THE MODERN ERA

Truman 1945-1953Eisenhower 1953-1961Kennedy 1961-1963LBJ 1963-1969Nixon 1969-1974Ford 1974-1977Carter 1977-1981Reagan 1981-1989Bush Sr. 1989-1993Clinton 1993-2001Bush Jr. 2001-2009Obama 2009-present

PRESIDENTS

COLD WAR

“A shadow has fallen upon the scenes so lately lighted by Allied victory…an iron curtain has descended across the [European] continent” (Winston Churchill).

Iron Curtain-name given to the dividing line between communist and non-communist nations

COMMUNISM-BASIC TERMS

Containment-policy aimed at keeping communism from spreading

domino theory-idea that if one nation fell to communism, surrounding countries would also fall

COMMUNISM-BASIC TERMS

NATO vs. Warsaw PactNATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization)-April 1949,

democratic military alliance; alliance of western countries against communism

Warsaw Pact-May 1955, communist military alliance; alliance of Eastern European countries under the control of communism

ORGANIZATIONS/PACTOMANIA

• Truman Doctrine (1947)-Britain advised they could no longer support the Greek monarchy vs. attacks from Communist rebels, nor help Turkey resist Soviet demands to est. a naval base in Turkish territory

• Truman asked Congress to approve $400 million in aid to Greece and Turkey

• “I believe it must be the policy of the United States to support free peoples through economic and financial aid, which is essential to economic stability and orderly political processes…” (Truman).

CONTAINMENT

• Marshall Plan-1948; to assist in the economic recovery of Europe; sent $12 billion over 4 years mostly to Britain, France and Germany

• The financial aid sparked economic revival and prosperity in these countries, alleviating the suff ering of many people

• “…strong European economies can resist the temptations of communism, build strong militaries to defend themselves, and provide good markets for products from the U.S.” (Truman).

CONTAINMENT

• Yalta Conference (WWII)-occupation zones• After fruitless discussions with the Soviets regarding

Germany’s reunification, France, Great Britain and the U.S. decided in the spring of 1948 to unite their zones and est. an independent nation

• USSR responded on June 24 by denying all road, rail and river access to Berlin

• Berlin Airlift-a massive campaign of transporting food and supplies by plane into West Berlin; for 321 days, planes brought thousands of tons of supplies to the city’s residents

• Realizing the resolve of the Western nations, the Soviets ended their blockade of Berlin in May 1949; 11 days later, West Germany was offi cially formed, the Soviets responded by organizing East Germany

BERLIN AIRLIFT

• China: Nationalist Party and Chiang Kai-Shek vs. Chinese Communist Party and Mao Tse-Tung (Mao Zedong)

• Oct. 1949-Mao Zedong announced the est. of the Communist Peoples’ Republic of China; by the end of the year, Mao’s troops forced Kai-shek to flee to Taiwan

• U.S. refused to recognize the govt. and provided military aid to Taiwan

COLD WAR IN ASIA

• The Korean War (1950-1953)• 1950-Communist N. Koreans invaded S. Korea; under

the leadership of the U.S., troops from the U.N. entered the battle on the side of the S. Koreans and drove the invaders out

• Seeking more gains, the U.N. troops moved into N. Korea, drawing China into the battle; after 3 years of fighting, the Koreans signed a cease fi re in July 1953

• Cease fi re re-established the 38 th parallel as the boundary line

COLD WAR IN ASIA

• Arms Race-Competition between the U.S. and USSR to build more weapons

• Development of the H-bomb (hundreds of times more powerful than the fi rst atomic bombs); 1952-U.S. explodes its fi rst; 1953-USSR does the same

• Space race-fiercely compete to launch satellites and spacecraft

• Sputnik I-Soviets launch Oct. 1957; one month later they launch Sputnik II-sending a dog, Laika, into space

• Jan. 1958-U.S. launches its fi rst satellite, Explorer I

ARMS BUILD UP

• Increased spending on education and space programs in the U.S.

• National Defense Education Act-giving federal aid to schools and colleges, especially for projects designed to improve instruction in math and science

• 1958-U.S. est. NASA-National Aeronautics and Space Administration-to direct the space program

• 1961-Soviets put Yuri Gagarin into space• U.S. took the lead in the space race in 1969 when

Neil Armstrong and “Buzz” Aldrin became the fi rst humans to walk on the moon

ARMS BUILD UP

• Cuba-Fidel Castro led a revolution to est. a new govt. in Cuba in 1959; 2 years of guerrilla warfare vs. dictator Fulgencio Batista; Pres. Eisenhower recognized the new govt.

• Castro executed more than 700 opponents of the rev. and jailed many more; new govt. improved social programs, took land from rich to give to the poor (nationalizing the farmland)

• U.S. had a lot to lose with the land policy-U.S. businesses owned 40% of the sugar industry, 80% utilities, 90% mineral resources

• Castro advised his rev. was not Communist, but the U.S. was suspicious and applied pressure on Cuba; by acting on the assumption the Communists already had the upper hand, they may have ensured that fact

ARMS BUILD UP

• Cuba-before breaking off diplomatic relations with Cuba, Eisenhower authorized the CIA to begin training anti-Castro Cuban exiles for an invasion of Cuba

• President Kennedy came into offi ce and approved an invasion that was to land at the Bay of Pigs on April 17, 1961-invasion failed spectacularly; failure embarrassed the Kennedy administration

ARMS BUILD UP

• Cuba-fearful of attack plans by the U.S., Castro sought aid from the Soviets (Soviet leader Khrushchev)

• U.S. spy planes spotted Soviet nuclear missiles in Cuba; Kennedy responded with a blockade of the island

• Cuban Missile Crisis-October 1962; 13 days-height of the Cold Waravoided war: Soviets agreed to recall Soviet ships and missiles and the U.S. would remove its missiles from Turkey and not plan to invade Cuba

ARMS BUILD UP

The Origins: French military forces had established control over French Indochina (Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos) in the 1800s-ruled it with an iron fi st and exploited the resources; began to face resistance, especially after WWII

U.S. had a diffi cult decision-on one hand, it supports decolonization, but on the other, France is an ally; Truman opted to support France to ensure a strong, anticommunist grouping

VietnamNorthern Vietnam: (Vietnimh) will be led by Ho Chi Minh, he embraces communism and eventually gets the Soviets to rally to his cause of independence (Vietcong are people in South Vietnam who are communist and loyal to the North)Southern Vietnam: will be led by Ngo Dinh Diem

America will increase its aid to the French ($2.6 bill ion between 1950-1954)

THE VIETNAM CONFLICT

Major events: Dien Bien Phu: 1954, the French lost their 8-yr struggle to regain

Vietnam when the Vietminh trapped a large French garrison and hold it siege for 55 days: French surrendered

Geneva Accords: (May 1954) France grants independence to Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam; also divides Vietnam at the 17 t h parallel into two countries-North and South Vietnam; in 1956, the country would hold free elections to unify Vietnam

1956 elections: looked as if Ho Chi Minh would win; rather than risk losing, Diem refused to participate, a move made under the support of the U.S. govt. ; by 1957, communist rebel groups were committed to undermining the Diem govt. and uniting Vietnam under a communist fl ag

Diem was unpopular even in the South-Diem was a Roman Catholic in an overwhelmingly Buddhist nation; Diem did l itt le to build his polit ical base, in fact, he did much the opposite, passing anti-Buddhist legislation and refusing signifi cant land reforms; his lack of support hurt the war vs. the North; only the support of the U.S. kept the unpopular leader in power

THE VIETNAM CONFLICT

Diem continued to alienate citizens; by late 1963, his regime was in shambles; the Kennedy admin. Eventually concluded that the South needed new leadership; working behind the scenes, Americans plotted with anti-Diem generals to overthrow Diem’s govt.; On Nov. 1, 1963, Diem was removed and was assassinated with his brother Nov. 2

THE VIETNAM CONFLICT

Gulf of Tonkin Resolution-passed by Congress; authorized the President “to take all necessary measures to repel any armed attack vs. the forces of the United States and to prevent further aggression”-gave Johnson the ability to commit troops without ever going back to Congress and asking for a declaration of war

Tet Off ensive-early 1968, a coordinated assault by the North Vietnamese Army on 36 provincial capitals and 5 major cities, as well as the U.S. Embassy in Saigon; planned to take and hold the cities until the population took up arms in their support; Americans and S. Vietnamese forces were able to repel the off ensive, however, it was a devastating blow to Americans; it demonstrated the communists had not lost their will or their ability to fi ght; a turning point in the war

THE VIETNAM CONFLICT

During Nixon’s presidency (1969-1974)-the Vietnam War would continue, but the Nixon administration would reduce the U.S. presence and eventually completely withdraw U.S. forces

Policy of “Vietnamization”-reduce the burden of winning the war into the shoulders of the Vietnamese

Soon became apparent the South Vietnamese could not hold their own; U.S. engaged in bombing campaigns vs. the North to force peace talks, and while there was some success, the North was dedicated to reunifying the country under communist rule

Last American soldiers left in the spring of 1973; a little over two years later, the South would fall to the communists

Vietnam Confl ict lasting from 1954-1975; U.S. troops engaged from 1965-1973

At the height in 1968, approx. 525,000 troops would be engaged Approximately 58,000 dead; approx. 300,000 wounded

THE VIETNAM CONFLICT

• China-Nixon pursued a policy of détente, or “easing of tensions” with China by making trips to Beijing in 1971 (secret) and 1972 (open)

• Meetings addressed issues such as limiting US support for Taiwanese independence, U.S. withdrawal from Vietnam and the fate of POW’s from the Korean War

• Very popular with the American people

CHINA-REVISITED

Israel established: 1948Palestine was under Turkish rule until WWI, League made it a British mandateUN General Assembly voted to partition Palestine into Jewish and Arab states; met with fi erce oppositionBritish mandate expired and Jewish leaders proclaimed indep. Of Israel

Suez Crisis-both Israel and Egypt argue for control, canal- important for trade

Camp David Accords: Carter Administration 1978-Israel returned the Sinai to Egypt in

return for Egypt’s recognition of Israel’s right to exist as a country

Substantial foreign policy victory for Carter

MIDDLE EAST

Iran (during the Carter Administration)-Iranian Revolution

January 1979-Iran ousted a long time US ally, the Shah of Iran, in favor of an Islamic theocracy that was hostile to America

November 1979-an angry mob stormed the U.S. Embassy in Tehran and took the diplomatic staff hostage for 444 days

A failed rescue attempt was one more in a series of blows to the Carter presidency: several helicopters broke down due to a sandstorm and lack of maintenance; another helicopter flew into a transport plane causing an explosive fi re

Oil supply to the U.S. was reduced due to the Iranian Revolution

Reagan negotiates their release

MIDDLE EAST

Reagan Administration: Iran-Contra Aff air (fi rst term and a half for Reagan was marked by recovery and optimism; this scandal would shift the popular opinion away)

1986-Reagan had authorized the govt. to support Contra rebels in Nicaragua against their govt. run by the communist Sandanistas (hoping the Contras would overthrow the Sandanistas)

When Congress voted to eliminate funding for the rebels, the Reagan Admin. Used funds it earned from sell ing arms to Iran to fi nance the Contras (shed doubt on the image of Reagan as morally virtuous)

Sell ing arms to Iran was deplorable for three reasons:1. Iran was a major state sponsor of terrorism2. The goal of the sales was to gain Iranian support for negotiating release of hostages in Lebanon; Reagan maintained a policy of never negotiating with terrorists3. Iranian hostage crisis was sti l l on the minds of Americans and the thought of that country receiving U.S. support was disheartening

CENTRAL AMERICA

MOVEMENTS

Baby boomLevittown-was built to fi ll a need; Levitt and

Sons perfected techniques for mass-producing housing; assembly-line houses that were built on slabs with precut lumber (cookie-cutter homes)-6 models of homes

Interstate Highway Act-Eisenhower authorized the first federal funding of an interstate system in 1953; further legislation passed by Congress in 1956 resulted in the Interstate Hwy. Act: authorized funds to build 41,000 miles of highway/multilane expressways to connect major cities1. eased commutes from suburbs to cities2. boosted travel and vacation industries

SUBURBAN

Arms/space race: Sputnik (USSR), U.S. (Explorer)Personal computersExpanded use of air conditioningTelevision and news coverage

Civil Rights MovementVietnam WarPresidential debates: Kennedy vs. Nixon (1960)via radio: Nixon winsvia television: Kennedy winsKennedy wins overall

TECHNOLOGY

1960s and 1970s: second wave of feminism, or the theory of political, social and economic equality of men and women

The Feminine Mystique-written by Betty Friedan, articulated the redefinition of women and how they are viewed; many objected to the stereotypical housewife status; some worked and wanted more opportunities

National Organization for Women (NOW)-dedicated itself to winning “true equality for all women” and to attaining “a full and equal partnership of the sexes”; set out to break barriers of discrimination in the workplace and in education

WOMEN’S RIGHTS

Latinos had long faced discrimination Influential Latino activist: Cesar Chavez; fought for

rights for farm laborers, who were among the most exploited workers in the nation; many migrated from farm to farm, state to state, laboring for long hours in deplorable conditions, with no benefits: some of the most exploited workers in the nation

United Farm Workers (UFW)-late 60s; committed to nonviolent tactics; implemented strikes and boycotts (of grapes) leading CA. to pass laws requiring collective bargaining between growers and union reps.-farmworkers had a legal basis to ask for better working conditions

OTHER MINORITIES

Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring: described the deadly impact pesticides were having on birds and other animals; did more than point to the dangers of chemicals and toxic waste, she also insisted that human activity drastically altered the environment and that humans had a responsibil ity to protect it

Earth Day-nationwide protest; a WI. Senator wanted to force the environmental issue onto the national agenda; on April 22, 1970, close to 20 mill ion Americans took part in Earth Day

Under Nixon, Congress created the EPA-Environmental Protection Agency in 1970; mission is to protect the “entire ecological chain”; sought to clean up and protect the environment, as well as l imit or eliminate pollutants that pose a risk to the public’s health

Later acts, such as the Clear Air Act-1970 (combat air pollution limiting emissions from factories and automobiles), Clean Water Act-1973 (limit pollution of water by industry) and Endangered Species Act-1973, protecting endangered plants and animals, were passed

Global warming

ENVIRONMENTAL

War divides AmericaDraft-increasingly unpopular (Selective Service Act of

1948); drafted more than 1.5 million into military service during the War

Spread to college campuses-Kent StateHomecoming for many soldiers-bittersweet

ANTI-VIETNAM WAR

Issue Liberal Viewpoint Conservative Viewpoint

Role of govt. in the economy

Favored more govt. involvement to lessen extreme economic inequalities through:Social programs (often leading to higher taxes)Govt. regulation of industry

Favored limited govt. involvement in order to stimulate economic growth by:Reducing taxesDecreasing regulation of industry

Foreign policy Favored international diplomacy to combat communism in other countries

Favored relying on our own national defense and actively fighting vs. communism in other countries

CONSERVATIVE MOVEMENT

1964 election, Republicans nominate AZ. Senator Barry Goldwater to run vs. LBJ

LBJ was wanting to continue his War on Poverty (train the jobless, educate the uneducated, provide healthcare for those in need)-to continue, he needed to win the election

Johnson believed the federal government could best regulate the economy and promote social justice; Goldwater maintained the federal govt. was the problem, not the solution; social and economic issues such as racism and poverty should not be addressed by the federal govt. per Goldwater

Goldwater, if elected, wanted to rein in the federal govt. by reducing its size and restricting its activities, favored tax cuts and opposed social welfare legislation and govt. spending on education, public housing and urban renewal programs

Johnson played up Goldwater’s extremism; LBJ won with a landslide victory

CONSERVATIVE MOVEMENT

Spring of 1964; Johnson’s vision for America Demanded “an end to poverty and racial injustice” and

opportunity for every child Programs:

Medicare-basic hospital insurance for Americans 65 and olderMedicaid-basic medical services to poor and disabled AmericansProject Head Start and Elementary and Secondary Education Act-committed federal govt. to providing resources for individuals and schoolsPublic radio/tv-Corporation for Public Broadcasting, combined education and entertainment for childrenNational Endowment for the Arts-fi nancially assisted artists, arts education and art org.

LBJ’S GREAT SOCIETY

OTHER

Warren Court-led by Chief Justice Earl Warren during the 1960s-became the most l iberal in American history; supported civil rights, civil l iberties, voting rights and personal privacy

Miranda v. Arizona (1966)-Court ruled that an accused criminal had to be informed of his or her 5 t h and 6 t h Amendment rights before being questioned (Miranda Rights)

Other key Supreme Court decisions on civil l iberties and civil rights:Roe v. Wade (1973)-assured women the right to legal abortions; upheld a woman’s right to choose (privacy)

Bakke decision (1978)-Bakke, a white applicant to college, had been denied admission to a medical school, he claimed racial discrimination; affi rmative action; quotas to increase the number of minorities (in education) are not acceptable (sided with Bakke), but race as a factor in the admissions process (for college) is acceptable (didn’t overturn affi rmative action)

KEY DECISIONS

John F. Kennedy-November 1963; assassinated by Lee Harvey Oswald in Dallas, Texas

Martin Luther King-April 4, 1968; James Earl Ray in Memphis, TN.-great civil rights leader lost

Robert Kennedy- June 5, 1968; Sirhan Sirhan (Jordanian immigrant) at a rally in the California primary (after announcing candidacy for presidency) (possible revenge for America’s support for Israel in a war vs. Egypt the year before)-great civil rights leader lost

KEY CIVIL RIGHTS LEADERS LOST

Nixon-narrowly wins the presidency in 1968; in 1972, entering with high approval ratings, he runs another masterful campaign

As Nixon stood before cameras on election night, 1972, he had no idea his downfall was beginning

A botched burglary of Democratic Party headquarters at the Watergate Complex in June 1972 received little attention at fi rst, but as investigators began to unravel the connections between the burglars and the White House, Watergate, came to dominate the news; the 5 men were linked to Nixon’s reelection campaign and were arrested as they tried to bug the offi ces of the Democratic National Committee in D.C.

Burglars were tried; witnesses noted that the President and his top aides were involved in the coverup; Nixon denied any wrongdoing; two reporters played a role in unveilng the secrecy as they followed tips provided by a secret govt. informant known as “Deep Throat” (later revealed to be a top offi cial of the FBI)

White House tapes (taping Oval Offi ce conversations for years) would show he played a leading role in trying to coverup the break-in; He initially claimed executive privilege, but the Court ordered Nixon to turn them over

Nixon resigned before impeachment; pardoned by G. Ford

NIXON-WATERGATE

Reagan and his advisors based their economic policies on the theory of “supply-side” economics

Rests on the assumption that if taxes are reduced, govt. spending will be reduced, leading to increased investment by the private sector leading to increased prosperity (jobs, production, etc.); govt. will then collect more taxes

Supply side theory reminded critics of the “trickle-down economics” of the 20s: as wealthy prospered it would trickle down and benefi t the middle class and poor

To cut taxes while still balancing the budget would require Reagan reduce federal spending, such as on programs supported by both parties: cut income tax by 25% over 3 years, cut corporate taxes, etc.; cut over $40 billion from domestic programs

The economy would experience a severe recession from 1980-1982; the economy rebounded in 1983

REAGAN-REAGANOMICS

-“Tear down this wall”-he challenged the Soviet leader, Gorbachev, to tear down the Berlin Wall in 1987; it was torn down by rebellious East Germans in 1989 (symbol of the Cold War)(1989-also the year of pro-democ. Riots at Tiananmen Square)

-August 1991-hard-liners in the Soviet Union attempted to maintain communist rule, but millions of Russians, led by Boris Yeltsin, rallied to support Gorbachev, the coup fell apart

-not long after, the Communist party lost power and the Soviet Union separated into 15 separate republics; Yeltsin became the new leader after Gorbachev resigned

REAGAN-COLLAPSE OF THE SOVIET UNION

Monica Lewinsky scandalPerjury and obstruction of justiceHouse of Reps. Impeached Clinton; President was

acquitted in the Senate trial-1999

CLINTON-IMPEACHMENT

Election: Al Gore vs. George W. Bush vs. Ralph Nader Gore wound up winning the popular vote Vote margin in the electoral college was thin; although Gore

received a half mill ion more votes than Bush, victory hinged on Florida

Vote in FL. Was so close that a state law mandated an automatic statewide recount (hand recount) of votes; Dem. Argued for an additional recount because many punch-card ballots were undercounted, Rep. appealed that decision to the federal courts, Bush v. Gore, court essentially made Bush president (didn’t have time to conduct a lawful recount and violated 14 t h amendment equal-protection clause); result gave Bush 271 electoral votes, one more needed to win the election

2000 PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION