the national organic waste composting strategy - south african waste...
TRANSCRIPT
October 2012
FINAL Status Quo Report
NOVEMBER 2012
THE NATIONAL ORGANIC WASTE
COMPOSTING STRATEGY
Draft Guideline Document for Composting
February 2013
Compost is BLACK
GOLD to soil “Dirt,
the movie”
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The National Organic Waste Composting Strategy (NOWCS) has been developed to promote
composting as one method to beneficiate organic waste, as one of a basket of options, to divert
organics from landfill disposal. The NOWCS Report does not address in detail secondary elements
such as methane generation, detailed analysis of organic waste generation, quantities, usage, etc.
This draft Guideline Document has been developed as a supplement to the NOWCS (Strategy) Report
and Status Quo Report (amongst others) and is aimed to provide a practical conceptual-level
information tool to assist Authorities and other interested parties to identify viable and sustainable
composting opportunities.
This Guideline Document covers issues such as:
Regulatory processes,
Strategic planning by DEA with respect to composting,
Marketing,
Impacts and controls,
Education and skills,
Various Technologies (composting and alternatives),
Costs,
Typical layouts,
Planning tools and information,
Useful reading and references
This Guideline Document contains data, facts and figures that should be of assistance and value to
those wishing to expand existing composting activities or for those wanting to identify potential new
composting opportunities.
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FOREWORD AND DISCLAIMER
With respect to technologies, the Project team is aware that other technologies and opportunities are
available, other than composting or those illustrated in this Guideline Document, to treat and obtain
beneficial use of organic waste.
The Project Team does recognise that technology is also developing at an increasing rate, such that
more opportunities are arising to improve efficiencies and viability of getting beneficial use from organic
waste.
This Document does not imply that composting is the preferred method of treating (or diverting from
landfill) organic waste in South Africa. The Terms of Reference refers to a National Organic
Composting Strategy; hence the focus of this Guideline Document is only on composting.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ....................................................................................................... II
FOREWORD AND DISCLAIMER .......................................................................................... III
TABLE OF CONTENTS ....................................................................................................... IV
LIST OF FIGURES .............................................................................................................. V
LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................ V
ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................................................. VII
DEFINITION OF TERMS .................................................................................................... VIII
1. INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW ................................................................................ 14
1.1. BACKGROUND ....................................................................................................... 14
1.2. SCOPE OF THIS GUIDELINE DOCUMENT ............................................................... 15
1.3. PURPOSE, NEED AND OBJECTIVES FOR THE GUIDELINE DOCUMENT .................. 16
2. REGULATORY PROCESSES ...................................................................................... 17
3. FEEDSTOCK AND VARIOUS COMPOSTING PROCESSES ............................................. 20
4. PRODUCTS, USES AND MARKETABILITY ................................................................... 27
4.1. PRODUCTS AND MARKETABILITY.......................................................................... 27
4.1.1. TYPICAL PRODUCTS ............................................................................................. 28
4.1.2. TYPICAL MARKETING STRATEGY ......................................................................... 30
4.1.3. LABELLING AND COMPOSITION ............................................................................ 31
4.1.4. ORGANIC CERTIFICATION ..................................................................................... 34
4.1.5. PRICING STRUCTURE ........................................................................................... 34
5. FACILITY MANAGEMENT MODELS ............................................................................. 37
6. PROPOSED ORGANIC WASTE STRATEGY BY DEA ...................................................... 47
7. TYPICAL IMPACTS ASSOCIATED WITH A COMPOSTING OPERATION ........................... 49
8. STRATEGY BY DEA REGARDING EDUCATION, SKILL-TRANSFER AND AWARENESS .... 53
9. COMMON TECHNOLOGY OPTIONS............................................................................. 55
10. TYPICAL COSTS OF COMPOSTING FACILITIES ........................................................... 64
11. TYPICAL LAYOUTS OF A COMPOSTING FACILITY ....................................................... 66
12. USEFUL CONTACT NUMBERS ................................................................................... 76
13. USEFUL READING .................................................................................................... 78
14. REFERENCES ........................................................................................................... 79
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Regulatory Process of Identifying an Opportunity to Establish a Composting Facility ............ 19
Figure 2: McCarthy's 4 P's of Marketing ................................................................................................ 27
Figure 3: Graphical matrix for public-private sector involvement ........................................................... 46
Figure 4: Key Priorities and Timeframe Chart ........................................................................................ 48
Figure 5: Illustration of the stages of a simple composting process ....................................................... 62
Figure 6: The composting process and typical by-products ................................................................... 63
Figure 7: Processing facilities P1: Composting - chip & stockpile only Guideline Schematics ............... 70
Figure 8: Processing facilities P2: Composting - small-scale windrows without screening Guideline
Schematics ............................................................................................................................................ 71
Figure 9: Processing facilities P3: Composting - large-scale windrows with screening Guideline
Schematics ............................................................................................................................................ 72
Figure 10: Processing facility P4: Waste-to-compost facility Guideline Schematics .............................. 73
Figure 11: Typical windrow composting system..................................................................................... 74
Figure 12: Box composting (cross section) ............................................................................................ 75
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Suitability of composting typical general waste ........................................................................ 21
Table 2: Feedstock odour potential ranking ........................................................................................... 22
Table 3: Process Odour Potential ranking ............................................................................................. 23
Table 4: Compost feedstock category and type and possible composting technology and treatment
options ................................................................................................................................................... 24
Table 5: Examples of composting products with descriptions and possible uses (Guide to Best practice
for Organics Recovery, 2009). ............................................................................................................... 28
Table 6: Compost quality versus consumer interest .............................................................................. 31
Table 7: Market demand versus compost type and quality13 ................................................................. 33
Table 8: Typical compost customer demand sheet ................................................................................ 35
Table 9: Typical Municipally owned Municipally Operated management models (scenarios) for
composting ............................................................................................................................................ 38
Table 10: Typical Municipally owned Community operated management models (scenarios) for
composting ............................................................................................................................................ 40
Table 11: Typical Municipally owned Privately operated management models (scenarios) for
composting ............................................................................................................................................ 42
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Table 12: Typical Privately owned Privately operated management models (scenarios) for composting
.............................................................................................................................................................. 44
Table 13: Typical impacts and potential mitigation measures for a composting operation..................... 49
Table 14: Summary of composting technologies currently being undertaken ........................................ 57
Table 15: Technologies suitable for organics processing ...................................................................... 60
Table 16: Typical costing of items in a composting facility ..................................................................... 64
Table 17: Checklist for determining possible site-area of operation ....................................................... 67
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ABBREVIATIONS
ASP Anaerobic Static Pile
C:N Carbon (C) and Nitrogen (N) ratio
CO2 Carbon dioxide
DEA Department of Environmental Affairs
DEAT Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism
DWAF Department of Water Affairs and Forestry
ECA Environmental Conservation Act, 73 of 1989
EIA Environmental Impact Assessment
EPA Environmental Protection Agency, USA
GDACE Gauteng Department of Agriculture, Conservation and Environment
GDARD Gauteng Department of Agriculture and Rural Development
IWM Integrated Waste Management
IWMSA Institute of Waste Management of South Africa
MSA Municipal Systems Act, 32 of 2000
MSW Municipal Solid Waste
NEMA National Environmental Management Act, 107 of 1998 (as amended)
NEM:WA National Environmental Management: Waste Act, 59 of 2008
NIMBY Not In My Backyard
NOWCS National Organic Waste Composting Strategy
NWMS National Waste Management Strategy, 2011
RTS Refuse Transfer Station
SAWIC South African Waste Information Centre
SAWIS South African Waste Information System
SWM Solid Waste Management
UNEP United Nations Environmental Policy
WIS Waste Information System
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DEFINITION OF TERMS
Definition Act / Reference
Air Pollution Any change in the composition of the air caused by
smoke, soot, dust (including fly ash), cinders, solid
particles of any kind, gases, fumes, aerosols and
odorous substances.
National Environmental
Management: Air Quality
Act (Act No 39. Of 2004)
Animal
Manure
A by-product of animal excreta which is bio-degradable
in nature and could further be used for fertilisation
purposes.
National Environmental
Management: Waste Act
(Act No. 59 of 2008) : GN
718 19(1)
Biosolids Nutrient rich organic materials (solid/ semi-solid)
obtained from wastewater solids (sewage sludge) that
have been stabilised through processing and which is
often used as fertilizer.
Adapted from:
http://dictionary.referenc
e.com/browse/biosolids
By-Product A substance that is produced as part of a process that is
primarily intended to produce another substance or
product and that has the characteristics of an equivalent
virgin product or material.
National Environmental
Management: Waste Act
(Act No. 59 of 2008)
Compost A stabilised, homogenous, fully decomposed substance
of animal or plant origin to which no plant nutrients have
been added and that is free of substances or elements
that could be harmful to man, animal, plant or the
environment.
PLEASE NOTE: In terms of the NEM: Waste Act there
is no definition for compost and these needs to be
addressed. On an international and national level, there
are multiple definitions of “Compost” and “Composting.”
Fertilizers, Farm Feeds,
Agricultural Remedies
and Stock Remedies Act
(Act No. 36 of 1947) :
GNR 732 Regulations
Regarding Fertilizers
Composting Controlled biological process in which organic materials Guide to Best Practice
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Definition Act / Reference
are broken down by micro-organisms.
See note above for “Compost”.
for Organics Recovery
(Sustainability Victoria
2009)
Domestic
Waste
Waste, excluding hazardous waste that emanates from
premises that are used wholly or mainly for residential,
educational, health care, sport or recreation purposes.
National Environmental
Management: Waste Act
(Act No. 59 of 2008)
Fertilizer Any substance which is intended or offered to be used
for improving or maintaining the growth of plants or the
productivity of the soil.
Fertilizers, Farm Feeds,
Agricultural Remedies
and Stock Remedies Act
(Act No. 36 of 1947):
GNR 732 - Regulations
Regarding Fertilizers
Garden
Waste
NOTE: The NEM: Waste Act does not list a definition for
“Garden Waste”. For the purposes of this report,
“garden waste” is meant as organic biodegradable
waste material generated from the likes of a typical
garden.
Reference to “Green Waste” in this report typically
refers to “Garden Waste”.
None
General
Waste
Waste that does not pose an immediate hazard or
threat to health or to the environment, and includes—
a) domestic waste;
b) building and demolition waste;
c) business waste: and
d) Inert waste.
National Environmental
Management: Waste Act
(Act No. 59 of 2008)
Green
Waste
NOTE: that there is no recognised common
definition for “Green Waste”. Reference to “Green
Waste” in this report typically refers to “Garden
Waste”.
None
Hazardous Any waste that contains organic or inorganic elements National Environmental
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Definition Act / Reference
Waste or compounds that may, owing to the inherent physical,
chemical or toxicological characteristics of that waste,
have a detrimental impact on health and the
environment.
Management: Waste Act
(Act No. 59 of 2008)
Lagoons The containment of waste in excavations and includes
evaporation dams, earth cells sewage treatment
facilities and sludge farms.
National Environmental
Management: Waste Act
(Act No. 59 of 2008) : GN
718 19(1):
Municipal
Compost
The disinfected and stabilised organic fertilizer
manufactured by the controlled decomposition of sorted
and milled urban waste including fermentable industrial
and commercial waste.
Fertilizers, Farm Feeds,
Agricultural Remedies
and Stock Remedies Act
(Act No. 36 of 1947):
GNR 732 - Regulations
Regarding Fertilizers
Municipal
Waste
Means any municipal compost that does not meet the
requirements for compost given in these regulations: on
the understanding that such waste must meet the
minimum requirements for municipal waste as set out in
the regulations for the registration of fertilizers.
Fertilizers, Farm Feeds,
Agricultural Remedies
and Stock Remedies Act
(Act No. 36 of 1947):
GNR 732 - Regulations
Regarding Fertilizers
Offensive
Odour
Any smell which is considered to be malodorous or a
nuisance to a reasonable person.
National Environmental
Management: Air Quality
Act (Act No 39. Of 2004)
Organic
waste
“Organic Waste” is categorised as, “garden waste, food
waste and wood waste.”
PLEASE NOTE: For the purposes of this project, waste
of biological origin which can be broken down, in a
reasonable amount of time, into its base compounds by
micro-organisms and other living things and/or by other
National Environmental
Management: Waste Act
(Act No. 59 of 2008) :
GNR 625 - National
Waste Information
Regulations
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Definition Act / Reference
forms of treatment, regardless of what those
compounds may be, have also been considered as
“organic waste” and are referenced in this study.
Organic
waste
A carbon-based material of animal or plant origin (that is
defined as waste in terms of the South African gazetted
National Environmental Management: Waste Act, 2008
(Act No. 59 of 2008:) that naturally enhances fertility of
soil through a natural degradation process (natural
occurring fertilizer) but excludes human made organic
chemicals (such as solvents, chemicals and cleansing
agents) and naturally occurring organic chemicals which
have been refined or concentrated by human activity
(such as oil, petroleum, diesel and tar products).
“Organic Waste” will generally comprise materials that
can be accepted for disposal at a licensed municipal
general waste landfill facility (i.e. excludes infectious,
poisonous, health-care and hazardous organic wastes)”.
Proposed new definition
under this Project for
comment and ultimately
adoption by DEA as a
Strategic objective.
Recovery The controlled extraction of a material or the retrieval of
energy from waste to produce a product.
National Environmental
Management: Waste Act
(Act No. 59 of 2008)
Recycle A process where waste is reclaimed for further use,
which process involves the separation of waste from a
waste stream for further use and the processing of that
separated material as a product or raw material.
National Environmental
Management: Waste Act
(Act No. 59 of 2008)
Re-use To utilise articles from the waste stream again for a
similar or different purpose without changing the form or
properties of the articles.
National Environmental
Management: Waste Act
(Act No. 59 of 2008)
Storage The accumulation of waste in a manner that does not
constitute treatment or disposal of that waste.
National Environmental
Management: Waste Act
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Definition Act / Reference
(Act No. 59 of 2008)
Treatment Any method, technique or process that is designed to:
a) change the physical, biological or chemical
character or composition of a waste; or
b) remove, separate, concentrate or recover a
hazardous or toxic component of a waste; or
c) Destroy or reduce the toxicity of a waste, in
order to minimise the impact of the waste on the
environment prior to further use or disposal.
National Environmental
Management: Waste Act
(Act No. 59 of 2008)
Waste Any substance, whether or not that substance can be
reduced, re-used, recycled and recovered:
a) that is surplus, unwanted, rejected, discarded,
abandoned or disposed of;
b) which the generator has no further use of for
the purposes of production;
c) that must be treated or disposed of; or
d) that is identified as a waste by the Minister by
notice in the Gazette, and includes waste
generated by the mining, medical or other
sector, but—
i. a by-product is not considered waste; and
ii. any portion of waste, once re-used, recycled
and recovered, ceases to be waste.
National Environmental
Management: Waste Act
(Act No. 59 of 2008)
Wastewater
sludge
Material removed from wastewater treatment plants
designed to treat predominately domestic wastewater
and includes the following products:
Raw or primary sludge from a primary clarifier,
Primary sludge from an elutriation process,
Anaerobically digested sludge, both heated and
Guidelines for the
Utilisation and Disposal
of Wastewater Sludge:
Volume 1
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Definition Act / Reference
cold digestion,
Oxidation pond sludge,
Septic tank sludge and other sludge from on-
site sanitation units,
Surplus or waste activated sludge,
Humus sludge,
Pasteurised sludge,
Heat-treated sludge,
Lime-stabilised sludge, and
Composted sludge.
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1. INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW
This Guideline Document must be read in conjunction with the Final Status Quo Report
(December 2012) and the Draft National Organic Waste Management Strategy Report (February
2013).
1.1. BACKGROUND
The development of the National Waste Management Strategy (2011) was an important milestone in
facilitating the implementation of the National Environmental Management: Waste Act, 2008 (Act No.
59 of 2008). The National Waste Management Strategy promotes composting as one of the
approaches towards achieving the objectives of the waste management hierarchy, amongst other
measures. This National Organic Waste Composting Strategy (NOWCS) has been initiated by the
Department of Environmental Affairs (DEA) with the aim to develop and promote the diversion of
organic waste from landfill sites for soil beneficiation and other uses through composting1.
The DEA appointed specialist consultants, Jeffares & Green (Pty) Ltd, in July 2012 to assist in the
development of a National Organic Waste Composting Strategy. The Project was divided into the
following phases:
Phase 1: Literature Review
A Literature Review Report was compiled and key information from the report was summarised and
carried forward as an appendix attached to the Status Quo Report.
Phase 2: Status Quo / Situational Analysis
The final Status Quo Report presents the current organic waste management systems that are in place
in South Africa with an overview and examples of international practices being discussed. The
Executive Summary and report were made available for Stakeholder comment prior to finalisation and a
copy of the final Status Quo report was made available online.
1 Department of Environmental Affairs (DEA) Terms of Reference (February 2012)
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Phase 3: Stakeholder Engagement
Stakeholder engagement is on-going and feedback obtained to date was summarised in the Status
Quo Report as well as in a separate Stakeholder Engagement Report.
Phase 4: Development of the NOWCS
The Strategy Report is the final phase of the project which is currently being undertaken. This Report is
in response to the final Status Quo Report and internal specialist engagements and workshops.
Supplement to Phase 4: Development of a Guideline Document for undertaking composting
Arising from stakeholder engagement, coupled with discussions with DEA, the need for general
information regarding establishing a composting facility was also identified as a critical tool that would
further assist with diverting organic waste from landfill.
This Guideline Document has also been developed as part of this project to assist Municipalities and/ or
private/ non-governmental organisations to consider key elements to undertaking composting prior to
developing such a facility.
1.2. SCOPE OF THIS GUIDELINE DOCUMENT
The Strategy (outlined in the Strategy Report) assists in enforcing direction and clear, structured
planning towards a common goal.
The overall aim for this project (NOWCS) is to ensure (where viable) that organic waste generated
within South Africa is diverted from landfill sites for composting, as one alternative treatment method,
through integrated and sustainable waste management planning.
The need for this Guideline Document arose from stakeholder engagement undertaken during the
Status Quo and Strategy phase of the project which clearly demonstrated the necessity for a broad, yet
informative document on key aspects that an individual, organisation and / or institution should consider
prior to undertaking composting. This document attempts to provide guidance on key elements to
consider as part of the planning, design, construction, operation and management phases for a
composting facility.
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It should be noted that this is a guideline document which aims to provide broad recommendations to
be considered during the feasibility and planning stages. Case-specific and local aspects such as the
receiving environment (both from a social and biophysical perspective) should always be integrated in
project planning. The needs for each composting initiative should be systematically analysed for each
individual project, including the following:
the scale of the project, and
the context of the proposed site.
This guideline document will assist by providing an indication of what aspects need to be considered
before establishing a new composting facility.
1.3. PURPOSE, NEED AND OBJECTIVES FOR THE GUIDELINE DOCUMENT
Based on the findings from the situational analysis that was undertaken from September 2012 to
December 2012 on organic waste within South Africa, the key findings documented in the Status Quo
Report (December 2012) clearly showed that strategies and actions are needed to divert organic waste
from landfill disposal. The findings highlighted in the Status Quo Report, assisted in identifying gaps in
information, as well as the challenges and issues with regards to organic waste composting within
South Africa.
The NOWC Strategy Report and this Guideline Document will provide stakeholders, such as
municipalities, with information to enable them to compile their own specific, implementable composting
action plans to divert organic waste from their landfills, in terms of their specific needs, demographics,
climate, budget, etc.
The development of the NOWCS is expected to facilitate and guide the development of legislation,
norms, standards, as well as South African Certification Standards specifically for organic
products, including organic compost and organic fertilizer.
This Strategy should be a public, ‘living’ and actively used functional report that comprises a strategy
which is practical and implementable to both DEA and other government departments.
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It would be incumbent upon the public and / or private body to assess potential waste streams for
composting viability and sustainability prior to undertaking such initiatives. This may be on a local or
regional level.
2. REGULATORY PROCESSES
This Section aims to identify, in broad-terms, regulatory and environmental processes when trying to
identify and establish a composting facility.
One of the strategies identified in the NOWCS is to streamline the process of “Licencing” a composting
facility, via the possibility of rather “Registering” a facility, thereby effecting obligations to develop and
operate a composting facility.
For the purposes of this Document, the word “licence” can also mean “registration”.
Currently, in terms of South African legislation it is important to identify the parameters of a project
upfront in order to ascertain what processes and authorisations are required to prevent delays later in
the planning phase. It is important to consider the triggers contained within the National Environmental
Management: Waste Act (Act 59 of 2008), NEM:WA, which outlines the need to undertake one of the
following processes depending on the scale of the activity:
Basic Assessment (BA) process, which can take between 6 and 9 months to complete,
Scoping and EIA process, which can take in the region of 12 – 15 months. In general,
other legislative requirements (such as Planning Approvals, Water Use Authorisations or
Licenses, etc.) are dependent on the outcome of the NEMA EA process before an
Authority will issue a License or permit.
Only once the necessary approvals are obtained, can a facility be constructed and begin operating.
The cost and time that it takes to obtain the necessary permits/ licenses in terms of the above
legislation was noted by all private stakeholders consulted as being a huge constraint to operating
within the composting industry.
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Poor environmental management of composting and related organics processing facilities can typically
result in one or more of the following environmental problems:
air quality impacts, namely odours and particulate matter,
potential hazards, such as fire and explosions,
water and soil pollution,
the presence of vermin in excessive numbers,
excessive levels of noise from equipment (such as shredders and traffic),
wind-blown litter,
nuisances arising from particulate matter from delivery trucks and earthmoving equipment,
and
production of contaminated organic products.
With respect to medium to large scale composting facilities, there are key elements and considerations
which should be considered and addressed including:
feasibility considerations from a feedstock, land availability as well as suitability
perspective,
understand the processes in terms of regulatory requirements necessary prior to
constructing a facility, and
undertake a financial cost-benefit analysis for the various phases (i.e. planning,
implementation, closure and decommissioning) prior to establishing a composting facility.
All of these elements have been visually portrayed in a flow diagram for ease of reference. Refer to
Figure 1.
Each of the components are discussed and elaborated on in more detail in the guideline document.
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PLANNING PHASE
Data collection: Feedstock opportunities/ threats, quantities/ securing supply, quality and types*, proximity of input material to proposed site
Site suitability (ownership, licensed/ permitted, size/ scale, alternative sites, proximity to sensitive receptors e.g. buffer areas, markets, feedstock material), topography, environmental sensitivity of proposed site
Regulatory processes: Licenses/ registration in terms of the NEM: WA, NEMA, Fertilizers, Farm Feeds, Agricultural Remedies and Stock Remedies Act
Business/ financial planning: funding (start-up costs: regulatory processes, land, equipment and materials, construction; operational and maintenance costs: staff, monitoring, managing impacts, equipment failure, packaging and transportation), cost-benefit analysis, transportation costs; closure/ decommissioning.
Marketing analysis and product sales: Assess potential customers and competitors, product quality and type, pricing, market sectors, end-use etc.
WILL MY COMPOSTING FACILITY BE
FEASIBLE?
YES
NO
Review alternatives for
green/ organic waste
diversion: opportunities
Detailed Business planning: funding (start-up, operational and maintenance, closure/ decommissioning)
Detailed design of facility****: structures, offices, access, infrastructure
Construction phase: Environmental Management Programme, monitoring, license conditions of approval
Staff and equipment acquisition
Operations and maintenance: (data capture, record, monitoring, environmental impact and risk management e.g. dust, odour, employing suitably qualified staff to operate/ manage site, process control (temperature, moisture etc.), quality testing of product (weeds, pathogens)
End-use: Market demand & development / strategy, product information and labelling, certification (perhaps), quality assurance, distribution and sales.
CLOSURE AND DECOMMISSIONING
REGULATORY (LICENSING / PERMITTING PROCESSES IN TERMS OF NEMA AND NEM: WA)**
Waste Management Licence in terms of NEM: WA via undertaking a 6- 9** month Basic Assessment process or a 9 to 12*** month Scoping and Environmental Impact Assessment process in terms of the NEMA)
Application phase: submit application to competent authority
Basic Assessment/ Scoping & Environmental Assessment phase: Advertising, landowner notification, draft and final reporting for public comment periods, public engagement (e.g. meetings), authority review and consideration of reporting and information, environmental authorisation decision, appeal.
Decision and Appeal phase: notify registered I&APs, advertising
IMPLEMENTATION PHASE
* Directly impacts on the amount of space needed for the facility, the method of composting and associated equipment and staff requirements (number and qualification).
** This is only necessary if activities in terms of NEMA or NEM: WA are triggered and/ or if the proposed composting site is not licensed/ permitted.
***These timeframes are based on broad guidelines based on the assumption that there are no delays in the regulatory process.
**** Careful design and selection of process components and equipment, as well as good operating techniques, procedures and staff training are
key to managing potential impacts of a composting facility effectively.
Figure 1: Regulatory Process of Identifying an Opportunity to Establish a Composting Facility
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3. FEEDSTOCK AND VARIOUS COMPOSTING PROCESSES
Diversion of organic waste from landfill and the alternative treatments thereof, such as composting and
energy recovery reduces dependence on landfilling waste, as well as the associated risk of greenhouse
gas emissions. It reduces the risk of methane and other gases impacting on the surrounding land, and
reduces the risk of organic compounds and other contaminants possibly polluting groundwater.
Recovery and processing of organics can produce beneficial soil amendments (such as composts and
fertilizers) for improving South African soil profiles, increasing soil organic carbon levels, preventing soil
erosion and reducing water demand for growing plants and crops. Some recovery technologies also
allow the generation of electricity, production of heat for industrial purposes and the generation of other
fuels for secondary energy production2.
Not all waste is suitable to compost; however, and Table 1 summarises typical general waste types and
their suitability to composting.
2 Adapted from Guide to Best Practice for Organics Recovery (Sustainability Victoria 2009)
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Table 1: Suitability of composting typical general waste
Typical General Waste
Suitable for Composting Not Suitable for Composting
Biodegradable materials Hazardous material Residues Recyclables
Garden Waste - cleaning products
- automotive products
- Pesticides
- HCRW
- broken glass
- expired medicines
- batteries
- treated timber
- chemicals
- inflammable products
- soiled polyethylene
- Bones
- Painted woods
- glass
- metal
- aluminium
- paper
- plastics
- cardboard
- Grass; leaves; plants; cuttings;
branches; tree trunks and stumps.
Food Waste
- Vegetables;
- fruit and seeds
- processing sludges and wastes;
- winery, brewery and distillery wastes;
- food organics3
Wood Waste
- Untreated timber Sawdust
- shavings
- timber offcuts
- crates
- pallets
- wood packaging
Others
- Biosolids and manures
- Mulch
- seed hulls/husks
- straw
- bagasse and other natural organic
fibrous organics
- paper-processing sludge
- non-synthetic textiles
Composting Process Transport to Landfill site
Sell to
Recycling
Industry
3 (GW20-2) – National Waste Information Regulations (Notice 625 of 2012)
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The compostable fraction of organic waste or feedstock has the potential to emit odours if not managed
correctly. Typically, the composting process will emit odours if it becomes anaerobic (i.e. not sufficient
oxygen in the process). Table 2 reviews the odour generation potential of some common compost
feedstock.
Note that general organic waste is often mixed with contaminants which adversely impacts on their
suitability for composting. Organic stream management, with separation at source and systems for
separate collection and transportation may be required. A further important consideration is that
organic waste treatment facilities, whether public or private-sector owned and/or operated, should
receive a regular and constant supply of feedstock material within the constraints of seasonal
variations. This may require that certain organic waste streams directed to treatment facilities are
dedicated, or shared, on a properly planned (systems approach) and on a contractually binding basis.
Table 2: Feedstock odour potential ranking4
Feedstock composted Potential for odour generation
Animal excreta (includes dead livestock and manure) Highest
Lowest
Municipal green with food waste (kerbside green/food waste) and grease trap
waste* (GW01)**
Biosolids (fresh) (GW21)
Food waste (GW20-2)
Green waste (includes kerbside green waste, grass clippings, hay and sawdust)
(GW20-1)
Hard green waste (timber, branches) (GW20-3)
* Other oily Prescribed Industrial Waste is not encouraged and is considered case by case.
**“GW…” relates to reporting on SAWIS5
As with compost feedstock, the composting process selected also has the potential to impact on odour
generation. Table 3 summarises the common composting processes and ranks their odour generation
potential.
4 Adapted from (EPA Victoria, 2012)
5 DEA.August 2012. National Waste Information Regulations. GNR 625, 2012)
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Table 3: Process Odour Potential ranking6
Process type Potential for odour generation
Open, static pile/windrow Highest
Lowest
Open, turned windrow
Open, aerated, static pile/windrow, capable of continuous aeration
Vermiculture
Covered, aerated, static pile/windrow, capable of continuous aeration and moisture control, open-air maturation
Housed/indoor composting with odour-control equipment and open-air maturation
Covered process for active and maturation phase with odour-control equipment
In-vessel (tunnel or drum) aerobic composting with odour-control equipment and open air maturation
Fully enclosed facility with enclosed receipts and enclosed maturation phase with best-practice odour-control technology*
* Best-practice odour-control technology will be assessed based on the proposal and the best available
technology would be expected. Consideration of international practices may also be relevant.
Table 4 has been adapted from the Environmental Guidelines: Composting and Related Organics
Processing Facilities (Department of Environment and Conservation (NSW), 2004), which forms the
basis of the Categorisation of Organic Waste, as proposed in the NOWCS Report.
6 (EPA Victoria, 2012)
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Table 4: Compost feedstock category and type and possible composting technology and treatment options
Potential to have
environmental
impact
Organics
category Types of organics permitted in categories
Technology
Choice7 Possible Treatment Option
Type Examples of organics
Lowest potential
environmental
impact Cat
egor
y 1
Garden and
landscaping
organics8
GW 20-1
Grass; leaves; plants; cuttings; branches;
tree trunks and stumps. Minimal - High
Open Windrows/ Piles (aerated or other)
Compost drums, bins or barrels
Vermicomposting
Mechanised "continuous flow" worm systems
Turned or agitated bays or beds
In-vessel units
Untreated timber9
GW 20-3
Untreated timber Sawdust; shavings;
timber offcuts; crates; pallets; wood
packaging.
Minimal - High
Open Windrows/ Piles (aerated or other)
Compost drums, bins or barrels
Vermicomposting
Mechanised "continuous flow" worm systems
Turned or agitated bays or beds
In-vessel units
Natural organic
fibrous organics
Mulch; seed hulls/husks; straw; bagasse
and other natural organic fibrous
organics.
Minimal - High
Open Windrows/ Piles (aerated or other)
Compost drums, bins or barrels
Vermicomposting
Mechanised "continuous flow" worm systems
Turned or agitated bays or beds
In-vessel units
Processed fibrous
organics
Paper; cardboard; paper-processing
sludge; non-synthetic textiles. Minimal - High
Open Windrows/ Piles (aerated or other)
Compost drums, bins or barrels
Vermicomposting
Mechanised "continuous flow" worm systems
Turned or agitated bays or beds
In-vessel units
Greater potential
environmental
impact than
Category 1, less
potential impact
than Category 3.
Cat
egor
y 2
Other natural or
processed vegetable
organics
(including GW 20-2)
Vegetables; fruit and seeds and
processing sludges and wastes; winery,
brewery and distillery wastes; food
organics10 excluding organics in Category
3.
Low - High
Compost bins or barrels
Turned windrows
Vermicomposting
Aerated static piles
Drum-type composters
Mechanised "continuous flow" worm systems
Turned or agitated bays or beds
In-vessel units
Biosolids and
manures
*HW20 & GW21
Sewage biosolids, animal manure and
mixtures of manure and biodegradable
animal bedding organics.
Medium - High
Aerated static piles
Drum-type composters
Mechanised "continuous flow" worm systems
Turned or agitated bays or beds
In-vessel units
Greatest potential
environmental
impact Cat
egor
y 3
Meat, fish and fatty
foods
Carcasses and parts of carcasses; blood;
bone; fish; fatty processing or food. Medium - High
Aerated static piles
Drum-type composters
Mechanised "continuous flow" worm systems
Turned or agitated bays or beds
In-vessel units
Fatty and oily sludges
and organics of
animal and vegetable
origin
Dewatered grease trap; fatty and oily
sludges of animal and vegetable origin. High
Turned or agitated bays or beds
In-vessel units
Mixed residual waste
containing putrescible
organics
Wastes containing putrescible organics,
including household domestic waste that
is set aside for kerbside collection or
delivered by the householder directly to a
processing facility, and waste from
commerce and industry.
High Turned or agitated bays or beds
In-vessel units
* The prefix must be decided based on the analytical results from waste classification.
Note: “GW/HW…” relates to reporting on SAWIS11
7 “Minimal Technology” means a high-level of manual involvement, ranging up to “High Technology” which would have limited manual involvement. “Manual” means labour-intensive, operations by hand, etc.
8 (GW20-1) – National Waste Information Regulations (Notice 625 of 2012) 9 (GW20-3) – National Waste Information Regulations (Notice 625 of 2012) 10 (GW20-2) – National Waste Information Regulations (Notice 625 of 2012) 11 DEA.August 2012. National Waste Information Regulations. GNR 625, 2012)
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Organic Waste that has a higher potential impact (Category 3 or the like), that may be co-composted or
co-treated with general organic wastes, include the following:
a) Animal carcasses: This category of organic wastes may include abattoir waste, animal
carcasses, marine animal carcasses (seals, whales, etc.).
b) Alien vegetation: This category may include alien trees, shrubs, roots and seeds, water plants
such as hyacinths, sea-weed, etc. Alien vegetation cleared throughout the country (as part of
the Extended Public Works Programme as well as for Working for Water) generally gets
stockpiled and burnt. Some plant species require the high temperatures that veld fires produce
in order to trigger the germination process. This also results in significant amounts of pollutants
being released into the atmosphere, as well as ‘heat patches’ being produced which result in
rapid infestation of alien vegetation. Therefore, this burning may promote the germination of
alien invasive seeds which have just been cut, thus promoting the consideration of composting
as an alternative.
c) Sewage Sludge: Sewage sludge is considered to be organic waste, but this material must
meet the requirements for total metal and inorganic content as prescribed in the Fertilizers,
Farm Feeds, Agricultural Remedies and Stock Remedies Act (No. 49 of 1996). Composting of
sewage sludge furthermore needs to meet the requirements as stipulated in the “Guidelines for
Utilisation and Disposal of Wastewater Sludge” (WRC Report No. TT 261/06).
Use of stabilised sludge is also readily used in the agricultural sector as a nutrient source
and/or soil conditioner12 at an application rate determined to supply a crop’s nitrogen needs.
Care is needed to prevent the risk of nutrient leaching and this applies to both commercial and
small scale subsistence farming practices.
To achieve the correct conditions for successful composting of sludge, the following elements
are essential13:
1. Sludge must be mixed with a “bulking agent” that provides structural support and
create voids in the composting matrix to enable air to pass freely through the pile;
2. Air must be introduced into the pile to promote the biological activity;
12
Guidelines for the Utilisation and Disposal of Wastewater Sludge: Volume 2 13 Guidelines for the Utilisation and Disposal of Wastewater Sludge: Volume 5
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3. Sufficient organic energy must be present in the feed sludge to enable the biological
activity in the pile to generate the required pasteurising temperatures (65-70°C); and
4. The nutrient mix of the sludge must be suitable to promote bacteriological growth. The
optimal C:N ratio is approximately 20:1 and sludge tends to contain sufficient nitrogen
to meet this requirement.
Various restrictions, as set out in the “Guidelines for the Utilisation and Disposal of Sewage
Sludge”10,11 are imposed on the sludge quality when considering sewage sludge as a feedstock
for use in composting. The Guidelines furthermore provide a classification system for sludge
and provide compliance criteria and guidelines for the use, treatment and disposal of sewage
sludges that are treated by means of composting or co-composting.
Compost containing sludge can be distributed to the general public. Acknowledging however,
that the management of the product is out of the hands of the producer, these products should
therefore be of such quality that it can be used without restrictions and adverse environmental
and human health implications. Requirements have also been developed for fertilizer products
containing sludge.14
14
See Guidelines for the Utilisation and Disposal of Wastewater Sludge: Volume 5
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4. PRODUCTS, USES AND MARKETABILITY
A crucial step in evaluating the viability and sustainability of a new composting opportunity or to
evaluate an existing operation is to determine your final market, how to reach your market and the
demands thereof. Understanding this element of the business will allow the sale and/or beneficial use
of the compost to be more sustainable and viable.
This section of the Guideline Document aims to provide a broad-brush usable tool in approaching how
to plan the marketing, identify markets, presentation of the final compost product and ultimately
understand what the market value is of the final compost product.
4.1. PRODUCTS AND MARKETABILITY
Marketing is defined as the action or business of promoting and selling products or services. It is a
process of planning the concept, pricing, promotion, and distribution of products to create exchanges
that satisfy all parties concerned (Kohrell & Wells, no date).
The marketing process can be broken down into the 4 P’s, i.e. Product (quality and consistency), Price,
Position and Place (travel, geographical, distance to markets), which are represented in Figure 2.
These are the factors that need to be taken into consideration when determining the marketability of the
final product, be it compost or a by-product of compost.
Figure 2: McCarthy's 4 P's of Marketing
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4.1.1. TYPICAL PRODUCTS
The composting process can produce various products such as mulch, soil amendments, organic
fertilisers and blended products (see Table 5). At the outset, the producer needs to determine which
products will be produced by their chosen process.
Table 5: Examples of composting products with descriptions and possible uses (Guide to Best
practice for Organics Recovery, 2009).
PRODUCT DESCRIPTION USES
Mulch Fine mulch is a product with between
20% and 70% by weight of particles
having dimensions of less than 16mm.
Coarse mulch is a product with more
than 70% by weight of particle size
exceeding 16mm.
Pasteurised mulches are either fine
or coarse mulches that have
undergone ‘hot’ composting to kill
weed seeds and pathogens but are still
too biologically active for safe use in
sensitive applications.
Composted mulches are either fine or
coarse mulches that have undergone a
controlled composting to meet
stabilisation requirements
Fine mulch: It is suited to
application to the surface of
land for moisture conservation,
weed control and soil
conditioning benefit. It is
typically used in urban
landscaping.
Course mulch: These
mulches are typically used for
moisture conservation and
weed control in viticulture,
erosion management and
landscaping.
Pasteurised mulches:
Pasteurised mulches are still
very biologically active and
can have nitrogen and other
nutrient draw down, pH, self-
heating and phytotoxicological
impacts on plants in sensitive
uses.
Composted mulches: for use
in sensitive uses.
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PRODUCT DESCRIPTION USES
Soil
Amendment
A range of soil amendments may be made
from recovered organics, including
composted soil conditioners, and liquid and
organic fertilisers. Soil amendments may be
sold in bulk (wholesale market) or be
packaged for retail markets.
Composted soil conditioners have less
than 20% by weight of particles exceeding
16mm, and meet stability requirements.
These products can be applied and
integrated to land to provide
biological, chemical and physical
benefits to soils. They can also be
blended to produce topsoil, growing
media or specific soil treatments, for
example, compost with added
gypsum is marketed as a ‘clay
breaker’. Matured composts,
particularly those deliberately
manufactured to do so, can provide
plant disease suppression benefits
as composts or liquid compost
extracts or ‘teas’.
Organic
Fertiliser
Liquid fertilisers can be made from
composts, liquor from AD processes or
ammonia gases extracted from emissions
from AD processing.
Organic fertilisers can be produced from
AD sludges or compost products
manipulated or blended to have higher
N:P:K benefits than conventional composts.
Blended
Product
Composted products may be graded and
blended with other materials to produce a
range of products. Common examples are
topsoil and growing media. Where soils are
sourced from urban sources or current or
former farmland, soil testing protocols should
be in place to ensure that contaminated soils
are not used in products.
Additives such as fertilisers, coal dust,
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PRODUCT DESCRIPTION USES
gypsum, wetting agents and water holding
substances may be added to products to
improve performance and appearance.
The provenance of all additives should be
recorded in batch records within a quality
management system, to allow any issues
with processes or product quality to be
traced back to source.
4.1.2. TYPICAL MARKETING STRATEGY
When a new product is being marketed, it takes time to establish a perceived value for that product.
The most important step in this process is to get the product out into the market. As the product begins
to become readily accepted, and the number of customers increases, so the value of the product will
increase (Duprey, 2010). A strong Marketing Strategy will assist the producer in ensuring the product
gets into the market swiftly (Bonhotal, no date). The following steps detail key components to
developing such a strategy.
Step 1:
Conduct a Customer Analysis of the Target Market to establish who the customers are. The producer
needs to establish who they will be selling the product/s to. The list below could include one or a
number of customers15:
Direct market retail customers,
Garden centres/other retailers,
Nurseries/Silviculture,
Erosion control,
Agricultural applications,
Sod production,
Turf grass.
Public Works,
Construction sites,
Top soil producers,
Golf courses,
Greenhouse growers,
Landscapers/lawn care, and
15
Northeast Recycling Company, Inc, no date
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Step 2:
Let potential customers know about the product. This can be done in the following ways16:
Local Newspapers,
Local Home and Garden Centres,
Farmer Cooperatives,
Direct Mail to Targeted Audiences,
Industry-specific Publications,
Newspaper Columns,
Television Shows,
Trade Shows,
Yellow Pages,
Personal Web Site,
Word of Mouth,
Garden Clubs.
Market Research can identify customer preferences, as well as use and buying cycles. As such,
market research and customer service should be an on-going process.
4.1.3. LABELLING AND COMPOSITION
Products should be appropriately labelled for ease of use by the Customer. There are compost
qualities that are of interest to consumers such as weed seeds, soluble salts and maturity, pathogens,
pH, nutrient value and organic matter (Cornell Waste Management Institute, 2004) (see Table 6).
Table 6: Compost quality versus consumer interest
COMPOST QUALITY INTEREST TO CONSUMER
Weed and Alien Seeds Consumers have shown a high level of concern regarding weed and
alien seed content in compost products. Weed seeds are undesirable
in gardening and potting soils, as well as other applications. Knowing
weed seed content is valuable for both management and marketing
purposes.
Soluble Salts and Maturity Soluble salts and maturity can influence the health of plants. If soluble
salts are too high, plant toxicity may occur depending on the tolerance
of a particular species. Compost with low maturity may have a similar
effect. Volatile substances may still be present in immature composts
and may influence plant health.
Pathogens Manure and other compost feedstocks may contain pathogens
16 Cornell Waste Management Institute, 2004
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COMPOST QUALITY INTEREST TO CONSUMER
(disease-causing organisms). The heat generated in properly
managed compost piles eliminates most pathogens. The finished
compost would pose risks similar to potting mixes or garden soils.
Consumers may want to know that pathogen risks have been
minimized.
pH Many plants grow optimally within a certain pH range. Knowing the pH
of compost will help consumers make decisions regarding how to use
a product. Calculating the impact of compost additions on soil pH
requires an understanding of the neutralizing value of the compost and
is not simply based on compost pH.
Nutrient Value Nutrients are almost always of value to consumers, since all plants
have basic requirements to maintain health, and to grow.
Organic Matter Organic matter is material in compost that came from, or is, living
matter and is composed of plant residues, microorganisms, and
humus.
Humus is the stable end product left after the decomposition of fresh
organic materials. Living matter also contains minerals. As compost
matures, the organic matter degrades so the proportion of organic
mineral matter increases. Low organic matter content in compost may
indicate incorporation of mineral soil. End users are often using
composts to increase the organic matter in their soil.
Adapted from: Cornell Waste Management Institute (2004).
An important step in the process is identifying the potential market and relating this market to the type
and quality of compost required to create the demand. Table 7 outlines the relationship between
typical compost types and typical markets17.
17
Adapted from 5.3 (Sustainability Victoria , 2009)
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Table 7: Market demand versus compost type and quality13
Market sector Product
Residential
Urban amenity
(Municipal
parks)
Consisting of home garden
supplies/retail nurseries, recreational
surface establishment and
maintenance, commercial
landscaping projects and local and
provincial government projects.
These markets are typically strong for
blended soils and clean fine mulches.
Horticulture Consisting of intensive food and
flower production.
This market can use soil conditioners,
blended growing media, organics fertiliser
and mulch products in some applications.
There may be potential to develop disease
suppression products.
Agriculture &
viticulture
Viticulture or wine grape growing.
Agriculture
This market mainly demands clean water
conservation and weed control mulches and
is a market for clean pasteurised and
composted coarse mulches.
Soil amendment and organic fertiliser
products.
There may be some market for disease
suppression composts but this is
undeveloped.
Land/mine
rehabilitation
For landfill cover and rehabilitation,
mine site rehabilitation and erosion
stabilisation.
This is typically a low value market, and is
often an outlet for excess product rather
than a viable market.
Bioremediation Bioremediation for contaminated
sites, water purification and
biofiltration.
This market often uses lower grade and
value materials and is often an outlet for
excess products rather than a viable market.
However, there is potential to develop a
range of products for rehabilitation markets.
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4.1.4. ORGANIC CERTIFICATION
Note that this section refers to “organic” certification and not specifically “compost” certification.
Certification of organic food requires production according to a set of standards which limit the use of
certain fertilizers and pest control products.
South Africa does not currently have an official organic standard but two local certification bodies are
working under the local draft standards. One certification body is accredited by the International
Organic Accreditation Services (IOSA). However, there are a number of international certification
bodies that do approve inputs to the international standards. The South African draft standard was
originally based on the EU organic standards.
To apply for organic certification for compost products, one should contact a certification body such as:
European Union’s Council Regulation (EC) 834/07
http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:
2007:189:0001:0023:EN:PDF
USDA National Organic Program
http://www.ams.usda.gov/AMSv1.0/nop
Japanese Agricultural Standard on Organic Products
http://www.maff.go.jp/e/jas/specific/organic.html
Procedures may vary slightly based on the specific certifying company, however, all certification bodies’
are required to operate and be accredited according to the rules of ISO 65.
4.1.5. PRICING STRUCTURE
The last step in the marketing process is deciding on a pricing strategy.
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If the producer is going to include a mark-up on the cost, the percentage mark-up needs to be
determined. The producer will need to decide whether the products will be sold at the suggested
market price, whether the pricing will be competitive, below competition or at a premium price.
Other decisions to consider in the pricing strategy are:
The list price,
Discounts,
Bundling (e.g., product and delivery), and
Payment terms and financing options.
The producer needs to determine whether the prices are in line with the image of the producer
company and whether prices will cover costs and leave a profit margin. Sales should be continuously
tracked to ensure that reliable forecasts can be made and prices adjusted accordingly.
Table 8 gives an outline of a typical compost consumer demand sheet.
Table 8: Typical compost customer demand sheet
Customer Group: Horticulture / Nurseries
Geographic location Urban and peri-urban area, frequently along roadsides and on vacant
plots.
Uses Compost is used as soil substrate and potting mixture for container
plants such as trees, flowers, ornamental plants, and seedlings.
Quantity As aforementioned, compost alone is not recommended for use as soil
substrate, however, mixed with sand and/or soil it gives an excellent
potting mix. Potting soil typically is amended with 5- 40% of compost
(by volume).
Quality Seedlings require well-matured and finely sieved compost. Less
mature compost can be used as mulch for adult plants.
Ability to pay This customer segment usually draws a regular but not necessarily
high income from a continuous and reliable market. Thus, the ability to
pay is assumed to be average.
Willingness to pay Willingness to pay is dependent on the level of awareness and
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Customer Group: Horticulture / Nurseries
knowledge on how to use compost. Self-made compost by the
nurseries or animal manure may compete with your product and
reduce willingness to pay.
Purchasing behaviour Seasonal fluctuations in purchase are generally expected.
Competing products used Self-made compost, animal manure, peat, subsoil.
Estimated potential X number of nurseries have been identified in the city. The annual
demand of a nursery is estimated at Y tons of raw compost. Data is
based on local business statistics and own observations (multiply the X
value with the average of all Y values.
Source: Enayetullah, I., et al., 2006: 16.
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5. FACILITY MANAGEMENT MODELS
The operation of a composting facility can be undertaken and managed in a variety of ways (i.e.
privately or a public-private partnership). A key element is that the public authority “owns” the waste
until it is processed for beneficial use. This processing of the waste can be a municipal or private or
combination of effort, cost, risk and responsibility.
The beneficial use of the final product can equally be a municipal or private or combination of effort,
cost, risk and responsibility.
It is common that municipal sectors are not entirely familiar with marketing and the business of selling
compost. Typically the private sector tend to be more suited for this role.
Table 9 to Table 12 give a useful illustration of scenarios for the management models.
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Table 9: Typical Municipally owned - Municipally Operated management models (scenarios) for composting
Options Characteristics Main Actor(s) Role of City, Government or
Municipality Advantages Constraints
Model 1
Municipally
owned -
Municipally
operated
Integrated into the existing
municipal SWM system and
focused on reducing waste
which otherwise has to be
transported and disposed of in
landfills.
Municipality Introduces recycling and
composting into the SWM policy.
Implementing agency.
Composting is an alternative
treatment system, which can be
integrated into the existing system
(waste collection, transport, and
disposal).
All composting sites can be
centrally controlled.
City gains valuable soil conditioner
to maintain parks and green areas.
Financial constraints due to the
low priority given to SWM
projects.
Operating efficiency and
marketing potential may not be
fully exploited.
Lack of coordination between
departments regarding the use
of the compost product.
Difficulty in maintaining regular
and constant feedstock supply
and quality.
Source: Enayetullah, I., et al., 2006: 33.
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Some Management Model examples18 of municipally owned – municipally operated facilities.
Municipally owned – municipally operated
Decentralised composting schemes of this kind are planned, implemented and operated by a
municipal division.
The schemes form an integral part of the existing municipal solid waste management system.
The thrust for its implementation comes from an integrated municipal policy for improved urban
solid waste management. Such a policy foresees a clean and hygienic urban environment as a
result of the reduction or recycling of waste as close to its source of generation as possible.
Cost recovery for the composting schemes is not a prerequisite, but desirable.
The major aim is to achieve benefits for the entire solid waste management system by lower
transport costs, landfill airspace off-set costs and production of compost for landfill and land
remediation and rehabilitation.
Improved landfill management and reduced quantities of waste to be handled.
Furthermore, organic waste transformed into compost can contribute to generating a certain
income for the local authority area. Although this model assumes that decentralised
composting is managed entirely by a dedicated municipal team, cooperation with residents is
indispensable.
18 Enayetullah, I., et al., 2006
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Table 10: Typical Municipally owned - Community operated management models (scenarios) for composting
Source: Enayetullah, I., et al., 2006: 33.
Options Characteristics Main Actor(s) Role of City, Government or
Municipality Advantages Constraints
Model 2
Municipally
owned -
Community
operated
Community is involved in the
management of primary waste
collection and composting.
Non-profit seeking model.
Cost reduction through lower
transport and disposal costs.
Municipality
Local community
NGOs
Introduces recycling and
composting into the SWM policy.
Implementing agency supports
communities in finding composting
sites and develops a proper
system for waste collection and
disposal of residues.
Provides support funds for
construction of composting plants
and the setting up of a primary
waste collection.
Alleviates the municipal burden of
SWM through community inputs.
Improvement of solid waste
management through community
participation. Clear contracts help
ensure reliable partnerships with
community groups. Creates new
jobs in the neighbourhoods.
Lack of community awareness
and interest.
Need for a reliable informal
leader among the community.
Highly complex management.
Difficulty in maintaining regular
and constant feedstock supply
and quality.
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Some Management Model examples19 of municipally owned – community operated facilities.
Municipally owned – community operated
In this model, the decentralised composting schemes are planned and implemented by the
municipality, however, their operation and maintenance is handed over to the benefiting
community. Ideally, the community is invited to come forward with their own proposals and to
participate in the planning and implementing processes.
Apart from composting, this model often comprises primary waste collection and is frequently
applied in low-income urban areas. In many instances, an intermediary, such as an NGO or a
composting advisor, is required to provide or develop the technical composting and
management skills within the community.
The main incentive behind this model is to reduce secondary collection or transport costs by
reducing and treating waste as close to its source as possible.
It improves primary waste collection without significantly increasing municipal operation efforts
and creates local employment opportunities.
The operation and maintenance costs are covered by additional service charges paid by
households and by the profits from the sale of compost. This model requires a written contract
between the municipality and community or, alternatively, with an NGO as intermediary.
A regular and constant supply of feedstock is necessary to ensure its sustainability.
19 Enayetullah, I., et al., 2006
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Table 11: Typical Municipally owned Privately operated management models (scenarios) for composting
Source: Enayetullah, I., et al., 2006: 33.
Options Characteristics Main Actor(s) Role of City, Government or
Municipality Advantages Constraints
Model 3
Municipally
owned -
Privately
operated
Benefiting community is
partly involved.
Profit seeking model is
possible.
Requires at least full cost
recovery (from fees and
compost sales).
Cost reduction through
lower transport and disposal
costs.
Municipality
Private sector or
NGO
Introduces recycling and
composting into the SWM
policy.
Implementing agency selects
composting sites, constructs
plants (investments); develops
a proper system for waste
collection and disposal of
residues.
Contracts out the operation and
maintenance. Monitors
performance of contractors.
Alleviates the municipal burden
of SWM through private sector
participation.
Provision of additional funds and
knowhow through private
investors.
Clear contracts ensure reliable
partnerships with private
entrepreneurs.
Creates new jobs in the
neighbourhoods.
Lack of community
awareness and interest.
Need for a reliable and skilled
partner with sense of
entrepreneurship.
Complex management.
Difficulty in maintaining
regular and constant
feedstock supply and quality.
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Some Management Model examples20 of municipally owned – privately operated facilities.
Municipally owned – privately operated
As in the previous models the municipality plans and implements decentralised composting
programmes.
Composting plants are constructed on municipal land and the system is owned by the
municipality. Operation and maintenance of these schemes is, however, contracted out to the
private sector or NGOs by open bidding.
The call for tenders already stipulates the rights and responsibilities of the future operator and
forms the basis for a later contract between the partners. The contract regulates the duration of
the arrangement, required maintenance, rents, sharing of profits, and waste collection fees.
Operation and management costs have to be covered by the private contractor through the
revenues of the project.
The aim of such a project is to raise additional capacity in solid waste management by involving
third parties like the private sector, thereby contributing to additional ‘know-how’ and finances
to improve the entire solid waste management system.
Depending on contract design and the local compost market conditions, this model has the
potential to foster profit-seeking projects in solid waste management.
Waste Concern promoted this model during a UNICEF-supported programme in 14 towns of
Bangladesh21. The municipality tendered primary waste collection and composting schemes in
defined communities. The private operators received permission to use existing composting
plants for five years without paying rent or sharing the revenues from waste collection and
composting. However, without the involvement of funding agencies, rental rules and
regulations have to be included in the contract.
A regular and constant supply of feedstock is necessary to ensure its sustainability.
20 Enayetullah, I., et al., 2006 21 Enayetullah, I., et al., 2006: 31
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Table 12: Typical Privately owned Privately operated management models (scenarios) for composting
Source: Enayetullah, I., et al., 2006: 33.
Options Characteristics Main Actor(s) Role of City, Government or
Municipality Advantages Constraints
Model 4
Privately
owned -
Privately
operated
Profit-seeking enterprise
based on ideal compost
market conditions.
Income is generated
through compost sale and
collection fees.
Private sector Introduces recycling and
composting into the SWM
policy. Transparent regulations
for public - private partnerships.
Cooperates in supplying raw
material and disposal of
residues.
Alleviates the municipal burden
of SWM through private sector
participation.
Provision of additional funds and
skill through private investors.
Clear contracts ensure reliable
partnerships with private
entrepreneurs.
Can create employment and
business
Lack of private land for
composting activities.
Lack of vital compost markets
if compost is not a well-known
product.
Difficulty in maintaining
regular and constant
feedstock supply and quality.
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Some Management Model examples22 of privately owned – privately operated facilities.
Privately owned – Privately operated
This decentralised composting model is based on a profit seeking approach, which
presupposes that the income from waste collection fees and compost sale is sufficient to cover
all the costs of a decentralised composting plant.
Land and infrastructure are financed and managed by the private sector. However, if the
private company still requires a permit to collect waste from defined municipal areas, it cannot
act independently but has to conclude an agreement with the municipality. In Khulna,
Bangladesh for instance, the private organisation RUSTIC constructed a composting plant on
private land to process 20 tons of waste per day23. The Municipality of Khulna granted a permit
to collect waste from households and markets. Prior to the construction of the plant, RUSTIC
had to apply for an environmental clearance certificate from the Department of Environment.
A possible variation of this model allows a private entrepreneur to set up a composting plant on
public land. Although the municipality provides the land, the full financial and operational
responsibility remains with the private entrepreneur.
The municipality grants a long-term lease for that land (e.g. ten years) to ensure a long-term
operation and, thus, appropriate returns on investment.
A regular and constant supply of feedstock is necessary to ensure sustainability
Figure 3 provides a graphical representation of typical involvements between the various sectors.
22 Enayetullah, I., et al., 2006 23 Enayetullah, I., et al., 2006: 32
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Figure 3: Graphical matrix for public-private sector involvement24
24
Enayetullah, I., et al., 2006
National Government
Public Sector
Private Sector
Recycling Companies
SMEs
International Companies
Waste Pickers
NGO Households
CBO
SWM Dept
Fertilisers Companies
Municipalities
Non-governmental
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6. PROPOSED ORGANIC WASTE STRATEGY BY DEA
A summary of the proposed National Organic Waste Composting Strategy has been visually portrayed
in Figure 4 which highlights the key actions and responsibilities for the various government
departments to action over the next five years and beyond.
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Figure 4: Key Priorities and Timeframe Chart
SHORT TERM (0 to 2 years)
Registration Process
Information booklet
SAWIS and reporting
Categorise organic waste
Norm & Standards
Establish “Baseline”
Municipal Structure
Funding Support mechanisms
Forum for Communication
MEDIUM TERM (2 to 5 years)
Organic Waste planning e.g., IWMP, IDP ,etc
By-laws & Organic waste diversion legislation
Finalise reduction goals
Collection strategies
Finalise generators & opportunities
Adapt SAWIS
Skill development
Establish communication channels
Best practice guidelines
LONG TERM (> 5 years)
Specific “good practice” guidelines
Implement reduction goals
Home-composting review
Communal composting review
National Organic Waste Treatment
Strategy
Waste Exchange
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7. TYPICAL IMPACTS ASSOCIATED WITH A COMPOSTING
OPERATION
Table 13 provides a broad guide to alleviating common challenges (impacts) associated with operating
and managing a composting facility.
Table 13: Typical impacts and potential mitigation measures for a composting operation
IMPACT SOURCE POTENTIAL MITIGATION MEASURES
Air Quality
Unpleasant
Odours
Anaerobic decomposition Increase aeration of compost piles
Decrease moisture content of over-saturated
piles
Prevent waterlogging
Minimise storage of unprocessed feedstock
Install odour control equipment
Gas
Emissions
Aerobic decomposition (Carbon
Dioxide)
Not Applicable
Anaerobic decomposition
(Methane; hydrogen sulphide,
organic sulphides and/or volatile
fatty acids)
Increase aeration of compost piles
Decrease moisture content of over-saturated
piles
Prevent waterlogging
Minimise storage of unprocessed feedstock
Ammonia and
amines
High nitrogen feedstocks Correct the C:N ratio
Reduce the use of high quality nitrogen
feedstocks
Exhaust
emissions
Exhaust emissions from vehicles Attach emission filters on equipment
Dust Vehicle movement, exposed soils
and during storage, shredding,
mixing, and screening of compost
Cover dusty materials
Applying a light water spray over dry materials
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IMPACT SOURCE POTENTIAL MITIGATION MEASURES
Revegetate exposed soils
Paving of all operating, storage, unloading and
loading areas
Shredding on non-windy days
Windbreaks around facility and piles
Suction sweeping of areas
Bio-aerosols These organisms can enter the
ambient air during the movement
and agitation of materials
Paving of all operating, storage, unloading and
loading areas
Applying a light water spray over dry materials
Windbreaks around facility/piles
Suction sweeping of areas
Water Quality
Surface Water Leachate generation from the
processing of compost
Keep contaminated stormwater and leachate
separate from clean stormwater
Minimising, containing and re-using
contaminated stormwater and leachate so there
is no discharge of contaminated wastewater
from the premises
Avoid run-off from feedstock or compost
material
Sediments and suspended solids Revegetate exposed soils
Reduce runoff volume and velocity
Avoid run-off from feedstock, compost material,
exposed soil
Good housekeeping
Ground Water Leachates from the processing of
compost
Store feedstock and compost on bunded and
hard foundation, where practical to minimise
groundwater intrusion
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IMPACT SOURCE POTENTIAL MITIGATION MEASURES
Soil Quality
Soil
contamination
Leachate allowed to infiltrate
through the ground
Reduce leachate infiltration
Store feedstock and compost on bunded and
hard foundation, where practical to minimise
groundwater intrusion
Noise
Ambient Noise Vehicles Install and maintain silencers on vehicles and
equipment
Where possible, noisy equipment should be
housed within a building or similar structure
Provide noise attenuation screens such as
earth berms or trees
Restrict operating hours
Maintain designated buffer distances
Machinery
Waste
Litter Transportation of general waste Good house keeping
Educate staff
Litter trap
Windbreaks such as trees
Employee disregard
Windblown general waste
General General facility operations (offices,
eating areas, workers etc.)
Recycle
Disposal at a registered general landfill site
Hazardous Hydrocarbon spills from equipment
and machinery
Disposal at a registered hazardous landfill site
Animal waste from feedstock
Aesthetics
Unpleasant
aesthetics
General visual presence of facility Vegetation screening
Good house keeping
Landscaping
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IMPACT SOURCE POTENTIAL MITIGATION MEASURES
Pest
Fauna Rodents, flies, and birds Remove residual waste promptly
Cover compost piles
Good housekeeping
Flora (Alien
invasive
infestation)
Transport of invasive plants, their
seeds or propagules to the facility,
from the facility itself or from the
final compost product
Monitor feedstock and final product
Good house keeping
Fire
Uncontrolled
Fires
Anaerobic decomposition
produces methane as by-product.
Methane is highly flammable
Keep fire extinguisher in close proximity
Prevent anaerobic decomposition
Keep area free of open flames or sparks
Dry stockpiles of feed stock or
compost
Keep fire extinguisher in close proximity
Keep area free of open flames or sparks
Construction and Decommission
There are various impacts
associated with the construction
and decommissioning of a
composting facility
Dealt with during the Environmental Impact
Assessment (EIA) process
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8. STRATEGY BY DEA REGARDING EDUCATION, SKILL-TRANSFER
AND AWARENESS
As of 1 January 2013, the National Waste Information Regulations (GNR 625, 2012) compel individuals
conducting listed waste management activities to register, record, and report waste data to the
respective Provincial Waste Information System (WIS). In addition to this, the Draft Waste
Classification and Management Regulations (GNR 613-615, 2012) aim to ban or prohibit a significant
portion of certain materials or substances from being taken for disposal at landfill. One of these
materials is garden waste.
As a means to address the limitations set out in these new Regulations, public awareness and
education campaigns and programmes regarding certain waste types will need to be undertaken. This
will assist with not only separation at source, but diversion of organic waste from landfill by means of
potential home composting in urban and residential areas, as well as possible communal composting
within the informal, lower-income areas.
South Africa currently does not have comprehensive government run education and awareness
programmes specifically on composting of organic waste either at the household or industrial level.
There are programmes, such as the City of Cape Town’s current ‘WasteWise’ programme and the
Nelson Mandela Bay municipality ‘All Hands on Waste Campaign’, deal with educating communities on
separation of waste at source and promote reuse and recycling above disposal. Some projects are
focused on rural and low income areas and generally target education at primary school level.
As part of these programmes, home composting is encouraged as a means to divert organic and
garden waste from the general waste stream and create a usable ‘product’ which is beneficial for the
individual and the community at large.
The Strategy proposed by DEA covers the following key items:
Compile an Information Booklet on how to quantify, record and monitor organic waste easily
and pragmatically, which would include information on:
o The registration process (assuming the registration process is adopted), as well as
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A one page summary-flagging important issues, and
Reference to legislation.
Invitation letters to be issued to known composters encouraging registration (assuming the
registration process is adopted).
Liaison with the Department of Trade and Industry regarding their database of all businesses.
Develop a user-friendly, easy to read and comprehendible guidebook/ pamphlet/ flyer on
making compost and the benefits thereof.
Develop a website for public use.
Educate and generate awareness amongst the general public via awareness campaigns.
Undertake pilot studies (forms part of local authority implementation plan).
Develop ‘best practice’ guidelines for undertaking composting.
Investigate inclusion of compost knowledge and awareness and waste management in school
and tertiary curriculums.
Investigate mechanisms for consumer markets.
Educate / train / empower Municipalities.
Educate “Implementing Authorities” (IAs) on suitability, pitfalls and benefits of Service Level
Agreements, Public Private Partnerships, Annual Contracts, etc.
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9. COMMON TECHNOLOGY OPTIONS
The decision by an Implementing Authority, as to which technology would be the most suitable for
organic waste treatment is dependent on a number of factors. No one technology solution suits all, and
each Implementing Authority has its own unique situation which needs to be evaluated on its own
merits and set of conditions. These are not limited to, but should include:
Size of the organic waste stream: The quantities of the different available types of organic
wastes that make up the total organic waste stream need to be calculated so that a “stream
management” strategy and the type and capacity (size) of treatment facilities can be
determined.
Organic Waste Characterisation: The composition of the organic waste stream is necessary
in order to differentiate between the different potential feedstocks which in turn will determine
the type and capacity (size) of the treatment facility.
Climatic and Geographical Factors: Different climatic and geographical factors as well as
the demographics within different waste generation regions will influence organic waste
quantities and composition.
The Extent of Contamination: Contamination of the organic waste will generally affect the
quality and demand for the output product and will therefore also influence the selection of the
type of technology to be employed.
Organic Waste Collection System: An Implementing Authority will need to assess its
current organic waste collection system in order to achieve an appropriate and cost effective
method for implementing an efficient organic waste collection service that enables proper
stream management to be implemented with respect to the different organic waste
feedstocks.
Strategy for compost versus energy-from-waste: An Implementing Authority should
develop a medium-to-long-term organic waste management strategy that caters for either
composting or energy-from-waste technologies or a “basket” of different technologies.
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Private-Sector Involvement: Waste that is beneficiated is not considered to be a necessary
Implementing Authority service delivery function, and private-sector involvement should be
considered for the treatment and beneficiation of organic wastes.
Human and Financial Capacity: An Implementing Authority will need to assess its human
and financial capital in order to determine the most feasible and viable technologies
necessary to achieve its organic waste diversion goals. A capital and operating cost model
should be developed for the preferred technologies selected.
Market Demand: It is generally regarded that the market demand for compost is largely
influenced by the quality of compost produced.
Health and Environmental Considerations: The type of technology selected should ensure
that health and environmental issues are addressed, e.g. harmful pathogens and bacteria
need to be sterilized, odours and contaminants contained alien plant seeds destroyed, etc.
In order to add “value” to this Guideline Document, additional information on alternatives to composting
have been outlined below, so as to put organic-waste diversion in to broader perspective. The focus of
this Guideline Document nevertheless remains on composting as an option and opportunity.
Table 14 and Table 15 provide a summary of commonly used technology options. Table 14
summarises the different types of composting technologies that may be considered and Table 15
provides a guide for various technologies suitable for organics processing.
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Table 14: Summary of composting technologies currently being undertaken25
Issue/ criteria Minimal Technology Low Technology Medium Technology High Technology
Examples of
composting methods
used at different
levels of technology26
Static Piles (No air) Compost bins or barrels, turned windrows, and
vermicomposting (worm boxes or windrows)
Aerated static piles (forced aeration), turned windrows,
drum-type composters, and mechanised “continuous flow”
worm systems
Turned or agitated bays or beds (forced aeration),
box-type in-vessel units (forced aeration), and
“Dutch tunnels” (forced aeration)
Potential input waste
type27
Garden waste, wood waste, manures, food
waste and fruit waste.
Windrows: Garden waste, wood waste,
manures, fruit waste.
Vermicomposting: Food and garden waste.
Mixed organics (food and garden waste) and possibly
primary sewage sludge, manure, and in some cases
(Aerated Static Pile systems {ASP}) animal waste
(carcasses, abattoir waste, etc).
Mixed organics (food and garden waste) and
possibly primary sewage sludge, manure and animal
waste (carcasses, abattoir waste, etc).
Output product Lower-grade Compost, soil conditioner Compost, soil conditioner
Compost, soil conditioner of a high calorific value from the
process.
Output product from ASP systems can be high-quality Bio-
Organic Fertilizers (BOF) if treated with the right microbial
and nutrient mixes.
High-quality & high-demand Compost, soil
conditioner of a high calorific value from the process,
biogas.
Output product from high-tech systems can be high-
quality Bio-Organic Fertilizers (BOF) if treated with
the right microbial and nutrient mixes.
Capital costs Minimal Low, depending on any structural requirements Medium High
O&M costs Minimal Low Medium High
Key process controls
Key control elements in the processing are: pH, oxygen, moisture content, temperature control, carbon: nitrogen ratio.
Regarding moisture content: low technology processes may involve simple watering of windrows or piles, by hand. Larger volumes and / or higher-technologies would start using automated systems (sprinklers, etc).
This is all dependent on climate and location of operations.
The shape of the windrow and/ or pile also plays a key part in the control of moisture and other key elements.
Plant (mechanical)
Types
Manual labour (if small operation)
Front-end loader (bigger operations).
Grinder, loader, screen. Grinder, loader, screen, blowers, compost turner, or other
specialised compost system equipment.
Grinder, mixer, loader, screen, conveyor, blowers,
compost bays, in-vessel unit and handling
equipment or other specialised compost system
equipment.
Skill required for
operation
Generally more labour intensive per cubic
metre of compost produced.
Less skilled staff required.
As for “minimal technology” except may require
more skilled personnel depending on size of
operation.
Less manual labour, higher number of skilled personnel
who also need to have specific knowledge of mechanical
equipment
Extensive and specific, certain systems become
automated
Labour and/or
employment
opportunity (in
relation to cubic
metre of compost
produced)
The larger the pile, the larger the unskilled/
low-skilled workforce required
The larger the pile, the larger the unskilled/ low-
skilled workforce required
Less manual labour, higher number of skilled personnel
who also need to have specific knowledge of mechanical
equipment
Less than other processes
25 This Table is a modified version of that from the following source: Clean Washington Centre. 1997. Will Composting Work for Us? A Decision Guide for Managers of Businesses, Institutions, Campuses, and Other Facilities. 26 “Minimal Technology” means a high-level of manual involvement, ranging up to “High Technology” which would have limited manual involvement. “Manual” means labour-intensive, operations by hand, etc. 27 If compost contains more than 67% ash, then it cannot be classified as compost, but must be termed a soil conditioner (The Fertilizers, Farm Feeds, Agricultural Remedies and Stock Remedies Act (Act No. 36 of 1947: GNR 732, 2012)).
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Issue/ criteria Minimal Technology Low Technology Medium Technology High Technology
Description of
technologies
A compost pile provides the simplest form of
composting. Starting at a minimum size of
about one cubic metre to generate and retain
heat, compost piles have been known to
become quite large. Static piles have no
forced aeration i.e. they use passive
ventilation. The addition of water may be
required if water content is not sufficient.
Windrow: As the volume of materials being
processed increases, it becomes prudent to
make additional piles, often side-by-side, until
you have created a long row. Hence, a “windrow”
is an elongated compost pile, designed to allow
for better air flow. Materials need to be
physically turned in order to introduce air into the
process. Turning can be manual, i.e. spades, or
with the use of a compost ‘turning’ machine. The
addition of water may be required if water content
is not sufficient.
Vermicomposting: “Vermicomposting” refers to
the controlled degradation, or
composting, of organic wastes, primarily by
earthworm consumption.
Compost bins / barrels: This refers to an
aerated bin containing layers of carbons, kitchen
scraps, garden waste and soil left to decompose.
Aerated static piles: Includes the use of aeration
systems to push or pull air through the piles (by applying
a positive or negative pressure).
Windrows: As with the low technology windrows, bigger
facilities require bigger turning machines to move the piles.
If utilising a forced aeration system turning may not be
necessary; however if passively ventilated, turning is
required. The addition of water may be required if water
content is not sufficient.
Drum-type composting: Cylindrical drums are sometimes
chosen as part of a composting system for their ability to
mix and tumble, and thus aerate, composting materials,
like clothes in a tumble dryer.
Mechanised “continuous flow” worm systems:
An enclosed horizontal reactor is about 2 to 3 metres high,
feeds in the compost at one end and out at the other end. It
may use pressure or vacuum-induced aeration, which is
set in the floor of the reactor.
Agitated bays: Agitated bay composting reactors
are long concrete channels or bays with an aerated
perforated floor and rails on top of the walls.
Aeration is provided in multiple zones along the
length of the bays. Each zone is aerated by a
dedicated blower located in the aisles along the side
of the channels. The blowers are controlled based
on temperature readings from sensors for each zone
in the bays, and by a baseline timer. A mechanical
agitator rides on rails along the sides of the bays to
mix and ‘fluff’ the decomposing material on a daily
schedule. The agitators are designed so they
gradually move the compost from the start of the bay
to the finish.28
“In-vessel” composting: Involves composting in
enclosed structures or containers. Being enclosed,
these systems offer a high level of odour, nuisance,
pest, and leachate control. Exhaust air from these
systems is typically treated in a bio-filter.
Box-type in-vessel units (forced aeration):
Because many in-vessel systems are “batch”
processes, meaning you compost a boxful at a time,
facilities often find they require the use of two or
preferably three units.
“Dutch tunnels” (forced aeration):
Involves a closed metal container. This composting
process refers to a static biological process with
forced aeration. The principle applies air as the only
medium to control the decomposition process.
Historically, this process is used or processing
animal manure and compost for growing
mushrooms.
Municipal function
(Dependent on
private sector)
Could be simply operated and managed by a
municipality
Could be simply operated and managed by a
municipality
Possibly operated by a Municipality, but possibly requires
private-sector involvement and possibly private-sector
maintenance
Predominantly private sector technology and skill
28
http://www.lmconline.com/system.htm [Accessed : 30 November 2012]
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Issue/ criteria Minimal Technology Low Technology Medium Technology High Technology
Advantages
Comparatively inexpensive. Assuming that
the piles are turned every few weeks,
relatively few days per year of equipment
(typically front-end loader) operation is
required.
1) moderate cost;
2) labour intensive;
3) ability to use a front-end loader and other
generic types of equipment; generally
satisfactory quality and marketability of the
final product ; and
4) Limited control of the process.
1) a large volume of organic material can be composted
quickly with less labour;
2) improved odour control; and
3) the quality of the end product can be controlled better.
The labour savings can be significant. A major guide
to farm composting found that the rates for turning
compost with a bucket or front end loader ranged from
45 to 100 cubic metres (m3) per hour. With a
small windrow turner, turning rates were increased to
about 760 m3 per hour.
4) Some control of the process.
1) An advantage of these systems is the
containment they provide. Another is their
turnkey nature i.e. a complete set-up that is
ready for immediate use; and
2) High control of the process.
Disadvantages
1) More space is required than for other
methods. Preference for a remote site,
which can result in higher transportation or
handling costs. It is also difficult
to maintain high-rate or “hot” compost
conditions, so the compost products from
minimal-tech methods will likely be lower in
quality. They will also be coarser, and
when screened will have a larger oversize
fraction.
2) Less control over issues such as odour,
dust, leachate, water contamination,
vectors, pests, litter, noise and fire.
1) More difficult to achieve consistent results;
and
2) Potential for odours.
1) The comparatively high capital investment in the
facility, equipment and training; and
2) The cost of operation and maintenance of specialized
and often complex equipment.
Possible disadvantages include cost. Another factor
worth remembering is that although these “boxes”
take up little space, the compost they produce may
require additional curing29 after coming out of the
box, which means additional space next to the box
or in another location.
Space Can be space intensive Can be space intensive Reduced space requirements Very space efficient
Buffer Zones30 450 metres+ 50-150 metres 50-150 metres 50-150 metres
Aeration Passive Passive Forced Forced
Temperature control No Preferable Yes Yes
Cover Outside Mostly outside Sometimes with floating cover, under roof, or inside
building Enclosed system or inside building
Risk Control31 Limited control, therefore potentially higher
negative impact.
Low-level of control, less negative impact
compared to “minimal technology”.
Good control, more emphasis on prevention, sometimes
uses odour control systems.
Excellent control, emphasis on prevention and
control using biological controls.
Electronic or
Computer Controllers Manual monitoring Manual monitoring Sometimes, mostly for monitoring purposes Yes, for monitoring and process control
Time Period 18-24 months 9-12 months 4-6 months <6 months (and at times as short as 3 weeks)
Product Quality Poorer Fair Good Good
29 The bulk of the nutrient and energy-containing materials within the pile have been transformed and the remaining materials continue to decompose at a slower rate. 30 Distances are subjective, are dependent on the receiving environment and the type of the composting method used. These indicated buffer zone distances are based on international experiences. 31 Risk Control includes the control of odour, dust, leachate, water contamination, vectors, pests, litter, noise and fire
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Table 15: Technologies suitable for organics processing
Technology Feedstock for organic recovery operation Products /outputs from organic recovery operation
Open windrow
composting
Source separated garden organics
Limited amounts of food and other wet organics Mulches
Composts
Blended products
Potentially woody material for pyrolysis, combustion or
refuse derived fuel (RDF) manufacture
Controlled environment
open composting
Garden organics
Limited amounts of food and other wet organics
In-vessel composting Garden organics
Food and other wet organics
Anaerobic digestion
(AD)
Food and wet organics
Organic load extracted from source separated organics or
derived organics rich fraction (DORF) from mixed waste
Renewable energy
Organic fertilisers
Anaerobic fermentation Starchy or sugary organics
Potentially woody organics
Bio-products (alcohols, organic compounds that can be
used to synthesise polymer products and fuels)
Potentially gas for renewable energy
Pyrolysis/gasification
Predominantly dry woody organics from source separated
collection, DORF or residual from other organics recovery
technology
Renewable energy
Syngas and synoil products for further refinement and use
as fuel
Biochar and other charcoal products
Combustion Mixed waste
Derived organic/calorific fraction from mixed waste
Renewable energy
Ash and emissions scrubbing wastes which may require
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Technology Feedstock for organic recovery operation Products /outputs from organic recovery operation
Woody organics from other organics recovery operations management as prescribed waste
RDF manufacture Derived organic/calorific fraction from mixed waste
Woody organics from other organics recovery operations RDF for use as fossil fuel replacement
Mechanical biological
processing
Mixed waste is screened to recover DORF
Anaerobic and/or aerobic treatment
Restricted use compost and stabilised organic products
Potentially renewable energy
Potentially some unrestricted use organic products
Stabilised organics to landfill
Biological mechanical
processing
Mixed waste is first processed using aerobic composting,
followed by screening of organics and recoverable recyclables
Stabilised organic fraction for landfill, restricted land
application or thermal energy recovery
Figure 5 illustrates a simple process of a composting operation and the common stages involved in such a process (which is dependent on the technology
selected).
Figure 6 gives a snapshot view of the composting process and the by-products of such a process (depending on the process used).
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Figure 5: Illustration of the stages of a simple composting process
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Figure 6: The composting process and typical by-products
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10. TYPICAL COSTS OF COMPOSTING FACILITIES
Table 16 provides an indicative value of common costs associated with operating a composting facility.
As there are a variety of composting processes available, the list will not be complete in all respects.
The rates below are from current Construction Contracts in an urban area being undertaken during
2013. Some rates have also been obtained from the Contractors Plant Hire Association (CPHA)
website32. Rates used have been applied to a 9-hour working day and 20 working-day month.
Table 16: Typical costing of items in a composting facility
Unit Costs Comment
Labour
Skilled Per hour R 139 Typical Contractor rates
Unskilled Per hour R 19 Typical Contractor rates
Manager Per hour R 245 Typical Contractor rates
Plant
Bakkie Per hour, hire R 56 Rent from a Contractor
Tipper Truck (10m3) Per hour, hire R 254 From CPHA database
Low Bed Truck Per hour, hire R 397 From CPHA database
Crane Lift Truck (4-6 ton) Per hour, hire R 278 From CPHA database
Tractor (4-6 ton) Per hour, hire R 123 From CPHA database
Compost Turner Per hour, hire R 500 From CPHA database
Excavator (20 ton) Per hour, hire R 331 From CPHA database
Skidsteer loader (Bobcat) Per hour, hire R 142 From CPHA database
Chipper Per hour, hire R 150 From CPHA database
Compressor (175 cfm) Per hour, hire R 53 From CPHA database
Air hoses (30m x 20mm) Per hour, hire R 9 From CPHA database
Waste Bins (numerous) Per hour, hire for all R 250 From CPHA database
Materials
Kraal Manure Typical monthly cost R 9,000 Estimated rate *
Plastic Bags Typical monthly cost R 25,000 Estimated rate *
Fertiliser Typical monthly cost R 5,000 Estimated rate *
Sundries Fuel per litre R 12 **
Communications Typical monthly cost R 5,000 Estimated rate *
32
http://www.cpha.co.za/
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Unit Costs Comment
Rent Typical monthly cost R 10,000 Estimated rate *
Electricity Typical monthly cost R 5,000 Estimated rate *
Water Typical monthly cost R 5,000 Estimated rate *
Maintenance Typical monthly cost R 20,000 Estimated rate *
Marketing Typical monthly cost R 5,000
Site Office Container Typical monthly cost R 2,000 Estimated rate *
Toilets to rent Typical monthly cost R 3,000 Estimated rate *
* - estimated rates are values from a typical, existing composting facility in South Africa using the
windrow-process.
** - means project specific.
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11. TYPICAL LAYOUTS OF A COMPOSTING FACILITY
Below is a generic guide towards deciding on a suitable layout for a composting facility. The ultimate
layout is obviously highly dependent on the process to be adopted, land use area, volume of feedstock,
topography, etc.
Activity 1: Plan and decide on the composting plant layout
A composting plant comprises of an operation area and a “green” buffer zone. The buffer
zone, formed by a belt of bushes and trees surrounding the operation area, improves the visual
appearance of the composting plant.
The operation area is divided into different zones. It contains space for waste unloading and
sorting, composting, maturing, sieving and bagging of the compost, including storage space for
compost and recyclables. These zones must be arranged so as to ensure efficient workflow of
the composting process. Additional space should be allocated for a caretaker’s office and
sanitary facilities for the workers.
Take into account that the final setup of the site is strongly dependent on the local conditions.
Table 17 can be used as a checklist when planning the area that may be required for a conventional
composting operation.
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Table 17: Checklist for determining possible site-area of operation
Operation: Area required:
Composting area:
Sorting area
Storage of rejects
Storage of recyclables
Composting pad
Maturation area
Screening and bagging area
Compost storage area
Facilities:
Office
Sanitary
Tool shed
Water Supply point
Vehicle movements, parking and
storage
Green buffer zone
TOTAL AREA REQUIRED
Activity 2: Plan the required key features
The following key features have to be considered during planning and construction regardless
of the type of composting scheme chosen:
o On-site water supply is a basic infrastructural requirement on a composting site. Since
it is used for hygienic purposes and for watering the compost heaps, a reliable water
supply should be ensured, such as a standpipe on the site.
o An additional water storage tank is, however, advisable if the water supply is not
continuous.
o A further useful feature is a rainwater harvesting system. The roof of the composting
shed and other facilities can be specially designed to collect rainwater from the
rooftops. During the rainy season, water can be collected in a tank to bridge water
shortages during the dry season. The storage volume is dependent on the length of
the dry season and on the daily water demand.
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o Rainwater can be used for the composting process, for cleaning and washing of the
composting plant and for watering of the green belt.
o Windrow and box composting operations should be undertaken under a roof to protect
the compost piles from excessive rain and sun. Simple light structures with vertical
steel angles, mild steel pipes or wood or bamboo poles can be used to support the
roof.
o Since compost requires oxygen for decomposition, the cover must be permeable to
air33.
o The sorting area consists of a sealed concrete surface where waste is sorted into
organics, inorganic recyclables and ‘rejects’. The sealed surface facilitates cleaning
after sorting is completed. Since the waste delivered may be high in moisture, the area
should be slightly sloped (1%) to avoid leachate ponding. A drainage system collects
leachate and cleaning water to be reused for watering composting windrows.
o The storage areas for rejects and recyclables should be roofed and possibly enclosed
to prevent roaming animals from entering the site. The area has to be accessible to
trucks, as the rejects have to be collected frequently. A covered container for rejects,
easily picked up and replaced by a truck, is a good alternative to a storage room. The
necessary storage volume is determined by the collection frequency.
o Each plant should have a lockable office equipped with basic furniture to allow the
supervisor to keep the monitoring and accounting records. It also provides a sheltered
area for breaks and for storing personal belongings. Sanitary installations, such as
toilets and washing facilities are essential. After handling waste and compost, the
workers should wash and change their clothes before leaving the workplace. Small
equipment, such as sieves, shovels and rakes, should be stored in the tool shed. Such
facilities require approximately 40 m2, and all should be roofed and fitted with lockable
doors for security reasons.
Useful additional composting plant features34
Kiosk: A small, square-shaped structure with a light roof can be set up within the premises of a
composting plant. The kiosk can be used as a sales and display point for compost products or
potted plants raised on compost. A kiosk can help promote organic farming and agricultural
use of compost to visitors of the site.
33 This is not applicable for in-vessel composting. 34 Enayetullah, I., et al., 2006: 53- 54
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Organic farming demonstration site: If sufficient land and staff are available, a small plot inside
the composting plant can be used as a demonstration unit for organic farming or as a nursery
for pot plants. The core idea is to encourage the owner of the composting plant to maintain, as
far as possible, the facility clean and green. A clean and pleasant environment near a
composting plant can change negative perceptions of waste treatment and the use of compost
can be directly demonstrated to visitors. Furthermore, a nursery creates an additional source
of income.
Wastewater reuse system: A significant amount of wastewater is generated during composting
and the cleaning of the facility. Instead of discharging the wastewater into drains, the
wastewater can be reused for new compost piles to maintain the moisture balance and
enhance the decomposition process. Wastewater from the drainage system can be collected
in a small covered storage tank below ground level. By mixing this wastewater with fresh water
from the pipes or rainwater tank, scarce water resources can be extended and conservation
promoted.
Energy efficient lighting system: If the compost plant is connected to the electricity grid, an
energy-efficient lighting system should be fitted to set a good example of energy conservation
and to reduce operational costs in the long term. The possibility of solar or other renewable
energy alternatives should also be investigated.
The following diagrams (Figure 7 - Figure 10) illustrate typical layouts of composting operations
(GDACE, 2009).
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Figure 7: Processing facilities P1: Composting - chip & stockpile only Guideline Schematics
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Figure 8: Processing facilities P2: Composting - small-scale windrows without screening Guideline Schematics
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Figure 9: Processing facilities P3: Composting - large-scale windrows with screening Guideline Schematics
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Figure 10: Processing facility P4: Waste-to-compost facility Guideline Schematics
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Figure 11 and Figure 12 also provide typical site layouts for certain composting operations35.
Figure 11: Typical windrow composting system
35
Decentralised Composting for cities of low- and middle- income countries, 2006
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Figure 12: Box composting (cross section)
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12. USEFUL CONTACT NUMBERS
National Department of Environmental Affairs
Head Office: Physical Address DEA call centre number
315 cnr Pretorius & Lilian Ngoyi Street (previously Van Der Walt Street)
027 861 112 468
Fedsure Forum Building DEA call centre e-mail
North Tower [email protected]
Pretoria 0001
www.environment.gov.za
Postal Address Switch board Number
Private Bag X447 027 123 103 911
Pretoria Hotline for tip-offs to report
0001 Environmental Crimes: 0800 205 005
KwaZulu Natal Province:
Department of Agriculture, Environmental Affairs and Rural Development
Private Bag X9059 Tel: 033 355 9100
Pietermaritzburg Fax: 033 355 9122
3200 www.kzndae.gov.za
Limpopo Province:
Department of Economic Development, Environment & Tourism
20 Hans van Rensburg Street / 19 Biccard Street Tel: 015 293 8300
Polokwane Fax: 015 293 8319
7000 E-mail: [email protected]
www.ledet.gov.za
Mpumalanga Province:
Department of Economic Development, Environment and Tourism
No. 4 Riverside Government Complex Building
First floor Government Boulevard Tel: 013 766 4004
Nelspruit Fax: 013 766 4614
1200 www.mpumalanga.gov.za
Northern Cape Province:
Department of Environmental Affairs and Nature Conservation
Department of Environment and Nature Conservation: (Head Office)
Department of Environment and Nature Conservation
Metlife Towers Building/Post Office Building Sasko Building
T-Floor and 1st Floor Long Street 90
Private Bag X6120 Private Bag X6102
Tel: 053 807 7300 Kimberley 8301
Fax: 053 807 7328 Tel: 053 807 7430
denc.ncpg.gov.za Fax: 053 831 3530
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North West Province:
Department of Economic Development, Environment, Conservation and Tourism
Development House (NWDC Building)
Cnr Provident St & University Dr
Mmabatho Tel: 018 387 7700
2735 www.nwpg.gov.za
Eastern Cape Province:
Department of Economic Development and Environmental Affairs
Physical Address Postal Address
Beacon Hill P/Bag X0054
Hockley Close Bhisho
King Williams Town SOUTH AFRICA
5605 5605
Tel: +27 (0) 43 605 7000 www.dedea.gov.za
Western Cape Province:
Department of Environmental Affairs and Development Planning
142 Long Street Tel: 0860 142 142
Cape Town Fax: 021 483 7216
8000 E-mail: [email protected]
www.capegateway.gov.za
3110: National Organic Waste Composting Strategy: Draft Guideline Document for Composting February 2013
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13. USEFUL READING
Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, 2012. Regulations Regarding Fertilizers,
Fertilizers, Farm Feeds, Agricultural Remedies and Stock Remedies Act, 1947, GNR 732, 2012
BSI, 2011. PAS 100:2011 Specification for composted materials, UK : British Standards Institution.
Department of Environment and Conservation (NSW), 2004. Environmental Guidelines: Composting
And Related Organics Processing Facilities, Sydney: Department of Environment and Conservation
(NSW).
Diaz,l., Savage G., Eggerth L., Golueke C., 1993: Composting and Recycling Municipal Solid
Waste.
Du Plessis, R., 2010. Establishment of Composting Facilities on Landfill Sites , Pretoria: University
of South Africa.
Ekelund, L. & Nystrom, K., 2007. Composting of municipal waste in South Africa – sustainability
aspects, Uppsala University: Uppsala (Sweden).
Enayetullah, I., Rothenberger, S., Maqsood Sinha, A. H. M. & Zurbrügg, C., 2006. UNESCAP -
Decentralised Composting for Cities of low- and Middle - Income Countries - A Users’ Manual.
Bangladesh: Waste Concern.
Moodley, L., 2010. Garden Refuse Composting as Part of an Integrated Zero Waste Strategy for
South African Municipalities , Durban: University of Kwa-Zulu Natal.
Sustainability Victoria , 2009. Guide to Best Practice for Organics Recovery. Victoria, Australia: s.n.
3110: National Organic Waste Composting Strategy: Draft Guideline Document for Composting February 2013
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14. REFERENCES
Bonhotal, J. (No date). Marketing Compost: On & Off Farms. Retrieved 2013, from Cornell Waste
Management Institute: http://cwmi.css.cornell.edu [Accessed: 21 January 2013].
Clean Washington Centre. 1997. Will Composting Work for Us? A Decision Guide for Managers of
Businesses, Institutions, Campuses, and Other Facilities. [Online]. Available:
http://www.cwc.org/organics/organic_htms/cm976rpt.htm [Accessed: 1 November 2012].
Cornell Waste Management Institute. (2004). Compost Fact Sheet #1: Marketing Compost and Meeting
Consumer Needs. http://cwmi.css.cornell.edu [Accessed 21 January 2013].
Department of Environmental Affairs. May 201236. Draft National Waste Information Baseline Report.
Department of Environmental Affairs, Pretoria.
Department of Agriculture. 1998. Fertilizers, Farm Feeds, Agricultural Remedies and Stock Remedies
Act (No. 49 of 1996). Pretoria.
Department of Environmental Affairs. 1998. National Environmental Management Act (No. 107 of
1998). Department of Environmental Affairs, Pretoria.
Department of Environmental Affairs. 1998. National Environmental Management: Waste Act (No. 59 of
2008). Department of Environmental Affairs, Pretoria.
Department of Environmental Affairs. 1998. National Environmental Management: Air Quality Act (No.
39 of 2004). Department of Environmental Affairs, Pretoria.
Department of Environmental Affairs and Development Planning. 2011. National Waste Management
Strategy, Pretoria.
Department of Environmental Affairs and Development Planning. 2011. Draft Waste Classification and
Management Regulations, Notice 435 of 2011. Pretoria.
36
A more-recent version of this report and study is available, but has not yet been adopted. See footnote number 17.
3110: National Organic Waste Composting Strategy: Draft Guideline Document for Composting February 2013
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Department of Environmental Affairs and Development Planning. 2012. National Waste Information
Regulations, Notice 625 of 2012. Pretoria.
Department of Environment and Conservation (NSW), 2004. Environmental Guidelines: Composting
And Related Organics Processing Facilities, Sydney: Department of Environment and Conservation
(NSW).
Department of Water Affairs. March 2006. Guidelines for the Utilisation and Disposal of Wastewater
Sludge. Volume 1: Selection of Management Options. TT 261/06. Pretoria.
Department of Water Affairs. March 2006. Guidelines for the Utilisation and Disposal of Wastewater
Sludge. Volume 2: Selection of Management Options. TT 262/06. Pretoria.
Department of Water Affairs. March 2006. Guidelines for the Utilisation and Disposal of Wastewater
Sludge. Volume 5: Selection of Management Options. TT 265/06. Pretoria.
Duprey, C. (2010). Making Your Compost Product Work for You! Compost Sales and Marketing.
Enayetullah, I., Rothenberger, S., Maqsood Sinha, A. H. M. & Zurbrügg, C., 2006. UNESCAP -
Decentralised Composting for Cities of low- and Middle - Income Countries - A Users’ Manual.
Bangladesh: Waste Concern.
Gauteng Department of Agriculture, Conservation and Environment. March 2009. General waste
management facility standards, draft standards.
Kohrell, M., & Wells, P. (no date). Compost Markets and. Fox River Valley, United States of America.
Northeast Recycling Company, Inc. (no date). Retrieved 2013, from Northeast Recycling Company:
www.nerc.org [Accessed: 21 January 2013].
Sustainable Victoria, 2009. Guide to Best Practice for Organics Recovery, Victoria, Australia.
http://www.cpha.co.za/ [Accessed: 30 January 2013].