handling the origin of knowledge (Hobbes,Locke, Rousseau) or in grammars. TheLocke, Rousseau) or in grammars. Thequestion is tackled by those interested in thequestion is tackled by those interested in therelation between thoughts and languagesrelation between thoughts and languages(another question of the Berlin Academy) , as(another question of the Berlin Academy) , asMichaelisMichaelis or or SüssmilchSüssmilch. Numerous . Numerous ad hocad hoctreatises are also available.treatises are also available.



!! MaupertuisMaupertuis, 1748, , 1748, RéflexionsRéflexions philosophiquesphilosophiques sursur ll’’origineorigine des deslangueslangues et la signification des et la signification des motsmots ( (PhilosophicalPhilosophical reflectionsreflections ononthe originthe origin ofof languageslanguages and theand the meaningmeaning of of wordswords).).

!! TurgotTurgot, 1750, , 1750, RemarquesRemarques critiques critiques sursur les les RéflexionsRéflexionsphilosophiquesphilosophiques sursur ll’’origineorigine des des langueslangues et la signification des et la signification desmotsmots (Critical remarks on Philosophical (Critical remarks on Philosophical reflectionsreflections onon the originthe origin ofoflanguageslanguages and theand the meaningmeaning of of wordswords).).

!! FormeyFormey, 1762, , 1762, RéunionRéunion des des principauxprincipaux moyensmoyens employésemployés pour pourdécouvrirdécouvrir ll’’origineorigine du du langagelangage, des , des idéesidées et des et des connaissancesconnaissanceshumaineshumaines ((Gathering the main means used to discoverGathering the main means used to discover the originthe originof language, ideas and human knowledge).of language, ideas and human knowledge).

!! HerderHerder, 1770, , 1770, AbhandlungAbhandlung überüber den den UrsprungUrsprung derder SpracheSprache((Treatise on the origin of languageTreatise on the origin of language).).



!! Rousseau,Rousseau, 1782, 1782, EssaisEssais sursur ll’’origineorigine des des langueslangues ––Essays on the origin of languages Essays on the origin of languages (first publication of a(first publication of atext, drafted when he wrote the text, drafted when he wrote the Essay of the Origin ofEssay of the Origin ofInequalityInequality).).

!! A. SmithA. Smith, 1784, , 1784, ConsidérationsConsidérations sursur la première la premièreformation du formation du langagelangage et et sursur le le géniegénie divers des divers deslangueslangues composéescomposées et primitives et primitives, , EncyclopédieEncyclopédieMéthodiqueMéthodique, (C, (Considerations on the first formation ofonsiderations on the first formation oflanguage and the various genius of compounded andlanguage and the various genius of compounded andprimitive languages, primitive languages, MethodicMethodic Encyclopaedia), Encyclopaedia), édéd..PanckouckePanckoucke, , GrammaireGrammaire et et LittératureLittérature (Grammar (Grammar andandLiterature)Literature) t. 2. t. 2.

10 10 –– An example of An example of

speculative model (1)speculative model (1)

Condillac:Condillac:TraitéTraité sursur ll’’origineorigine des des connaissancesconnaissances (1744)As a sensitive animal, immersed in the flow ofAs a sensitive animal, immersed in the flow ofinformation provided by the whole world, man can onlyinformation provided by the whole world, man can onlyacquire memory using random signs:acquire memory using random signs:

!! i) accidental signs: objects linked accidentally to ouri) accidental signs: objects linked accidentally to ourideas and which may ideas and which may ““wake them upwake them up””;;

!! ii) natural signs: screams linked by nature to ourii) natural signs: screams linked by nature to ourfeelings;feelings;

!! iii) institution signs that we have chosen ourselves:iii) institution signs that we have chosen ourselves:these are these are ““randomrandom”” signs which he can call back at will. signs which he can call back at will.

11.1 11.1 –– An example of An example of

speculative model (2):speculative model (2):

CondillacCondillac and and GrammarGrammar (1775) (1775)

!! The first means available to man to communicate areThe first means available to man to communicate aregestures, face movements and inarticulate accents.gestures, face movements and inarticulate accents.They form the language of action, natural to all theThey form the language of action, natural to all theindividuals of a same species, but which requires aindividuals of a same species, but which requires alearning process. From observing his body, manlearning process. From observing his body, manstarted to interpret what was happening for someonestarted to interpret what was happening for someoneelse.else.

!! If for the empiricist philosopher, there is no innate idea,If for the empiricist philosopher, there is no innate idea,there is an innate language.there is an innate language.


speculative model (2)speculative model (2)

!! The language of simultaneous ideas is the onlyThe language of simultaneous ideas is the onlynatural language. The language of actionnatural language. The language of actionenables to analyse and break down the thoughtenables to analyse and break down the thoughtprocess and hence it extends by analogy usingprocess and hence it extends by analogy usingartificial signs. In so doing things are notartificial signs. In so doing things are notrepresented according to their nature, butrepresented according to their nature, butaccording to our own representations.according to our own representations.

!! Accents (screams) are part of the language ofAccents (screams) are part of the language ofaction, they lend themselves better to expressaction, they lend themselves better to expressour feelings and are perfected artificially.our feelings and are perfected artificially.


speculative model (2):speculative model (2):

!! ((……) languages are the work of nature; () languages are the work of nature; (……) they) they

took shape, to a certain extent, without ourtook shape, to a certain extent, without our

knowing; (knowing; (……) by working on it, we barely) by working on it, we barely

obeyed obeyed servilelyservilely our way of seeing and feeling. our way of seeing and feeling.

!! ((……) languages have completed their) languages have completed their

development when men, ceasing to generatedevelopment when men, ceasing to generate

new needs, also cease to produce new ideas.new needs, also cease to produce new ideas.

12 12 –– The meaning of the The meaning of the

speculative modelspeculative model

!! - This is a thinking experience of the same nature as- This is a thinking experience of the same nature asthat mentioned by the empiricist theoreticians ofthat mentioned by the empiricist theoreticians ofknowledge (Diderot spoke of "mute of conventionknowledge (Diderot spoke of "mute of convention””); we); wemay be talking of may be talking of ““fictionfiction””..

!! - The model may be compared with the political theory- The model may be compared with the political theoryof the origin of law (Rousseau)of the origin of law (Rousseau) ; the social contract; the social contractprovides a break between the order of natural facts andprovides a break between the order of natural facts andthe order of norms, linguistic arbitrary a break betweenthe order of norms, linguistic arbitrary a break betweennature and culture, invariance and history. Legal fictionnature and culture, invariance and history. Legal fiction(on a consensus basis) underpins positive law;(on a consensus basis) underpins positive law;linguistic fiction does not enjoy quite the same status, itlinguistic fiction does not enjoy quite the same status, itreveals the essence of human language.reveals the essence of human language.

13 13 –– The limits of the The limits of the

speculative modelspeculative model

!! A priori hypotheses: all the discussions revolve aroundA priori hypotheses: all the discussions revolve arounddifferent conceptions of human nature; the opposeddifferent conceptions of human nature; the opposedsolutions hence depend on solutions hence depend on a prioria priori hypotheses. hypotheses.

!! No possible falsification (and little confirmation!): noNo possible falsification (and little confirmation!): nosufficiently established fact, not even in thesufficiently established fact, not even in thephysiological domain, is available to reject a model orphysiological domain, is available to reject a model ordiscuss any empirical base; palaeontology does notdiscuss any empirical base; palaeontology does notexist and the anthropology contained in the travellersexist and the anthropology contained in the travellers’’and missionariesand missionaries’’ stories only provides sporadic stories only provides sporadicresults.results.

14.1 - The shock of14.1 - The shock of

languages: grammatisationlanguages: grammatisation

!! The Western World has long been content with fittingThe Western World has long been content with fittingwith with ““linguistic toolslinguistic tools”” (grammar and dictionary, mainly) (grammar and dictionary, mainly)either a culture's vernacular (Greek) or, by transfer,either a culture's vernacular (Greek) or, by transfer,another vernacular which is substituted for it in playinganother vernacular which is substituted for it in playingthis part (Latin, in particular). With the Renaissance,this part (Latin, in particular). With the Renaissance,this grammatisation changes dimension: thethis grammatisation changes dimension: thecolonisation of the world leads to colonisation of the world leads to grammatisinggrammatising the theencountered languages and the development of Stateencountered languages and the development of StateNations, the European languages.Nations, the European languages.

14.2 - The shock of14.2 - The shock of

languages: grammatisationlanguages: grammatisation

!! This may sound astonishing today, but theThis may sound astonishing today, but thegrammatisation of European vernaculars is strictlygrammatisation of European vernaculars is strictlycontemporary to that of the languages of the world (thecontemporary to that of the languages of the world (thefirst hand-written grammar of first hand-written grammar of NahuatlNahuatl dates from dates from1547).1547).

!! An example of the Spanish linguistic heritage onAn example of the Spanish linguistic heritage onAmerindian languages: - end of Amerindian languages: - end of XVIthXVIth century, 33 century, 33languages; - end of languages; - end of XVIIthXVIIth century, 86 languages; end century, 86 languages; endof of XVIIIthXVIIIth century, 158 languages. century, 158 languages.

!! When truly linguistic equipment is lacking, basicWhen truly linguistic equipment is lacking, basicvocabularies are used to give an overview.vocabularies are used to give an overview.

15 15 –– The grammatisation The grammatisation

of European vernacularsof European vernaculars

16 16 –– The The ““historicalhistorical”” model model

!! This heaping up of knowledge necessarily leads to query theThis heaping up of knowledge necessarily leads to query thenature of language as well as the nature of man. Collecting thenature of language as well as the nature of man. Collecting theset if materials may prompt to solve the question:set if materials may prompt to solve the question:

!! Antoine Court de GébelinAntoine Court de Gébelin, , MondeMonde PrimitifPrimitif comparécomparé et et analyséanalyséavec le avec le MondeMonde ModerneModerne, (Primitive World compared and analysed, (Primitive World compared and analysedwith Modern World) Paris, the Author, 1773-1782, 9 with Modern World) Paris, the Author, 1773-1782, 9 volsvols, in 4°., in 4°.

!! James Burnet, Lord James Burnet, Lord MonboddoMonboddo, , Of the Origin and Progress ofOf the Origin and Progress ofLanguageLanguage, London/Edinburgh, 1773, 6 vols., London/Edinburgh, 1773, 6 vols.

!! These enormous and famous works have a fundamentalThese enormous and famous works have a fundamentalphilosophical aim: for one of them (representative of the Reformedphilosophical aim: for one of them (representative of the ReformedChurches of France) to show the continuum between nature andChurches of France) to show the continuum between nature andculture, for the other to take stock of culture, for the other to take stock of empirismempirism and and AristotelismAristotelism..

17.1 - The continuum of17.1 - The continuum of

compilationscompilations

Later on numerous compilations have borrowed this type of programme, byLater on numerous compilations have borrowed this type of programme, byemphasising the emphasising the compilatorycompilatory aspect more strongly: aspect more strongly:

!! AbbéAbbé Lorenzo Lorenzo HervasHervas y y PanduroPanduro, , CatalogoCatalogo delledelle linguelingue conosciuteconosciute e e notizianotizia delladellaloroloro affinitaaffinita e e diversitadiversita, (catalogue of known languages and specification of their, (catalogue of known languages and specification of theiraffinity and diversity) Cesena, affinity and diversity) Cesena, BiasaniBiasani, 1784, in 4°, 260 p., 1784, in 4°, 260 p. ; ; CatalogoCatalogo de de laslaslenguaslenguas de de laslas nacionesnaciones conocidasconocidas, y , y numeracionnumeracion, division y , division y clasesclases de de estasestassegunsegun la la diversidaddiversidad de de sussus idiomasidiomas y y dialectosdialectos, Madrid, , Madrid, ImprImpr. De la . De la AdministracionAdministraciondel real del real ArbitrioArbitrio de de BeneficienciaBeneficiencia (on the administration of real arbitrary of (on the administration of real arbitrary ofbeneficence), 1800-1805, 6 beneficence), 1800-1805, 6 volsvols in 4°. in 4°.

!! Peter Simon PallasPeter Simon Pallas, , LinguarumLinguarum totiustotius orbisorbis vocabulariavocabularia comparativacomparativaAugustissimaeAugustissimae curacura collectacollecta, Saint Petersburg, De , Saint Petersburg, De SchoorSchoor, 1787-1789 (based on, 1787-1789 (based onan investigation commissioned by Catherine II).an investigation commissioned by Catherine II).

!! Johann Johann ChristophChristoph AdelungAdelung and and Johann Johann SeverinSeverin Vater Vater, , MithridatesMithridates oderoderallgemeineallgemeine SprachenkundeSprachenkunde mitmit demdem Vater Vater unserunser alsals SprachprobeSprachprobe in in beybey nahenahefünfhundertfünfhundert SprachenSprachen und und MundartenMundarten, Berlin, 1806-1817, 4 vols., Berlin, 1806-1817, 4 vols.

!! AdriennoAdrienno BalbiBalbi, , Atlas ethnographique du Globe ou classification des peuplesAtlas ethnographique du Globe ou classification des peuplesanciens et modernes danciens et modernes d’’après leurs languesaprès leurs langues (Paris, Rey et Gravier), Paris, 1824. (Paris, Rey et Gravier), Paris, 1824.

17.2 - The continuum of17.2 - The continuum of

compilationscompilations

!! This movement was hence systematically pursued during theThis movement was hence systematically pursued during thefollowing century, sometimes by using shorter texts (following century, sometimes by using shorter texts (AdelungAdelung and andVater). The listed languages increased from some sixty in CourtVater). The listed languages increased from some sixty in Courtde Gébelin to 500 in de Gébelin to 500 in BalbiBalbi who conjectured there might be 2000. who conjectured there might be 2000.Globally, from a very external viewpoint, the first works of theGlobally, from a very external viewpoint, the first works of thecomparatistscomparatists must be inserted into the trend, if many a book with must be inserted into the trend, if many a book withmore restricted aim is added thereto (on Asia or Europe).more restricted aim is added thereto (on Asia or Europe).

!! It is Vater who, in the preface to volume 2 of It is Vater who, in the preface to volume 2 of MithridatesMithridates (1808), (1808),uses the neologism uses the neologism ‘‘LinguistikLinguistik”” to designate the science which to designate the science whichstudies studies ““the properties of different languages, gives athe properties of different languages, gives aclassification thereof and, building upon it, draws conclusions onclassification thereof and, building upon it, draws conclusions ontheir genealogy and their propertiestheir genealogy and their properties””..

18.1 - Physical foundation of18.1 - Physical foundation of

human languagehuman language

The The XVIIIthXVIIIth century saw indisputable breakthroughs in phonetics, century saw indisputable breakthroughs in phonetics,from a physiological as well as acoustic viewpoint:from a physiological as well as acoustic viewpoint:

!! correct physiological description of the correct physiological description of the phonatoryphonatory system; system;

!! differentiating sound (which is periodic and produces vowels) fromdifferentiating sound (which is periodic and produces vowels) fromnoise (which is non-periodic, whereas an organ, lips, tongue, etc.noise (which is non-periodic, whereas an organ, lips, tongue, etc.disturb the sound); using a tube model for the trachea (flute);disturb the sound); using a tube model for the trachea (flute);unfortunately, resonance no more than the role of the nasal andunfortunately, resonance no more than the role of the nasal andpharyngeal cavities are then understood: there is only one basicpharyngeal cavities are then understood: there is only one basicvowel (vowel (““aa””), the others are variations in height;), the others are variations in height;

!! role of the vocal cords (1741) and mode of vibrating cords (silentrole of the vocal cords (1741) and mode of vibrating cords (silentconsonants had been distinguished by ear from voicedconsonants had been distinguished by ear from voicedconsonants);consonants);

18.2 - Physical foundation18.2 - Physical foundation

of human languageof human language

!! PresidentPresident Charles de Charles de BrossesBrosses ( (TraitéTraité de la formation de la formation mécaniquemécaniquedes des langueslangues ouou PrincipesPrincipes physiques de physiques de ll’é’étymologietymologie ( (Treatise onTreatise onthe mechanical formation of languages or Physical principles ofthe mechanical formation of languages or Physical principles ofetymology)etymology) Paris, 1765) uses this knowledge for reconstructing Paris, 1765) uses this knowledge for reconstructing““naturalnatural”” and primitive sounds: they would supposedly contain the and primitive sounds: they would supposedly contain thevowel (a) and the consonants derived from the five speechvowel (a) and the consonants derived from the five speechorgans.organs.

!! By imitation, these sounds become signifying and form the By imitation, these sounds become signifying and form the firstfirstlanguagelanguage of humanityof humanity..

!! He launches the program of a He launches the program of a Universal listing systemUniversal listing system, to, toenable classification of all the words per origin.enable classification of all the words per origin.

19 19 –– Nature and culture Nature and culture

!! As of the As of the MondeMonde PrimitifPrimitif leaflet in 1772, the aim of Court de leaflet in 1772, the aim of Court deGébelin is to connect the "primitive world" from nature of the worldGébelin is to connect the "primitive world" from nature of the worldof spirit. It is somehow nature properly speaking which, throughof spirit. It is somehow nature properly speaking which, throughman, becomes signifying through language and gives birth to theman, becomes signifying through language and gives birth to theworld of symbols and spirit. Only Hegel, in the midst of theworld of symbols and spirit. Only Hegel, in the midst of theromantic era, embarked on a (crazy!) project of such scope.romantic era, embarked on a (crazy!) project of such scope.

!! There is hence There is hence oneone ““naturalnatural”” and universal language: the organic and universal language: the organiclanguage discovered by De language discovered by De BrossesBrosses, the language considered as, the language considered asthe mother of all languages. For demonstration purposes, all thethe mother of all languages. For demonstration purposes, all thelanguages only need to be compared using a scientific methodlanguages only need to be compared using a scientific methodresting on basic vocabularies in order to reconstruct the resting on basic vocabularies in order to reconstruct the ““primitiveprimitivelanguagelanguage””..

20 20 –– A multilateral model A multilateral model

of comparisonof comparison

!! - the word is the basic element;- the word is the basic element;

!! - inside the word, sounds may change contingently (=arbitrarily)- inside the word, sounds may change contingently (=arbitrarily)while remaining within the framework of the same speech organ;while remaining within the framework of the same speech organ;

!! - if one word can be connected to another by sound changes, due- if one word can be connected to another by sound changes, dueto figures (to figures (metaplasmmetaplasm, such as permutation, metathesis, etc.), as, such as permutation, metathesis, etc.), aslong as their meaning can be connected by a figure of sense (along as their meaning can be connected by a figure of sense (atrope such as metaphor, metonymy, etc.) or a sequence oftrope such as metaphor, metonymy, etc.) or a sequence offigures, we are dealing with the same word.figures, we are dealing with the same word.

!! - languages reveal - languages reveal ““word familiesword families””, whose every ancestor has a, whose every ancestor has aproper seat in the dictionary of the primitive language.proper seat in the dictionary of the primitive language.

21 21 –– Modern and Modern and

rationalist ideasrationalist ideas

!! The history of civilisations becomes a matter ofThe history of civilisations becomes a matter ofcalculation (calculation (MondeMonde PrimitifPrimitif, I, I : 83, 1773).: 83, 1773).

!! These principles or laws are at work in every language,These principles or laws are at work in every language,whatever it may be, regardless of the time and place:whatever it may be, regardless of the time and place:they underpin every etymological research and everythey underpin every etymological research and everylanguage comparison. language comparison. (Histoire (Histoire NaturelleNaturelle de la Parole de la Paroleouou OrigineOrigine du du LangageLangage, de , de ll’’EcritureEcriture et de la et de laGrammaireGrammaire UniverselleUniverselle à à ll’’usageusage des des JeunesJeunes Gens), Gens),1776, in the 1776, in the LanjuinaisLanjuinais edition (1816) of this synthesis edition (1816) of this synthesisof the first volumes of the of the first volumes of the ““MondeMonde PrimitifPrimitif", 96.).", 96.).

22 22 –– The achievements of the The achievements of the

methodmethod

!! Since the Since the XVIthXVIth century the comparison of century the comparison ofvocabularies has harvested a heap of results,vocabularies has harvested a heap of results,mainly on poorly-known languages.mainly on poorly-known languages.

!! As soon as the Tahiti vocabulary wasAs soon as the Tahiti vocabulary waspublished on Bougainvillepublished on Bougainville’’s return, Court des return, Court deGébelin was able to trace the ancestry of thatGébelin was able to trace the ancestry of thatlanguage to neighbouring islands andlanguage to neighbouring islands andMalaysia, («Malaysia, (« De De ll’’origineorigine et des et des propriétéspropriétés de la de lalangue langue parléeparlée dansdans ll’’ileile de de TaïtiTaïti » » Court de Court deGébelin de lGébelin de l’’ AcadémieAcadémie Royale de La Rochelle, Royale de La Rochelle,MS, Archives de Bordeaux, n° 63, 1772).MS, Archives de Bordeaux, n° 63, 1772).

23.1 - The 23.1 - The overcomparisonovercomparison

Unfortunately, two other versions of the sameUnfortunately, two other versions of the sametext are available:text are available:

!! In 1777, «In 1777, « LanguesLangues des Isles de la des Isles de la MerMer du duSudSud » » (Languages of the Southern Sea (Languages of the Southern SeaIslands), in Islands), in RecherchesRecherches HistoriquesHistoriques et etGéographiquesGéographiques sursur le Nouveau le Nouveau MondeMonde, , parparJean-Jean-BaptisteBaptiste Scherer, p. 336-345, he adds the Scherer, p. 336-345, he adds theAmerindian world, where the Amerindian world, where the ““SouthernSouthernIslandsIslands”” were hence populated by were hence populated by ““SouthernSouthernAsiaAsia””..

23.2 - The 23.2 - The overcomparisonovercomparison

!! In 1781, in the In 1781, in the MondeMonde PrimitifPrimitif («(« LanguesLanguessudéennessudéennes ouou des Isles des Isles répanduesrépandues dansdans la la MerMerdu du SudSud » », , MondeMonde PrimitifPrimitif,, t. VIII, 537-553) it t. VIII, 537-553) itadds a few more still and concludes thatadds a few more still and concludes that““everything establishes the closesteverything establishes the closestcommunication among all the Southern islandscommunication among all the Southern islandsof our globe in both hemispheres andof our globe in both hemispheres andeverything points to the Phoenicians on thateverything points to the Phoenicians on thatscore (score (l.cl.c., 553).., 553).

25 25 –– The first The first ““treetree”’”’ of the of the

languages of humanitylanguages of humanity

25.1 25.1 –– William Jones and William Jones and

the the overcomparisonovercomparison

W. Jones (considered by some as the father ofW. Jones (considered by some as the father ofcompared grammar) in his famous 1786compared grammar) in his famous 1786address at the Asiatic Society of Calcuttaaddress at the Asiatic Society of Calcuttafollows the same erratic avenue as Court defollows the same erratic avenue as Court deGébelin and his contemporaries:Gébelin and his contemporaries:

!! the affinities between Greek, Persian andthe affinities between Greek, Persian andSanskrit testify to a common origin (Sanskrit testify to a common origin (l.c.l.c., p. 15)., p. 15).

A hypothesis which eventually proved correctA hypothesis which eventually proved correctand fecundand fecund..

25.2 25.2 –– William Jones and William Jones and

the the overcomparisonovercomparison

But along with Court de Gébelin, he cannotBut along with Court de Gébelin, he cannotrefrain from pushing his luck:refrain from pushing his luck:

!! the inhabitants of India have an the inhabitants of India have an ““immemorialimmemorialaffinityaffinity”” with the with the ““Ancient Persians, Ethiopians,Ancient Persians, Ethiopians,Egyptians, Phoenicians, Celts, Chinese,Egyptians, Phoenicians, Celts, Chinese,Japanese and PeruviansJapanese and Peruvians””, and as these, and as thesenations have colonised one another, henations have colonised one another, heconcludes that concludes that ““all of them originated fromall of them originated fromsome central region" (some central region" (l.c.l.c., p. 20)., p. 20).

Quite an absurd hypothesis due toQuite an absurd hypothesis due toovercomparisonovercomparison..

26 26 –– Criticisms of the Criticisms of the

multilateral method (1)multilateral method (1)

Using the method of intuitive semantic parallelsUsing the method of intuitive semantic parallels

and the licence of and the licence of ““letterletter”” permutations, any permutations, any

kinship can be demonstrated:kinship can be demonstrated:

!! The methodological weakness: The methodological weakness: ““ Etymological Etymological

science based on simple similarities betweenscience based on simple similarities between

current forms and on possible subtractions,current forms and on possible subtractions,

addition, translation and transformation (addition, translation and transformation (……) is) is

prone to the wildest mistakesprone to the wildest mistakes”” ( (LanjuinaisLanjuinais, , édéd..

Histoire Histoire naturellenaturelle de la parole, de la parole, 1816, 66).1816, 66).

27.1 - Criticisms of the27.1 - Criticisms of the

multilateral method (1)multilateral method (1)!!::

!! The universal convergence of languagesThe universal convergence of languages

is practically a statistical must and,is practically a statistical must and,

consequently, the universal comparisonconsequently, the universal comparison

is useless, since it does not proveis useless, since it does not prove

anything.anything.

27.2 - Convergence is a27.2 - Convergence is a

statistical muststatistical must

!! Despite its flexibility, in spite of the large multiplicity of soundsDespite its flexibility, in spite of the large multiplicity of soundswhich can be rendered by practice, the human voice could notwhich can be rendered by practice, the human voice could notreach beyond the limits assigned to its conformation, and fromreach beyond the limits assigned to its conformation, and fromthen on, by comparing all the languages relative to one another,then on, by comparing all the languages relative to one another,we always find the same sounds, diversely combined andwe always find the same sounds, diversely combined andadmittedly more or less modified by usage; but expressing mostadmittedly more or less modified by usage; but expressing mostoften distinct things in distant languages, most often identical inoften distinct things in distant languages, most often identical inneighbouring languages. The more widespread a language, theneighbouring languages. The more widespread a language, themore its roots are almost constantly reduced to an emission ofmore its roots are almost constantly reduced to an emission ofsounds, and consequently far more limited than the rest of thesounds, and consequently far more limited than the rest of thelanguage, the larger number of similar sounds will belanguage, the larger number of similar sounds will beencountered, while the words will be distinct from one another.encountered, while the words will be distinct from one another.

!! DD’’OrbignyOrbigny, , LL’’hommehomme AméricainAméricain,, (Paris, 1939, 19. (Paris, 1939, 19.

28 28 –– Criticisms of the Criticisms of the

multilateral method (3)multilateral method (3)

The cul-de-sac of multilateral kinshipsThe cul-de-sac of multilateral kinships

As can be seen on the language of Tahiti,As can be seen on the language of Tahiti,overcomparisonovercomparison leads to a cul-de-sac as regards leads to a cul-de-sac as regardsfamily-based kinships; two programmes which, takenfamily-based kinships; two programmes which, takentogether, form every project together, form every project ““after the manner ofafter the manner ofCourt de GébelinCourt de Gébelin”” are totally incompatible: are totally incompatible:

!! searching for resemblances between all languagessearching for resemblances between all languagesfor reconstructing the for reconstructing the ““mother languagemother language”” of humanity of humanityor primitive language;or primitive language;

!! searching for resemblances between the languagessearching for resemblances between the languagesforming the same family descending from a commonforming the same family descending from a commonancestor and reconstructing said ancestor.ancestor and reconstructing said ancestor.

29 - The solutions of29 - The solutions of

comparatismcomparatism (1) (1)

Grimm (1822, second edition of the Grimm (1822, second edition of the Grammar of the GermanGrammar of the German

LanguageLanguage) creates a true ) creates a true epistemologicepistemologic revolution: revolution:

!! the element of change is not the word any longer (individual soundthe element of change is not the word any longer (individual soundand meaning) but the and meaning) but the phonemphonem (the (the ““letterletter””););

!! change takes place in all the occurrences of the consideredchange takes place in all the occurrences of the consideredphonemphonem (what is called a phonetic (what is called a phonetic ““lawlaw””););

!! it is oriented and specific to every language (or at most to a groupit is oriented and specific to every language (or at most to a groupof well-defined languages as in the case of Germanic languages).of well-defined languages as in the case of Germanic languages).

!! "" Kinships should be limited using localised and empiricallyKinships should be limited using localised and empiricallyobservable regularities.observable regularities.

30.1 - The solutions of30.1 - The solutions of


One of the first major Indo-EuropeanOne of the first major Indo-European

comparatistscomparatists, F. Bopp, hastens to elect a, F. Bopp, hastens to elect a

solution too often overlooked:solution too often overlooked:

!! We shall only abstain from penetrating theWe shall only abstain from penetrating the

mystery of the roots or, in other words, themystery of the roots or, in other words, the

reason why a given primitive conception isreason why a given primitive conception is

marked by a particular sound and not anothermarked by a particular sound and not another

((Vergleichende Gram..,Vergleichende Gram.., 1833-1852, 2nd ed., 1833-1852, 2nd ed.,

1857-1861, 1).1857-1861, 1).

30.2 - The solutions of30.2 - The solutions of


This solution (arbitrary roots) has won the upper hand, even in theThis solution (arbitrary roots) has won the upper hand, even in thedisciples of V. von Humboldt:disciples of V. von Humboldt:

!! The affinities among the three strains (i.e. the strain of Sanskrit orThe affinities among the three strains (i.e. the strain of Sanskrit orIndo-European languages, of Semitic languages and of MalaysianIndo-European languages, of Semitic languages and of Malaysianlanguages) are solely limited to what is common to humanlanguages) are solely limited to what is common to humanlanguage in general (language in general (……) (Johan ) (Johan BuschmannBuschmann,, AperçuAperçu de la langue de la languede Tahiti, de Tahiti, précédéprécédé dd’’uneune introduction introduction sursur ll’’histoirehistoire et la et la géographiegéographiede de ll’’archipelarchipel des Marquises des Marquises, Berlin, 1843, 35), Berlin, 1843, 35)

"" Kinships ought to be limited, while considering reconstructedKinships ought to be limited, while considering reconstructedroots of empirically well-attested major families as purelyroots of empirically well-attested major families as purelyarbitrary.arbitrary.

31.1 31.1 –– Consequences Consequences

!! One can say that as of the 1830One can say that as of the 1830’’s, thes, the

comparatistscomparatists have established their method, by have established their method, by

casting aside the programmes casting aside the programmes ““after theafter the

manner of Court de Gébelinmanner of Court de Gébelin””. The unparalleled. The unparalleled

achievements of compared grammar can onlyachievements of compared grammar can only

be grasped if giving up be grasped if giving up aforehandaforehand reaching the reaching the

origin of languages on the basis of theorigin of languages on the basis of the

comparatistcomparatist methods. methods.

31.2 31.2 –– Consequences Consequences

!! The famous article II of the statuses from theThe famous article II of the statuses from theLinguistic Society of Paris (1866), which, to beLinguistic Society of Paris (1866), which, to bein keeping with time, restricted linguistics toin keeping with time, restricted linguistics tocomparatismcomparatism, is nothing but one of the late, is nothing but one of the lateformulations of the formulations of the basicbasic principleprinciple, , admittedadmittedfrom scratch by all major from scratch by all major comparatistscomparatists. He. Hecertainly did not mean to reject every approachcertainly did not mean to reject every approachto the origin of languages, as testified by theto the origin of languages, as testified by themultiple works of linguists in the multiple works of linguists in the XIXthXIXth century, century,such as Renan, who was one of the presidentssuch as Renan, who was one of the presidentsof the Society and Michel of the Society and Michel BréalBréal, who long was, who long wasthe secretary thereof.the secretary thereof.

32 32 –– What remains of the What remains of the

LumièresLumières??

!! The speculative model is impossible to forge, andThe speculative model is impossible to forge, andhardly lends itself to empiric support: the historicalhardly lends itself to empiric support: the historicalmodel (multilateral comparison) is contradictory.model (multilateral comparison) is contradictory.Switching to compared grammar supposes anSwitching to compared grammar supposes anepistemologicepistemologic revolution (a change in paradigm). revolution (a change in paradigm).

!! The The LumièresLumières opened up a path, opened up a path, grantedlygrantedly a aprecocious path, but in so doing, they moved the issueprecocious path, but in so doing, they moved the issueto a new scientific (to a new scientific (‘‘naturalnatural””) and secular field.) and secular field.

From this viewpoint, we are all the heirs to theFrom this viewpoint, we are all the heirs to theLumièresLumières..

the origin of language in eighteenth-century philosophy

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