the nucleus of the atom
DESCRIPTION
THE NUCLEUS OF THE ATOM. Potential Energy of any Body of Mass. The Proton. Rest Mass =1.007276466812awu Average Lifetime years Discovered, described, and named by Ernest Rutherford over a three-year period (1917-1920). James Chadwick. Student of Rutherford - PowerPoint PPT PresentationTRANSCRIPT
THE NUCLEUS OF THE ATOM
• Components of the Atomic Nucleus– Protons– Neutrons and Isotopes– Radioactivity
• Development of Nuclear Weapons• Nuclear Energy• Particle Physics– Standard Model– Four Fundamental Froces
Potential Energy of any Body of Mass
The Proton
• Rest Mass =1.007276466812awu
• Average Lifetime years• Discovered, described,
and named by Ernest Rutherford over a three-year period (1917-1920)
James Chadwick
• Student of Rutherford• Designed an experiment
with Polonium and Beryllium target. Detected an uncharged form of radiation that had a mass approximately equal to the proton.
• He called it the neutron.1891-1974; Britain
The Neutron
• Rest Mass =1.0086649160043awu• Average Lifetime =881.515 sec
Chadwick’s experimental design
Isotopes• Following the discovery of neutrons, the
disagreement between atomic number and atomic mass for the elements became clear.
• Also, the disagreement between different forms of the same element could be explained.
Antoine Henri Becquerel• Discovered penetrating
radiation by uranium salts that exposed photographic plates in the absence of visible light.
• Reported in 1896.
1852-1908; France
Marie & Pierre Curie
Following report of invisible radiation, Pierre and Marie worked on characterizing the radiation and finding other radioactive elements (e.g. Radium). Maria (Marie) Salomea Sklodowska-Curie;
1867-1934; Poland and FrancePierre Curie; 1859-1909; France
Types of Radiation
Paper
Aluminum
LeadM
Alpha Radiation (α-decay)
• Discovered and named by Rutherford• Reduces the atomic number by 2 and atomic
mass by 4• Equivalent to a helium nucleus
Beta Radiation (β-decay)
• Discovered by Becquerel and named by Rutherford
• Neutron decays to a proton, an electron, an electron neutrino
• Initiated in the nucleus by neutron spontaneously changing to proton (mediated by the weak nuclear force)
Gamma Radiation (γ-decay)
• Discovered by Villard and named by Rutherford
• Type of photon – high energy x-ray with frequency >1019 Hz
• Potassium-40 good source
• γ-decay in association with α and/or β decay
Half-Life
• Probabilistic nature• Exponential decay• Rutherford suggested it
as a way to date minerals.
Radiometric Dating
Based on two decay sequences:238U to 206Pb (half-life 700 million years)235U to 207Pb (half-life 4.5 billion years)Usually taken from very stable zircon crystals
Decay Chains
Controlled Nuclear Fission
Otto Hahn1879-1968; Germany
Friedrich Wilhelm ‘Fritz’ Strassman1902-1980; Germany
Lise Meitner1878-1968; Austria, GermanySweden, UK
Leo Szilard
Tuesday, September 12, 1933. The stoplight changed to green. Szilárd stepped off the curb. As he crossed the street time cracked open before him and he saw a way to the future, death into the world and all our woes, the shape of things to come. (Rhodes 1986)
1898-1964; Hungary and USA
Enrico Fermi
• Began to bombard elements with neutrons and transmutated them into different elements
• In USA built first reactor to create a sustained nuclear reaction
• Developed theory of β-decay
1901-1954; Italy and USA
Pile-1; University of Chicago 2 December 1942
Letter to FDR
The Manhattan Project
Little Boy, The Uranium Bomb
Fat Man, The Plutonium Bomb
At Trinity Test SiteLeft: J. Robert Oppenheimer, scientific leader of Los AlamosRight: Gen. Leslie Groves
Plutonium bred from U-238 in reactors at Hanford, WA
The Only Uses of Atomic Devices in War
Little Boy at Hiroshima, 6 August 1945Yield: 16 ktCasualties: >90,000 dead
Fat Man at Nagasaki, 9 August 1945Yield: 21 ktCasualties: >60,000 dead
The Cold War and Destruction Unlimited
Edward Teller (1908-2003)Hungary and USA
10.4mtMIKE1952
W-88WarheadFor Trident II missiles475kt
Nuclear Energy
Accidents
TMI unit 2 28 March 1979 Chernobyl 26 April 1986
Fukushima-1 11 March 2011
Accelerators
Tevatron at Fermilab, near Chicago
Large Hadron Collider, CERN
Appearance of the spray of subatomic particles from a high energy collision
The Standard Model of Particle Physics
The Four Fundamental Forces of Nature
• Strong Nuclear Force: short range but very strong in attracting quarks (exchange of gluons changes color) within hadrons (e.g. protons and neutrons)
• Weak Nuclear Force: short range and weaker than all forces except gravity. Exchange of W and Z bosons between quarks changes their flavor (e.g. U or D).
• Electromagnetic Force: long distance and obeys inverse square law. Photons carry force which is exchanged between leptons.
• Gravitational Force: long distance and obeys inverse square law. Gravitons attract all particles that have mass.
Strong Nuclear Force
• ~100X stronger than EM force
• Binds hadrons (protons & neutrons) in nucleus
• Binds quarks to form hadrons
u = +2/3d = -1/3
Gauge particle is gluon
Weak Nuclear Force
W & Z bosons ~100 times as massive as a proton
Reprise β-decay with quarks and W- bosonResults of weak nuclear interactions
• Radioactive decay• Beta decay• Burning of sun• Initiating the process of hydrogen fusion in
stars.• Production of deuterium• Formation of other heavy nuclei• Radiocarbon dating
Antimatter
• Every particle has an anti-particle (e.g. electron vs. positron)
• Electron-positron annihilation yields gamma radiation