The Medieval and Tudor Arrow

A guide to building replica arrows, and their history and usage

By

Bartholomew of Northampton

A.k.a. Axel B. Boy

The fabled longbows used by English archers of the medieval and Tudor period were the

preeminent missile weapons of its time. The bows themselves were very simple in

construction, being comprised of a single stave of wood, cow or ox horn nocks, and a string.

The arrows that were shot from these longbows were a very different story and required

innumerable people to produce all of the components. This presentation is designed to give

the participants a look at the historical construction methods, the uses and variation of the

arrows, and how to produce a modern replica using modern tools and methods.

While millions of arrows were produced during the medieval and Tudor period, very few

have survived to the present day. Arrowheads have been found all over the British Isles and

Northern Europe, these give us an excellent idea of the heads used on the standard arrows in

this period. However actual arrow shafts are few and far between, almost all of our knowledge

about arrows in the period come from the so called “Westminster Arrow” (found in the rafters

in …), and the arrow shafts recovered from the wreck of Henry VIII flagship the Mary Rose,

which sank in 1545, and period illustrations. The arrows which we will be replicating are based

off of the ones recovered from the Mary Rose, however it is believed that the arrows found on

the wreck are a good representation of arrows used in the 15th, and possible 14th centuries.

Die Marter des heiligen Sebastian. The martyrdom of St Sebastian from an altarpiece in Germany. One

of the best period illustrations of the period archery, circa 1490.

The Arrowheads

Arrowheads, or bodkins, came in a wide variety of shapes and sized during the period,

each type was designed to achieve different effects. While the term bodkin is widely used to

describe medieval arrowheads, the word bodkin simply means a pointed instrument much like

an awl. Below are illustrations of some of the most widely represented arrowheads from the

both the archeological record and pictorial sources.

The basic bodkin head, by far the most common head represented in the record. It was

effective against mail, leather, and linen armor.

Swallowtail broadhead+6: used for both hunting and war

Plate cutter bodkin: used for piercing plate armor during the 15th and early 16th century’s

Type 16: a head that can be used against by armored and unarmored foes, also used against

horses.

Needle bodkin: an earlier head mainly used against foes wearing mail, leather, or cloth armor,

not much use against good plate armor!

The Shafts

As stated earlier, there are a large number of surviving arrowheads from the medieval

and Tudor period, however very few wood shafts have survived. When the Mary Rose was

excavated and raised in 1982, 7834 complete and fragmentary arrows were discovered

(Weapons of Warre pa. 665). Of these around 600 of the complete arrows were tested to

determine the wood species. The majority were constructed of poplar (aspen) wood, with

birch wood being the second most common (Weapons of Warre pa. 674).

The overall length of the recovered arrows shows a wide variation in total length. The

shortest arrow was 26” while the longest was 34”. The majority of the arrows were around 30”

in length (Weapons of Warre pa. 677). Unlike most modern arrows the arrows recovered on

the Mary Rose have a “bobtailed” profile. This means that the thickest part of the shaft is just

behind the head, then tapering down to the nock. Modern arrows almost exclusively have a

“parallel” shaft profile, meaning that they are the same diameter the entire length of the shaft.

While the most arrows recovered had a bobtail profile, there were other profiles represented in

the recovered arrows. It is assumed that in the medieval period that arrows would have been

cut into square stock then rounded and tapered with a curved hand planer. The image below

shows the difference between a bobtail and parallel shaft.

Image

Almost all of the shafts recovered from the Mary Rose have some form or

reinforcement at the nock. When you consider that the bows these arrows were shot from had

draw weights of between 80 to 180lbs some form of reinforcement to the arrow shaft was

highly recommended! Most are reinforced with a sliver of cow horn. This was inserted into

the shaft after a cut was made running parallel with the grain. The groove for the string was

then cut opposite the grain direction. This configuration makes for a very strong nock. With

my own reproduction arrows I have had excellent results using this method, using both horn

inserts and inserts made from very dense tropical hardwoods like ipe or jaktoba. The

illustration below shows the position of the inserts and the string groove.

Fletching

While no feathers survived on the Mary Rose arrows, researchers have been able to

estimate the lengths of the lost fletching by studying the stains left on the arrow shafts from

the blue and binding thread. Most of the fletching seems to have been approximately 7 to 7.5

inches in length (Weapons of Warre pa. 678). From chemical analysis, it has been proven that

the fletching was attached to the shafts with a hide glue mixed with verdigris. The verdigris is

theorized to have been use as a means of stopping rodents and other pests from eating the

hide glue while the arrows were being stored. Looking at period artwork we can guess that the

most common way that fletching was cut was a basic triangle.

Image of St Edmund from the Wilton Diptych, painted for Richard II (c. 1395). Note the dark

pigment between the fletching, this is thought to show pitch or verdigris used on the arrows.

Building the arrows

Materials:

Hardwood dowels (1/2 inch in diameter)

Full length feather fletching

Horn or a dense hardwood for creating nock inserts

Arrow heads

High quality thread

Epoxy

Good quality pva or wood glue (I use Titebond III, which is basically waterproof)

Finish/waterproofing oil

Masking tape

Glue/tape to attach fletching

Tools:

Sand paper (80, 120, 220, 320 grits)

Hacksaw

Masonry saw

Needle file

Electric drill with ½’ chuck

Finishing planer

Tapering jig

Scissors

Step 1: Selecting the right dowel

In order to build a good quality reproduction arrow, you need to select the best

materials possible. The foundation of a good arrow starts with the shaft. I use a variety of

wood species for my medieval arrows but most arrows I make are built from poplar and birch.

Poplar dowels are readily available at most hardware stores, and are fairly inexpensive. Birch

dowels are harder to come by but can be found at specialty wood craft stores or online.

When selecting a dowel you need to be careful and try to select dowels that have no

obvious flaws or damage. Also check to see if the grain runs the entire length of the arrow. It

goes without saying but also try to get dowels that are as straight as possible, a small bend can

be easily taken out by flexing the dowel.

Step 2: Cutting the arrows and nock slots for inserts

Since these arrows are made to be shot out of a “warbow” and drawn “to the ear” they

are longer than your modern target arrows. To begin with I cut my dowels down to 34”, the

finished arrows will be about 32 ½”, but the added length is needed for the tapering process.

Once the dowel is cut to the desired length, you will need to be to cut the slot for the

horn insert. This is best achieved by clamping the arrow in a vice and very carefully cutting a 2”

deep slot into the dowel using a hack saw. The slot for the nock needs to be cut with the grain

of the arrow. The actual slot for the string will be cut opposite the grain, this give the nock

added strength. The illustration bellow shows how to place the cut for the insert.

Step 3: making you inserts

To make the inserts for the nocks you will need to cut thin strips from a block of horn or

dense hardwood (ipe, ebony, jaktoba, walnut). They should be 2 inches long and about ½ inch

wide. The depth of the inserts I make are normally wedge shape and are 2 to 4 millimeters at

the nock end and 1mm on the other end. I’ve found this wedge shape to be the easiest to work

with.

Step 4: Gluing in the inserts

Before you glue in the inserts it is best to check that insert slides into the slot in the

dowel easily and without splitting the dowel. If the insert is not going in, DO NOT FORCE IT! If

you force the insert in, you will split the dowel and be forced to start over again. If it does not

fit simply sand the insert down until you achieve a good fit. Once it all fits together you are

ready for gluing. As an added insurance to prevent the splitting of the dowel you can place a

clamp at the base of the insert slot. I use 5 minuet epoxy to glue the insert in place, it is best to

clamp the area up and make sure that the epoxy is well set before you proceed to the next

step.

Step 5: Tapering the arrow

Once the insert has been epoxied in place you will need to cut and file off all the

excesses material and epoxy from the nock area. I use a file and sandpaper to clean up the

nock before tapering.

My reproduction shafts are of the bobtail profile described earlier. I taper them from

1/2” just behind the head, down to 3/8” at the nock.

To taper the shaft you can do it the period way, which would be to use a hand planer

and slowly cutting down the shaft. The modern way which I use for mass production, is to use a

tapering jig I built (blueprints for a tapering jig can be found at the end of this packet). To use

the tapering jig simply insert the dowel into an electric drill and drive the dowel into the jig.

Once the arrow has been tapered I leave it in the drill and simply wrap sandpaper around the

shaft and sand it to the desired smoothness. Since I shoot “off the knuckle” I like to sand my

arrows down to 320 grit. This helps to limit ending up with splinters in your hand.

Step 5: cutting the nock

After I have tapered the shaft I cut the nock slot for the bow string to sit into. The

easiest way to cut nock slots is to use a tile saw, they will give you a nice 2 mm slot for the bow

string. While the horn insert is cut with the grain of the shaft, the nock is cut the opposite

direction. The image below shows the placement of the nock slot.

Step 5: fitting the head

While some arrow builders wait to attach the head till after they have finished the shaft,

I prefer to do this before I waterproof the arrow. The reason I fit the head before I oil the shaft

is because I often have to do quite a bit of sanding/tapering of the shaft to fit the heads. If I

was to do this after I had finished the shaft I would have to then redo the waterproofing.

Step 6: Waterproofing the shafts

To waterproof the shafts you can use a wide variety of finishes. Tung oil, varnish,

polyurethane, or my personal favorite Danish oil. The quickest way I have found to finish my

arrows is to dip the nock end into the open bottle of oil and then wipe the excess down the

shaft. A minimum of 2 coats is recommended to insure that the arrows are waterproof

Step 7: Preparing and attaching the fletching

During the medieval period it is assumed that fletching was cut to shape after it had

been affixed to the shaft, but again I find this much harder to do so I use a quick trick to get the

perfect shaped fletching. This method will work to cut fletching of any shape and size.

To make your fletching take a piece of masking or painters tape and lay it with the sticky

side up. Take you feather and stick it to the masking tape, try to make it as straight as possible.

Now flip the tape over and stick it to a board. You should clearly be able to see the

outline of the feather through the tape. Now take a ruler and simply draw your fletching profile

onto the tape. I make my fletching ¾” high, and 7 and 3/8” in length.

Once you have drawn out the design for you fletching peel the tape carefully off of the

board, making sure that the feather stays stuck to the tape. Now take a good pair of scissors

and cut you fletching out, and peel the tape off. You should now have a perfect fletch!

Step 8: Attaching your fletching to the shaft

Fletching is a class unto its self, so I will not go into detail of attaching fletching. I

personally use fletching tape since it is much easier to use than glue and allows me to fletch

arrows much faster. I will tell you that double sided carpet tape is the most economical way of

fletching arrows.

Step 9: whipping the fletching

From the recovered arrow from the Mary Rose, as well as period artwork, we know that

medieval and Tudor arrows had thread wrapped (whipped) around the shaft to help hold the

fletching in place. During the period it would probably be made of linen or silk thread, but since

arrows were not reused as they are today I opt for a tougher material. At most craft stores you

can get upholstery thread. This is very tough and I have found it to be stand up very well to

being shot out of heavy bows.

Whipping the thread is a very simple process, but one trick is to separate the ribs of the

feather with a knife or needle before putting the thread on. This will help to keep the feather

in good shape and more aerodynamically. With my fletching I try to make the thread with 4 to

6 turns per inch on the shaft, this is based off on the imprints left on the Mary Rose arrows.

Step 10: waterproofing the whipping

The arrows recovered from the Mary Rose have been chemically annylized and it has

been determined that the glue use to cover the whipping on the arrows was a mixture of hide

glue (glue made from animal parts boiled down) and verdigris (a compound derived from

tarnishing copper). While you can use hide glue I find using modern wood glue to be a better

alternative. Titebond III, which is a waterproof wood glue, is the most effective glue I have

found to cover the whipping. By using 2 coats of Titebond, applied with a paintbrush, I have

found that the whipping will hold up to being shot dozens of time, even being fired out of a

105lbs draw longbow.

Tapering Jig Blueprints

Materials

2x4 board

2 pieces of 3/4x3/4 wood

Wood screws

Belt sander belts (60 or 80 girt is best)

On the 2x4 board mark out a template of the arrow taper you wish to make. Mine is ½”

at the top tapering down to 3/8” at the nock end.

Take a belt sander belt and cut it into strips. Take these strips and glue or tape them

onto the 2x4 and onto one side of the ¾” wood strips. Once the strips have been attached take

the ¾” strips and screw them down following your template to the 2x4. And that’s it, you now

just need an electric drill to use for tapering the arrows.

Bibliography

Bartlett, C., & Embleton, G. A. (1997). English longbowman: 1330-1515. London: Osprey military.

Die Marter des heiligen Sebastian. (2009, December 18). Retrieved April 11, 2016, from

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Altarpiece_of_St_Sebastian.jpg

Illustration of the altarpiece of the Martyrdom of St. Sebastian

Hardy, R. (1977). Longbow: A social and military history. New York: Arco Pub.

Hildred, A. (2010). Weapons of warre: The ordnance of the Mary Rose (Vol. II). Portsmouth: Mary Rose

Trust.

Roth, E. (2012). With a bended bow: Archery in medieval and Renaissance Europe. Stroud: Spellmount.

Wilton Diptych. (n.d.). Retrieved April 11, 2016, from

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilton_Diptych

Illustration of the St. Edmund