the management of living beings or emo-management
TRANSCRIPT
The Management of Living Beings
or Emo-management
The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
Delphine van Hoorebeke
First published 2018 in Great Britain and the United States by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley amp Sons Inc
Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study or criticism or review as permitted under the Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 this publication may only be reproduced stored or transmitted in any form or by any means with the prior permission in writing of the publishers or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licenses issued by the CLA Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the undermentioned address
ISTE Ltd John Wiley amp Sons Inc 27-37 St Georgersquos Road 111 River Street London SW19 4EU Hoboken NJ 07030 UK USA
wwwistecouk wwwwileycom
copy ISTE Ltd 2018 The rights of Delphine van Hoorebeke to be identified as the author of this work have been asserted by her in accordance with the Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988
Library of Congress Control Number 2018943317 British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 978-1-78630-292-2
Contents
Foreword by Martine Brasseur ix
Foreword by Claude Berghmans xiii
Preface xvii
Introduction xxi
Chapter 1 Emotion 1
11 Emotion a complex concept 1 12 Expression 6 13 An adjustment tool 8 14 A neurological system 10 15 A complex system 12 16 Subject to dissonance and inhibition 13 17 Contagion 14
Chapter 2 Managing Individuals 19
21 The art of managing customer focus the relations dependent on monitoring and margins to maneuver 19
211 Organizational norms 21 212 Dissonances 23
22 The art of motivating commitment and satisfaction 27 221 Different types of commitment 27 222 Commitmentndashsatisfactionndashe-motion 29
vi The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
23 The art of administering well the process approach a proactive and sustainable method 31
231 Emo-management a process that concerns everyone 32 232 A multitude of effects in the workplace 35 233 Levers for managing 38
24 The art of ensuring health and safety in the workplace well-being at work 42
241 A neurobiological process 43 242 Reasons to become ill 44 243 Real consequences 45 244 A schema like this in business 48
25 A factual approach for effective decision-making knowledge of the emotional decision-making process 52
251 Decision and emotion 52 252 Decision and emotion at the origin a rejection 53 253 Decision and the neurobiological process 57 254 Decision and emo-management 60 255 Decision emo-management and contagion 62
Chapter 3 Managing a Collective 65
31 An evidence-based approach for effective collective decision-making understanding the process of emo-decisional contagion 65 32 The art of leading authentic leadership and emotional intelligence 69
321 The manager and emotions 70 322 The manager and emotional intelligence 71 323 Is everyone capable of emo-managing 73
33 The art of reconciling the present with the future the principle of continuous improvement 75
331 Change and emotion 76 332 Change = trust = emotion 78 333 Change a shared emotional acceptance 81 334 Lever for the acceptance of change through emo-management 82
Contents vii
34 The art of bringing people together mutually beneficial relations with others and the social aspect of managerial responsibility 84
341 Collective emotion arsenal of emo-management 85 342 A paradoxical arsenal positive and negative effects 86
35 The art of managing diversity learning and creating collectively 89
351 Diversity between conflicts and group work 90 352 Managing diversity with emo-management 93 353 Emo-management a factor in diversity 94
36 A common point an essential element for collective intelligence emotional contagion 99
361 Emo-management dealing with emotional contagion 101 362 Mathematical and economic tools to better manage emotional contagion 101
Conclusion 107
Bibliography 115
Index 143
Foreword by Martine Brasseur
The management of emotions in companies is a necessity It is nevertheless a difficult challenge especially as emotions are associated with an inalienable liberty of the subject At first their spontaneous character appears to be in conflict with any attempts at management Even when addressing the question of emotional control and distinguishing perception from emotional expression at the risk of placing people in cognitive dissonance a second objection to the potential management of emotions seems to reside in the possible intervention of a third party into an intrapsychic process that each individual is already struggling to channel How can we move past the stage of philosophical debates like the ongoing one [DAR 95] opposing in particular the Earl of Shaftesbury1 who like the Stoics
1 ldquoIt may be objected here that these passions unnatural as they are carry still a sort of pleasure with them and that however barbarous a pleasure it be yet still it is a pleasure and satisfaction which is found in pride or tyranny revenge malice cruelty exerted Now if it be possible in nature that anyone can feel a barbarous or malicious joy otherwise than in consequence of mere anguish and torment then we may perhaps allow this kind of satisfaction to be called pleasure or delight But the case is evidently contrary To love and to be kind to have social or natural affection complacency and good-will is to feel immediate satisfaction and genuine content It is in itself original joy depending on no preceding pain or uneasiness and producing nothing beside satisfaction merely On the other side animosity hatred and bitterness are original misery and torment producing no other pleasure or satisfaction than as the unnatural desire is for the instant satisfied by something which appeases itrdquo [ASH 07 p 110]
x The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
called for a self-government outside of all external laws and all sanctions solely through the satisfaction of good deeds and Immanuel Kant for whom self-determination fell under individual will and consisted of imposing the application of moral law on oneself For both emotions are understood as passions that cloud or distort judgment This is not a matter for management because managing emotions would be reduced to personal discipline very far from the challenges of developing professional skills or interacting with others and reinforcing traditional conceptions that place emotions outside of the field of management
Delphine van Hoorebekersquos approach developed based on several scientific disciplines including sociology psychology and neuroscience is very different and allows her to address the complexity of motivations and emotional processes while demonstrating that their integration into management practices is not only possible but also represents an important performance factor Approaching management like a relational exercise requiring the development of human qualities in the people who practice it [CHA 90] she treats emotion as a manifestation resulting in a bias one consisting of ldquotaking something at face valuerdquo [THO 96b] Emotions come to play the roles of indicators or alerts Their capacity to make certain aspects of professional situations intelligible leads to an evocation of the existence of a form of emotional intelligence in line with Sartre [SAR 38] who considered that ldquoemotional consciousness is primarily consciousness of the worldrdquo or Robert Solomon [SOL 98] for whom emotions ldquodo not just happen to usrdquo they help us to face other people In its pedagogical development this book shows us step by step how emotions intervene in each step of management and what mechanisms managers should use
Over the course of these pages a model emerges of a professional practice that by considering the emotions of the subject and the role attributed to feelings toward other people comes to promote the recognition of humanity in the other while giving managers the opportunity to affirm their own existence as human beings It is
Foreword by Martine Brasseur xi
through the management of people this emo-management that is so aptly named that we can humanize management
Martine BRASSEUR Professor at the Universiteacute Paris-Descartes Chief editor of the interdisciplinary journal
Management Homme amp Entreprise
Foreword by Claude Berghmans
The management of organizations has experienced many evolutions and mutations in the last 50 years that are directly related to the multiple evolutions of our society (technological human economic and political) and the major organizational figures who compose it in the context of globalization From the scientific organization of labor in Taylorian structures to different methods of participatory management that we can observe in our current societies the changes have been numerous and varied New research disciplines and rich innovative conceptual contributions have appeared in human resources and management sciences under the necessary pressure of multiple social changes that we have observed in English-speaking countries Subsequently the globalization of these approaches appeared and today we find very similar management methods in different areas around the world moving toward a kind of standardization in the management of human capital The same organizational and managerial dynamics are found in major financial or industrial groups In addition there are also innovative areas similar to small groups or networks that can provide new modifications to the understanding of how our organizations work and outline new managerial development paths that highlight innovation limitless creativity boldness and emotional intelligence Notably we see this in the management models of companies in Silicon Valley that are increasingly discussed and that spotlight the spirit of innovation and risk-taking where imagination stands alongside large-scale industrial and financial projects This is true for both the
xiv The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
success of small start-ups that transform into titanic structures like Elon Muskrsquos SpaceX company that offers private spacecraft launches or the great monsters of GAFA (Google Amazon Facebook Apple) that are headed for world domination in their sectors Sometimes insignificant in their infancy these companies have succeeded in adapting and developing by relying on their human capital To do this many factors were necessary including the consideration of emotional intelligence as a participative process of management The role of emotions in companies is beginning to be felt in many organizations First studied from a psychological angle in the 1980s the consideration of emotions quickly became an essential and necessary element in the management of human capital in companies
In practice many HR managers address this question by trying to implement innovative approaches that allow them to develop and work on what some call ldquoemotional competencerdquo in order to make the most of it in the daily managerial practices of our colleagues All the same the concept is difficult and it is not so easy to integrate the management of emotions into the managerial best practices that an organization needs to optimize its performance French university research in management sciences is only just beginning in this field and there are many ways to approach it Of course there are several methods of working on emotions in managerial practices but what about their long-term effectiveness HR practitioners today need precise methodological and conceptual foundations based on serious experimental research that has been proven in order to benefit from a real expertise on the subject to provide clarity in a field that is still very abstract and to be guided through this type of approach
This is exactly the aim of Delphine van Hoorebekersquos book which based on several years of research about managing emotions brilliantly proposes a meticulous argument showing that emotions are found in most management innovation and decision-making processes in large companies Emotions have long been underestimated in companies Here the author shows how managerial practices are connected to managing emotions whether it is at the level of decision-making conflict management or emotional contagion Her work highlights the important role of emotions in life
Foreword by Claude Berghmans xv
skills and the professional interactions that we observe in the daily life of our organizations Too long studied and perceived as a thinking machine employees are emotional beings who need to thrive and use the emotional potential that they possess in order to optimize their individual and collective performances within their organization Developing our emotional intelligence to optimize our managerial practices is becoming a necessity at the start of the 21st Century where the dynamics of change are numerous and continue to accelerate The future of our companies will need colleagues who can consider a larger facet of our cognitive potential and base themselves on what optimal emotional management can contribute to our daily work Not accounting for emotions within companies is nonsensical From now on we must equip ourselves with solid and precise foundations for comprehension that allow practitioners in organizations to implement the use of this concept and provide pragmatic approaches that are adapted to the needs of organizations
This book offers a new vision of management where emotions play an important role at both the individual and collective levels Using a clear and didactic approach the author offers us the possibility of constructing a precise understanding of emotional management and its implications at the level of individual and collective management processes that are necessary to all successful organizations It is an innovative and indispensable tool for anyone who wishes to reflect on the matter and optimize the management practices of their companies in order to equip themselves with tools and especially specific frameworks that underscore the necessity of developing the emotional aspects of our modes of management that often still respond to the cold logic of past organizational models The consideration of emotions in our managerial practices is now a necessity for responding to todayrsquos growing performance requirements
Claude BERGHMANS HR Manager
Eurofoil Luxembourg SA
Preface
Management is in the process of restructuring In an era of remote collaborative work (where cooperation is both inter-cultural and asynchronous) the social responsibility of companies (where a collaboration is envisioned between the stakeholders in a company) and uberization (where every person becomes their own employer subject to the opinions of clients and harsh market forces) the management of people in the workplace requires some adjustment in order to consider the neurological psychological and psychobiological aspects of human beings in both their ways of managing and of being managed and in the consequences of their management for themselves and others Faced with technologies management must rediscover its humanity to secure its position This expression of the ldquohumanizationrdquo of the human is based on the fact that in companies until now humans have only very rarely and exceptionally been considered as a whole often they were considered to be only robots (bodies) brains (heads) and above all beings without emotions which are often viewed as sentimentality at work (hearts) However the soft skills that are so sought-after in management today are based on a combination of these three pillars
The many behavioral issues and reactions of a group which often explain the failure or success of a given project depend on this consideration and a holistic understanding of the human at work This necessity is all the more fundamental because the current problem is
xviii The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
part of a radical change in our society with no one arguing the need for a new economic paradigm The new order of the economy in the making prompts us to change the reasoning and model of human relations
Driven by social networks and societal economic and environmental evolutions human relations are led to change Here one element takes a position that was unexpected until now disrupting several accepted meanings the heart
ldquoThe increase in hearts in the production process will shake up companies and society1 [hellip] The power of the heart the capacity to work together to establish trust beyond a simple transactionrdquo becomes an essential commodity in the economy that lies ahead in the coming years ldquoWe have reached a time when the rational manager model and its basic premise the rational actor are exhaustedrdquo explained Chanlat [CHA 03] in 2003 in his article ldquoEacutemotions organisation et management une critique sur la notion drsquointelligence eacutemotionnellerdquo in the journal Travailler
Although the term ldquomanagementrdquo was originally used to indicate a way to ride a horse (managere to guide by hand) the emotional aspect has long been removed from it However horse riding is renowned for a specific feature the respect of the animal and of the humanndashanimal relationship This situation is related to the confrontation between emotion and rationality Philosophers have often extolled the virtues of rationality through for example Descartesrsquo famous phrase ldquoI think therefore I amrdquo [DEC 37] Emotion was therefore perceived as a deviance Yet thanks to the developments and advancements of research the place of emotion in management is becoming increasingly clear and verified Its role as a relational decisional tool even as a support for rationality has granted it an important place in the development of decision-making and collaborative work software tools If software makes it possible to follow an entirely ldquorationalrdquo logic managers and their teams need
1 For more details see httpswwwlesechosfridees-debatseditos-analyses0216206 97193-quand-les-entreprises-embaucheront-des-coeurs-1192532phpdOb8GWQrZ m5v90vD99
Preface xix
human contacts to decide collaborate innovatehellip Without privileging the new types of practices of a future increasingly digital management this book seeks to show that emotion is already present at all of these levels In addition the new practices already seem to be driving forces that will accelerate the different processes established and amplify emotional relationships To understand the emerging management it is essential to understand todayrsquos management through this aspect that is too often ignored even rejected despite being an explanatory factor in many problems
To do this by discussing emo-management and the management of people this text seeks to show how management is already predominantly composed of what we call ldquoe-motionsrdquo to emphasize their etymological significance put into motion It is a question of testing describing and illustrating the connections between management practices and psychological sociological and neurological components of e-motion Therefore its objective is to understand how emotion with its three pillars that are already in place can become essential in the future In a context where collaborative work is increasingly happening remotely supported by software tools management becomes a true tool of group coaching mediating instructing and a factor of managerial innovation According to a great deal of research in this type of collaboration of social responsibility a group needs a physical marker to avoid chaos and ensure that it performs well This is the future role of the manager that is emerging Through two elements the management of individuals and the management of a group this book describes the intervention of e-motion at each level from the client relationship to group management passing through the process approach and individual and collective decision-making
The body of this text reveals the presence of two factors playing on paradoxes e-motion and its contagion At the individual level e-motion supports the good relationships but can also be the source of bad relationships especially when it is inauthentic E-motion both encourages well-being and yet can provoke health problems It supports decision-making but it can demonstrate a decisional bias At the collective level it can help with collaborative work and also play
xx The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
a central role in amplifying group idiosyncrasies (jealousy for example) Its contagion is also at the origin of genuine positive competition in the group and genuine collective self-destruction Management cannot escape these dimensions Faced with a future of homo collectivum where the social aspect is central emo-management assumes its full importance
Delphine VAN HOOREBEKE May 2018
Introduction
ldquoAnyone who uses violence knocks over beer or pronounces offensive language will be reprimandedhelliprdquo states the French register of the association of baker apprentices in 1904 In 2012 the baker apprentice handbook1 specifies ldquoProfessional attitudes and behaviors punctuality personal hygiene [hellip] sense of responsibilities industriousness teamwork attention to detailhelliprdquo The management of workplace behavior is not new and it has evolved a great deal If at the start the goal was to avoid intense emotions we now find more moderate terms Have they become independent of all emotion
If in the Middle Ages lower class gatherings were dominated by rowdiness and confusion whilst the behavior of the elite in the European courts was restrained and refined [ELI 94] In the 15th and 16th Centuries emerging associations of merchants and artisans attempted to regulate mutual interactions Among the regulations established by these associations we find the foundations of our current meeting procedures In the 17th Century a Spanish priest [GRA 05a] developed strategic refinement The advice that his book Oraculo manual y arte de prudencia (The Art of Worldly Wisdom) [GRA 05a] offers does not only recommend specific rules of behavior
1 Available online at httpcsmocaorgpdfcarnetapprentissageboulangerjuin 2012pdf
xxii The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
but also outlines the goal of developing a position of power In this book we find an undeniable emotional aspect
ndash ldquoThe passions are the gates of the soul The most practical knowledge consists of disguising themrdquo (p 98)
ndash ldquoDo and be seen doing Things do not pass for what they are but for what they seem To be of use and to know how to show yourself of use is to be twice as usefulrdquo (p 130)
ndash ldquoThe art of getting into a passion [hellip] The first step towards getting into a passion is to announce that you are in a passion By this means you begin the conflict with command over your temper for one has to regulate onersquos passion to the exact point that it is necessary and no further This is the art of arts in falling into and getting out of a ragerdquo (p 155)
ndash ldquoDo not pass for a Hypocrite [hellip] Sincerity should not degenerate into simplicity nor sagacity into cunningrdquo (p 219)
ndash ldquoAnticipate injuries and turn them into Favors [hellip] for he leaves no time for injuries that fills it up with gratituderdquo (p 259)
These different premises form the foundation of contemporary rules of conduct This advice is very indicative of the place of emotions and the management that they require in order not to fall into non-conformity Today at the intersection of production policies business collaborative work and uberization more and more individuals in our society have adopted them
This has not always been the case In the first industrial organizations only the directors of companies and their immediate environment enjoyed this type of consideration The employees were required to follow rules that notably resembled those of the registers of associations in the 15th Century Today the image of the organization as a pyramid of command and control is no longer compatible with the modern design of the company that is increasingly turning toward units in a network Exchange and horizontal coordination are in order Employees must have the ability to cooperate calmly and to adjust their behavior upon request In this
Introduction xxiii
context hierarchical conduct of superiority becomes incompatible Expressing a robust confidence keeping onersquos composure and directing others strategically are no longer the issue Interdependency requires reducing modeled behaviors and increasing more informal mannerisms These informal mannerisms require interlocutors to test themselves and test the other person in the relationship Because of this the individual must only rely on their own judgment and manage their own emotions [ELI 94]
To simplify two types of emotions appear in companies negative and positive Concerning the negative emotions jealousy disappointment anger gossip and power struggles constantly occupy individuals at work According to the website of Thibodeau2 a human resources consultant an emotion is a tool to reach a previously decided goal ldquoYou should not use a screwdriver if you want to drive in some nails you should choose a hammerrdquo According to this author the same thing applies to emotions Certain emotions seek to control others in order to obtain something For example people use anger as a way to get others to obey them Others use hate to get back at someonehellip Does this work Not always and when it does the results are only temporary In the medium- and long-term the use of anger grudges resentment criticism blame intimidation threats shaming and other emotions of the same type to manipulate or control others or to get something from them degenerates into major conflicts and sometimes a distressing failure Other emotions can plague us and prevent us from getting what we want They are presented in the form of fears that can generate various blockages
However there are also emotions like enthusiasm joy love passion and pleasure These emotions facilitate good relationships with others The rationalization of interaction in our modern organizations calls for taking charge managing the ldquoirrationalityrdquo of emotions and notably the so-called ldquonegativerdquo emotions Employees are encouraged to seek to express themselves authentically They learn to be more direct and also more respectful and flexible as evidenced
2 Available online at http wwwpsycho-ressourcesombibliemotions-et-croya nceshtml
xxiv The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
by articles found in the mainstream press In the French newspaper Les Eacutechos an article called ldquoLes eacutemotions dans lrsquoentrepriserdquo [BAT 02] tells us ldquoThe hour no longer belongs to the docile employee who is never responsible or guiltyrdquo The difficulty of managing emotions that are considered negative often leads to greater stress For Arriveacute [ARR 01] not expressing anything aside from the suffering that this conduct induces cuts us off from all real relationships and creates aggressive attitudes related to the frustration The most destructive ways of reducing this stress such as gossip insinuations cynicism paranoia and disagreements can drive the organization to a breaking point The pressure of growing interdependencies and the capacity to manage it are so precarious that a dynamic of increasing friction is very likely to develop For proof an article in the French newspaper Libeacuteration entitled ldquoDeacutemunis face aux tensionsrdquo [DAU 99] features an interview with the sociologist Vincent Dubois [DUB 08] who recounts the case of tellers for family allowance funds in his book La vie au guichet ldquoI have seen agents break down on several occasions they let themselves boil over they are no longer able to separate the personal from the professional [hellip] All this creates tensions and an uncomfortable situationrdquo (p 3) Humans must be able to manage this type of situation that they may encounter to overcome this frustration They must be able to express themselves and liberate their emotions
Faced with this first shift managers are not spared either Now they must decide on a rational and optimal way of managing their emotions and those of others by demonstrating emotional intelligence showing that they are responsible and ensuring well-being This has become so important that in the article ldquoThe happiness machine how Google became such a great place to workrdquo (2013) Farhad Manjoo wrote ldquo[hellip] there was the happiness problem Google monitors its employeesrsquo well-being to a degree that can seem absurd to those who work outside Mountain Viewrdquo [MAN 13] Yet if the concept of emotion evokes something for everyone then we must be able to understand it and pinpoint it even more so when it comes to managers This is what we hope to accomplish with this book understanding this kind of ldquoliving beingrdquo in order to manage more responsibly
Introduction xxv
In fact currently and parallel to an exacerbated collectivism accountability emerges The organization and its management modify their vision of things their way of operating and gain responsibility A change in how they operate or how they view their operations In this context managing in contemporary companies requires specific skills that make it possible to
1) create rapport that is based on a common identity
2) generate a social cohesion between different talents in the company
3) but also make good decisions very quickly
4) establish well-being in the workplace
5) secure the acceptance of changes that are indispensable for the flexibility of the organization faced with a market that is constantly evolving
6) be accountable
In our view future management depends on a collective intelligence a governance a responsible dimension that considers people in the workplace (managers and employees) to be an overall entity one complete and complex being that is both cognitive and intuitive physical and emotional
At this level the complexity of management takes on its full meaning To ensure a thoughtful integration of the new management on the horizon for companies the latter must consider people in the workplace in all their complexity This leads us to move beyond the studies that have already been conducted for more than 20 years to move past divisions and to show that management should be considered holistically In our opinion the current management on the ground has an unfortunate tendency to limit itself by acting on elements that are too specific Far be it from us to say that points of detail should be neglected but they remain restrictive Acting on an ad hoc basis is more conducive to being reactive than proactive Emo-management advocates understanding the quality of life the quality of human relations the quality of work relations and the quality of choices made
xxvi The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
The other particularity of emo-management is that it takes into consideration the stakeholders in the company These stakeholders are not restricted to only contractual parties but constitute a much larger set including ldquoany group or individual that can affect or be affected by the decisions and the realization of an organizationrsquos objectivesrdquo [FRE 84 p 48] and that ldquovoluntarily or involuntarily assumes a risk because of the companyrdquo [CLA 95] In the context of these theories the sought-after rule is cooperative balance [CAP 07] This means that the success of a strategy requires considering the interests of all stakeholders as emphasized by Jones and Wicks [JON 99] in order to be effective [FRE 99] However Vatteville [VAT 03] underscored the difficulty of governing stakeholders because they often have different or even competing objectives As noted by Capron and Quairel-Lanoizeleacutee [CAP 07] the issues at stake require implementing mediation and compromises that satisfy the majority of the parties concerned The new managerial rules based on collectivism (the search for a quantitative and qualitative collective wealth) [ASS 09] once again assign great importance to e-motion
To unlock the mysteries of this new and more complex vision of management which aims to manage a variety of stakeholders and an increase in individual interests using collective intelligence it is indispensable to conduct a study and analysis of human behavior through emotions which are seen as a natural biological psycho-cognitive psycho-sociological and neurological element
Historically after even the idea of the existence of emotions in animals had been rejected by scientific research Charles Darwin the founder of the theory of evolution in 1872 defined emotion as the ability of the living organism to adapt and survive He saw it as innate universal and communicative It is only in the last 20 years that emotions have been studied in social contexts In fact not long ago there was still a concerted effort in psychology to dismiss emotion from research emotions were considered ldquoan unscientific concept characterized by subjectivismrdquo [LAZ 91] an epiphenomenon From a behavioral point of view emotion was ultimately perceived as a
Introduction xxvii
ldquomotivatorrdquo something that influences the choice of an individual in response to an internal or external stimulus It is recognized that an emotion exists in both the personal and individual dimensions of a person It forms this ability to adapt and change a link that establishes our relationships and allows us to interact with the other Recent studies (in particular the many studies by OrsquoRegan in the 2000s) in cognitive research have demonstrated that emotions are a combination of several biochemical sociocultural and neurological factors They are translated by specific reactions motor (muscle tone shaking etc) behavioral (inability to move agitation escape aggression etc) and physiological (pallor flushing pulse acceleration palpitations sense of discomfort etc) These have become integral parts of human beings and their daily life Everyone manages their emotions daily and in doing so as noted by Hochschild [HOC 83] the management of emotions becomes a dominant aspect of social life with a capital ldquoSrdquo Emotions are at present considered to be a central concept and theories have multiplied As proof many disciplines study emotions The life sciences study the role of emotions in mental processes disorders and neural mechanisms such as psychiatry and psychology and also linguistics and education (concerning the role of emotions in learning) The social sciences often examine emotions for the role that they play in human culture and social interactions through anthropology ethology criminology law political science communication philosophy and even history where the discipline examines documents and other sources to interpret and analyze activities in the past and speculate about the emotional state of the authors of historical documents as a tool of interpretation In addition two facets of research that could seem contradictory to the irrational aspect attributed to emotions have been developed In the field of economics micro-economics examines production distribution and the consumption of goods and services in order to evaluate the role of emotions in the perception of decision-making and purchasing risk In the field that this text belongs to management science the intervention of emotions in companies is studied in the decisions of directors the behavior of employees and even customers
xxviii The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
The enthusiasm for emotions in these varied types of research corroborates the interest in their study in all areas of life including at work and in people management Supporting our position McAllister [MCA 95] explained that research in management recognizes that a large part of managerial work is accomplished through interpersonal interaction and that the nature of the relations between managers and their peers can determine their capacity to accomplish their work In this sense in its biological neurological and psychological aspects the contribution of emotion to modern management in daily life seems undeniable However at a time when work is becoming increasingly collaborative when we ask managers to listen to colleagues to show humility to know how to recognize their errors and to demonstrate empathy and when research on the subject is extensive and has been for several years now [ASH 17] can we consider that management can and must contemplate their intervention in a more in-depth way To answer this question after establishing a quick synopsis of the original definitions and concepts of emotion the goal is to show the role of emotions in decision-making change management authority and social relations between and within companies through a theoretical analysis and review of recent literature in management neurology and psychology
Starting from its original definition the term ldquomanagementrdquo comes from the French word ldquomeacutenagementrdquo borrowed by the English and later reintroduced into French in a somewhat modified form It is commonly defined by consensus as a set of techniques aiming to optimize the use of resources in an organization (company administration or even association) in order to realize an objective Based on these origins the management of teams and resources requires a capacity to know how to handle them (as in the adage ldquoslow and steady wins the racerdquo) According to Le Littreacute the term ldquomanagementrdquo describes this discipline as an art ldquothe art of directing steering handling motivatinghellip even the action of regulating effectively administering wellrdquo The history of management shows both the novelty of the discipline and the rapid evolution of mentalities in this area from Taylor with his scientific organization of
Introduction xxix
labor that was attuned to precision and rationality passing through Fayol with his functional approach to a management that was predictive organizing decisive coordinating and controlling to Weber with what some call the ldquotechno-scientific knowledgerdquo in management sciences knowledge resulting from combinations of different areas of research to improve the organization
Management (managing by hand) and ldquoemo-managementrdquo (managing emotions) Guiding by hand and managing emotions are two systems that may seem incompatible However the management of a horse by hand presumes trust from the animal Managing the emotions of a human presumes trust and an art of action and behavior
In its historical context management has undergone several theoretical and practical advancements in every area related to it and notably recently in terms of the social responsibility of companies ethics and governance In this regard Lewin [LEW 51] introduced the individual actor at the center of the organization by showing that a grouprsquos behavior is prompted by the manager According to Mercier [MER 99] managers have social influence and determine the spirit and values of companies a term that is commonly used in management [FRA 10] and their actions serve as a reference for the desired conduct The ethics of managers also have a direct influence on workplace behaviors according to Hiregravech3 Through interpersonal trust created by the perception of the ethical behavior of a manager and procedural justice a concept that encourages the assessment of manager ethics the employee will develop organizational citizenship
We believe that emo-management is inherently connected to the ldquointelligentrdquo understanding integration and regulation of emotions and this is what this text suggests Whether it is at the individual or collective level management cannot simply withdraw and omit emotions since they are an integral part of what humans do in all areas of life After establishing a description of what emotion is to
3 Available online at httpsbasepubdauphinefrbitstreamhandle1234567892883 Hireche_Loreapdfsequence=2
xxx The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
complete our demonstration we will consider Le Littreacutersquos definition of management broken down into two parts the individual level and the collective level
In these parts several management approaches are described based on the intervention of emotions
ndash The first approach concerns ldquocustomer focusrdquo or the art of establishing an authentic relationship with clients it has one principle efficient client relations Companies depend on their clients and count on their managers to lead a team that will take good care of them It is therefore important that its members understand their present and future needs meet their demands and strive to exceed their expectations To reach this goal the customer focus must be experienced and authentic Customer relations can be subject to organizational and occupational standards which can lead to emotional cognitive or conative dissonances The objective is through a literal analysis of a rating scale of these dissonances to attempt to limit them and in doing so minimize their negative effects such as ldquoinappropriaterdquo and inauthentic behavior that should be avoided in customer relations and causes distrust in the relationship This objective can in this context prove to be an invaluable aid for management
ndash The second approach ldquothe art of motivating commitment and satisfactionrdquo indicates that some studies have shown or demonstrated the interrelations between commitment and emotion in the workplace In this sense effective and intentional commitment cannot anchor certain practices within a company if it is imposed inhibited falsified or simulated
ndash The third approach ldquothe art of administering well the process approach a sustainable and proactive methodrdquo describes the process of creating workplace behaviors The description of this process based on a global approach (biological psychological cognitive and emotional) encourages managers to consider how they themselves function internally as well as how their colleagues operate and indicates existing management mechanisms to them
Introduction xxxi
ndash The fourth approach is based on ldquothe art of assessing workplace health and safety well-being at workrdquo It must be considered that responsible management cannot overlook the consideration of health and safety in the workplace This section describes the emotional aspect and its biological effects related to psychosocial risks at work
ndash The fifth approach concerns ldquothe factual approach for effective decision-making understanding the irrational decision processrdquo This approach develops in detail the process of decision-making elaborated by Berthoz [BER 03] and Damasio [DAM 94] This biological process describes the impact of emotions and the limbic system on decision-making in neurological terms In our view knowledge of how this works is more than essential for management to integrate the systems and factors that lead to a good or bad decision in its individual or collective aspects
ndash The sixth approach describes ldquothe art of leading authentic leadership and emotional intelligencerdquo This shows that leadership which can lead to responsible management according to Le Bas [LEB 04] is generated by authentic expression Studies on the subject go so far as to demonstrate that even anger when appropriate and expressed according to certain rules of decorum corresponds to an expectation of employees
ndash The seventh approach ldquothe art of reconciling the present to the future a pure principle of continuous improvementrdquo highlights the acceptance of change necessary for prospective actions and the continuity of the company which is compelled to adapt to market developments and imposed standards In this regard employees play a crucial role with their acceptance of change The latter depends on a connection of established and lasting trust to avoid having to confront conflicts refusals and resistance (voluntary or not) to the process of change implemented
ndash The eighth approach indicates that management is the art of bringing people together based on one principle mutually beneficial relations with others The art of bringing people together cannot happen without a leaderrsquos charisma Nevertheless in addition to this
xxxii The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
important factor this section presents the role of contagion and the contagious aspect of one or more individuals leading the group team or meeting whether it consists of colleagues suppliers clients or any other stakeholder An organization and its suppliers are interdependent and mutually beneficial relations increase joint capacities to create value Contagion cannot be established without a relationship of trust like the effect that a crowd movement can have on social interaction group cohesion cooperative exchanges and social inclusion or isolation
ndash The ninth approach ldquothe art of managing diversity learning and creating collectivelyrdquo highlights the effect of insights and emotions on activities for groups with multiple diversities Diversity is no longer sought in a single logic of equality but also in a logic of learning about difference and performance Managing diversity requires not only managing cognitive conflicts but also and especially more complex affective conflicts In this regard positive emotional contagion can prove to be a mechanism for cohesion and collective learning regardless of the heterogeneity and diversity of individuals and encourage performance
ndash The final approach focuses on a point that recurs in the other approaches emotional contagion a critical point of a group contagion a new collective ldquointelligencerdquo management tool Like the effect that a strike can have on social cohesion and cooperation contagion is present at all levels of the company internally and externally This can foster support as much as defiance conflict and dissolution Contagion resulting from emotion is purely innate to human beings As social beings since our origins we often seek activity in groups imitate our peers through mimicry to affirm our belonging and our real desire and ability to act like others The objective is not to be marginalized or excluded from the group
As specified earlier these different approaches are divided into two large sections managing individuals and managing a collective The future of management is no longer in individualism but in the collective and so particular emphasis is placed on the collective
Introduction xxxiii
Paradoxically on this point this text is in agreement with Descartes famous for his phrase ldquocogito ergo sumrdquo According to him the individual can be considered as a means to assess individual talents to construct a viable collective organization a social intelligence In 1649 in his book The Passions of the Soul he wrote the following in article 156 [DES 49]
ldquoThose who are Generous in this way are naturally inclined to do great things and yet to undertake nothing they do not feel themselves capable of And because they esteem nothing more highly than doing good to other men and for this reason scorning their own interest they are always perfectly courteous affable and of service to everyone And along with this they are entirely masters of their Passions ndash particularly Desires Jealousy and Envy because there is nothing whose acquisition does not depend on them which they think is worth enough to deserve being greatly wished forrdquo4
In fact to ensure efficient lasting and responsible collective management individuals cannot be considered as single entities in a group They are in this book at all times perceived as a distinctive being equipped with reason and emotion In a collective individuals must be able to obtain personal recognition and self-esteem fulfill their own needs and feel satisfied about being committed in a continuous fashion in their company and its projects It is notably this paradox of collectivismindividualism that makes this new vision of management sophisticated especially when we understand that it is based on a non-negligible emotional aspect emo-management
4 Translation taken from the 1989 English edition translated by Stephen Voss and published by Hackett Publishing Company
1
Emotion
11 Emotion a complex concept
Mr Baume just got a telephone call from a dishonest customer He hung up in anger and left to smoke a cigarette A commercial manager must not show his emotions Ms Nathaly is thrilled about her performance She thinks she will get a bonus Can she show her joy Some people will be happy for her but others will be disappointed that they did not do as well These are specific examples of emotions in companies Why are they so complex to manage
First to understand them well a detailed definition of the term ldquoemotionrdquo is necessary This immediately poses a problem however as emotion remains a notion that is vague and difficult to define [ALV 02] because it is idiosyncratic that is specific and unique to each individual creating several definitions and roles Etymologically speaking emotion comes from the Latin ex (exterior) and movere (motion movement) In his book Esquisse drsquoune theacuteorie des eacutemotions (Sketch for a Theory of the Emotions) Sartre [SAR 38 p 62] defines emotion as ldquoan abrupt drop of consciousness into magic We have seen how during an emotion the consciousness abases itself and abruptly transmutes the determinist work in which we live into a magical worldrdquo1 This idea of a magical world shows
1 Translation taken from the 1994 English edition translated by Philip Mairet and published by Routledge
The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management First Edition Delphine van Hoorebeke copy ISTE Ltd 2018 Published by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley amp Sons Inc
2 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
how closely tied emotions are to a spiritual realm that is difficult to discern
Emotions have in fact been categorized by several studies For example Shaver et al [SHA 87] established a hierarchical typology on a sample of 213 students starting from Averillrsquos [AVE 75] A Semantic Atlas of Emotional Concepts which contains 558 words with emotional connotations At the base of this typology they define five or six basic categories of emotions love joy surprise anger sadness and fear
Emotion is also distinguished from other concepts like mood and impression by several differentiating criteria although Ledoux [LED 98] and Damasio [DAM 94] do not agree on the subject One advocates for similarity and the other for differentiation
We will base this section on the writings of Derbaix [DER 87] which are more widely accepted According to him the affective includes emotions impressions humors [DER 87] and motivations [BAT 86] Derbaix and Pham [DER 89] distinguished these seven affective types through the intermediary of
1) the degree of specificity of the intended target or the stimulus provoking the reaction (emotion unlike preference depends more on the person than the stimulus)
2) the somatic and autonomic intensity (emotions are more intense than mood and are associated with a higher level of alertness)
3) the frequency of somatic and autonomic experiences (emotions are always accompanied by such experiences)
4) durability (feelings are more lasting than emotions)
5) the desire to control a facial or bodily expression the possibility of controlling the expression (an emotion is more difficult to control than a judgment)
6) the probability of a fundamental subjective experience (the probability of the awareness of emotions is high)
Emotion 3
7) the importance of cognitive antecedents and cognitive processes afterwards
Derbaix and Pham [DER 89] summarized several conceptions and organized emotion which they prefer to call ldquothe affectiverdquo into seven categories
1) Shock emotion (eg surprise) which is the most affective of reactions it translates into violent but brief psychological reactions such as laughter sobbing rage and neuro-vegetative phenomena palpitations tightness in the throat momentary paralysis even fainting as in fear
2) Impression emotion (eg pride) less anarchical more lasting and also spontaneous such as the aesthetic emotion produced by musical execution moral indignation at the spectacle of a revolting act etc
3) Mood [GAR 85] (eg melancholy) must be distinguished from emotion [FRA 94] because it is considered to be less severe more invasive and more ephemeral than felt emotions [BAT 86] In addition the psychological urgency of emotion its motivational potential and its situational specificity are comparatively greater [WES 91]
4) Temperament more related to the personality of the individual
5) Preference (eg the ranking of brands) also related to the personality of the individual
6) Attitude (eg an opinion)
7) Appreciation (eg evaluation of alternatives) corresponds to the most cognitive reaction
To this typology Vincent [VIN 86] added passion which has the primitive sense of ldquosufferingrdquo indicating a passive character as opposed to the notion of movement in emotions ldquoguided actionsrdquo It is defined as a ldquoviolent state of feelings that bring us toward another person (passionate love) or toward another object that consumes our mind (passion for gambling for example)rdquo (p 19)
4 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
Plutchik [PLU 80] established a circumplex model of emotions2 (Figure 11)
Figure 11 The wheel of emotions (source Plutchik [PLU 80]) For a color version of this figure see wwwistecoukvanhoorebekemanagementzip
Plutchikrsquos wheel of emotions has the advantage of displaying words that are easily comprehensible and distinguish the degree of the perception Although the words make it possible to discern the degree does their experimentation allow it as easily This is where Peter and Olson [PET 96] suggested distinguishing the emotion based on the
2 Available online at httpmassilia-coachingcomwp-contentuploads201310roue-des-eacutemotionspng
Emotion 5
degree of physiological excitation and the intensity of the perception (see Table 11)
Type of affective response
Degree of physiological
excitation
Intensity or strength of perception
Examples
Emotions Strong degree of
excitation and activation
Very strong Joy love fear
guilt anger
Specific perceptions
Appreciation satisfaction
warmth disgust sadness
Mood Alert relaxed
calm indifferent tired
Evaluations Weak degree of excitation and
activation Very weak
Good favorable appreciated bad
unfavorable
Table 11 Differentiation based on the degree of excitation (source Peter and Olson [PET 96 p 50])
These researchers concluded that emotions reflect psychological reactions and experiences They realized that an essential part of experiencing emotions is emotional expression through various forms of interpersonal communication In fact individuals are naturally inclined to share their emotions with others Even when these emotions are not intentionally communicated they are often revealed through spontaneous non-verbal manifestations that are difficult to manage In addition modern society has created a new role for emotional communication According to Stearns [STE 93 p 24] ldquothe importance of managing emotions through talking rather than active expression has become a dominant themerdquo3 When individuals fail to express a traumatic event verbally they fail to come to terms with it
3 Translation taken from the 3rd edition edited by Michael Lewis Jeannette M Haviland-Jones and Lisa Feldman Barret published in 2008 by The Guildford Press
6 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
12 Expression
Above we wondered about the perception of the degree of emotion felt based on the degree of excitation If discernment becomes more complex what about perception by others
These emotions depending on their degree of perception are in fact expressed Perhaps only specialists in psychology are able to identify micro-expressions (expressions so fleeting and tiny that they are difficult to distinguish) but apart from a few specific cases the majority of individuals are capable of identifying an emotion from its expression Ekman and Oster [EKM 79] studied this and noted that they are also universal Figure 12 shows some examples of expressions of ldquobasicrdquo emotions With expressions ranging from anger to joy passing through aggressiveness disapproval sadness regret and disappointment this image shows that some emotions are clearly more perceptible than others further complexifying their precise definition I leave it to you to try the exercise
Figure 12 Examples of facial expressions of emotions (source Ekman and Oster [EKM 79 p 77])
Emotion 7
Emotions can certainly exist outside of interpersonal interactions Looking at the sun can produce joy Hurting yourself can provoke anger Nevertheless these are most often exceptions to the rule More typically emotions result from social interactions [AND 96] According to Ekman and Oster [EKM 79] emotions result from social interactions whether they are real remembered anticipated or imagined Some are particularly socially dependent like jealousy shame guilt embarrassment and pride According to Laborit [LAB 94] the nervous system is used to acting but this action occurs in a space or spaces that contain objects and beings If the same space is occupied by other individuals each person seeks to find the means to please themselves and preserve a nervous balance which creates competition between the parties in question The objective is to dominate the other in order to have the pleasure of freely expressing your emotions
Because it reveals emotion expression can also represent a way of dealing with or ldquofacingrdquo a situation in the interest of adapting to the environment The emotional response is therefore used as a process of adjustment to the environment The adaptation corresponds to the individualrsquos search for balance in relation to his environment This balance is sought through an adjustment process in response to an event [JAM 89] Perception makes it possible to structure individual behaviors in a normal way to fit the circumstances Motivation directs them toward goals that are likely to obtain satisfaction for the individual Learning ensures the acquisition and modification of behavior to improve the personrsquos effectiveness in accomplishing projects and thriving in the environment
Discerning emotions can sometimes prove complex but the objective of the emotional response is not limited to communicating with others as we have seen It is also a tool of adaptation through the signals that it sends
8 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
13 An adjustment tool
According to McCrae [MCC 84] emotional response is an adjustment tool that follows a process
ndash confrontation (holding fast and fighting for what I want trying to find the person responsible to change his mind etc)
ndash detachment (continuing as if nothing happened not letting the problem affect me refusing to think too much about it etc)
ndash self-control (trying to keep my emotions to myself preventing others from learning how bad this problem is etc)
ndash seeking out social support (talking to someone who can do something concrete to solve the problem accepting someonersquos sympathy and understanding etc)
ndash accepting responsibility (self-criticizing or lecturing myself realizing that I created the problem etc)
ndash evasive action (wanting the situation to go away or to be rid of it in some way trying to make myself feel better by eating drinking smoking taking drugs or medication etc)
ndash planning the solution to the problem (knowing what must be done and increasing my efforts so that it works having an action plan and following it etc)
ndash positive re-evaluation (changing for the better or maturing finding a faith etc)
Andersen and Guerrero [AND 96] explained that every social rule of behavior leads to modifying the expression of spontaneous emotions to be socially normal through simulation inhibition intensification de-intensification or substitution
ndash simulation involves feigning an emotion when the individual does not really feel it
ndash inhibition or neutralization entails the inverse process of simulation giving the impression of not feeling any emotion while the individual really does feel an emotion
Emotion 9
ndash intensification or maximization makes it possible to pretend to feel an intense emotion without really experiencing it
ndash de-intensification or minimization follows the same process as intensification but to express a less intense emotion than what is felt
ndash substitution involves expressing a totally different emotion from the one actually experienced
The individual has the power to act on his emotions when they are not of too great an intensity [GOL 97] Based on interactionist theories Drever [DRE 52] described the emotional process followed to adapt in three elements First the strong impulse to act in a certain way such as attacking or expressing affection for someone Then a model of physical change paired with this inclination to act which is generally accompanied by a mobilization in the interest of a final adaptation
Scherer [SCH 94] described four components of the emotional experience as a result of the processes detailed above
ndash the cognitive component that refers to the interpretation of the event that caused the emotion or the stimulus and to all changes that resulted based on individual perceptions and beliefs
ndash the willingness to act that corresponds to the increase or decrease in the desire of the individual to act Frijda [FRI 86] considered that this willingness to act can result in expressing an emotion or controlling it
ndash sensations which correspond to the valence of the emotion that is the pleasurepain dimension caused by the emotion experienced
ndash the physiological change that corresponds to the increase or decrease in the level of excitation and physiological reactions like sweaty palms or blushing
It should be noted that the presence of only one of these components is not sufficient to identify an emotional experience
10 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
Earlier Burgoon [BUR 93] showed for example that physiological change is not synonymous with emotional experience as physiological changes can occur due to physical exercise increased attention or a false movement which are non-emotional stimuli Supporting this interactionist theory this procedural aspect is also perceived in neurology
14 A neurological system
I think therefore I amI tremble therefore I am afraid Emotion is not incompatible with cognition but at the cerebral level it follows a process and activates very specific regions Cultural heritage has long opposed cognition and emotion the brain and the mind Emotions were therefore reserved for the domain of psychology and mental illness [LOS 02]
For more than a century however we have eagerly searched for the cerebral structures that could be responsible for emotions According to Dale [DAL 47] this began with Walter Cannon who studied subjects who suffered from brain lesions incapable of feeling certain emotions He deduced that the hypothalamus was a cerebral center of emotions In 1937 the anatomist James Papez went further He showed that the emotions experienced were related to the action of a circuit relating the hypothalamus to the medial cortex In 1952 Paul MacLean used the expression ldquolimbic systemrdquo for the first time This term was introduced in 1861 by the French anatomist Paul Broca famous for the Brocarsquos area to designate the ring shape of the medial part of the cortex (from the Latin limbus edge) [MON 05] The limbic system designates the affective brain of the rhinencephalon (the most ancient part of the cortex) which is the locus of emotions According to MacLeanrsquos theory this system is integrated It includes the amygdala the septum and the prefrontal cortex
MacLeanrsquos theory may seem basic today The brain and its emotional areas have since been widely examined Several emotions have been studied with precision thanks to new medical technologies like MRIs
Emotion 11
The current idea is that each emotion corresponds to a cerebral network [LED 97] At present neurologists agree on recognizing the absence of a single locus of emotions like reason motor function vision or language There are ldquosystems of interrelationsrdquo between several cerebral units
Some results have made it possible to emphasize the important advancements that are usable and accessible in management In his theory from 1977 Ledoux showed that when information is emotional patients cannot describe the object but can say what they feel His theory indicated that emotion passes through different circuits He is particularly interested in the emotion of anger [GAZ 78] He wrote a book The Emotional Brain which describes how it functions in an accessible way
In the same way in 1994 Damasio [DAM 94] published one of his most famous books Descartesrsquo Error He explains his experience with the case of Phineas Gage deprived of emotions following a stroke The results of his analysis show that decision-making cannot occur without emotions
Far from wanting to detail the function of the brain ndash with its synapses its 100 billion neurons its glial cells4 that are 10ndash50 times more numerous than the neurons its zones its four ventricles its lobes5 its gray6 and white matter its myelin7 ndash one thing is certain emotions occupy a significant place in the system of cerebral interrelations They follow neuronal and then hormonal processes in order to influence the soma (body) From a more psychological point of view emotions are also described from the perspective of a system of adaptation to the environment deepening the process of adjustment described above
4 These cells surround the neurons represent about 50 of the brainrsquos volume and produce myelin 5 Frontal parietal occipital and temporal lobes 6 The most superficial part of the brain 7 Extension of neurons a sheath around the axons of neurons
12 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
15 A complex system
As we have seen emotions follow a process This process is complex on both the neurological and psychological levels and in addition to their utility as an adjustment tool they form a whole system of adaptation to the environment This is where Lazarus [LAZ 91] explained the process based on the emotional reactions that correspond to a process of adapting to the environment
1) Inclination toward action which is non-observable because it refers to impulses that may or not be active
2) Subjective emotional experiences (often considered affective) that are non-observable
3) Personndashenvironment relations a connection between two complex sub-systems the states resulting from these sub-systems are interpretive
4) Adjustment processes which are often experienced by actions or thoughts that probably influence emotions
5) Assessment processes constituting the center of the cognitive-motivational-relational theory of emotions Individuals gauge their emotions based on the goals that they pursue their relation to the environment and what they know to be good or bad for them
6) A frustration which is derived from the inability to follow the goals that the individual set and can lead to a blockage and aggression after various negative affective responses
Weiss and Cropanzano [WEI 96] illustrated this emotional process using the example of the process concerning happiness and sadness without considering this structure for all kinds of emotions (Figure 13)
Emotion 13
Figure 13 Process of assessment for happiness and sadness (source Weiss and Cropanzano [WEI 96 p 35])
The latter process shows the different steps that emotions cover to reach expression Through this process and the descriptions we can see that emotion does not act alone but in interconnection with cognition
16 Subject to dissonance and inhibition
Dissonance in opposition to consonance is a difference that can exist between two elements Festinger [FES 57] discussed cognitive dissonance to define the cognitive difference that can exist between what the individual knows and what they actually experience
14 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
Middleton [MID 89] and Hochschild [HOC 83] referred to emotional dissonance to define the difference that can exist between what is felt by the individual and what he knows he must express These two types of dissonance are seen as psychological states that are difficult to bear by the individual
Biological studies go even further To summarize this research described in more detail in section 24 (ldquoan art of ensuring health and safety in the workplacerdquo) conducted by Friedman and Booth-Kewley [FRI 87] Laborit [LAB 94] and Quirk and Beer [QUI 06] among others it is proven that inhibition corresponds to a resistance to respond to an increase in adrenaline This resistance provokes the secretion of hormones resulting from negative emotions This secretion repeated and accumulated over time can weaken some organs forced to repeat the response to hormonal messages that are being sent incessantly by the brain These hormones resulting from what we call e-motions (a biological process that sets in motion) intervene internally in the human body
17 Contagion
Hatfield et al [HAT 94] defined emotional contagion as an automatic unintentional and generally unrecognized tendency to imitate and synchronize facial expressions body movements and vocalizations during meetings with other individuals In addition when the same characteristics are synchronized with another individual we are capable of feeling them through the emotions of the other person that is feeling the same or complementary emotions This emotional contagion can lead to the crowd effects and mass hysteria described by Le Bon [LEB 63] Emotions can in fact be synchronized or imitated and become contagious The synchronization appears when two individuals express similar behaviors or when one person responds to the behavioral changes of the other by adopting the same behavioral changes [AND 96]
Emotion 15
Emotional contagion is a phenomenon that is both behavioral [HAT 94] and neurological [IAC 05] This contagion is influenced by three cognitive emotional and neurological processes (mirror neurons insular cortex of the brain and the cortex) Sometimes these three processes coincide but sometimes the central nervous system directly controls mimicking emotional contagion and empathy through mirror neurons [IAC 05] According to some researchers the transmission mechanism is cognitive and related to conscious reasoning analysis and imagination justified by this transmission close to empathy Individuals imagine what they would feel in the otherrsquos place (empathy) and thereby share their emotions Another theory involves imitation and feedback According to this mechanism
1) Individuals tend to imitate and synchronize their movements automatically and unconsciously to the facial expressions voices postures muscles rhythm and behavior of others
2) This imitation is dependent on all reactions from the other In this order the individual tends to seize upon the emotion of others in order to reach several objectives not being marginalized identifying with the other through contemplation attempting to feel what the other feels in a situation and detaching from the other Some people consider that mirror neurons play a role in human evolution They allow humans to reproduce consciously (imitation) or not (mimicry) and adapt to both the other emotions and the situation
It can also be perceived as negative Le Bonrsquos theory [LEB 63] described a mental contagion among individuals leading them to find a mental unity a single mode of thinking for a group of individuals Sometimes this mental contagion leads to collective hallucination In this context Le Bon cites the example of the Belle Poule frigate8 This boat was searching in daylight for a cruiser9 from which it had been separated by a storm When a ship
8 Small escort boat 9 High-seas escort ship
16 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
in distress was signaled the entire crew alarmed described a raft loaded with waving castaways In the end the raft was nothing but a mass of tree branches
In conclusion this chapter has made it possible to highlight the fact that emotion follows a complex process is distinguished from other concepts such as sentiment affect and mood varies depending on degrees is essentially expressed in a bodily way and is endowed with contagion However emotion has several factors that remain complex or even indiscernible This does not help its deep understanding and management Nevertheless although emotion in the workplace is not always considered favorably its presence is undeniable The individual cannot let go at work even if they can feign it At the collective level it is all the more significant especially since it acts as an adjustment tool within the construction or deconstruction of interindividual relations The next two chapters describe how emotion intervenes first in management at the individual level and then at the collective level Management viewed at the individual level cannot be totally separated from the relation to the other because the managerial world almost never allows for being alone or totally cutting oneself off from the other regardless of the profession accountant computer engineer etc Individuals must often regulate their emotions alone especially when they are in contact with clients as explained by Hochschild [HOC 83] It is at this time that the individuals must be able to self-regulate their emotions know how to understand them know what is expected of them and how they can harmful or on the contrary beneficial The role of management is in this case to set the frameworks while leaving a wide margin to maneuver to establish an authentic relationship all while striving to follow and enforce the established standards This is shown by the different descriptions of emotions in psychology research an emotionndashcognition balance Quite the paradox
Emotion 17
On the Website of the ManpowerGroup10 a temporary employment agency
we can read ldquoIn 1994 the neuropsychologist Antonio Damasio showed that
lsquohuman beings need emotions to make decisions when their futures are at stake
and particularly when they are uncertainhellip It is irrational to think that these
decisions are made rationallyrsquordquo11
An interview with Franccediloise Gri (President of ManpowerGroup for southern
Europe and Manpower France) is also presented on the site ldquoUsing emotions
effectively allows the company and its key players to succeed [They] can become
formidable performance drivers when they are personally assumed by the
manager and shared constructively with his colleaguesrdquo
Emotion to unite teams
Franccediloise Gri believes that regardless of their hierarchical level the key
players in a company ldquoknow how to use their emotions as performance drivers
with a desire to succeed and sharerdquo They know how to celebrate ldquoa teamrsquos
victory a complex project to convince a client with shared joy tears and shoutsrdquo
But accepting emotion ldquoalso means bearing the difficult momentsrdquo in front of
their teams
Listening and daring to confront
Within reason practically this consists of ldquoprompting an emotional state []
by questioning an interlocutor with tact and pertinence and listening to oneself
and the otherrdquo Listening to the other person does not only mean paying attention
to his words ndash because the body also expresses emotions It also means venturing
to confront the other person when necessary However it is important to know
how to use emotion with discretion ldquoThere is no need for emotion everywhere
Find a balance Everything in moderationrdquo
Sharing emotions a ldquotipping pointrdquo
The article underscores that ldquosharing emotions can become a tipping point a
pertinent driving force uniting simplicity and emotionrdquo
Case Study 11 Specific example of considering emotion in companies
10 Available online at httpwwwmanpowergroupfrlemotion-au-service-du-management 11 Translation from the French
2
Managing Individuals
Managing individuals well involves not only knowing how to listen to them but also being able to understand them Lacking expertise in psychology managers must demonstrate empathy be sincere establish trust identify any seeds of discontent in the workplace and decide wisely There is a solution to mitigate the lack of psychological expertise understanding onersquos own functioning in order to be better able to understand the other person Chapter 1 showed how many studies notably in psychology have had difficulty in completely identifying emotions and the number of roles they can have especially in the many processes of adjusting and adapting to the environment These elements are assets for managers and their teams but it is still necessary to use the right tools and implement the right mechanisms With this in mind this chapter sets out to address individual management under the aegis of Le Littreacute and the different arts that make up management The art of managing customer focus motivating administering well ensuring health and safety and decision-making is depicted based on the role played by e-motions For a deeper understanding the three pillars (psychological sociological and neurological) are considered
21 The art of managing customer focus the relations dependent on monitoring and margins to maneuver
Organizations depend on their clients and so it is important that they understand their present and future needs satisfy their
The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management First Edition Delphine van Hoorebeke copy ISTE Ltd 2018 Published by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley amp Sons Inc
20 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
requirements and endeavor to go above and beyond their expectations Today in order to ensure that good quality service is provided to the customer base organizations train new employees after a period of socialization that teaches the rules and customs The existence of implicit or explicit behavioral norms caused Sutton and Rafaeli [SUT 90] to argue that employees are compelled by the hierarchy to express ldquonormative emotionsrdquo that help employees to gain control over others in a way that promotes the objectives of the organization [SUT 91]
In this respect the measure of the effectiveness of organizational behavioral norms cannot be limited to the strict adherence of the employees to formal rules of workplace behavior In fact employees must not only follow these rules but also other informal norms like the organizationrsquos values In addition the demands of the company and its management regarding contact with the customer go further than simply following the norms It requires authenticity in the behaviors expressed to the customer However this authenticity cannot exist without adhering to the norms and emotional perception [VAN 08b] Human behavior inevitably derives from experiencing emotions When employees do not feel this emotion but know that they should feel it to respond to the norms they simulate it like an actor wearing a mask or modify their emotion Research in the domain of emotions in the workplace calls this ldquosurface acting and deep actingrdquo [HOC 83] According to this author surface acting consists of feigning and wearing a mask while deep acting corresponds to expressing what the individual feels In the second case the individual conducts a ldquodeeprdquo work to try to perceive what he must express according to the norm According to Hochschild the first emotion felt really can be modified
The next problem posed for management concerns the effectiveness of the norms taught Are they accepted by the employees meaning will they be respected Could they be the cause of an ldquoabnormalrdquo or ldquoinappropriaterdquo behavior for the situation of a real inauthenticity (perceived by the customer) and of various negative consequences The act of imposing organizational norms can lead to an undeniable and unavoidable robotization when the
Managing Individuals 21
employee is forced to repeat this ldquoemotional laborrdquo in a redundant and incessant way [HOC 83] The employee rendered inauthentic experiences a dissonance which is intolerable over the long term
To manage this problem the first step is to take stock of the norms imposed at work and then list their probable negative consequences for the organization Then a tool can be used to manage them measuring the effectiveness of the norms in the context of a quest for authenticity and sincerity According to the philosopher Sartre [SAR 38] authenticity surpasses sincerity and is morally superior to it For Taylor the ideal of an individualrsquos authenticity supposes that he expresses beyond all social conformity his ldquointerior truthrdquo to which he must be faithful
211 Organizational norms
Rafaeli and Sutton [RAF 89] outline the existence of two types of behavioral norms that employees must follow at work These are in addition to societal norms that all individuals follow in private life occupational norms related to the role held by the individual and organizational norms unique to each company
ndash The first type corresponds logically to the expectations of the customer Rafaeli and Sutton [RAF 89] cite the example of bailiffs and bouncers who are paid to express hostility while undertakers must express sadness In contrast the expression of kindness and a positive attitude is expected for service jobs such as servers and salespeople They add that other roles call for suppressing emotion for example the Budget Minister must express neutrality especially when announcing the annual budget
ndash Organizational norms specify the companyrsquos expectations in matters of conduct based on the culture of the company They are sometimes disseminated through the book (the bible) in which they make reference to moral values
ndash Occupational norms are directly related to the position occupied and the behaviors that this position requires According to Rafaeli and Sutton [RAF 89] occupational and organizational norms are the primary influences on the expression of emotions at work The authors
22 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
do not separate them in their article claiming their difficult distinction They provide the example of doctors who must learn professional maintenance during their studies in medicine and must express this maintenance in the different hospitals where they practice In our view this example typically describes an occupational norm because it does not differ depending on the hospitals and instead depends on the role held
A study [VAN 08c] analyzes the impact of three levers (two preventative and one curative) that could make it possible to facilitate emotional labor (uniforms scripts and emotionalized areas) The results establish a significant relationship between the item ldquostarting to feel joy if we pretend to be happy when we help clientsrdquo and the variable ldquopresence of a formal normrdquo (script) This link indicates not only that the fact of imposing behavioral norms can lead to feeling them as Hochschild [HOC 83] indicates but also offers a crucial element to ensure the leverage effect described above the fact of conducting emotional labor leads to emotional experience The quantitative results of the analysis also indicate that uniforms have a greater impact on surface acting than on deep acting They also show that if norms do not have a significant impact on the emotional labor of surface acting they do have a direct and significant connection with deep acting
A second study was conducted by analyzing the content of a dress code at an international bank operating in Switzerland This dress code stirred up multiple controversies due to certain things that it demanded of employees it went so far as to specify the undergarments that the staff must wear
Combined with the qualitative data these results support normalizing emotions in the workplace to allow employees to feel the emotion expressed This result supports Hochschildrsquos text [HOC 83] about the internal regulation of emotions experienced based on the emotions expressed Despite this as our results show the process of passing from appearance to feeling which can reinforce the feeling of ldquowell-beingrdquo hoped for by the company regarding the authenticity of the behaviors expressed is not systematic if normalization is too implicit Here are a few examples verbatim ldquoyou will feel better and improve your performance at workrdquo ldquothere are established connections between following this guide and lsquowell-beingrsquo at workrdquo ldquo[following this guide is] essential for pleasing others and yourself and also contributes decisively to your well-beingrdquo ldquofor aesthetic and hygienic reasons as well as for questions of general well-beingrdquo and ldquoan impeccable appearance can prompt inner peace and a feeling of securityrdquo
This is prescribed emotion as described by Ashforth and Humphrey [ASH 95] and critiqued by Watzlawick [WAT 80] for paradoxical injunctions like ldquobe spontaneousrdquo
Managing Individuals 23
The results obtained by these two interrelated analyses indicate that the managerial
levers put in place are not sufficient to ensure the expected emotional labor
influencing customer satisfaction nor even to guarantee the positive image of the
company The case studied is typical It shows that the company benefitted from a
great deal of publicity and articles about its approach to dress codes Nevertheless
international articles were very critical of the gesture made by the company even if
it was conducted totally legally What created the buzz was one detail of the dress
code requiring cream-colored undergarments This detail is a distinctive element of
the very directive aspect of the dress code described by this Swiss bank as a factor
in better performance Despite the efforts of the latter to indicate the recommended
or suggested nature of the guide it is significant that this variable seems far from
being sufficient to ensure authentic customer contact as a result of commitment and
a factor in customer satisfaction1
Case Study 21 Analysis of an internal dress code document
212 Dissonances
This type of managerial practice can cause a dissonance to appear between the inhibitory normalization of emotions and feeling
The perception of various somatic hormonal reactions is allowed through bodily expression This is how our research led us to evoke the notions of conative and behavioral dissonances downstream These two dissonances indicate the difference between the attitude and the behavior expressed by the individual and the attitude and the behavior that he knows is expected The company may hope for specific behaviors but the individual may want to express his emotion in spite of everything or may not be able to prevent himself from doing so depending on the case Goleman [GOL 97] discusses emotional takeovers
The objective is to avoid the likely effects of these dissonances (cognitive emotional and conative or behavioral) that are difficult to bear The latter are experienced and induced by imposed norms 1 Available online at httparchiveslesechosfrarchivescercle20120419cercle_45946html
24 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
[FES 57 HOC 83] and will inevitably lead to inauthentic or even ldquoabnormalrdquo conduct by the individual It seems necessary that the manager be able to recognize the origin of these problems to fix them For the manager to clearly perceive the type of action to implement it is helpful to unpack the three types of dissonances that can occur (emotional conative behavioral) The following diagrams present summaries of these dissonances and suggest a way to measure them (see Figures 21 and 22)
Figure 21 Measure of the difference between organizational behavioral norms and the expressions actually expressed in the workplace by the mediation of emotions No-Ex mediating variable of normative effectiveness No-Em cognitive dissonance Em-Ex emotional dissonance No-Ex conative dissonance
Figure 22 Measure of the conative dissonance (difference between the expected behaviors and the
actual employee behaviors) (source [VAN 08b])
Emotional dissonance conflict between what is felt andwhat is expected by the organization
Norms (No)
Emoon (Em) Expression (Ex)
DifferenceCognitive dissonanceconflict betweenpersonal norms andorganizational norms
Conative dissonanceconflict between the behavior ofemployees and the behaviorexpected by the company
Expected expression Emotion felt Expression emitted
Cognitive dissonance Emotional dissonance
Organizationaloccupational norms
Dissonance of normsexpressions really emitted (conative)
Managing Individuals 25
According to these diagrams the conative dissonance axis (in this case inauthentic or abnormal behavior) corresponds to the addition of two dissonances emotional dissonance and cognitive dissonance
Managers cannot act directly on the conative difference because on the one hand it seems impossible to predict what individuals will express and on the other hand they are unable to impose a feeling [WAT 80] That is why in order to reduce the difference between the expression expected by the organizational behavioral norms and the expression manifested by the employee management will have to attempt to correct one of the following three options
1) the difference between the organizational behavioral norms and societal and personal norms by bringing them closer together or by selecting individuals whose personal norms are in line with the companyrsquos norms
2) the difference between what is felt by the individual and what he expresses through different levers like uniforms or emotionalized areas [VAN 03a] These levers make it possible to limit the difference by acting on the accumulation of emotional dissonance
In their study Nelson and Bowen [NEL 00] show that the first lever uniforms affects not only the attitudes of employees (attitudes about work performance work satisfaction etc) but also their capacity to serve guests In addition they reveal that wearing a uniform has a significant positive impact on all employees and not just employees in contact with customers Uniforms not only have psychological and behavioral implications for the wearer but also positive effects that extend beyond contact with customers During contact even in frustrating interactions with the customer the uniform can help the employees to feel good about their work This can be explained by what Goffman [GOF 59] calls ldquoactingrdquo At work the individual becomes an actor playing a role According to Hochschildrsquos theory [HOC 83] by playing this role deeply by regulating their emotions individuals can experience the emotions that they express
According to Fineman [FIN 00] the second lever the emotionalized area facilitates deep emotional labor To do this the
26 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
company must create a variety of places where employees can express their negative emotions or take a break This makes it possible to avoid negative effects thanks to the availability of a place to release emotions that are inhibited during work
3) both differences at the same time We have all seen the behavior of cashiers who sigh or proceed mechanically in their way of saying hello asking for your loyalty card and saying goodbye This type of behavior if it is defined and corresponds to norms reveals the dissonances experienced by the cashier The expressions of the employee are in this example the result of a mechanization a Taylorization of emotions This conduct which corresponds to the norms expected by the company does not respond to the customerrsquos expectations The measure of the conative dissonance makes it possible to gain a comprehensive understanding of the feeling compared by the individual to what he knows about the imposed norm and not just of the employeersquos expression which is just the tip of the iceberg
During a study of managerial practices at McDonaldrsquos and Walt Disney Bilts [BIL 95] shows that we teach new employees through a handbook what expressions are required toward the customer ldquoFirst we practice a friendly smile at all times with our guests and ourselves Second we use friendly and courteous phrases lsquoCan I help yoursquo lsquoThank yoursquo and lsquoHave a good dayrsquo [hellip] or any other similar expressions throughout [our] work dayrdquo This script taught to employees calls for authenticity that the latter will not be able to experience at all times
Another example is the company Favi a company that has no hierarchy which specifies in one of its publications about its management style that employees must demonstrate sincerity toward the client2
Case Study 22 Examples of expected authenticity in a company
Sincerity is therefore what the company and its management seek To be able to respond to this expectation the employee must feel committed to the company To ensure full and complete commitment management must provide satisfaction
2 Available online at httpwwwfavicommanagement
Managing Individuals 27
22 The art of motivating commitment and satisfaction
Commitment and satisfaction at work are anchoring points for the engagement of members of the company
221 Different types of commitment
Currently according to Autissier and Wacheux [AUT 06] work affected by a crisis of pessimism calls for a return to meaning to foster commitment Could lack of commitment be due to a crisis of pessimism and negative emotions According to Allen and Meyer [ALL 97] commitment is a psychological state resulting from the employeersquos desires will obligations and interests and the organizationrsquos intended action Commitment is based on three dimensions an affective category that corresponds to the individualrsquos identification of the organizationrsquos goals and values a calculated category that can be defined as the intention to leave an organization or not and a normative category that corresponds to the individualrsquos engagement because he thinks that it is his obligation to do so Calculated commitment is associated with avoiding costs normative commitment is characterized by moral obligation and affective commitment is marked by desire
Theacutevenet [THEacute 92] argues that there are three dimensions of commitment attitudinal or behavioral moral or calculating and active or passive
ndash Attitudinal or behavioral Attitudinal commitment concerns the identification and engagement of the individual with the organization that employs him while behavioral commitment consists of a permanent cycle of behaviors (or actions) that reinforce attitudinal commitment in return
ndash Moral or calculating Commitment is moral because it refers to deep mechanisms of identification and it presupposes a strong similarity of goals and values between the individual and the organization The ldquocalculatingrdquo approach describes commitment as an attachment resulting from a calculation of costs associated with
28 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
leaving In this situation the desire to invest effort must be legitimately compensated by a gain
ndash Active or passive Commitment sometimes evokes passive adherence to the goals and values of the organization or even their complacent acceptance However authors generally address active commitment which is to say the desire to act to ldquomake an effortrdquo to take it upon ourselves to move in the direction of these goals and values
To support the interest of this active commitment an exploratory study of employees in companies in various industries argues that employee engagement in certain company practices in this case sustainable development is based on a certain number of commitment factors (Figure 23)
Case Study 23 Exploratory study of commitment
Figure 23 Employee commitment factors and consequences (source Leroux and van Hoorebeke [LER 11]) For a color version of this figure see wwwistecoukvanhoorebekemanagementzip
Emo-management must therefore consider employee satisfaction commitment (namely the desire to continue to be a part of the organization as indicated by the research) as well as beliefs and a
Managing Individuals 29
certain positive attitude toward the companyrsquos managerial practices and notably according to the results an affective attitude
222 Commitmentndashsatisfactionndashe-motion
The management of emotions can influence an employeersquos commitment to work and an individualrsquos satisfaction According to Herrbach and Leacuterat-Pytlak [HER 04] individualsrsquo emotions at work and the different kinds of commitment can be considered to be the consequences of their experiences at work In addition emotions are regulators of commitment to work [THEacute 00]
Since modes of management can allow expression or on the contrary forbid it through the restrictions of the job and the choices of the company these modes of functioning remain at the base of positive and negative emotions experienced in the workplace They provide the possibility of doing what we love on a daily basis a major factor of internal motivation In this sense it has been shown that affective or emotional commitment is negatively related to uncertain relations [KRY 08] weighing on the management and expressions of the leader Emotions require more appropriate management especially given that besides commitment emotions influence individual satisfaction The valence of emotion (positivenegative) is seen by many psychologists to be related to the satisfaction of individual interest According to Lazarus [LAZ 91] emotion depends on a combination of motivationndashinterestndashenvironment Everyone has his or her own interests and personal values This authorrsquos analysis supports one of the complex aspects of personnel satisfaction given the multiplication of individual interests provided
Just as many marketing studies have largely demonstrated the impact of emotions on customer satisfaction [LAD 07] human resources are no exception Satisfaction at work can be defined as the agreeable or positive affective response of the person regarding their work environment In this respect the data collected by Adelmann [ADE 95] reveals that employees in positions that require a great deal of emotional management have less satisfaction at work lower self-esteem more symptoms of depression and weaker health
30 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
Weiss and Cropanzano [WEI 96] and Morris and Feldman [MOR 97] support these results revealing that emotions are preliminary even predictive of satisfaction at work More recently Fisher [FIS 00] has noted connections between the moods and emotions measured in real time and the standard measures of commitment and satisfaction at work Although certain authors have shown that emotion and satisfaction constitute two perfectly related theoretical constructs Westbrook and Oliver [WES 91] report that certain categories of emotional responses can be preliminary and coexist with the judgment of satisfaction In addition studies conducted by Russell [RUS 79] and Plutchik [PLU 80] reveal that the state of strong satisfaction is accompanied by unequivocal emotional connotations like ldquohappyrdquo and ldquocontentrdquo that are only models of satisfaction [WES 91] Since interactions between individuals become more predictive emotional management favors avoiding intense conflicts and preserving each personrsquos emotional balance [ASH 93] fostering satisfaction at work Several authors have developed the subject Colle et al [COL 05] Herrbach and Leacuterat-Pytlak [HER 04] and Theacutevenet [THEacute 00]
In addition to these two criteria ndash commitment and satisfaction ndash Theacutevenet [THEacute 00] argues that in addition to having a certain effect on efficiency at work on the condition of a precise definition of the term emotions also affect happiness at work Lazarus [LAZ 91] highlights the impact of positive emotions on facilitating performance and social functioning He cites the example of research that experimentally created good moods in various individuals by triggering positive emotions by listening to soothing music reading emotionally positive scenarios watching happy movies experiencing joy having successful experiences etc
The consequences of this experimentation are pro-social behavior such as helping others and quality performance (better performance much less tense cognitive activity) When individuals have positive experiences they feel more confident assured expressive satisfied committed and simply better at work [ZAP 02]
A study conducted by Maes et al [MAE 10] about the implementation of a tool to
continuously evaluate the quality of nurse care shows that satisfaction at work and
affective commitment are crucial for nurses The results indicate that
Managing Individuals 31
responsibilities recognition and the feeling of belonging to a group are positive
incentives and allow organizational objectives to be realized
Although the affective commitment of staff who care for patients may appear to be
a cause for concern in the sense that it does not allow for the detachment necessary
for this type of profession in certain circumstances affective commitment to the
institution fosters not only a good environment but also good results
Case Study 24 Study of commitment in nurses
Feeling good at work due to positive emotions is a process that can seem complex and naive However according to the studies in the fields of neuropsychology and management which will be described later this is less true than it may seem Remember that emotions are a basic function for many living beings Management cannot and does not seem to hide it but generally this consideration of emotions at work remains unconscious and too often unexpressed However the quality of life at work is part of the three pillars of responsible management under its social dimension
23 The art of administering well the process approach a proactive and sustainable method
The inhibition that we mentioned earlier in section 212 about dissonances can have negative consequences The art of administering well which is to say organizing well and preparing to ensure responsible management follows a process Most often the process approach in a company is part of the context of a quality approach It consists of making the major company processes more apt to satisfy the end customers at the best cost by making the different actors in the process participate in this objective Considering ldquoprocessrdquo in management comes down to being proactive because it consists of seeking to act upstream as much as downstream In our view the process approach to management can be based on the fact that since the 1960s many researchers (described in Chapter 1) have shown that emotions follow a process that makes it possible to manage their positive and negative effects at work In fact many theories have
32 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
attempted to describe it in everyday life (Darwin [DAR 72] Jamesrsquo peripheral theory [JAM 84] Freudrsquos discourse of psychoanalysis [FRE 02] Izardrsquos theory of differential emotions [IZA 77] Ekman and Osterrsquos neuro-cultural theory [EKM 79] Goffmanrsquos schematic theories including social constructivism and acting theory [GOF 59] resulting from the variability of emotions)
231 Emo-management a process that concerns everyone
Whatever it may be this process starts with a stimulus and ends with consequences When this process is negative the consequences that can result from it have a strong probability of being negative [LAZ 91] This process is similar to labor although Hochschild [HOC 83 p 7] determines what she calls emotional labor in the public sphere by distinguishing it from emotion work or management which she uses to refer to the same acts in the private sphere The latter could also be termed ldquoemotional taskrdquo What she calls ldquoemotional laborrdquo is the management of emotions in order to create a publicly observable facial or bodily expression [HOC 83] Before detailing this process it is important to specify that it consists of a process that only occurs when emotions or affective experiences [WEI 96] do not have an extreme intensity According to Goleman [GOL 97] the intensity of the emotion felt directly influences the behavior During an intense emotion the left neocortex the thinking brain does not have time to choose the best-suited reaction and only the amygdala of the right brain which commands emotions acts It is because of this process that emotions sometimes ldquotake overrdquo become uncontrollable and cause so-called automatic behaviors which is to say involuntary without effort and cognitively inert
A study was conducted over a period of nine months with three months of
participatory observation in a subordinate role followed by six months of weekly visits
and then regular visits for the next two years The site observed was a unit of
office workers a mathematics research laboratory in the CNRS composed of 72
researchers and seven administrators This study examined a situation that showcased
Managing Individuals 33
emotions in the workplace because it required managing intense emotions an open
relational conflict3 [HOC 83] This observation of nine cases of the most revealing
emotional situations was conducted using an ethnogram during a situation that was deemed
problematic or stressful [LAZ 91] The nine cases included a case of insults in the
workplace a case of insults in an anonymous email several cases of disputes between
colleagues related to misunderstandings or diverging interests and a case of collective
laughter in the breakroom This study observed the behaviors of individual actors to
identify the emotions felt whether they were expressed or not which were confirmed
with in-depth interviews carried out in real time or just after the problematic event [VAN
03a VAN 03b] This study made it possible to reveal an emotional process (see Figure
24) summarized in the case study below
Case Study 25 Study of the emotional process at work context
In summary when an event occurs (stimulus) it can create emotional dissonance
(discussed in the first approach) in employees if what they feel about the event is
incompatible with the organizationrsquos behavioral norms a rationalndashemotional
discordance [MID 89] If aware of this dissonance the individual will after
reflecting carry out emotional labor to reduce the tension caused by the unbearable
dissonance [FES 57] There are two solutions deep acting which means recalling an
experience with a normal expression or surface acting and gesturally simulating the
expected expression [HOC 83] If deep acting fails employees reveal an abnormal
expression or use surface acting to feign a normal expression In the first case they
continue to experience a dissonance resulting from the choice they made expressing
what they feel because this feeling is incompatible with the organizational norms In
the second case the dissonance remains because they only feigned an expression on
the surface In order for the dissonance to disappear the individual must be able to
modify one of the two dimensions [FES 57] As stated by Hochschild [HOC 83]
because norms are fixed and imposed in the workplace individuals generally modify
their emotions This process described by participatory observation shows that not
only does a dissonance precede emotional labor but it also results in a ldquoresidualrdquo
emotional dissonance due to the failure of deep acting or surface acting The
accumulation of the residual dissonance can be at the origin of many issues from
demotivation and intent to leave to psychological and physical issues [VAN 04]
Case Study 26 Emotional process observed at work
3 This open relational conflict was particularly revealing because the emotions were extremely intense to the point of clearly showing inappropriate behavior (anonymous insult letters) detrimental consequences for service isolated and rejected people and a constant deep-rooted preoccupation for the actors
34 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
Figu
re 2
4 P
roce
ss e
xper
ien
ced
at w
ork
and
its m
ana
ge
men
t m
echa
nism
s
Managing Individuals 35
On the site petite-entreprisenet it says ldquoWhen managers feel anger bubbling up 4
inside of them at their place of work or if they have not managed to do away with the feeling before it boils over they must avoid at all costs offloading on the first person to cross their paths or on all of their colleagues Acting impulsively is never recommended because the harm caused by unfair or hurtful comments is often difficult to repair and can lead to poor relations between managers and colleagues which will inevitably have repercussions on the teamrsquos performance On the contrary the right attitude consists of isolating oneself in onersquos office in silence for a few minutes and trying to calm downrdquo Managers must be able to take the time necessary to manage and regulate their emotions But what about employees How can they proceed in the workplace A study conducted by van Hoorebeke [VAN 03b] in the field shows that employees who do not have a personal space to collect themselves use washrooms stairwells and walking outside of the company to regulate their strong emotions Any type of emotion can be disruptive depending on the situation Even joy despite being a positive emotion is not necessarily simple to demonstrate Managers may be afraid to show their appreciation at the risk of receiving requests for raises or be afraid to get excited about their promotions as they are worried about jealousy etc The emotional process makes it possible to better understand emotions to better manage them and avoid unexpected setbacks
Case Study 27 A process with surprising consequences
232 A multitude of effects in the workplace
The emotional process has many effects in the organization (Figure 24) Research shows that the consequences of this emotional labor extend from inauthenticity to emotional exhaustion and physical symptoms [MOR 97 SCH 00]
ndash Concerning authenticity deep acting can destroy the emotional reactions that help all individuals to sense the situation and make connections with others [DAR 72] and in this respect can hinder someonersquos authenticity [ASH 00a] In addition according to Grandey et al [GRA 05b] authenticity has a direct impact on customer satisfaction and customer relations as detailed in the first approach
4 Available online at httpswwwpetite-entreprisenetP-2857-81-G1-comment-mettre-a-profit-ses-emotions-au-travailhtml
36 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
ndash Emotional exhaustion corresponds to a reaction related to stress considered to be a key component in the process of burnout or physical exhaustion Maslach [MAS 82] reports that staff whose positions require a great deal of emotional labor are more likely to experience emotional exhaustion The results obtained by Morris and Feldman [MOR 97] demonstrate that the probability of experiencing this mental exhaustion increases based on the frequency and duration of the emotional labor required and the dissonance felt and experienced Totterdell and Holman [TOT 03] show that it is surface acting that causes emotional exhaustion through a sense of numbness and fatigue felt by the people interviewed
ndash Contrary to the frequency of the interactions that require emotional labor the duration of the emotional labor increases the internalization of the role This variable refers to the way in which the individual integrates his personal identity with organizational demands [MOR 97]
van Hoorebeke [VAN 03a VAN 03b] lists the likely effects of the different steps in the emotional process or emotional management in the workplace including the concepts of emotional labor emotional dissonance and the expression of emotions at work In view of the results obtained the negative consequences of managing emotions in the workplace affect three levels of the unit the individual (health performance enhancement task execution) the group (cohesion collaboration) and the organization (strategic management of human resources image absenteeism) The positive consequences also affect the levels of the individual the group and the organization (normal expression well-being satisfaction at work and relief after liberating oneself from an abnormal expression)
Three categories of variables that influence these effects appear in the literature
1) disposition variables related to the individualrsquos characteristics (the individualrsquos gender with women doing more emotional labor than men ndash Grandey [GRA 03] Hochschild [HOC 83] Kruml and Geddes [KRU 00]) emotional adaptability the positivenegative affective feature that is a character trait of individuals related to their
Managing Individuals 37
capacity to be enthusiastic anxious or guilty [SCH 00] situation variables (the type of event) the gender of the interlocutor (less emotional effort is made toward women ndash Sutton and Rafaeli [SUT 90]) hierarchical respect and organizational characteristics
2) characteristics of the position (face-to-face contact ndash Diefendorff and Gosserand [DIE 03a] Hochschild [HOC 83] Morris and Feldman [MOR 96] Schaubroeck and Jones [SCH 00]) the frequency of interactions [LEE 15 MOR 97 TOT 03] the duration of interactions [DIE 03b GRA 03 MOR 97] and the demands of the supervisor
3) the norms imposed by the organization as well as by the manager or the supervisor according to various degrees of requirements [DIE 03b] behavioral rules that are formally imposed and often written [MOR 96] positivenegative rules meaning rules regarding the suppression of negative emotions or rules requesting positive emotions [DIE 03a] autonomy at work [MOR 96 MOR 97] routine tasks [MOR 96 MOR 97] social support the presence of the individual often an attentive colleague [TOT 03] guides and training about the expressions expected at work [DIE 03a]
To summarize the effects of this emotional process in the workplace can be negative or positive Previous studies and the field study show that a negative process can produce individual and collective effects ranging from demotivation and a desire to leave the company to the performance of individuals and their colleagues These effects do not depend solely on management Certain personal characteristics can foster a negative process as can the type of normalization and the position occupied depending on management Administering well requires management to consider these characteristics to limit the harmful effects of the negative process upstream and support the positive ones Fortunately when the process is set in motion these characteristics must be supported by the management levers of this process The field study made it possible to identify several management levers of the negative process Here are the details
38 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
233 Levers for managing
Most of these variables can prove to be organizational or managerial levers or in other words a tool to facilitate the emotional management and emotional labor of employees (subordinates and managers) in the workplace According to the perception of employees in twenty different kinds of professions from nurses and secretaries to business managers and undertakers management can intervene in the ldquosometimes negativerdquo emotional process in the workplace using preventative or curative levers [VAN 03a VAN 03b]
1) Preventative levers upstream the variables integral to work (interest autonomy responsibility trust sufficient staff good material etc) and to its environment (setting atmosphere etc) limit the existence of daily conflicts and tensions that influence emotions The variables that influence the cognitive aspects (norms) knowing what we must do to do it well influence normal expression Most preventative levers correspond to the influence variables of several concepts such as satisfaction at work well-being etc Coaching autonomy motivation and career management and fairness are some of the most-studied levers in these areas Other levers can intervene in the process [VAN 03b] For example some companies play on the setting with research about decor colors or wearing a uniform These levers directly influence the emotions in a climate that is conducive to normal expression The demands of training notably in psychology and personal development allow the employees to get to know themselves better and understand others better in ldquorole-playing gamesrdquo It encourages training with appropriate behaviors Le Scanff [LES 98] discusses intensive training with tasks to complete in conditions that are similar to those encountered in a real environment to acquire an automatic response and consequently an increased sense of control Unfortunately this lever could lead to a kind of robotization of the human stripped of emotion and reproduce the bad through the desire to do good
Managing Individuals 39
2) Curative levers downstream places to express emotions physical and mental activities and discussion groups are needed and would limit the accumulation of emotional dissonance by liberating tension The need for social support would facilitate deep acting and help individuals to assess their emotion (listening leader psychologist) These would influence abnormal expression
When they exist these levers are often too under-used or poorly used in companies to have a real and effective impact
In a qualitative study conducted with 22 people in different professions including office employee undertaker naval firefighter independent artisan plumber university lecturer administrative executive business executive employment agent high-school teacher nursery-school assistant accountant executive secretary manager store salesperson pharmacist and home-care nurse van Hoorebeke [VAN 03a] lists managerial practices for managing emotions
Thanks to these different levers to counteract the negative process the consideration of the basic conditions necessary for administering well positive processes should be encouraged through well-being in the workplace The example of PepsiCo shows that the company is capable of going further engaging the manager in the search for well-being which is seen as the main driving force for growth
As indicated by the process illustrated earlier (see Figure 24) one category of effects is negative and can totally disrupt this search for well-being These negative effects create health problems sometimes serious in individuals who inhibit their emotions In order to better capture the operation the next section focuses on exploring it in more depth through different areas of study
40 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
Method Neutralizing
emotions Isolating emotions
Prescribing emotions
Reducing emotional dissonance
Standardization procedure
Control logic
Norms of rationality
Control logicControl logic
Rules of conduct
No control logic
Support logic
Action on the organizational
climate setting fairness training
Actions on the perception of injustice and
obligation better self-knowledge
emotional expression
Diffusion
Rigorous structuring of
roles relations and
language
Internal regulation
Implicit norms
Diffusion through scripts
Teaching through training
Joint regulation
Control Punishment Punishment Punishment and
autonomy Between control and
autonomy
Objectives
No expression of
emotions
Good performance
of role
Prevention against the expressions
of inappropriate
emotions
Masking inappropriate expressions
Good performance
of role
Showing appropriate
expressions in all situations
Regulation of norms and emotions
Reducing the difference between the emotion felt and
the expression revealed
Decreasing inappropriate expressions
Avoiding consequences on
health performance and relations with others (conflicts)
Table 21 Managerial practices in the management of emotions (source van Hoorebeke [VAN 03a])
Managing Individuals 41
Steacutephane Saba (PepsiCo) stated that ldquoWell-being in the workplace is the primary driving force of our growthrdquo
Florence Davy with the journal Personnel5 explained
ldquoWhat is well-being in the workplace at PepsiCo and what are its main components
ldquoWell-being in the workplace at PepsiCo is a commitment of HR but also and especially of management This commitment is at the core of our managerial strategy around three major pillars
1) the relationship of trust that managers must establish with their colleagues the quality of this relationship is one of the key levers of well-being at work If our colleagues are happy to go to work it is because they have managers that listen to them and nurture them These elements are measured in our surveys on social climate and by Great Place To Work When we leave a company we are often leaving a manager because the relationship is complicated We make a point to ensure that managerial quality is experienced by our colleagues every day as a factor in motivation and development
2) the personal and professional fulfillment of every person notably through the search for balance between private and professional life For example we do everything we can to be able to offer our colleagues the possibility of remote working regardless of their position
3) conviviality At PepsiCo we have a tradition of conviviality in both our products and our managerial operations We celebrate successes and incorporate conviviality into professional relations with all our colleagues
ldquoHow are these principles represented in your practices and operating procedures
ldquoTo help managers develop relationships based on trust we invest heavily in training Independently of the classic tools we have implemented a section about the management of emotions that provides an infusion of soul that is very appreciated by everyone Besides that to help us to continuously move this relationship forward each year we conduct a survey on managerial quality that allows colleagues to assess their manager on a certain number of criteria sending a strong message about the way they are managed throughout the year
ldquoRegarding the worklife balance beyond remote working we have implemented
many initiatives related to well-being including access to gyms to a company
nutritionist and to care or specific concierge services The conviviality
component is explored through a certain number of ways of doing things
notably by recognition through awards but also and especially through 5 Available online at httpsbusinesslesechosfrdirections-ressources-humaines ressources-humainesbien-etre-au-travailstephane-saba-pepsico-le-bien-etre-au-travail-est-le-levier-principal-de-notre-croissance-60773php
42 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
fun events to celebrate the successes of our colleagues This year PepsiCo France
celebrated its 20th anniversary From a conviviality point of view we did
something fairly exceptional for this occasion We organized a music contest
involving all the companyrsquos teams It was a rather spectacular event and very good
for team-buildingrdquo
Case Study 28 Example of managing the process toward well-being at work
24 The art of ensuring health and safety in the workplace well-being at work
One question remains how can emotions disrupt psychological and physical health Since the start of the 1900s a theory was established on an organic model that defined emotion as a biological process For Freud [FRE 02] emotion was a libidinal release which is to say a liberation of instinctual psychic energy For Darwin [DAR 72] it corresponds to an instinct and for James [JAM 84] it corresponds to the perception of a psychological process From these premises neuroscience has been developing the concept for a few years now Neuroscience has a two-fold approach psychobiological which researches the biological bases of behaviors and psychological which studies mental function (the psyche) Among them many current research projects in behavioral neuroscience focus on emotions and explain their biological operation [DAM 94 LAB 94 VIN 86] This part describes the foundations in a succinct and accessible way without denying the extreme complexity of this organ that has yet to reveal all of its secrets and from a specific point of view that of the famous surgeon Professor Laborit
According to Laborit [LAB 94] the brain a regulated system is composed of three systems (1) a reward system (2) a punishment system and (3) an inhibition of action system (balancing system) Hormonal bundles join these different brains [OLD 54] and intervene in the accumulation of experiences and the choice of behavior
1) One of these bundles called the Medial Forebrain Bundle (MFB) which is the reward bundle is involved when an action gratifies us when what we do keeps us in a state of pleasure
Managing Individuals 43
biological equilibrium We know the chemical mediators or hormones the catecholamines
2) Another bundle the Periventricular System (PVS) corresponds to the punishment bundle [LAB 94] These two bundles trigger action or expression When we are kicked we have two options fight or flight If the behavior chosen during the first experience is effective we will repeat this behavior because we avoided punishment and gave ourselves pleasure
3) Then there is a system that inhibits action studied by Laborit [LAB 94] among others This system functions when we cannot choose between fight or flight it consists of not acting of restraining ourselves
Based on the situation the brain makes the hormonal decision to convey a given expression in order to avoid punishment According to Vincent in nerve mechanisms ldquoit is almost always a question of two centres (one inhibiting the other exciting) to manage the same functionrdquo [VIN 86 p 160] The reward bundle activated by pleasure and the intuitive punishment bundle both trigger action Inversely the third bundle corresponds to a system that inhibits action Because the first two trigger action (gratification fight or flight) they are liberating Because it hinders action the third does not allow us to feel pleasure fight or flee This inhibition is the most problematic state
First of all we must summarize the interconnections of the different systems of reward punishment and inhibition
241 A neurobiological process
Following an event an emotion is felt When it is a positive emotion the system of gratification is set in motion ndash this action triggers pleasure ndash and catecholamine hormones are secreted When this happens the action-inhibiting system is inactive because it is unnecessary without the signal of an alarm
When a negative emotion is felt the punishment (fight or flight) system is initiated Hormones (peptides analgesics) are secreted by
44 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
the hypothalamus At the same time the action-inhibiting system activates because an alarm system is initiated by the pituitary gland and its hormone corticotrophin (ACTH) The activation of the inhibitory system acts as a safeguard or precautionary principle because the pituitary gland allows for faster and more effective action
If fight or flight is successful then there is no more reason for the pituitary gland to intervene The system is re-established and returns to the gratification system once the alarm or danger has passed Inversely if the action is ineffective and the danger remains the brain inhibits the action and the pituitary gland commands the adrenal glands to secrete glucocorticoids anti-inflammatory hormones similar to cortisone Unfortunately at this time it is impossible to get out of the inhibition system to return to the reward system Over time the glucocorticoid hormones (asymp cortisol7) secreted by the adrenal glands can destroy the thymus (immune protection) and thereby allow some microbial cells even cancerous ones hosted by the individual to multiply This hormone often attacks the stomachrsquos protective lining (mucus) which can lead to stomach ulcers and perforated ulcers Secreted by the adrenal glands they also alter REM sleep (hypertension) given that protein synthesis in the brain also controls restorative sleep
242 Reasons to become ill
If the inhibition of action can be harmful to us why do we restrain our actions Individuals inhibit their emotions for several reasons
ndash according to Freud [FRE 02] inhibition reveals an impulse that is impossible to satisfy Inhibition can reveal an informational deficit or an imaginary impetus of anxiety
ndash according to Laborit [LAB 94] it is the dominant-dominated relationship that compels one of the individuals present to inhibit his or behaviors in order to avoid punishment
ndash according to Traue and Michael [TRA 93] the expression of emotion leads to an act of controlling the environment In doing so inhibition is part of the set of emotional conduct
Managing Individuals 45
ndash according to MacLean [MAC 75] this inhibition or ldquoschizophysiologyrdquo of the limbic system and the neocortex originates from the conflict between what our neo-mammalian (cognitive) brain knows and what our paleo-mammalian (affective) brain feels
Some [HOC 83 MID 89 VAN 03a VAN 03b] call this ldquoemotional dissonancerdquo
Norms are not everything in a company Companies are like hives or anthills and human interactions are not always simple and to conform to the majority individuals will hold back their emotions
243 Real consequences
The following studies explain and demonstrate the impact of this inhibition According to Laborit [LAB 94] the inhibitory system is triggered by glucocorticoid hormones when the individual is compelled to restrain his behavior or action This conclusion is the result of various experiments conducted on rats In one study he compares the results obtained with two dominant rats enclosed for eight days in a cage with an electrified floor and one single rat in the same situation for the same period In the end despite receiving multiple electrical shocks the first two rats were eating well and had a smooth coat of fur The single rat however had persistent hypertension For a month after the experience his stomach was ulcerated to the point of causing death The difference between these two experiments is action On the one hand the two rats acted and always continued to fight despite the electrical shocks while on the other hand the single rat remained inactive curled up fur dishevelled inhibited It had no behavior According to Traue and Michael [TRA 93] inhibition is the self-control of behavior related to restraint or repression of an emotion Their study demonstrated that holding back anger tested on migraine sufferers resulted in short-term headaches related to high muscular tension and muscle hyperactivity due to an inhibition of emotion
This inhibition of behavior or the underlying emotion is the source of several pathological issues Bischoff and Traue [BIS 83] state that
46 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
ldquoan individual develops myogenic pain [headaches] in a particular muscular system when the muscles have an increased activity [related to inhibition] up to a critical point during a certain timerdquo Several researchers have discovered that the degree of inhibition is associated with compromised immune function and cancer [MOR 81]
The suppression of anger is usually correlated with a high rate of immunoglobulin A in the blood Immunoglobulin A is also associated with the propagation of metastases in breast cancers The inhibition of anger is not the only example Friedman and Booth-Kewley [FRI 87] indicate that other negative emotions measured are also connected with health problems including asthma ulcers headaches immune disorders etc In addition to physical pathologies many researchers in psychobiology and medicine have demonstrated the link between emotions and mental health or ldquobrain healthrdquo whether it is in chronic pathologies (schizophrenia autism etc) or not The biological descriptions of depression (a mental disorder if ever there was one because it can lead to suicide nine times out of ten suicide is related to a form of mental disorder generally severe depression) stress and anxiety indicate that emotions (affective part of the brain) intervene and weaken the different regions of the cortex (rational part of the brain) During the process of the mental disorder emotions ldquotake overrdquo through neurotransmitters and hormones They biologically disrupt the cortex that can no longer remember to act to inhibit the negative emotions and to lead the individual to think about something else (the individuals focus on the problem that was marked by a longer-term emotional process [QUI 06]) As emphasized by Kishi and Elmquist [KIS 05] the bodyrsquos whole process of homeostasis (equilibrium) is affected for a large number of patients with mental disorders
ldquoNo matter what emotion we feel there are consequences for the bodyrdquo explains
Henrique Sequeira professor in affective neuroscience at the University of Lille (I
and II) ldquoEmotions are a true interface between the brain and the body They cause
muscular hormonal neurological and immune reactions These are the links
explored by psychosomatic medicine according to which repeated emotions can
in certain predisposed individuals have effects that are positive (faster recovery
from cancer) or negative (cardiovascular vulnerability asthma) on health by
Managing Individuals 47
repeatedly and unnecessarily striking the same organrdquo he adds Now for each
ldquoemotional maprdquo it remains to define the precise physiological indicators that can
be measured objectively and be used to identify potential emotional dysfunction
The first body map of emotions is illustrated in Figure 25 Finnish researchers
detailed the physical effects of happiness fear sadness and other sentiments
Case Study 29 Effects of emotions at the soma level
Figure 25 The first body map of emotions by Pauline Freacuteour published 01062014 (source lefigarofr) For a color version of this figure see wwwistecoukvanhoorebekemanagementzip
In light of this clinical research any doubts about the bodyemotion relationship and especially the emotion inhibitionhealth relationship can no longer be challenged but confirmed and specified Nevertheless given the various reasons for the inhibition of action (containing onersquos behavior or emotion) it seems likely that inhibition will be increased in an organizational context
48 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
244 A schema like this in business
A variety of research in management describes the phenomenon in the workplace Ashforth and Humphrey [ASH 93] report that the inhibition of emotions in the workplace can provoke emotional exhaustion psychological discontent frustration and stress [SCH 00]
The organizational context seems at first glance to present notable differences from private life ndash complexity repetitive professional relations tasks to accomplish with performance etc ndash yet the organization is a real standardized and regulated emotional arena where several reasons listed as action-inhibiting are perfectly normal Different elements support this perspective
First Rafaeli and Sutton [RAF 89] argue for the addition of two types of behavioral norms that employees must follow at work in comparison to an individualrsquos private life regulated by societal norms occupational norms related to the role held by the individual and organizational norms unique to each company described in section 21
Second the company seeks through its practices what can be called ldquoemotional rationalityrdquo broken down into types depending on the companyrsquos profile and operation
1) The neutralization or total inhibition of emotions prevents the emergence of intense negative emotions with the very strict structuring of roles and interpersonal relations [ASH 95]
2) The system of isolating emotions requires the non-expression of inappropriate emotions without forcing the employee to use particular behaviors [ASH 95] In this context although the individuals are not compelled to express specific dictated emotions the prevention and inhibition of abnormal expressions are no less imposed and sanctioned
3) The prescription of emotions [ASH 95] which tries to control both normal and abnormal expressions of employees is based on the employeersquos adherence to good conduct Individuals must not only follow behavior scripts learn to manage their stress and inhibit certain emotions but most importantly they are asked to thrive
Managing Individuals 49
4) The normalization of emotion has the goal of rationalizing emotions that occur inappropriately It takes the form of making excuses using humor or expressing regret on the part of the employee who said it
Third the organization is the site of diverse social interactions between employees and each other employees and clients employees and managers etc The duration and frequency of these interactions can vary greatly depending on their nature
According to Hochschild [HOC 83] workplace situations that require the regulation of emotions (emotional demands) have three characteristics
1) they require vocal or facial contact with the public
2) they ask the employee to produce an emotional state or reaction from the consumer
3) they provide the employer with the opportunity to control the employeersquos emotional activities
In a company the inhibition of action thus demanded of employees corresponds to a request to hold back their emotions when they do not correspond to the behavioral norms expected by managers among others As we specified in the first approach this request creates the so-called emotional dissonance [HOC 83] in the individual that as with cognitive dissonance [FES 57] generates an unbearable psychological and physical tension related to this restraint inhibition of the emotion that if it is accumulated can have consequences on the mental or biological health of the individual
It has been proven that burnout is just as connected to psychological and affective variables [CHE 92 LEE 93] as to organizational consequences such as turnover the intent to leave negative attitudes in the workplace and decreased performance [LEE 96] especially because these issues have proven to be contagious [BAK 05] In this respect the manager can intervene to limit the effects considering the procedural aspect of emotions in the workplace described earlier and their management levers
50 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
This process is of great interest to management in order to mitigate absenteeism and the direct and indirect costs that absenteeism generates but it cannot negate emotional contagion The risk of the contagion of stress and anxiety has been demonstrated by psychologists and sociologists [BEH 94 GUM 97 PFE 98] To our knowledge only a few studies [BAK 01 BAK 05 GRO 92] have demonstrated the existence of the contagion of burnout and physical exhaustion resulting from emotional exhaustion [SHI 03] However these few studies are specialized in clinical psychology in the professions of a specific domain medical care and in this instance doctors and nurses While Bakker et al [BAK 01] demonstrates that burnout like other mental disorders is not automatically connected to a process of contagion research about depression does demonstrate the existence of a connection [HOW 85]
An important point should be noted Like the role played by pain emotion remains a somatic and psychological signal that reveals several factors including managerial failures From a positive point of view emotions have the ability to foster well-being at work The emotional intelligence and competence of a leader are particularly important
The company Google measures well-being at work This evaluation is part of an
annual evaluation of every employee According to directors Eric Schmidt and
Jonathan Rosenberg in their book How Google Works the Google culture does not
think it is acceptable for employees to feel bad in their place of work Google is also
perceived as a company where people have a good time ldquohave funrdquo The directors
specify that it is not about having fun for funrsquos sake but indeed to intensify
creativity and increase the irresistible desire to work find solutions advance create
and work together [SCH 14]
The online journal Innovation Manageacuteriale6 features an article with the title
ldquolsquoChoose a job you love and you will never have to work a day in your lifersquo
(Confucius)rdquo Although 64 of French people consider themselves satisfied with
their work the percentage drops to 20 when asked if they ldquoget pleasure from
workingrdquo according to a 2014 Ipsos study
The 2016 barometer of well-being in the workplace relies on 10 items grouped into 6 Available online at httpwwwinnovationmanagerialecomconceptsde-la-gestion-du-savoir-faire-au-management-de-laimer-faire
Managing Individuals 51
three essential pillars (see Figure 24) work environment emotion and attention
The work environment corresponds to equipment and the balance between private
and professional life Attention corresponds to the consideration on the part of the
hierarchy and the management of skills Well-being also depends on the consideration
that the manager gives to employees Emotion corresponds to the pleasure of coming
to work in the morning the interest in onersquos work or its stimulating aspect What the
employee feels on a daily basis is also considered7
One particular example is this in England a company had the idea to implement an
uncommon and extremely practical type of leave for employees If they drink too
much on a night out employees at the British online ticket agency DICE can now
ask for ldquohangoverrdquo leave According to the founder of the London-based company
Phil Hutcherson this measure allows colleagues to ldquoembracerdquo the company culture
Employees are expected to attend concerts and festivals regularly and this type of
leave allows them to take advantage of the events without feeling worried about a
difficult day after To set up their day employees only need to follow one extremely
simple step They must send a WhatsApp message to their boss containing the
ldquomusicrdquo ldquobeerrdquo and ldquosickrdquo emojis Regarding this new kind of leave Phil
Hutcherson said ldquoOur whole team lives for music and some of the best
opportunities in the industry happen after a concert We trust each other and we
want people to be open if they are going to see live music No need to pretend to be
sickrdquo On average employees have each asked for four ldquohangoverrdquo leaves since the
measure was implemented Phil Hutcherson says he is delighted with the trust and
transparency that this has created within DICE8
Case Study 210 Emotion and well-being at work an indisputable link
These examples are clearly indicative of the fact that modern management cannot not react faced with the consequences of the poor management of e-motions In addition emo-management can have consequences on health and penalize a company through the costs that it represents something that was unthinkable until about ten years ago Emo-management plays a role in rational decision-making
7 Available online at httpmipsosfrengager-ses-equipes-et-conduire-changement 2016-05-26-barometre-edenred-ipsos-2016-quels-sont-piliers-pour-comprendre-et-agir-sur-bien-etre-au-travail 8 Available online at httpwwwohmymagcominsolitecette-entreprise-propose-des-conges-gueule-de-bois-a-ses-employes_art112460html
52 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
25 A factual approach for effective decision-making knowledge of the emotional decision-making process
Apart from the impact on work emotion has influences that have long been unimaginable Decision-making has been demonstrated to be dependent on emotion a stunning breakthrough
251 Decision and emotion
In fact it is only in the past few years that emotions have been a subject of interest for research about decision-making although some authors anticipated it According to Simon [SIM 59] organizations do not automatically follow the maximization of profits but rather a result deemed satisfactory relative to a level of aspiration Until recently the decision-maker was addressed as a being someone who acted according to rational and distinctly formulated principles Since Plato Kant and Descartes it has been considered that proper logic purely rational and mathematical stripped of all affective considerations can lead to a solution regardless of the problem According to these theories a decision is inspired by sensory data events facts and documents or principles based on which it is enough to correctly deduce only truth from truth [DES 37 KAN 98] If the premises of an emotional intervention in decision-making are already discernable in Darwinrsquos principle of anti-thesis9 [DAR 72] or the research of Lazarus [LAZ 91] it was only in 1994 that Damasio clearly affirmed that emotions are necessary for decision-making According to his theory about somatic indicators or the perception of the secondary emotions of foreseeable consequences ([DAM 94 p 240]) this neurologist explains not only the process of making decisions but especially the time that it takes our brains to decide from a few fractions of a second to a few minutes depending on the case According to him pure or mathematical reasoning requires a memory with an unlimited capacity to retain the multitude of probable
9 Principle of expressions of opposite emotions highlighting the mechanisms implemented during opposite choices A hostile and aggressive dog will walk stiffly head held high tail up ears directed to the front A dog greeting his master will hold its body low tail and ears directed backward The two expressions and postures are opposite and ldquoantitheticalrdquo
Managing Individuals 53
combinations to predict the consequences of any given decision ndash a capacity that humans do not have This is why memory is supported by various emotional indicators A decision that is perceived by emotion as negative and automatically associated with an unpleasant sensation in the body (soma) is then immediately rejected in order to restrict the choice to fewer foreseeable alternatives to better decide When the emotion experienced is positive the alternative is ldquomarkedrdquo and preserved This theory was partially demonstrated by Bechara et al [BEC 98]
Neurologically speaking making a decision is very fast much less than a second when it consists of reacting to an immediate danger and emotion is therefore predominant When the decision is established as a cognitive process with time for reflection where the consequence is a choice between various solutions emotion intervenes without predominating Do we not say ldquoI lsquofeelrsquo that I did not make the right decisionrdquo At that point emotion presents itself as an unconscious signal of the effectiveness of our choice [LAZ 91] In addition at first glance as a process of adjustment and evaluation it plays a moderating role in the control of rational decisions [GRA 00] Emotion is an integral part of decisional complexity
252 Decision and emotion at the origin a rejection
To understand this complexity let us examine how emotions were rejected from the domain of research in decision-making then how they came to be included in it From the start Plato (427 BCE) rejected the world of the senses because it posed too many various obstacles to understanding Instead he dedicated himself to reason and pure understanding In the same sense Kant [KAN 98 p 36] in his Critique of Pure Reason says ldquoEncouraged by such a proof of the power of reason the drive for expansion sees no boundsrdquo10 Similarly Descartes in his Discourse on Method [DES 37] considers that it is reason that makes us human and so we should cultivate our own intelligence According to Berthoz [BER 03] regarding these theories
10 Translation taken from the 1998 English edition translated and edited by Paul Guyer and Allen W Wood and published by Cambridge University Press
54 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
and various other original normative descriptive and prescriptive theories of decision-making it remains ideally rational and essentially cognitive In this context normative currents with numerous variations indicate the way in which to proceed to make a decision descriptive theories detail the process prescriptive theories seek to improve the relevance of the choices made Each field of research has its own perspective and method of measuring cerebral function during decision-making Nevertheless one point remains common to all of them calculation or evaluation It is also this evaluation that is at the heart of the discourse on research about decision-making through emotions
In fact evaluation speculation and even betting are recurrent themes in cognitive research about decision-making The distinctions that are allocated to it in cognitivist research have more to do with its function than with its foundation No matter what the choice to be made is the individual considers predicts and bets on the possible consequences or on the preference that he gives it Based on these currents this estimate depends on three major paradigms
1) The utility function (mathematical formula) [BER 13 VON 44] where decision-making is based on the beliefs and values of the individual and the expected results The ldquosure thing principlerdquo an approach suggested by Savage [SAV 54] revising the utility function considers the choice as dependent on the preferences and beliefs of the individual despite the consequences Finally the theory of the prospect is a mathematical prediction function combining a function of the values and a function of the subjective probabilities [KAH 73]
2) Limited rationality showing that the human limits and deviations of prediction cannot be reproduced by theoretical models An economical person can in fact content themselves with a solution that is satisfying in their eyes without it being proven to be the optimal solution [SIM 59]
3) The algebraic process in the form of equations and weighted means is the aggregate calculation of the judgment
Far from being able to be considered as divergent cognitive processes the differentiation of these three currents summarized by
Managing Individuals 55
Berthoz [BER 03] mainly concerns the role of this evaluation and the strategies undertaken to determine it Evaluation remains an iterative term to such a point that cognitivist approaches and emotional approaches are compatible
As noted earlier already in 1872 in his observations Darwin remarked that decision-making was accompanied by a furrowing of the brow indicating a difficulty in the mind and an emotion expressed before the action Then several theories suggested the predictive aspect of emotions These theories were established by Ribot [RIB 30] for whom an idea that is not felt is nothing and then Sartre [SAR 38] according to whom the emotional conscience is the conscience of the world and finally Schachter [SCH 71] who said that the existence of a cognition associated with physiological activation is indicative of the very nature of emotion It was over the course of the development of these various foundational approaches that emotion was considered to be a real tool of evaluation because of its predictive character Scherer [SCH 89] examined emotion as constituting an affective mechanism of evaluation that intervened between the cognitive evaluation of a situation and human action In his view emotions cause a decoupling of the behavior and the stimuli rendering the individual capable of substituting more flexible kinds of behaviors for reflexive instinctive or usual responses in a given situation Next came the perspective of Lazarus [LAZ 91] according to whom emotions have several functions such as informing people about the quality of what they are experiencing here and now helping them to evaluate situations in which they find themselves and the effectiveness of their conduct (satisfaction or dissatisfaction) giving meaning and value to their experience facilitating the communication of intentions stimulating reflection and the development of thought etc Finally in the 1990s the neurologist Damasio [DAM 94] posed and tested the clearly defined hypothesis that emotion plays a biological role in reasoning and decision-making First he noted that over the course of several experiments using the measurement of certain biological parameters11 there was a strange connection 11 Modification of the resistance of the skin to the electrical current and positron emission tomographer in order to film the brainrsquos reactions
56 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
between the absence of emotions and the disruption of reasoning In short emotions are 100 indispensable for reasoning It was through his questioning of the case of Phineas Gage who was stripped of emotions and unable to make decisions following a brain injury that Damasio suggested in his book Descartesrsquo Error that ldquomechanisms making it possible to express and feel emotions [hellip] all play a role in the faculty of reasoningrdquo12 ([DAM 94 p 10]) In fact while Gage had preserved all of his aptitudes for reasoning he had lost his ability to reason To solve this mystery Damasio studied a patient (Elliot) whom had had a tumor on his meninges removed Although Elliot could reflect talk count and remember he was unable to make good decisions manage his time or execute tasks in several steps An experiment showed that he felt no emotion when presented with shocking photos Because it consisted uniquely of sang-froid Damasiorsquos conclusion was that the faculty of reasoning was affected by the emotional deficit the loss of the ability to experience emotions could be the source of irrational behavior According to him the brain would therefore be a series of loops and infinite cross-referencing between the intellect and the affect
His next studies conducted in collaboration with other researchers [BEC 98 BEC 99] demonstrate that decision-making is a process that is dependent on emotion Some of his studies prove that damage to the ventromedial prefrontal cortex prevents the ability to use the emotions necessary to guide decisions in an advantageous direction In the anatomical analysis of 10 subjects with damaged brains and 16 normal subjects the results demonstrate that damage to the amygdala of the brain the locus of emotions disrupts decision-making
To support this perspective according to Berthoz [BER 03] throughout human
history there seem to be several examples that demonstrate the influence of
emotions on decision-making For example between 1978 and 1980 Stansfield
Turner director of the CIA decided not to order the destruction of a foreign
plane declared to be transporting nuclear missiles on American territory
Despite the imminent danger he did not make the decision to act The events that
followed would prove he was right as the information that had been
communicated to him was false and related to a simple technical error in
12 Translation from French
Managing Individuals 57
transmission Why did he react this way faced with a crucial danger putting in
danger his life and the lives of millions of people Had he considered that it could
be an error Did he evaluate his decision based on his values his representations
No one knows not even him
Case Study 211 Example of an ldquoirrationalrdquo decision
253 Decision and the neurobiological process
In order to better understand and visualize it below is a short overview of the anatomy of the nervous system based on descriptions by Vincent [VIN 86] Damasio [DAM 94] Laborit [LAB 94] and Berthoz [BER 03]
The brain has central parts and peripheral parts
ndash the central system is composed of a right hemisphere and a left hemisphere united
by the corpus callosum ventromedial regions (a set of connective fibers
convergence zone and white matter)
ndash the central nervous system including the diencephalon contains the thalamus and
the hypothalamus placed respectively at the center and under the hemispheres as
well as the midbrain brainstem cerebellum spinal cord and others
In the central nervous system the arrangement of the gray matter provides
information about its role
ndash in layers this corresponds to the cortex which forms the outer layer covering the
hemispheres the most recently evolved part of the cortex is called the neocortex
generally associated with cognition
ndash arranged like nuts gray matter corresponds to different nodes buried in each
hemisphere such as the amygdala (almond-shaped) it is the least recent part in
terms of evolution the limbic cortex associated with emotion
These two systems are interrelated by electrical currents diffusing from neurons (cell
bodies) to the points of contact (synapses) by conductors (axons) The synapses can
then release the neurotransmitters chemical messengers that will carry the message
through the spinal cord and the peripheral nervous system (corporeal) to the next
neuron and to different organs or glands in order to trigger action (or not) and
transmit information about the result back to the brain To put it simply depending
on the situation some parts of the brain (an electrical factory) send through
neurons messages (neurotransmitters) to a point of contact (synapse) that will in
turn send the message to another point of contact and so on until the message
arrives at its destination the body (a chemical factory) At the time of the
58 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
last point of contact the message is decoded (the electrical message becomes a
chemical message) so that it can be read by the receptor
In the context of decision-making both systems (central and peripheral) play a role
[BEC 98 BEC 99 BEC 00 BER 03] More precisely it is the ventromedial regions
notably the prefrontal cortex and the amygdala that come into play The
ventromedial zone located in the prefrontal cortex is where representations that the
individual constructs of a situation are stored This is where the information is
classified based on the experience of the individual and where scenarios describing
the likely consequences of a decision can be found This zone is also directly related
to the so-called primary regions of the cortex such as the motor region certain
ganglions or the amygdala As a central receptor for information the latter is
according to the metaphor used by Damasio ldquothe Bureau of Standards and
Measuresrdquo [DAM 94 p 250] In this sense experiencing an emotion activates the
amygdala of the brain which triggers among other things the ventromedial cortex
The latter sends signals to the motor system so that the muscles create the
expression of emotions on the face and specific postures in the body and activate
endocrine and nervous system hormone secretors (chemical neurotransmitters)
inducing changes in the state of the body and the brain Each of these actions allows the
individual to perceive a corporeal and mental state This is what provides him or her
with information about the choice to make
In a decision-making situation the cognitive brain and the limbic system (emotions)
send messages concurrently The cognitive brain makes an inventory of the
consequences of each probable choice It sends each scenario to the limbic brain
which acts like a customs checkpoint The latter selects the best scenarios or the most
relevant messages For each message received it sends a message directly to the part
of the brain that triggers bodily movements starting from the feeling of the individual
in a given scenario This allows the individual to quickly and distinctly perceive the
message Finally it stores the best scenarios which are the ones that correspond best to
the values interests and experiences of the individual a work that is always carried out
together by the parts of the brain The process continues in this way until there is only
one choice left the best one according to the individualrsquos perception
Case Study 212 Description of the neurological functioning of a decision
The studies by Bechara et al [BEC 98 BEC 99 BEC 00] and Damasio [DAM 94] demonstrate that when making a decision the so-called secondary emotions because they result from representations and images related to scenarios with probable
Managing Individuals 59
consequences for the decision to be made intervene and activate the amygdala and the ventromedial systems One of the results of their latest study [BEC 99 BEC 00] showed that more bad decisions were made by patients with damage to the ventromedial cortex and the amygdala compared to patients with damage to the hypothalamus or who are totally normal These individuals reiterated their poor decisions despite the repetition of experience because the emotion emulating the action could not be inhibited by the prefrontal cortex according to Berthozrsquos theory [BER 03]
Lazarus [LAZ 91] argues that the emotionndashdecision relation is clear Decisions depend on values that revolve around our humanity religion politics loyalty righteousness justice compassion or even trust and personal interest In that respect the maximization of utility by a purely cognitive decision presupposes that each person knows and is aware of his or her own interest Yet according to the economists we only know it when we are wrong
Berthoz [BER 03] indicates that concerning the cognitionndashemotion debate [IZA 84 LAZ 91] emotion has a role that is essential but not consciously perceived in the pre-categorization of stimuli that guide cognitive assessment As confirmation according to the computational approach emotion ldquoalerts the consciousness to evaluate the situation identify what triggered this activity and reorganize the action plansrdquo [BER 03 p 67] Gratch [GRA 00] provides us with an example by establishing a computer program to monitor decision-making in the context of military aviation plans Starting from the observation that the current programs are limited by their incapacity to model different moderators influencing the performance of troops on the ground such as stress emotions and individual differences he mathematically models the way in which individuals evaluate events emotionally and the influence of this evaluation on decision-making Another case supports this argument decisions made under the influence of anger Lerner and Tiedens [LER 06] present the fact that this emotion disrupts the objectivity and rationality that is useful for decision-making When angry individuals experience excessive confidence and optimism which encourages rash risk-taking
60 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
The objective of these descriptions is to show that the intervention of emotions in decision-making is not only effective but also shared by all human beings regardless of the context (private or professional life) status or hierarchical level of the individual confronted with making a decision Probable distinctions are located in the essential and crucial aspect of the consequences of this or in other words in the type of decision to make Research shows that emotions guide us throughout our daily life Whether they are negative or positive they are meaningful for our decisions
254 Decision and emo-management
In a context like the one in an organization decision-making is especially perceived as a rational process because it is anchored in an essentially economic domain However the decisional rationality of managers is also subject to emotions just like each member of the organization Faced with fierce competition the company and its decision-makers must make fast and effective strategic decisions In order to make the best decisions conventional theories which assume that the decision-makers maximize their expected utility through a complete rational analysis of the information are opposed to neo-classical theories that argue that decision-makers have limited capacities to dissect and assess this information The difficulty that these conventional theories encounter in their study of the behavior of economic and rational individuals is that each partially or totally irrational behavior must be randomized and excluded because it is deviant [AKE 82] Since then some studies have considered intuition and irrationality in decision-making [FRA 03 HEI 88 SIM 87] This intuition or irrationality is considered to be a predictor in the context of decision-making with a lack of information or partial information In 2003 in the section of his article entitled ldquoLa dimension strateacutegique du recours agrave lrsquoexternalisation les contributions anteacuterieuresrdquo (p 27) Fimbel [FIM 03] explained ldquoIn the decision-making phase the issues are the subject of an assessment in which the degree of rationality is limited these concerns can be understood as a set of gains or losses that the operation in question will produce Finally in the duration the
Managing Individuals 61
operational phase will reveal the qualitative and quantitative intensity of the real strategic effects which is to say the intensity of the gains andor losses observedrdquo
In addition the concept of cognitive dissonance [FES 57] notably used in organizational strategy indicates that individuals have a tendency to persist in their convictions when faced with contradictory evidence Whatrsquos more this contradiction is perceived as a confirmation of their first conviction This approach leads to considering that companies react in the same way and show themselves to be resistant to change due to their certainty when faced with an opposite or divergent approach Individuals place more importance on the state of their situation compared to a level of reference rather than on ldquoabsoluterdquo characteristics [HEL 64] This established fact suggests that companies do not imitate simply to copy but out of interest In addition to this definition the cognitive dissonance described by Festinger [FES 57] has another aspect that is as much cognitive as it is emotional One of the reasons for this imitation is not to be marginalized and to ensure positive relationships with different actors surrounding the company The contagion that companies can demonstrate as shown in studies about in-progress bankruptcies and the influence of negotiation [ALE 01] is a considerable driving force for the implementation of a new paradigm of practices and managerial perspectives According to these studies contagion can occur extremely quickly (avalanche theory [ALE 01]) However it can be managed if the decision-maker is aware of the many decisional biases that affect decisions and the psychological neurological and sociological processes that the decision follows
The European Helicopter Safety Analysis Team (EHSAT) in its analysis of
helicopter accidents between 2000 and 2005 indicated in its final 2010 report that
ldquoWe observed that most of the fatal crashes were due to errors in judgment rather
than errors in perception or execution Many incidents were also connected to errors
in decision-making These could translate into accidents if the situation was not
rectified in time Although we cannot eliminate human error an in-depth
understanding of the principles of human factors can lead to appropriate strategies
62 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
methods and practical tools in order to prevent most errors better detect and
manage them and limit their negative impact on air safetyrdquo13
Case Study 213 Example of decisional bias
Therefore managing an individual requires an emo-management that
ndash views the individual as a being gifted in the strategy of adjustment and adaptation capable of limiting dissonances and responding to the companyrsquos needs
ndash considers emotions as a limiting factor of discontent in the workplace
ndash considers the impact of emotions on well-being in the workplace which is very meaningful in an era when some companies are leading by example and reaping substantial benefits
ndash considers the rational to which the manager has been subject for several years under its emotional aspect Damasio [DAM 94] specifies that emotion precedes cognition The decision cannot be made without emotion
In this regard emo-management gives the individual the opportunity to be successful
255 Decision emo-management and contagion
Loewenstein and Lerner [LOE 03] outline a theory of the contagion of decisions through emotions They use the example of an investor confronted with the choice of a risky investment To make his decision the individual attempts to predict the probabilities of different consequences earning or losing money The immediate emotion when he makes his decision anxiety can either discourage him or cause him to dismiss his regrets if it proves to be a bad choice To limit the risk the choice of the investor can also be to imitate
13 Translation from French Available online at httpswwwecologique-solidairegouvfrsitesdefaultfilesSymposium2012_HE4pdf
Managing Individuals 63
others and make similar decisions The image of the stock market crash can be used to illustrate this situation If human decision-making depends on an emotional process then a decision can be dependent on its contagion an emo-decisional contagion Because in an organization getting all actors to accept a decision is vital the emotional aspect of the decision can prove to be a powerful tool [VAN 08a] According to Lazarus [LAZ 91] emotion induces the individualization of the decision Every person has his or her own interests and personal values which lead notably in the context of an organization to a multiplication of decisions and individual choices that complexify effective successful management We find ourselves once again in an issue of decisional individualism versus collectivism This raises several questions
Since it has been shown that decision-making is dependent on emotion and contagion what about collective decisions It has also been proven that human relations depend on emotions that have allowed the human species to survive since its very beginning through the social instinct that resulted from it Does this precious combination favor more rational judgment
3
Managing a Collective
31 An evidence-based approach for effective collective decision-making understanding the process of emo-decisional contagion
The decisional processes described for many years in the research seem to have similar foundations at first glance regardless of whether they are individual or collective decisions aside from the negotiation or discussion aspect that is involved However some of the studies that focus on game theory and decision-making analyze different types of imitation dynamics based on which agents are more inclined to adopt popular andor winning strategies [FUD 05] ndash decisions that were a success or that the majority can appreciate In a group and especially in a crowd individuals more easily become fierce imitators (such as via herd mentality mimicry) They tend to lose their own reference frame to share common beliefs and to communicate their collective emotion between themselves acting in the same way even to the point of engaging in excesses Greed fear admiration enthusiasm contempt hatred and many other emotions influence the action of investors This causes the stock market to fluctuate rapidly It has often been suggested in the literature that competitors in an oligopolistic market can be guided more by imitation than by calculations of profitability Following a suggestion by Todt [TOD 70 TOD 71 TOD 81 TOD 96] in the analysis of an experimental study of investment decisions and price fixing Goyal and Vega-Redondo [GOY 07] Rhode and Stegeman [RHO 01] Schlag [SCH 98] and Vega-Redondo [VEG 97] describe the process of imitation as a
The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management First Edition Delphine van Hoorebeke copy ISTE Ltd 2018 Published by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley amp Sons Inc
66 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
factor in decision-making faced with competition in the context of game theory
In the same way however in the context of the theories of natural selection and evolution there is a presumption that competition excludes irrational entities Although according to these models group behavior seems more rational than individual behavior it can be supposed that a company viewed as a decision-making group occasionally feigns its rationality It seems reasonable to assume the opposite far from being the exception these models assume these irrational behaviors (and supposed anomalies) are the norm in decision-making Based on comparative studies of individual and collective decisions there does not appear to be a real consensus on the predominance of one or the other regardless of the domain of study (see Table 31) However there is a consensus within organizations the decision-making process cannot be understood in terms of one single actor in an individual way The decision-making process is collective and sequential in organizations [ALL 71] Decision-making processes in organizations generally involve several actors interacting with one another [SMO 02]
Decision-making
Risk-taking Participants take significantly fewer risks when they are in a group [MAS 09]
Trust According to Kugler et al [KUG 12] the group has a similar level of trust as the individuals have between themselves
Information Information has more influence on a decision when it is shared than when it is not [STA 89]
Framing effect
ndash Is reduced when making decisions in a group [NEA 86] ndash Is greater for decisions in homogenous groups [PAE 93] ndash Is not significantly increased or decreased when making decisions in a group [WEB 09] ndash Is amplified by the group [YAN 11]
Rationality The group members mutually correct their errors and pool complementary resources [STA 01]
Similar choices Advantages
Collaborative decision-making makes it possible to better discern and better understand problems [TUR 01]
Table 31 Comparative studies of collectiveindividual decision-making
Managing a Collective 67
Although there is not a complete consensus on the concepts in Table 31 it is still undeniable and taken for granted that there are a multitude of individual and collective biases involved in decision-making
If the individual biases are extremely numerous a review of collective biases interacting with decisional rationality also supports the involvement of emotion in individual and collective biases From an individual perspective according to the results of the neurological study by De Martino et al [DEM 06] the decisional bias of the framing effect or the effect of manipulating the formulation of choices is limited when emotion is managed Their study reveals specific activation in areas of the brain that are not active during decision-making without manipulation The activation of the emotional zone ndash the brainrsquos amygdala in this case ndash is significantly more intense when individuals choose the positive formulation ldquochance of winningrdquo The authors conclude ldquoOur data raise an intriguing possibility that more lsquorationalrsquo individuals have a better and more refined representation of their own emotional biases that enables them to modify their behavior in appropriate circumstancesrdquo [DEM 06 p 686]
The framing effect was revealed [TVE 80] through an experiment that revolved around a hypothetical epidemic threatening the USA The number of victims was estimated at 600 people Two programs were proposed to fight it If program A was adopted 200 people would be saved if program B was chosen there was one chance in three that the 600 people would be saved and a probability of two out of three that no one would be saved The choice 72 of participants chose program A and 28 chose program B
The researchers then reproduced the same experiment with other participants This time they presented not the number of people that would be saved but the number of people who would not survive It was explained to the subjects that if program A was chosen 400 people would die and if program B was chosen there was a probability of 1 out of 3 that no one would die and a probability of 2 out of 3 that 600 people would die These program results are exactly equivalent to the previous ones but the presentation is different a positive aspect as opposed to a negative aspect They are framed differently In the second experiment 78 of participants chose program B and only 22 chose program A
The two authors concluded that human beings have a tendency to refuse to take risks when they think of the potential gains (as in the first phase of the experiment) and accept to take them when they think of the potential losses (as in the second phase of the experiment) The framing effect reveals that opinions may differ when messages about the same subject are presented in different lights causing individuals to evaluate them based on different considerations
Case Study 31 The framing effect
68 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
There is no consensus to privilege the collective over the individual in decision-making but there is a consensus about the fact that the collective like the individual has its own biases An analysis of the literature points out that emotional bias is significant in collective decision-making (see Table 32)
Collective bias Definition Terms related to the emotion
Groupthink [JAN 82] Conformism effort to establish a consensus at the expense of a realistic evaluation of alternatives
Conformism
Halo effect [THO 20 ASC 55]
Effect of contamination Selective interpretation and perception of information in line with a first impression that we try to confirm
Contamination
Sunflower management [BOO 05]
Tendency to align with the leaderrsquos vision
Social influence by the vision of the leadership
Champion bias [LEF 06]
Evaluation based on the experience of a person rather than on facts
Social influence
Emo-decisional contagion [VAN 08a]
Effect of contagion of emotions experienced and expressed
Contagion unconscious mimicry
Table 32 Biases related to emotion
The surveys conducted by Alvesson and Spicer [ALV 15] regarding the paradox of stupidity revealed several examples of situations where reasonable decisions were ignored ldquoTop executives who rely on consultantsrsquo PowerPoint shows rather than careful analysis [hellip] IT analysts who prefer to ignore problems so as not to undermine the upbeat tone of their workplace [hellip] Marketing managers who are obsessed with their brand strategy while the only thing that should have mattered was the price Companies capable of spending millions on lsquorebranding exercisesrsquo and that in case of failure start again and again Senior figures in the armed forces who prefer to run rebranding exercises rather than military exercisesrdquo The positive impact of these different decisions favoring group cohesion and limiting disruptive questions which the authors call the paradox of stupidity
Case Study 32 Examples of stupid or biased decision-making
Managing a Collective 69
Table 32 highlights the emotional aspects perceptible in each of the collective biases listed It indicates that if the group is connected to emotion in order to create interpersonal relationships then unfortunately through a boomerang effect the same is true for biases
Faced with the observation that emotion is disruptive for decision-making in the form of a bias we should not neglect the fact that it can also prove to be a tool for rationalization In fact in his theory of somatic indicators Damasio [DAM 94] considers it to be an antecedent and a necessity for rational decision-making Another point that recurs in Table 32 can remedy this problem Collective decision-making is not only subject to group biases but also to the managerrsquos influence Managers must be aware that their attitudes and behaviors influence the group and collective judgment In this respect the emo-manager by ethical principle does not wield this power inappropriately Emotion can prove to be a harmful tool Nevertheless it is important not to forget the authenticity described in section 11 Emotion cannot be based on calculating and manipulative strategies at the risk of destroying its advantages for the group and the company If emo-managers must know how to be charismatic leaders who can consciously and unconsciously influence a group they must also know how to lead by example avoid excessively emotion-driven decisions as shown in the previous example and have the honesty to alert the group to biases that it may confront
32 The art of leading authentic leadership and emotional intelligence
To influence human behavior in the workplace the leadership of a manager is qualified as ldquotransformationalrdquo by Burns [BUR 78] or as charismatic leadership [BAS 99] Koestenbaum [KOE 87] dedicates his first reflections on leadership by trying to relate it to the ethical dimension considering that management and leadership are catalysts for commitment [PET 83] According to Le Bas [LEB 04] current thinking revolves around reflections about leadership and ethics in companies as a state of mind Leadership comes from the Anglo-Saxon verb ldquoto leadrdquo Here again we find the concepts of leading and guiding close to the term of managing What is the difference It is assumed that
70 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
a manager is not necessarily a leader A leader is seen as a personality and has political psychological and social influence over an individual or a group Leaders have personal skills that make them different and allow them to be listened to and followed by a group of people Managers manage things Leaders manage people [KOT 90]
Leaders work with people and must try in spite of this to ensure decisional autonomy Unfortunately according to Koestenbaum [KOE 87] the traditional scheme hopes for and relies on absolute control which does not ensure the subjectrsquos emancipation A companyrsquos staff do not often have any other option than to submit to authority It is with this in mind that this section attempts to understand how what some people call ldquofreely consenting to submitrdquo can be a totally legitimate and natural reaction
To understand this let us return to the details of how emotions work In everyonersquos daily lives including in organizations emotions are integral to the phenomenon of expression which is to say to behavior [AND 96] Nevertheless the natural condition of emotion is to be expressed interpersonally Emotive expression includes actions that occur in private (such as grimacing and swearing if we hit our hand with a hammer) spontaneous emotive expressions (such as smiling automatically in response to someone elsersquos smile) and strategic communication (such as telling someone that we love them before critiquing them) Humans can also express (or not) emotion using rules of expression that involve their emotive expression in a logical and strategic manner based on their personal objectives or the rules of social norms [GUE 98]
321 The manager and emotions
To re-establish the link with the managerrsquos and leaderrsquos behavior Fitness [FIT 00] indicates that several people interviewed in his study said that they had feigned anger in order to intimidate their subordinates In this context the emotion of anger is used as an intimidation tactic [OAK 96] Angry individuals are more often perceived as ldquodominantrdquo [CLA 97 VAN 07b] In addition this study indicates that anger from a hierarchical superior far from being
Managing a Collective 71
shocking is expected by employees Another study analyzes the place of emotional work and emotional power in the workplace for care staff It shows that emotional labor is an integral part of the task of nurses and considers that we should understand emotion as a source of power [TRE 96] On this topic Lazarus [LAZ 91] like Hochschild [HOC 83] discusses social influence and compares the power and status of hierarchical superiors to those of parents According to this point of view several or even all types of emotions play a role in the superiorndashsubordinate relationship [KEM 78] Kemper [KEM 78] defines power as an individual possessing the capacity to command others Some feel safe holding power over other people while others feel awkward The first group can feel anxious or sad when they do not benefit from this power sufficiently or at all while the second group considers it unfair that they benefit from it and feel guilty
The study by Dasborough and Ashkanasy [DAS 02] shows that leadership is an inherently emotional process in which leaders express emotions and tend to cause emotions to be felt in others Humphrey [HUM 02] supports this view specifying that in certain circumstances the expression of emotions has more impact on the perception of the leader than on the content of the leaderrsquos message and that one of the keys to leadership is to manage the emotions of the group In this context studies have demonstrated that the ability of managers to manage their own emotions and influence those of others has an impact on results and performance Although in this case leaders play an important role (namely bringing out the best in others) the results of another study [BON 07] demonstrate that leaders influence employees in different ways Employees whose supervisors express more positive emotions demonstrate that they experience positive emotions in their interactions with their leader The employees experience these positive emotions throughout their workday including in their interactions with colleagues and clients and feel more satisfaction at work and less stress
322 The manager and emotional intelligence
According to Goleman [GOL 97] leaders require a certain emotional intelligence and certain skills in the art of managing other
72 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
peoplersquos emotions but also in managing their own emotions as well as the ability to reward themselves and others to understand control and redirect emotions and to feel personal and social emotions With this in mind Goleman created a typology in four categories based on personal competence social competence recognition of emotions and regulation of emotions self-awareness social awareness self-management and relationship-management Self-awareness combines personal competence and recognition of emotions while social awareness includes social competence and the recognition of emotions
George [GEO 90] specifies that dynamic enthusiastic and energetic managers are likely to stimulate their subordinates and similarly managers who feel anxious and aggressive will probably have a negative effect on their subordinates For example given that managers who display sadness seem less effective [LEW 00] their subordinates will seem less enthusiastic and motivated through contact with them The importance of emotions is used as a directive tool in leadership styles that encourage the charismatic aspect of the manager Consequently managers are charismatic [HOU 77] primal [GOL 02] and transformational to the extent that the charismatic style is a part of the transformational leadership style [BAS 85] using emotions to motivate employees communicate ideas and prompt interest from employees to attain strategic long-term ideals and objectives [BER 01] Transformational managers must not only be receptive to the needs of their subordinates and pay attention to each one of them or at least give the impression of doing so (a task that requires getting involved on an emotional level) but must also feel and display optimism [ASH 00b]
There is no doubt that these leadership styles can have a great deal of success However recommending the use of emotions as a management tool does have a certain number of risks [ZER 08] First managers who strategically use their emotions risk having to regularly ldquocreaterdquo the emotions necessary to reach a particular objective In addition the success of transformational or charismatic leadership lies on the impression of authenticity that emerges from the managerrsquos emotions More precisely emotional behaviors used simply as management tools can prove to be ineffective or even produce unexpected harmful effects Employees react negatively to managers
Managing a Collective 73
whose tone betrays their words ndash a typical clash over simulated interest and sympathy [NEW 02] In addition managers who try in vain to hide negative emotions can be perceived to be manipulative and calculating [DAS 02] It is therefore important that transformational and charismatic leaders be masters of regulating emotions which is truly a considerable challenge Although emotions are universal [EKM 79] expressions depend on culture personality gender and other factors For these reasons people do not express emotions in the same way a fact that is increasingly important in multicultural company environments In fact the same emotion transmitted by a man a woman or a member of a different ethnic group is not perceived in the same way which has been demonstrated in the case of women occupying management positions [LEW 00 MOR 96 ROB 97]
323 Is everyone capable of emo-managing
Although some specific examples suggest that all hierarchical superiors have the ability to hold the position of manager nothing proves that they have the personality of a leader which is just as requested by most companies Is it essential
An example of so-called ldquoliberatedrdquo companies where every employee is seen as responsible shows that everyone can become a manager The company Favi is one of the companies that share its management method The title of a book about this company called The Company that Believes that Man is Good [FAV 06] advocates for the art of managing by leaving all autonomy to the operators This case is a counter-example In most companies it is expected that managers be leaders gifted with emotional intelligence to better manage the emotions of colleagues
In his article about what makes a leader in the Harvard Business Review in 2004 Daniel Goleman gives a specific example of emotional intelligence ldquoImagine an executive who has just watched a team of his employees present a botched analysis to the companyrsquos board of directors In the gloom that follows the executive might find himself tempted to pound on the table in anger or kick over a chair He could leap up and scream at the group Or he might maintain a grim silence glaring at everyone before stalking off But if he had a gift for self-regulation he would choose a different approach He would pick his words carefully acknowledging the teamrsquos poor performance without rushing to any hasty judgment He would then step back to consider the reasons for the failure Are they personal ndash a lack of effort Are there any mitigating factors What was his role in the debaclerdquo [GOL 04]
Case Study 33 Are we all leaders
74 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
Golemanrsquos text indicates that individual emotional intelligence is seen as a true performance According to Goleman et al [GOL 02] the most effective managers according to employees are those who listen are attentive to what goes on in the workplace and are capable of regulating their emotions
Although some articles note that emotional intelligence can be used for nefarious purposes the majority of studies about emotional intelligence praise it extensively and consider it to be an indispensable skill for todayrsquos managers When the terms ldquoemotional intelligencerdquo are searched on the Internet a plethora of training courses tools guides and tests comes up This is because in todayrsquos competitive commercial climate organizations need leaders with technical skills and with people skills to maintain a competitive advantage
To return to the somewhat contradictory example of the liberated company note that a new form of emotional intelligence is now taking precedence group emotional intelligence It is a movement that is based on the involvement of a set of intelligences to construct a collective intelligence ldquoGroup intelligence [hellip] depends on emotional intelligencerdquo [GOL 14 p 234]
An exploratory quantitative study analyzes the invention of group emotional intelligence on collaborative remote work [DEB 16] Although it has not been studied extensively collaborative remote working is an effective concept for work now and in the future In the goal of better understanding the inner workings to improve management this study focuses on managementrsquos direct impact on group creativity and performance The concept of mediated collaborative work is described as another type of group work These so-called virtual teams are groups of people who collaborate to execute a specific project They are dispersed in time and space without this distance being an obstacle for their collaboration They communicate thanks to modern technologies managed by computer [LEE 03] Virtual teams offer several advantages over traditional teams However their flexibility also faces challenges due to their own integral characteristics Given the separation in time and space some factors can negatively affect communication between members by creating a conflict The concept of group emotional intelligence is seen as a dimension of collective intelligence It is assessed for its role as a moderator of connections between the collaborative work performance and creativity of the group Since Tannenbaum et al [TAN 92] show that group performance is influenced by the characteristics process and structure of the group emotional intelligence is seen as a characteristic of the group as in Jordan and Lawrence [JOR 09] where the area studied is a professional and amateur collaborative discussion site about botany with the goal of completing
Managing a Collective 75
international projects The first results obtained were drawn from 40 usable questionnaires Thanks to these results it is possible to assume that collective work by mediation is indeed marked by creativity and group performance seen through its ldquoproblem-solvingrdquo aspect Group emotional intelligence takes on its full meaning there demonstrating a very significant relation between emotional intelligence and collaborative remote working
Case Study 34 Study of the influence of emotional intelligence on the performance and creativity of a remote group
Has group leadership become the new key to a collective emotional intelligence In any case in companies it is unfortunately not enough for the manager and the team to demonstrate charisma and emotional intelligence it is also necessary to anticipate the future and focus on maintaining quality even improving over time with continuous improvement This improvement can prompt regular changes and modifications and these changes must be accepted by each member of the company
33 The art of reconciling the present with the future the principle of continuous improvement
Continuous improvement in a company can effectively lead to constant regulatory and economic changes Resulting from updating the standards or a prospective strategy this improvement considers the employeesrsquo acceptance of change This factor is essential for implementing any process Because of this there is a lot of research investigating the concepts of resistance to change change management and the adoption of organizational change According to Guilhon [GUI 98] organizational change is generally defined as ldquoa process of radical or marginal transformation of the structures and skills that punctuate an organizationrsquos evolutionary processrdquo A change is a passage from state 1 to state 2 This change can meet with success or failure One of the criteria of success is the acceptance and then appropriation of the project by the relevant actors
76 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
331 Change and emotion
Most research highlights the cognitive aspect of the adoption of change It proposes tools such as various forms of information training or influence by leaders or champions [GRI 03] capable of leading the majority to adhere to the change through rational persuasion tactics (raising awareness about the targets with oral communication articulating the alignment of a project with the target priorities directly convincing the targets through speech) However according to some researchers including Le Bon [LEB 63] Durkheim [DUR 67] and Hatfield et al [HAT 94] this ignores an important human factor the emotional aspect which can be contagious One research current in particular about the intervention of emotion in organizational change has been gradually growing for a few years Liu and Perreweacute [LIU 05] suggest a procedural model describing the role of emotions in organizational change According to the authors during the period of change ambiguity and uncertainty gradually appear and evaluation of gains andor losses for the individual or the organization also surfaces Until the period of change comes to an end emotions of varying intensity and content are experienced prompting various attitudes and behaviors Howard [HOW 06] argues that in the context of organizational change positive emotion facilitates the individual intention to change A study by Zid [ZID 06] complements these findings and demonstrates that organizational change has an effect on emotions during changes employees feel emotions that are both positive (50) and negative (50) and the explanation and comprehension of changes has positive effects on certain emotions In his case study Huy [HUY 02] analyzes the effect of emotional engagement in middle managers on the adaptation to change through learning an engagement that has been shown to be key Regardless emotion cannot be absent from a period of change because it serves at all times as a safeguard as it is described by research in psychology and psychobiology Changes in the organizational values of the collective in the workplace that we notice during strategy changes company takeovers reorganizations privatizations etc are often experienced by the people concerned as serious breaches of the psychological contract with the company these breaches cause strong negative and painful emotions which can even be similar to a grieving
Managing a Collective 77
process and can translate into de-motivation and rejecting or resisting the change [ROU 03]
A paper written by Zouhaoui Boisard-Castelluccia and van Hoorebeke [ZOU 16] studies this resistance It has been the subject of a lot of research notably in its cognitive aspect Nevertheless one element remains little-studied the role of emotions That was the objective of this study Through participant observation over about two years at an international service company facing a change in computer software the role of the balance necessary between emotions and cognitions was revealed The results obtained included
ndash a series of resignations including by people involved in the change project
ndash staff reluctance or blocking faced with the gradual but imposed change
ndash categorical rejection of the tool by 13 of users
ndash the change provoked by this project not only concerned the work methods of the actors but also the content of their missions
ndash constant pressure from the manager on the team to finish training and tests related to the new software despite the teamrsquos work load
ndash the attitude of the manager forced the team not to share real impressions but to use simulated behaviors that were appropriate to expectations
Faced with this failure management decided to entrust this process to a team of external experts
In this context the emotions experienced are negative and lead to emotional exhaustion They remain hidden and inhibited but behaviors allow them to be perceived (demotivation lack of enthusiasm etc) revealing a real cognitionndashemotion conflict The team does not get involved and suffers in silence forcing the manager who is compelled to follow the change process to the result expected by management to request external intervention
Case Study 35 Analysis of an organizational change and the emotioncognition influence
This example shows not only to what point the change is connected to emotional impressions ndash inhibited in this case ndash but also to what point the psychological contract established between managers and employees is fragile In fact regarding the acceptance of change one factor is key in this psychological contract (perceived to be breached in this case) and it is a factor that organizations attempt to preserve trust [MOR 02] Although the reputation of partners and the perception of honesty and integrity are evaluated by each actor freely the emergence of implicit and explicit rules obliges them to follow the
78 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
choice enforced by the organization Paradoxically the employee is forced to have spontaneous trust
How can we invite an actor to adopt and even appreciate a change if the trust that they feel is forced Is it necessary for each actor to have immediate trust in order to commit
332 Change = trust = emotion
In fact actors can commit without trust through simulation [CAS 98] leaving the door open to power relations There are many examples that illustrate this idea Thus some employees who do not trust their hierarchical superior still execute their tasks and follow instructions but in a routine fashion Nevertheless the degree of cooperation that management can expect from these employees remains limited [BAB 99] The concept of emotional dissonance [MID 89] also takes on its full meaning here Imposing instructions forces the individual to behave in a certain way which also reveals the existence of a dissonance between feeling and expression identified by the individual given the imposed norms
No research seems to deny that emotions are an element that influences behavior when facing a change In addition although Baumard and Benvenuti [BAU 98] identify four types of trust the literature resulting from research in sociopsychology supports a distinction between only two forms of trust Johnson-George and Swap [JOH 82] distinguish and test two dimensions of trust reliability and emotional trust Similarly Rempel et al [REM 85] makes a distinction between security and faith as unique forms of trust Finally McAllister [MCA 95] reveals one dimension based on the cognitive and another dimension based on the affective which are interconnected
Cognitive trust is positioned from a rational point of view and considers competence responsibility integrity credibility and consistency [SCO 80] It is said to be based on the cognitive because the individual chooses who to trust according to what criteria and in what circumstances This choice is based on ldquogood reasonsrdquo that serve
Managing a Collective 79
as foundations for trust decisions It is especially necessary for affective trust in fact a certain level of cognitive trust is necessary for its development [MCA 95]
Like emotion is distinguished from rationality so affective trust is distinguished from cognitive trust [DAM 94] Affective trust has an emotional connotation It is based on care altruism involvement commitment mutual respect the ability to listen and understand and a belief in reciprocity of feelings [SCO 80] The affective foundations of trust correspond to the emotional ties that exist between individuals Individuals make emotional investments in trust relationships express care feel concerned about others and believe in the virtue of these relationships and that their feelings are mutual [MCA 95] The results of McAllisterrsquos study [MCA 95] demonstrate the importance of relationships built on affective trust and the expressive qualities of interpersonal behavior In particular he specifies that research in management recognizes that a large part of managerial work is accomplished through interpersonal action and that the nature of the relationships between managers and their peers can determine their capacity to accomplish their work and accept change
Definitively affective trust is a prerequisite for accepting change It is also intangible and difficult to control given its emotional character and thus remains a preoccupying problem for organizations The intangibility and the difficulty of controlling affective trust stems from the fact that it is the result of an emotional evaluation of the situation carried out by all actors concerned by a change As highlighted by Baba [BAB 99] its complexity comes from its existence at all levels of the organization ndash micro- meso- and macroscopic ndash and in relationships with international suppliers or with stakeholders closer to home colleagues
In order to promote affective trust between two or more parties managers must understand how individuals feel trust toward another person group or organization and how this trust evolves over time It is necessary to study it psychologically before identifying the essential
80 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
issue of the company leading an internal actor to feel real trust to accept and adopt the change and be flexible
Trust is a complex multidimensional mechanism whose affective dimension interacts with emotions In specific and general ways emotions act on several levels of trust which is to say upstream and downstream
First of all individuals often decide to trust someone after examining the emotions that they feel toward this person [JON 98] The step preceding the decision to trust corresponds to an evaluation of the emotion felt A positive emotion leads to trust while a negative emotion causes distrust
Second the emotional process that follows the traditional schema (emotion evaluation adaptation [LAZ 91]) is primarily based on experience This means that the way in which individuals will judge the interlocutor worthy of trust also depends on their affective experience with them Having experienced positive emotions causes individuals to perceive the situation of a solicitation of trust more positively More generally we talk about faith in human nature [GOU 71] As a concrete example we say things like ldquoI donrsquot feel connected to himrdquo
Third emotion is an expectation of human beings regarding trust If these expectations are not satisfied the emotions we feel warn us about a violation of trust [FRI 88] Emotions are a warning signal for a trust relationship In this sense they evolve over time in order to signal changes perceived in the experience of trust At each point of exchange emotions affect the experience and significance of the relationship
Finally it is the expression of the emotions experienced in the context of an experience of trust that will be consistent or not with the behavior expected by the organization and more specifically managers In fact it increases the probability that the parties will develop shared schemas entering into a collaborative relationship more quickly by adjusting to the other person and learning about one another
Managing a Collective 81
333 Change a shared emotional acceptance
Therefore a companyrsquos problem is partly due to affective trust because this causes publicly visible behaviors [FRI 00] and because it is the result of emotions that in the context of implementing change can go as far as to cause a project to fail [JEN 00] In fact a contagion-like effect gives emotions the ability to propagate rapidly between individuals in a social group [HAT 94] ldquoNegativerdquo emotions felt by certain actors can through this process spread to all levels and in doing so hinder all cooperation
A positive emotional contagion can lead to mass acceptance of an organizational change through the phenomenon of imitation The simplest case of contagion between individuals includes a minimum of two people one individual who has not yet adopted a change called ldquoegordquo by Burt [BUR 87] in contact with another individual called ldquoalterrdquo who has already adopted it The more similar the relations of ldquoegordquo and ldquoalterrdquo with other people are the more the alter that can be substituted for ego in relations with others If alter adopts before ego there is a good chance that they will become a source of more attractive relations than ego which pushes ego to adopt the change quickly and contributes to creating a feeling of competition between alter and ego Despite this vision of the adoption of change only the minority of research tends to demonstrate the impact of the affective in the context of adopting change notably with new technologies [GAG 03] Rogers [ROG 95] is one of the pillars in this domain with his description of the adoption of new products by consumers ndash he does not hide in any way the intervention of irrationality in a decision to purchase supporting the concept of imitation in behavior models This model of adoption that Bass [BAS 69] drew up and his mathematical formulation have been taken up by Vas [VAS 05] concerning the adoption of organizational change
Finally one question remains given the possible existence of an emotional contagion how can an internal andor an external actor be convinced that the strategic approach followed by the organization is
82 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
beneficial so that the actor feels and spreads the emotions perceived and authentically experienced as ldquopositiverdquo
334 Lever for the acceptance of change through emo-management
One proposed solution in addition to other more cognitive ones is based on research in sociology and more recently in information and communication sciences through the perceived critical mass effect [LOU 00] The authors argue that it is essential to create a critical mass of users or to reach a certain number of supporters in the first steps of implementing an internal network for it to be accepted by the majority This highlights the influence of the group on individuals The critical mass effect is based on the principle of adoption by imitation where innovators or early adopters adopt new technologies and influence late adopters who imitate them Of course it is important to underscore that this solution is not perfect because in the case of information technologies the interdependence between the two types of adopters is mutual [LOU 00] Thus an early adopter can also be influenced by a late adopter For instance if the late adopter is not inclined to accept a technology after a certain period the innovator may decide to reject it However Lou et alrsquos study [LOU 00] demonstrates the positive effect of perceived critical mass on the intention to use the perception of ease of use and the perceived utility
Given the influence of the critical mass on the group previously revealed by Maffesoli [MAF 96] among others the emotion that is then spread between individuals would be positive This would make it possible to promote affective trust and simultaneously promote the adoption of change [MOR 02] This is why companies must encourage emotional communication by individuals who have a specific aptitude in the matter [HAT 94] a relevant decisional message emotionally speaking With their emotions individuals imitate one another through emotional contagion in order to avoid any marginalization The message transmitted must then convince the majority of the group such that it adheres to the decision presented [BER 03] The use of these tools may appear simple at first glance
Managing a Collective 83
but their opportune use cannot be realized without the existence of organizational ethics and evidence of the existence of real trust between managers and employees
Continuous improvement is the hallmark of quality management Some companies have noticed that it is not only found at the level of customer relations or logistics It is also based on managerial innovation and good interpersonal relations In their book The Heart of Change Kotter and Cohen [KOT 02] indicate several steps to successfully implement a change based on an analysis of 100 company cases The first two are
1) to create a sense of urgency the example given is a company that played a video showing customers who were dissatisfied with the services provided by the company in order to prompt the employees to feel that it was high time to act
2) to consider that it is a story of heart members of the project team must become a source of inspiration through their optimism devotion credibility ability and networking
The Sciences Humaines website provides an evidentiary and constructed example of the role of emotion in change ldquoMichel is on a winter sports vacation with his friends This morning he let himself be dragged to the top of the ski hill As a beginner skier he is not comfortable on the black diamond slope Snowplowing is not ideal His friend Bertrand advises him to turn on the moguls by sliding his skis parallel like he did yesterday on the blue slopes But Michel clings to the technique that he knows the best For the moment taking the risk of falling on this steep slope is out of the question Michel adopts the behaviors that is most reassuring in the immediate even though he knows that this is not the best method to proceedrdquo1
Case Study 36 Change and emotion
This concern for control over emotion in the short term is a frequent obstacle for the progression of learning and change in companies Companies must try to find out the emotional level that the change elicits from their employees
In the same vein it should not be forgotten that the adherence of all members is essential to avoid the ldquoemotional plaguerdquo [REI 45] of a defiant majority or a possible outbreak of panic In this respect mutually beneficial relations and the climate of established trust detailed earlier become major assets
1 Available online at httpwwwscienceshumainescomle-role-des-emotions_fr_ 12036html
84 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
34 The art of bringing people together mutually beneficial relations with others and the social aspect of managerial responsibility
In a context subject to irrationality and imitation one of the other roles of managers is to ensure mutually beneficial relations internally in their teams Studies show that the closer the individuals are the faster the contagion and diffusion that occurs [ROG 95] In effect understanding social processes in work groups becomes an essential managerial focus given the organizational tendency to move toward high-performing and dynamic work team relationships
This focus shared between a company and an employee still faces existing conflicts between the economic and the social Owing to the struggle between the rational and emotional within an organization relations cannot be established there and even less in the sincere and authentic way that the company is looking for
Along the same lines research in management has put particular emphasis on the cognitive aspect of interpersonal relations exploring the cognitive method and process of sharing ideas memories and constructs While understanding the sharing of cognition contributes to discerning the group dynamic it does not represent the complete picture Only the affective and especially the emotional aspect make it possible to distinguish the quality of intragroup and intergroup interactions According to Barsade [BAR 02] one of the reasons for a company to consider group emotions would be to encourage the social cohesion of its employees
On the one hand according to Oketch [OKE 04] companies require social cohesion of their employees as a strategy to increase their profits and face periods of economic and budgetary restrictions On the other hand in some new technology and information organizations the concept of a community at work plays an important role
In the context of the concept of social capital or the management of company talent the existence of social cohesion is essential to the very function of the organization In this regard it consists of
Managing a Collective 85
fostering the group dynamic and establishing relationships between individuals Yet the diffusion of emotions in a group is a characteristic that is integral to the existence of the group [SAN 93 p 445] In fact as described in Chapter 1 emotions can be synchronized or imitated and become contagious Imitation corresponds to a step in the learning and socialization processes One of the explanations of these processes is emotional contagion even if it remains unexplained by research More than a process of synchronization and unintentional imitation when the same characteristics are synchronized with another individual we are capable of feeling them through the emotions of the other person which is to say feeling the same emotions or complementary emotions
341 Collective emotion arsenal of emo-management
This is why managers must pay particular attention to collective emotion a concept studied notably in the analysis of organizational behaviors such as the social cohesion of a group sharing of values and organizational culture [TIC 87] Emotionrsquos capacity for contagion can prove to be a considerable driving force for communication and emulation Through the cohesion that it can amplify it encourages performance through emulation and cooperation of teams spontaneity and trust [GEO 89 GEO 07b JON 98 WEI 93] Texts by George [GEO 89 GEO 90] demonstrate the influence of the grouprsquos mood on pro-social behavior in relation to colleagues and customers as well as performance and absenteeism Finally Barsade [BAR 02] demonstrates that group emotion dependent on emotional contagion influences the group dynamic and performance results corroborated by van Hoorebeke [VAN 07a] From another perspective an observational study ndash a case of participatory observation during a six-month strike in Canada ndash outlined the development of interprofessional relationships the creation of social interactions cohesion or even disconnections caused by negative emotional contagion [VAN 06]
86 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
During the six-month strike including three months where there were daily protests in the street group connections were solidified The objective of the study after observing the links created between individuals was to analyze the strength of the relations established The observation indicated that following the strike strong connections proved to be rarer than relations of work or courtesy According to the analysis of the observations gathered the social cohesion established during the strike appeared fragile There are several explanations for this First these people were brought together by a negative situation This situation highlighted a social interaction that appeared by definition between individuals in a relationship or not and referring to an event Second the negative and positive emotions felt remained fleeting and highly variable reinforcing their transient nature Third the ephemeral aspect of this one-off situation could lead to a social rapprochement whose importance tended to fade way over time Nevertheless research in psychology proves that an emotion that is felt and experienced remains etched on the affective memory consciously or unconsciously This fact contributes to extending the social rapprochement
Observed in the field ldquosolidrdquo connections were indeed created from this situation leading some individuals to discover common work interests for example After the strike the organizational climate was perceived as healthier and more relaxed by the majority of members Only one group of individuals was isolated indicating that the disconnections resulting from the negative emotions experienced at a certain time can continue but in their own terms in a situation that they voluntarily sought out In the six months following the strike a new confrontation arose between this group and the union regarding an increase in union dues The objective of this increase was to replenish the union coffers in two years while the group argued that the union had enough money coming from its investments However this observation shows that the members of the respective groups continued to communicate for professional reasons and that these confrontations did not negatively affect working relationships
Case Study 37 Emotion a factor in social connections and disconnections
342 A paradoxical arsenal positive and negative effects
The results obtained in the study described above clearly demonstrate the paradoxical effect of emotional contagion on interpersonal relations creating both cohesion and disconnection because the collective spirit is subject to individual differences [WEI 93]
This example points out that in spite of this emotions are factors of authenticity in relationships [GRA 05b VAN 08b] and promote lasting relationships when they are experienced and not feigned In a company managers seek out authenticity in their subordinates notably those in contact with customers or in work teams and aim to
Managing a Collective 87
inspire it ndash which seems to be a waste of time since emotions are not manipulable and normalizing them can only be paradoxical as in ldquobe spontaneousrdquo [WAT 80] Real social cohesion requires a synchronicity euphony and eurhythmy2 between actors [LEacuteP 05] According to The Standing Committee on Social Affairs3 social cohesion refers to a situation where everyone has the opportunity to establish basic social relations in society in the context of work family and social or political activities The affective contagion on which this is based is not moral We do not consider the value and the quality of othersrsquo feelings Form prevails over content Therefore the idea of the social contract presented by Rousseau (ldquoThere are a thousand ways of assembling men and only one of uniting themrdquo) shows that the establishment of a fundamental social pact is essential [MAL 96] This pact formed by the community of interests and the awareness of these interests is based on the absence of control restrictions and obligations ldquoEvery man submits his will to the general will and in doing so becomes free These operating conditions sanctify the contract and sustain itrdquo
To understand the concept of social cohesion it is necessary to distinguish the social connections that result from it individual interactions According to Reis [REI 01] cohesion refers to a lasting association between individuals Its existence implies that these people established connections with one another and that this link had specific properties such as a story or an awareness of the nature of this relationship that influenced the thoughts feelings and behaviors of each protagonist In contrast interaction appears between individuals whether or not they are in a relationship and refers to an event The common factor in these two types of human relations is emotions In interaction emotion is expressed ndash or rather simulated ndash whether it is felt or not and in cohesion emotion is experienced and then expressed hence the perception of authenticity [ASH 00a] Emotional reactions help all individuals to be aware of the situation and make connections with others [DAR 72] Simulation can destroy these
2 Euphony and eurhythmy harmony of sound and rhythms without wrong notes or breaks 3 Available online at httpslopparlcacontentlopresearchPublicationsprb0756-ehtml
88 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
reactions and impede someonersquos authenticity [ASH 00a] and the foundation of a sincere and engaged relationship established on effective trust In this respect only social linkage can help to form social cohesion
The Journal du Net gives us three examples of companies that innovated to emphasize the trust and dynamics required for interpersonal relations within the company
In France at Mars Chocolat CEO Thierry Gaillard organizes one 30-minute meeting every six weeks called ldquoCcedila se discuterdquo (ldquoThatrsquos debatablerdquo) where he answers any questions from his colleagues This practice is all the more intriguing since we know that employees have much less trust in their directors than in their direct managers
In India at HCL Technologies employees can express their doubts and questions on an internal forum called UampI (ldquoyou and Irdquo) to members of management (CEO included) who commit to answering them even if it is just to say that they do not know To establish trust management must take a step that is essential but not always pleasant for them authorizing the expression of doubts concerns and criticism It is better to channel these expressions than to let them spread through the halls around the coffee machine or with clients
In California the software publisher Intuit organizes what it calls ldquocelebrating failurerdquo to recognize failures in such a way as to ldquocollectively turn the pagerdquo and learn from mistakes To err is human so why deny it It is better to accept failures and make good use of them than to deny them and allow them to darken the mood and affect trust4
Case Study 38 Establishing trust examples
Consequently to achieve a true social cohesion formed from constructive links between all of the participants emotions must be synchronized or imitated and also felt by the parties as part of an established trust In this context it is the fact of feeling emotions that introduces a depth to the exchanges The individual is not faking they are authentic and sincere This solidifies the connection
According to Weick and Roberts [WEI 93] managers can only encourage the homogeneity of teams that facilitate the depth of connection However the time has come for managing cultural
4 Available online at httpwwwjournaldunetcommanagementexpert58679les-pratiques-manageriales-les-plus-innovantes-du-mondeshtml
Managing a Collective 89
diversity and group heterogeneity This requires not only regulating group emotions and building a climate of trust but also managing the diversity of individuals in order to create and learn together
35 The art of managing diversity learning and creating collectively
There has been an increasing interest in diversity management over the past 15 years related to the consideration of the ldquolearningrdquo dimension Diversity management no longer only consists of increasing the representation of different minorities in the workplace It is now built on a new paradigm of learning and efficiency [THO 96a] that no longer only considers individuals based on their appearance or background but according to the different knowledge and perspectives they can provide In other words diversity is no longer sought only in terms of equality but also in terms of learning about difference [BOI 10]
The literature in management sciences retraces 50 years of research on the effects of demographic diversity on a work team and its performance Although it does support the argument that the demographic diversity of a group has a certain influence on its processes and performance it does not clearly establish whether diversity is a source of performance Demographic diversity (or heterogeneity) corresponds to the degree to which a unit (a managing team work team or organization) is heterogeneous in terms of demographic characteristics age sex nationality seniority and the functional area in which individuals apply their training and finally family status [EIS 99]
Field studies over the past 50 years have shown that variations in group composition can have significant effects on performance [WIL 98] Demographic heterogeneity in terms of seniority sex and nationality could have negative effects on behavior in the workplace and on performance [CHA 98 SMI 94] Inversely increased demographic homogeneity could have positive effects on appreciation satisfaction commitment seniority and performance and reduce turnover [ELF 07] Authors like Earley and Mosakowski [EAR 00]
90 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
and Murray [MUR 89] have highlighted an intermediary approach based on which homogeneity and heterogeneity could both be sources of performance Heterogenous groups would be more effective in a changing environment while homogenous groups would be more effective in stable and competitive environments [MUR 89] For a team to benefit from its diversity and be effective it must manage to collectively learn ndash that is to create a common mental model or even a consensus characterized by the values beliefs and representations shared its members among other things [FIO 94] The creation of this common representation becomes a necessary condition for the teamrsquos performance
However the demographic diversity of a team creates situations where members have mental representations that are not totally compatible A mental representation is ldquothe product and process of a mental activity through which an individual or a group reconstructs the reality that it confronts and attributes a specific signification to itrdquo [ABR 89] The representation is then an organized set of opinions attitudes beliefs and information that refers to an object or a situation Conflict between the mental representations of different team members can stir up intragroup conflicts that are cognitive which can be a source of creativity Yet cognitive conflicts cannot emerge without the parallel appearance of another type of intragroup conflict affective conflicts which leech off the benefits of the cognitive conflict and affect the teamrsquos capacity to create a common mental model and thereby affect its performance
How then can we guarantee benefits from demographic diversity Could emotional contagion reduce the harmful effects of affective conflicts while preserving the compelling properties of cognitive conflicts
351 Diversity between conflicts and group work
Traditionally organization theorists assumed that conflict was harmful for the organization In the past few years hypotheses about organizational conflict have radically changed It is now considered inevitable and even a positive indicator of an organizationrsquos good
Managing a Collective 91
management It is generally accepted that conflict is both functional and dysfunctional for an organization It is functional when it provides better solutions to problems or when it makes it possible to reach the objectives of the individual the group and the organization It is essential to study the conflicts that take place within groups given that today individuals interact daily more and more often Conflict management is an important part of a teamrsquos efficiency To be effective teams must be able to manage the conflicts that are naturally part of their environment
The literature distinguishes two types of intragroup conflicts cognitive conflict and affective conflict Cognitive conflict involves opposing ideas within a group or a disagreement over content or task completion It is born out of differences in judgment or confrontations between different individual representations This type of disagreement is a natural part of a teamrsquos proper functioning It is natural in the sense that when members get together to make important decisions they all bring ideas opinions and perspectives that are different and representative of each personrsquos environment
Taken in isolation cognitive conflict appears when members examine compare and reconcile their differences This process is very important because it makes it possible to reach high-quality decisions that are understood and accepted by all This conflict is beneficial because it requires the engagement of the team in activities that are essential to its efficiency By facilitating open communication and making good use of the membersrsquo diversity (meaning their different gifts and skills) this type of conflict produces understanding and engagement in objectives and decisions The result is not only a better decision but a decision that can be applied more effectively To the extent that cognitive conflict is the result of confrontation between individual representations we can deduce that it elicits an internal conflict in the individual that is expressed in the form of cognitive dissonance [FES 57] By eliciting cognitive dissonance cognitive conflict will trigger individual learning within the person The learning individual modifies or radically changes their mental representations thereby creating something new We can then talk about creativity which is itself a source of performance Neurologists have described the process
92 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
of creativity This process is according to their analyses the result of several concurrent cognitive processes that include unfocused attention cognitive flexibility cognitive control and several cognitive constructs [DIE 04] Thanks to the cognitive dissonance that it creates group diversity allows for the reconstruction of mental representations This internal conflict makes it possible to break with inhibitions and open up to different perspectives
Within a diversified group cognitive and affective conflicts are necessarily born together as we cannot appear without the other When members have different perspectives there is often cognitive disagreement As this disagreement is frequently misinterpreted and perceived as a personal criticism affective conflict necessarily emerges in parallel It seems that an affective conflict situation is very harmful
To explain this consider that even if conceptually the affective is distinguished from emotion their link is such that they are often seen as more than indissociable since emotion is considered by some to be a dimension of the affective However emotions not only have specific characteristics that can harm human relations but they also have the particularity of not always being manageable
Consider these two conflictual configurations [BOI 10]
ndash The level of the cognitive conflict (CC) exceeds that of the affective conflict
(CA) CC gt CA In this case the team benefits fully from its diversity and the debate
of opinions that it elicits The negative effect of the affective conflict is neutralized
The emotions of the group are manageable
ndash Inversely the level of the affective conflict is greater than or equal to that of
the cognitive conflict CA ge CC The team is then overwhelmed by its affective
conflicts and cannot benefit fully from the wealth of its diversity Debates over
opinions become sterile and can be likened to settling accounts The emotions of group
members have taken over
Case Study 39 Analysis to limit an affective conflict that is problematic for the group
Managing a Collective 93
However only statistical studies examine this issue deeply which involve considering the group at only one moment t These studies have shown that affective conflict is detrimental to the performance of individuals and whole groups to the satisfaction of its members and to the probability that individuals involved in this group will work again in the future [JEH 95] The anxiety created by interpersonal animosity is likely to inhibit cognitive work and distract members from their tasks Owing to this they work less efficiently and produce sub-optimal results Inversely moderate levels of cognitive conflict are beneficial to group performance for certain types of tasks [JEH 95 JEH 97]
In our view effectively managing the demographic diversity of a team comes down to guaranteeing a type 1 conflict configuration which is a situation in which cognitive conflict exceeds affective conflict
352 Managing diversity with emo-management
In the specific work context striving for diversity management there is a solution to foster positive emotions and affect in a group positive emotional contagion as a catalyst and cohesive force for conflicts Barsade [BAR 02] demonstrates with experiments that not only is group emotion influenced by the dynamic and performance of the group it is also dependent on a contagion
An experimental study on 223 individuals broken down in to 29 teams demonstrated that positive contagion influenced group performance through the action of an actor who was involved in the experiment [VAN 07a] This accomplice selected for his contagion based on the scale presented in Hatfield et al [HAT 94] propagated a negative or positive emotion through acting The accomplice played the role of an evaluator who was satisfied or disappointed by the grouprsquos work According to the groups and during the execution of their work the actor spread a positive or negative contagion The results obtained confirm those obtained by Barsade [BAR 02] and show that teams performed better when group emotional contagion was provoked and judged positive
Case Study 310 Emotional contagion a factor in group performance
94 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
Annual reports for publicly traded companies indicate that cultural diversity is an asset in the context of globalization and in terms of image a point that is essential for the good operation of a new management system in both the context of NorthndashSouth relations and from a socio-global angle In this respect studies show that when well-managed diversity is a real competitive advantage in favor of performance and creativity Unfortunately the existence of affective conflicts can lead to demotivation resulting in the counter-performance of a team if it is poorly managed
Recruitment firms propose candidates based on a diversity that corresponds perfectly to the profile requested by the company which makes the ultimate decision However ldquothis does not fix everythingrdquo says Mariam Khattab a recruiter and adviser at the firm Mozaiumlk Nevertheless diversity has several advantages for companies opening up the diversity of customers and backers accentuating creativity and creating a dialogue between stakeholders with different backgrounds5
Case Study 311 Diversity several advantages
353 Emo-management a factor in diversity
Despite the cognitive and affective differences that can create conflicts heterogenous groups encourage not only high-quality group work and synergy but most of all creativity [CHA 01 TOL 02] Heterogeneity limits the effect of conformism which is reduced because differences within the group are affirmed Nevertheless as is the case early in the life of a group heterogeneity can give way to individual affinities that can favor conformism in the long term In fact when a group is created the group composition is an important initial factor that can have permanent effects on its affective and cognitive processes When a work group meets for the first time the social identity [TAJ 04] and self-categorization theory [TUR 87] require that members define their social categories within the group When individuals are familiar with the differences that exist between members they can favor those who they consider similar to themselves and isolate themselves from those who they perceive to be
5 Available online at httpswwwzamanfrancefrarticlemanagement-diversit-atout-entreprises
Managing a Collective 95
different Heterogeneity can then only be temporary If emotion fosters inter-individual connections does it encourage heterogeneity a factor in creativity
Creativity is defined as the use of knowledge to form new ideas [DRU 93] Social relations and the emotions connected to them play a significant role in this process [KOG 92] From a neurological point of view researchers describe a biological process arguing that creativity is not the result of one cognitive process but several cognitive processes including unfocused attention cognitive flexibility cognitive control and other cognitive constructions [DIE 04] The production of something new seems to depend in part on the neuronal processes of disinhibition within a central network of neurons Creative cognition is similar to other types of cognition but is more specialized in its direction [MAC 00] Creative cognition can be simulated in a network of regions in the brain dedicated to thoughts unrelated to the task (experimental thoughts and futures that are unrelated to the project)
Creativity as an individual construction is defined as the creation of ideas products processes or solutions [AMA 83] This construction can include creative solutions to problems the company faces The study of creativity is traditionally related to psychology and typically includes research geared toward understanding why some individuals are more creative than others Owing to this researchers know little about the social context and how it affects individuals when producing ideas or solutions According to Dietrich [DIE 04] there are four types of creativity based on their emotional or cognitive aspects emotional or deliberate cognitive creativity and emotional or spontaneous cognitive creativity These four types indicate different neurocognitive processes of creativity The author tends to show by these processes that creativity is accessible to all It is also known that stress is detrimental to creativity The first studies showed a decrease in the creative process associated with an increase in stress-induced stimulation [KRO 69] especially social stress [LIN 65] The production of something new depends on in part an uninhibited process According to Chrysikou [CHR 14] performance in creativity requires the perception of filters at low levels This filtration is related
96 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
to the prefrontal cortex that regulates perceptual data However group creativity involves a collection of individuals [PIR 04] Like group performance it appears when a group of individuals work interdependently toward the common goal [HAC 92] of developing ideas that are both new and useful [AMA 83] Unfortunately this community can inhibit creativity in order to correspond to imposed norms The famous concept of conformity can intervene to incite individuals to conform not only to the norms described in approach 1 (societal organizational and occupational norms) but also implicit group norms Here critical thinking is in favor of creativity [HOW 15] According to certain conclusions the so-called creative personalities assign a particular role to intuition and have rightly an aversion to norms which makes it difficult for them to face others (inhibition stress) However other studies show that collaborative work reinforces individual learning and creativity [PAU 03] Previous studies have shown a connection between social network parameters and individual creativity [FLE 07 PER 06] As suggested by Hansen [HAN 02] this research was established on a study of knowledge networks and the complex networks that workers confront
We can then question whether groups encourage creativity and because an essential function of emotion is the coordination of social interactions [LAZ 91] whether emotional contagion can be a lever for creativity or a multiplying factor of conformism within a group
Two studies were conducted on the contagion of mood and emotion in work groups As we saw earlier the first study [GEO 90] shows that a perfect emotional agreement can exist within a group of salespeople The second study [TOT 98] reveals that the average mood of one member can predict the mood of a group at a given moment t In this sense the effect of contagion is often associated with a convergence of moods and attitudes in the workplace [MAS 02] However according to Barsade [BAR 02] a single member of the group can have a negative effect and lead the entire group to reject creative ideas Inversely Isen [ISE 02] shows that positive emotions are associated with individual and collective creativity
To our knowledge there are few studies about the impact of emotional contagion on group creativity [FLE 06] so one was
Managing a Collective 97
conducted to test the effect of emotional contagion on group creativity [VAN 16]
A quantitative study conducted with young professionals in training sought to examine the link between social cohesion emotional contagion and creativity According to the literature emotional contagion remains fleeting and only produces a temporary mental unity If this contagion leads to a social interaction it does not necessarily lead to the social cohesion of a group which requires simultaneity euphony (harmony) and eurythmy between actors [LEacuteP 05] Group cohesion is strong when members appreciate one another make the most of group objectives adopt group values and are convinced that adherence is crucial to obtain their personal interests Emotion and its contagion are seen as moderating factors because they are the basis for positive and negative human relations In this respect this study tests whether emotional contagion can improve the relation of group cohesion and influence group performance and creativity
The study experiment conducted three times focused on a general sample of 223 young managers in training within a ldquocommunity of practicerdquo in the context of a management simulation The sample was arranged into 29 different teams by way of three groups of around 70 people Positive or negative emotional contagion was measured in a binary way its presenceabsence based on observations made through the management simulation Group cohesion was measured by a team evaluation based on the scale from Beal et al [BEA 03] according to five elements (group efficiency fairness in task sharing similarity of objectives pursued collective decision-making team member involvement) on a five-point semantic scale Group performance was measured based on the results gathered in each team report and their efficiency that is the teamrsquos results in terms of sales in the last period of the game on a ranking function based on the market and the net profit of all of the teams over four periods The ranking was binary based on an evaluation on a five-point semantic scale with 2 = good profits (mark 5 and 4) and 1 = poor profits (3 2 1) Creativity was measured based on the degree of effort provided by the team for creative exercises (according to observations) and the final result of the creativity in the game The coding of creative thought was based on Weisburgrsquos description [WEI 88] of creativity as the act of solving new problems or generating ideas and real solutions The coding schema defined creative thinking as
1) a discovery or an idea 2) the action of searching for an idea or solution to create or solve a problem The evaluation was made on a five-point scale that was part of the overall
grade on the final report The results indicated that if group cohesion positively affects performance it does not directly affect creativity These results contradict the results reported in some earlier studies Nevertheless the results provide additional clarification that the moderating effect of emotional contagion improves the relation between group cohesion and performance but it does not have any significant impact on the relation between group cohesion and creativity These results highlight the paradox revealed in the literature about creativity
Case Study 312 Effect of emotional contagion on group performance
98 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
Emotion and its contagion must be considered in a group during an exercise in creativity However the idea that it can encourage group conformity or creative enthusiasm has not yet been demonstrated Emotional contagion definitely has a role to play but other more specific studies need to be conducted to better understand how this contagion is involved and how it can provide levers to promote group creativity and encourage innovation whether it is ordinary or not in management However the results [VAN 16] also show that the key to understanding the neuroscience of creativity and the ldquoconstruction of dynamic mental simulationsrdquo is based on different modes of neural activation and deactivation at different steps in the creative process Since emotional contagion is related to synchronization it can both hinder creativity and support it According to Brand [BRA 98] creative organizations have a tendency to be flexible and grant a great deal of independence Our analysis agrees with this revealing that it is sometimes useful for neurological networks to work together and that sometimes this cooperation can impede the creative process due to the behaviors that are subject to the norms of the group Creativity requires specific conditions
To better understand the above we will turn to neurology Creativity is predicated on a lack of inhibition Norms create neural inhibitions related to a dissonance between the emotions experienced and the expressions expected by a group or an organization [FES 57] Fortunately the psychological distress associated with dissonance can be quickly resolved thanks to a change in attitude [JAR 04] The change in attitude resolves this internal conflict but can also lead to a re-evaluation of the process and such a re-evaluation is often associated with a stimulation of the neurological zone of inhibition [TAB 08] Unfortunately these processes of inhibition can in turn impede creativity To solve this conflict it is essential to limit the dissonance from the start Amabile [AMA 96] advocates for good relationships between group members that make it possible to act freely and spontaneously All the same when members are not free to act as they wish and in a creative climate ensured by positive emotions and creative cohesion a lever is necessary an area to liberate instinct to connect these cognitive behaviors [PEC 03] free of inhibitions and open to creativity
Managing a Collective 99
Ubisoft like other high-technology companies is a good example At Ubisoft the offices have large panels to allow for the flow of traffic within the company which also act as expression spaces where collaborators can present their creations There are also spaces dedicated to relaxation In these spaces there are game consoles foosball tables newspapers comics etc The human resources manager and Yann Beauvinon who is responsible for buildings and arrangements at Ubisoft go further and affirm wanting some offices because creators must have their own universe tools and space to be able to isolate themselves and be creative6
Case Study 313 Freedom and creativity
36 A common point an essential element for collective intelligence emotional contagion
Two recurring elements must be managed in emo-management Emotional dissonance intervenes in management repeatedly at the individual level and emotional contagion intervenes repeatedly at the collective level Emotional dissonance can appear within a group and harm the whole group dynamic because it is subject to contagion like emotion It is impossible not to consider this contagion in collective and collaborative management
It is because of these effects that in their book Emotional Contagion [HAT 94] Hatfield et al suggest that ldquothe power of contagion gives us a realistic perception as to how much we can expect to influence social situationsrdquo [HAT 94 p 193] One question remains are emotions the friends or enemies of collective intelligence in companies
Emotions make it possible to synchronize with others and share decisions as well as attitudes and behaviors They are gifted with contagion When a manager makes a good decision they feel that they are headed for success The emotions experienced are positive when the decision appears favorable to them They comforted The decision maker then only needs to communicate consciously or unconsciously their feeling to others to better convince them of the good choice So how can a manager convince others to follow
6 2015 Ubisoft annual report
100 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
Through the contagion conferred by their emotions a manager can inspire enthusiasm Not everyone knows how to transmit these emotions however According to Hatfield et al [HAT 94] some people have a greater ability to contaminate others and ldquoseducerdquo others more easily Through the margin of maneuver and the freedom that a manager imparts to their colleagues they can unleash creativity On this topic the directors at Google [SCH 14] advocate for the right to express objections and divergences In this respect contagion must avoid replacing normative restrictions and conformity
Since emotions are an integral part of the mechanism of collective sharing their contagion helps to convince to share decisions behaviors and attitudes and to integrate and involve the team in managerial practices Managers and directors of a large or small company can no longer ignore emotions and argue that pure rationality and pragmatism are necessary to lead a company and team projects Emotions are a pillar of this rationality and its diffusion and acceptance in ldquocollective intelligencerdquo by the team or partners
Nevertheless contagion must be a characteristic that makes it possible to ldquolive and play togetherrdquo Unconscious it must not conform but group in a temporary and fleeting way It must be corroborated by a group cohesion that authorizes divergence in an intelligent way
Studies have shown that some emotions are more collective than others Cardon et al [CAR 17] and Fehr et al [FEH 17] studied collective emotions shared between members of a group Collective emotions do not only reflect a homogenous group at the emotional level Some emotions are shared more easily For example 70 of the group members reported feeling negative emotions whereas only 30 reported positive ones
Unfortunately these results highlight that contagion is more prevalent when negative emotions occur This is all the more problematic since contagion is a phenomenon that remains little understood and can be hard to manage as shown by stock market crashes crowd movements or waves of insults and ridicule on the Internet One of the objectives for research in areas
Managing a Collective 101
such as psychology finance economy sociology epidemiology and neuro-economics is therefore to model the contagion to better understand it endeavoring to rationalize it and find ways to deal with it With this in mind several studies have sought to measure contagion
361 Emo-management dealing with emotional contagion
The first model of social contagion was proposed by Mansfield [MAN 61] His mathematical model makes reference to models of contagion originating in epidemiology Different determinist or stochastic models of social contagion are used to describe decisions made by individuals about adopting an innovation [BAN 92 BAS 69 BIK 92 BRO 01 GRA 78 SCH 73 WAT 02]
Aleksiejuk and Holyst [ALE 01] discuss avalanche theory to describe a contagion of bank failures Like network theory their model shows that networks between banks can lead to a contagion of bankruptcies Later Adamatzky [ADA 02] models emotional interactions based on the paradigm of artificial chemistry This author considers four emotional states as molecules that make up an affective liquid Dodds and Watts [DOD 05] use different existing models and combine them Their model considers an individualrsquos memory of exposure to a contagious entity (mood or illness) the magnitude of the exposure (doses size) the degree of susceptibility of the individual to be contaminated and an individual emerging from a contagion becoming susceptible to being contaminated again immediately
362 Mathematical and economic tools to better manage emotional contagion
Through a digital interpretation of an observation in vivo Samet and van Hoorebeke [SAM 06] measure how contagion works between individuals This text establishes a measurement scale deduced from the observed process and the scale presented by Hatfield et al [HAT 94]
102 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
This study was conducted over a period of four months and more specifically given the fleeting nature of emotions and especially emotional contagion two three-hour observations The site observed was a class of 193 students in two groups (101 in group A and 92 students in group B) at an American university The contagion observed during a course resulted from the accumulation of several negative events (a teachersrsquo strike the risk of losing a semester if the strike continued a class exercise that had technical issues an exam where the majority of grades were not the results expected) According to the observation the emotional contagion appeared over a period of only 20 min A model of the observation conducted is presented in Figure 31 Like Dodds and Watts [DOD 05] it was attributed measurements that qualify the different degrees of the transmission of emotion in the group observed
Case Study 314 Measuring emotional contagion a study in vivo
Figure 31 Graphical representation of emotional contagion (EC) For a color version of this figure see wwwistecoukvanhoorebekemanagementzip
According to the results emotional contagion characterized by its fleeting and temporary nature is not at the origin of a social contagion but is rather a sudden crowd effect It is at a given moment t that emotional contagion takes on its full meaning According to the observation at this precise moment contagious individuals have the highest degree of emotional feeling and other individuals as described in Hatfield et al [HAT 94] follow them unconsciously through what we could call irrational imitation or mimicry Based on the observation to create emotional contagion a measure of group emotional feeling is necessary This dose according to the dose scale can only be attained by an accumulation of high doses of emotional feelings ndash in this case four consecutive events and a minimum of one individual to contaminate ten people
Case Study 315 Measuring emotional contagion results
Managing a Collective 103
Another way of modeling contagion is experimentation in a laboratory by reconstructing a situation of managerial decision-making under control by isolating the elements of individual decision-making to the maximum7 Repeating the experiment makes it possible to draw meaningful conclusions
Below a description of the study reveals its inner workings
In this experiment conducted with 70 players divided into five groups each member of the group (14 members who do not know each other) must choose between 14 similar managerial choices8 After reading a document that provides some information (partial and complex) about each choice the individuals must adjudicate based on their strategy belief analysis and choice perceived by the other players (unconscious perception communication prohibited) Only one choice is the winner and is awarded a prize a decision that is drawn beforehand at random by the experimenter
The initial analyses of the results of this study indicate that 41 of players recognize having copied the decisions of other players when they noted that these other players always selected the same decision Watching video tapes of the experiment indicates that the majority of winners displaying expressions of satisfaction and contentment (discreet for some but perceptible) caused players who had lost up to that point to make a greater effort to win While some recognized having discreetly scanned the decisions written by other players others confessed to having quickly understood the rules of the game and coping knowingly Several participants denied having copied the results of others totally omitting this explanation of their correct choice (random trial-and-error) although the videos and the results noted on their decision sheet indicated the opposite Their results indicate that they followed the results of their neighbor when the neighbor changed his behavior (grinning indication of assurance relaxing in his seat and speed of responding nonchalantly) Although in the end there was a tie between conscious imitation and unconscious mimicry the results indicate that only the mimicry (emotional contagion) made it possible to accelerate making the right decision More advanced results indicate that emo-decisional contagion can prove to be a bias that causes individuals who lack information and time to ldquoimitaterdquo decisions made by other individuals simply by seeing the emotions they express
Case Study 316 Emo-decisional contagion a study in vitro
These two studies clearly show that emotional contagion can be grasped because it is perceptible and measurable In this respect it 7 Unpublished study realized in 2008 8 Based on our statistical and probabilistic calculations
104 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
could prove to be a management lever that is indispensable for decision-making and group management Group emotion can also prove to be positive and encourage the establishment of this new vision of management through emotional involvement Of course collective intelligence cannot always rely on emotion to guide or decide Information and the rational are important The new manager must strike a balance between the rational and the emotional
NEGATIVE EXAMPLEndash ldquoLe burnout un syndrome contagieuxrdquo (ldquoBurnout Is it contagiousrdquo) is the title of an article from May 25 2005 on the site activrsquo assistante9 ldquoWhen a symptom gradually contaminates the professional areas in a society including assistant positions observing it is no longer enough We must fight the evil at the source With Pascale Venara president of the Institut de preacutevention du burn out discover how to recognize it and act before the curtain falls on burnt out colleaguesrdquo POSITIVE EXAMPLEndash The focus was on happiness at the regional council reception of the Ordre des Experts-Comptables on Friday January 30 For the occasion the president Jacques Maureau invited Rodolphe Carle to debate about the happiness of entrepreneurship along with Bernard Jacquand The CEO of Babilou discussed accepting the social dimension of onersquos company today in that it takes on a ldquouseful dimension for the companyrdquo and contributes to ldquoliving well togetherrdquo ldquoThis usefulness is part of our DNA and our values Values that are shared by all of our employees Because we must never forget that a company is not built alone A company is first and foremost the men and women who come together around a project with meaning united around common values driven by the same energy and the same desire to work together The sense of entrepreneurship must be contagious shared communicated within a grouprdquo [ROU 15]
Case Study 317 Examples of contagion in the workplace
The underlying question we faced at the start of our reflection was how can we envision a new style of management that would foster complete responsibility marked by authentic commitment that is favorable for individuals and the collective in a company Our work suggests that the first step is for the company to consider humans in a holistic way (cognitively rationally biologically emotionally) to better draw a common benefit if the relationship is balanced marked by trust and in particular deep understanding To put it simply and metaphorically how can we make a machine work if we do not 9 Available online at httpwwwactivassistantecomvie-pro-persomissions-proefficacite-prole-burn-out-un-syndrome-contagieux
Managing a Collective 105
understand the basic inner mechanisms How can we consider human behavior if we only think of a person as a simple android the main responsibility of the company How can we make people stick with changes or projects without affecting their deep emotions and galvanizing feelings To get them involved it is essential to ensure an individual well-being that is unique to them and an economic efficiency The company is confronted by the same issues to respond to the requirements and challenges that the future holds with emo-management changing a short-term perspective or perception for a long-term challenge
Conclusion
To summarize the contribution of this text and address our goal of describing and demonstrating the role of emotions in management the progression of our text made it possible to situate the intervention of emotions at all levels of management at both the individual and collective levels Supported by research analyses and concrete examples this text shows that management and emotions are one and the same Management must manage humans in their relations in person or at a distance Currently humans are recognized as psychological biological and emotional Future management of these beings must adapt to this
Emo-management completes the traditional exogenous approach to management based on people by proposing an endogenous approach to management for and by people It considers humans in a holistic way as beings gifted with rationality and irrationality psychobiological and emotional beings Traditional management where the objective is to make profit for profitrsquos sake is evolving toward searching out advances for the collective interest The fundamental distinction compared to classic management is how we view people in the workplace whether they are managers or employees Managers must understand how they themselves work (biologically rationally and emotionally) and how their colleagues work Managers must advocate for and respect values leading in all probability to sharing them
The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management First Edition Delphine van Hoorebeke copy ISTE Ltd 2018 Published by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley amp Sons Inc
108 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
This leads to a ldquocollective intelligencerdquo in favor of these values Some historical authors (Fayol Mayo etc) would be surprised to find that their theories are still current and that despite our extremely rapid developments no new vision has yet really gained ground in companies where hierarchy remains necessary
Emo-management the new vision of management must not only perceive individuals as single entities but also as a chain in a real collective ldquointelligencerdquo ndash the quotation marks underscore that this type of intelligence can only occur with a balance between cognition and emotion [DAM 00] Some talk about returning to the source Companies see that humans as social beings need to return to their intuitions and emotions and re-learn how to understand and experience them
To summarize this approach to management originating in fields as varied as psychology sociology management and even neurobiology allows us to propose a new idea of management a more global vision that considers the different realities and resources of human beings To the basic definition of management proposed in Le Littreacute (that is the art of the possible ldquothe art of directing steering handling motivatinghellip even the action of regulating effectively administering wellrdquo) we can add the definition of a modern management that is capable of reconciling the present to the future solving daily problems while predicting future problems and that has the primary role of knowing managing onersquos own emotions and those of others which we call a savoir faire-faire (or the skill of directing) It is an economic performance that is individual and also collective composed of different pieces of knowledge described by Picard [PIC 95] that notably includes e-motions through the knowledge and skills necessary to ensure them and ensure management
The basic elements are similar including a set of capacities
ndash the capacity to do at least what is necessary this individual economic performance considers measurable and tangible results
Conclusion 109
through a temporary vision Some call this type of performance ldquoproductivity at workrdquo ensured by the individualrsquos cognitive aspect
ndash the capacity to do what is necessary in a responsible way this socio-economic performance combines a concern for short-term cost-effectiveness with long-term flexibility It consists of the managersrsquo capacity to take on their part of the responsibilities and adapt their actions The ability of managers to engage in economic objectives factors of organizational flexibility is determined by their ability to manage skills knowing the needs and expectations of each person
ndash a capacity to do things well this consists of addressing situations better or differently with knowledge and learning Picard [PIC 95 p 5] called this type of individual economic performance ldquoefficiencyrdquo This corresponds to a mastery of ldquothe good methods of progressive people management [and] holding positions of power appropriatelyrdquo This capacity can be applied to the collective level as well Doing things better consists then of doing things in complementarity and with good understanding
ndash and finally a capacity for collective sharing
Relying on several studies in psychology Rimeacute [RIM 05] indicated in his book about the social sharing of emotions that the expression of emotions is not a source of emotional recovery notably in the case of post-traumatic stress Nevertheless social sharing and debriefing are according to the participants in a multitude of experiments on the topic a tool for satisfaction in that they provide a feeling of having been helped Without needing to become experts in psychology in our view each actor (manager and group members) involved in collective sharing helps to initiate the bringing together of the individual and the collective
For this the capacities of the manager include several other kinds of knowledge aside from savoir-faire (technical skills)
ndash Savoir-ecirctre (social or interpersonal skills) the management of behaviors Managers must have an emotional adaptability and a capacity to make an effort to manage their emotions and do emotional
110 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
labor [HOC 83] They must also develop the capacity to be aware of their behavior and to acquire ldquobody techniquesrdquo [TYL 01] Faced with new market conditions more and more companies want to evaluate the performances of their managers in terms of soft skills to close the gap between actual and expected behaviors This faculty requires acting whether it is a performance of theatrically simulating expressions or intensively working on managing behaviors [GOF 59] Levers help to foster this emotional work without triggering harmful inhibitions
ndash Savoir-vivre (life management skills) having the capacity to master the right processes improve coordination optimize customer relations and in all cases detect difficulties as soon as they arise It is added to social skills as an indispensable element for a manager and staff in contact with the public Life management skills literally correspond to ldquothe art of conducting onersquos life well civilityrdquo It is considered here as the art of managing relations with others through the management of onersquos own e-motions and those of others Amherdt [AMH 05] suggested five recommendations to ensure optimal operations for team members According to this author this type of manager has very clear expectations displays real interest for his team is a good decision maker inspires confidence knows how to overcome challenges and present them to his team and knows how to show a leaderrsquos charisma In its ideal form this management of self and others is sincere and authentic In the 2005 seminar called ldquoLrsquoadoption drsquoune attitude socialement responsable et ses fondements psychologiques Un point de vue Aristiteacutelicienrdquo (ldquoThe adoption of a socially responsible attitude and its psychological foundations an Aristotelian perspectiverdquo) Pellissier-Tanon [PEL 05] stated ldquoThe famous definition of power as the capacity of making someone do something that they would not have done themselves suggests that management to the extent that it consists in the exercise of a power of adherence borders on manipulation We may also be tempted to extend to management the suspicion that weighs on manipulation donrsquot managers risk abusing their power of adherencerdquo
Sincerity and authenticity are two keywords that can mark the difference of a modern manager considering the knowledge and recognition of the intervention of several factors in his behavior
Conclusion 111
decisions managerial processes team cohesion the well-being of his subordinates and colleagues and his tolerance of diverging opinions
ndash The final savoir the skill of deciphering and internalizing emotions knowing how to empathize through experiencing emotions similar to those of the interlocutor so that emotions are felt on both sides and knowing how to encourage a positive emotional contagion coming out of a debriefing Far from standing apart from emotional intelligence this type of knowledge goes deeper and prompts the notion of integration Although individuals are particularly contagious according to Hatfield et al [HAT 94] and emotionally intelligent [GOL 97] our various experiments have shown that everyone can become contagious just as everyone can be susceptible to contamination With this skill the manager can integrate the power and function of emotions The key to collective sharing the manager subscribes not only to developing the aforementioned skills personally but also developing them in the members of his team The emo-manager seeks mutual integration1 accommodation2 [PIA 37] and the expression of critical thinking
This vision of management advocates a management in movement (like the original definition of e-motion) an emo-management that is appropriate for the current context of flexibility speed and collectivity
Thus future management involves a referential change in time and space The strategies must be designed for the long term and for a global space Emo-management totally fits because the common point of all managerial tasks is contagion which does not only account for the quantitative dimension (such as growth) but also introduces reflection at a qualitative and even emotional level of analysis that undeniably exists in management especially collaborative management This concept renounces the accumulation of wealth by
1 Process by which each scheme becomes capable of integrating the domain of the other (coordination between vision and prehension) 2 Mechanism that modifies schemes to adjust them to new data
112 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
ldquoindividual egoismrdquo [SMI 76] which even if there is no need to renounce individual interests seems not to be unique in the very origins of humanity in favor of the search for mutual survival that is collectively intelligent because it is aware of human behavior The ultimate objective of implementing a new vision of management which must know how to combine the adherence of every person with knowledge (understanding and integration) is to encourage a deep change in mentality As Calvez [CAL 10] states in his article ldquoEacutethique morale deacuteontologie proches et diffeacuterentes lrsquoeacutethique en peacuteriode de criserdquo (ldquoEthics Morality Deontology Similar and Different Ethics in Times of Crisisrdquo) from 2010 ldquoJust like in the ideas of a Charles Maurras of yore politics being lsquophysicalrsquo there was no place for a debate about politics and ethics [hellip] In most economic realities and the measures taken to enact them we are indeed obliged [hellip] to consider the thoughts desires and needs of people as well as their intolerances and their prejudices And we must also consider their specific history family choices health demographic with these realities being certainly likely to be understood to some extent in a statistical wayrdquo Thus the future of management requires a ldquocollective intelligencerdquo that is not fleeting based on a simple passing fad and this collective intelligence is a panacea of current and future society as well as the developing economy Because of this emo-management which is not only an evolutive vision but also fundamental to current management essentially advocates for knowing and understanding human foundations for a ldquoreasonedrdquo management and as far as possible basic human reactions to ensure movement
Knowledge of human ldquoemotionsrdquo and ldquothe heuristics of fearrdquo as specified by Jonas can also unfortunately encourage acceptance by submission and resignation in the face of certain events In this respect these e-motions can also paralyze and restrict some types of management ldquoTo ldquoreform thoughtrdquo If the obligation cannot be deduced from knowledge the obligation needs knowledge The moral conscience cannot be deduced from the intellectual conscience But it needs the intellectual conscience that is thought and reflection Good intention risks leading to bad actions and moral will can have immoral consequencesrdquo Like Edgar Morin in Eacutethique [MOR 06] we believe
Conclusion 113
that it is indeed through the knowledge of the various modes of operation evoked in this book that human beings can evolve while responding to the social economic and environmental needs to which the future economy will subject us This economy will be based on the ldquoheart and the collectiverdquo but despite the speed of its development knowledge sharing and globalization it must not neglect the search for balance between cognition and emotion to conserve its homeostasis and ethics
According to the writings of Ashkanasy et al [ASH 17] the manager must acquire an ldquoemotional sophisticationrdquo to win in opposition to the robots Emo-management buoyed by the skills to engage motivate and create emulation in a sustainable group inimitable by any robot to date must understand the strengths and weaknesses of emotion Emo-management is not content to ldquosimulaterdquo emotional enthusiasm nor to provoke it This management must know how to tame it moderate it or guide it in full awareness
Bibliography
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[ADA 02] ADAMATZKY A ldquoOn dynamics of affective liquidsrdquo Dynamical Psychology available at httpwwwgoertzelorgdynapsyc2002 emot2708html 2002
[ADE 95] ADELMANN PK ldquoEmotional labor as a potential source of job stressrdquo in SAUTER SL MURPHY LR (eds) Organizational Risk Factors for Job Stress American Psychological Association Washington DC 1995
[AKE 82] AKERLOF G DICKENS W ldquoThe economic consequence of cognitive dissonancerdquo American Economic Review vol 72 no 3 pp 307ndash319 1982
[ALE 01] ALEKSIEJUK A HOŁYST JA ldquoA simple model of bank bankruptciesrdquo Physica A vol 299 nos 1ndash2 pp 198ndash204 2001
[ALL 71] ALLISON GT Essence of Decision Explaining the Cuban Missile Crisis Little Brown Boston 1971
[ALL 97] ALLEN NJ MEYER JP Commitment in the Workplace Theory Research and Application Sage Publications Thousand Oaks 1997
[ALV 02] ALVARADO N ADAMS S BURBECK S The role of emotion in an architecture of mind IBM available at httpspdfssemanticscholarorg c9f698270d71811742cf7f17a36d9a11f1735b35pdf 2002
[ALV 15] ALVESSON M SPICER A The Stupidity Paradox The Power and Pitfalls of Functional Stupidity at Work Profile Books London 2015
The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management First Edition Delphine van Hoorebeke copy ISTE Ltd 2018 Published by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley amp Sons Inc
116 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
[AMA 83] AMABILE TM ldquoThe social psychology of creativity a componential conceptualizationrdquo Journal of Personality and Social Psychology vol 45 pp 357ndash377 1983
[AMA 96] AMABILE TM CONTI R COON H et al ldquoAssessing the work environment for creativityrdquo Academy of Management Journal vol 39 no 5 pp 1154ndash1184 1996
[AMH 05] AMHERDT C-H La santeacute eacutemotionnelle au travail Demos Eacuteditions Paris 2005
[AND 96] ANDERSEN P-A GUERRERO LK ldquoPrinciples of communication and emotion in social interactionrdquo in ANDERSEN P-A GUERRERO LK (eds) Handbook of Communication and Emotion Research Theory Applications and Contents Academic Press San Diego CA 1996
[ARR 01] ARRIVE JY Savoir vivre ses eacutemotions Retz Paris 2001
[ASC 55] ASCH SE ldquoOpinions and social pressurerdquo Scientific American vol 193 no 5 pp 31ndash35 1955
[ASH 93] ASHFORTH BE HUMPHREY RH ldquoEmotional labor in service roles the influence of identityrdquo Academy of Management Review vol 18 no 1 pp 88ndash115 1993
[ASH 95] ASHFORTH BE HUMPHREY RH ldquoEmotion in the workplace a reappraisalrdquo Human Relations vol 48 no 2 pp 97ndash125 1995
[ASH 00a] ASHFORTH BE TOMIUK MA ldquoEmotional labour and authenticity views from the service agentsrdquo in FINEMAN S (ed) Emotion in Organizations Sage Publications London 2000
[ASH 00b] ASHKANASY NM TSE B ldquoTransformational leadership as management of emotion a conceptual reviewrdquo in ASHKANASY N HARTEL C ZERBE W (eds) Emotions in the Workplace Developments in the Study of the Managed Heart Quorum Books Westport CT 2000
[ASH 07] ASHLEY COOPER A (EARL OF SHAFTESBURY) An Inquiry Concerning Virtue or Merit The Internet Archive available at httpsarchiveorgstreaminquiryconcernin00shafuoftpagen0 mode2up 2007
[ASH 17] ASHKANASY NM HUMPHREY RH HUY QN ldquoIntegrating emotions and affect in theories of managementrdquo Academy of Management Review vol 42 no 2 pp 175ndash189 2017
Bibliography 117
[ASS 09] ASSELINEAU A PIRE-LECHALARD P ldquoLe deacuteveloppement durable un paradigme geacuteneacuterateur drsquoune rupture drsquoinnovationrdquo Management et Avenir Lrsquoorganisation revisiteacutee au travers du deacuteveloppement durable une approche multidisciplinaire Special edition no 26 2009
[AUT 06] AUTISSIER D WACHEUX F Manager par le sens les cleacutes de lrsquoimplication au travail Eyrolles Paris 2006
[AVE 75] AVERILL JR ldquoA semantic atlas of emotional conceptsrdquo JSAS Catalogue of Selected Documents in Psychology vol 5 p 330 1975
[BAB 99] BABA ML ldquoDangerous liaisons trust distrust and information technology in American work organizationsrdquo Human Organization vol 58 no 3 pp 331ndash346 1999
[BAK 01] BAKKER AB SIXMA HJ BOSVELD W ldquoBurnout contagion among general practionersrdquo Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology vol 20 no 1 p 82698 2001
[BAK 05] BAKKER AB LEBLANC PM SCHAUFELI WB ldquoBurnout contagion among intensive care nursesrdquo Nursing Theory and Concept Development or Analysis vol 51 no 3 pp 276ndash287 2005
[BAN 92] BANERJEE AV ldquoA simple model of herd behaviorrdquo The Quarterly Journal of Economics vol CVII no 3 pp 797ndash817 1992
[BAR 02] BARSADE SG ldquoThe Ripple effect emotional contagion and its influence on group behaviourrdquo Administrative Science Quarterly vol 47 pp 647ndash675 2002
[BAS 69] BASS F ldquoA new product growth model for consumer durablesrdquo Management Science vol 15 pp 215ndash227 1969
[BAS 85] BASS BM Leadership and Performance Beyond Expectation Free Press New York NY 1985
[BAS 99] BASS BM ldquoEthics character and authentic transformational leadership behaviourrdquo Leadership Quarterly vol 10 no 2 p 81 1999
[BAT 86] BATRA R RAY ML ldquoAffective responses mediating acceptance of advertisingrdquo Journal of Consumer Research vol 13 no 2 pp 234ndash249 1986
[BAT 02] BATLLE A ldquoLrsquoeacutemotion dans lrsquoentrepriserdquo Les Eacutechos February 2002 Available at httpswwwlesechosfr26022002LesEchos 18602-118-ECH_l-emotion-dans-l-entreprisehtm
118 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
[BAU 98] BAUMARD P BENVENUTI J-A Compeacutetitiviteacute et systegravemes drsquoinformation De lrsquooutil drsquoanalyse au management strateacutegique InterEditions Paris 1998
[BEA 03] BEAL DJ COHEN RR BURKE MJ et al ldquoCohesion and performance in groups a meta-analytic clarification of construct relationsrdquo Journal of Applied Psychology vol 88 no 6 pp 989ndash1004 2003
[BEC 98] BECHARA A DAMASIO H TRANEL D et al ldquoDissociation of working memory from decision making within the human prefrontal cortexrdquo Journal of Neurosciences vol 18 pp 428ndash437 1998
[BEC 99] BECHARA A DAMASIO H DAMASIO AR et al ldquoDifferent contributions of the human amygdala and ventromedial prefrontal cortex to decision-makingrdquo The Journal of Neuroscience vol 19 no 13 pp 5473ndash5481 1999
[BEC 00] BECHARA A DAMASIO H DAMASIO AR ldquoEmotion decision-making and orbitofrontal cortexrdquo Cerebral Cortex vol 10 no 3 pp 295ndash307 2000
[BEH 94] BEHNKE PR SAWYER CR KING P-E ldquoContagion theory and the communication of public speaking state anxietyrdquo Communication Education vol 43 pp 246ndash251 1994
[BER 13] BERNOULLI J Ars conjectandi opus posthumum Accedit Tractatus de seriebus infinitis et epistola galliceacute scripta de ludo pilae reticularis Thurneysen Brothers Basel 1713
[BER 01] BERSON Y ldquoThe relationship between vision strength leadership style and contextrdquo Leadership Quarterly vol 12 no 1 pp 53ndash74 2001
[BER 03] BERTHOZ A La deacutecision Odile Jacob Paris 2003
[BIK 92] BIKHCHANDANI S HIRSHLEIFER D WELCH I ldquoA theory of fads fashion custom and cultural change as informational cascadesrdquo Journal of Politics and Economics vol 100 pp 992ndash1026 1992
[BIL 95] BILTS R Walt Disney The Dreamer the Realist and the Critic Dynamic Learning Publications Library of Congress Catalog in Publications Data Washington 1995
[BIS 83] BISCHOFF C TRAUE HC ldquoMyogenic headacherdquo in HOLROYD KA SCHLOTE B ZENZ H (eds) Perspectives in Research on Headache Levinston New York NY Hogrefe and Huber Publishers Toronto 1983
Bibliography 119
[BOI 10] BOISARD-CASTELLUCCIA S VAN HOOREBEKE D ldquoLe management de la diversiteacute des eacutequipes par la contagion eacutemotionnelle au cœur de la performance de grouperdquo Revue Management et Avenir vol 8 no 38 pp 240ndash256 2010
[BON 07] BONO J JACKSON-FOLDES H VINSON G et al ldquoWorkplace emotional regulation the role of supervision and leadershiprdquo Journal of Applied Psychology vol 9 no 5 p 1357 2007
[BOO 05] BOOT AWA THAKOR V MILBOURN TT ldquoSunflower management and capital budgetingrdquo The Journal of Business vol 78 no 2 pp 501ndash527 2005
[BRA 98] BRAND A ldquoKnowledge management and innovation at 3Mrdquo Journal of Knowledge Management vol 2 no 1 pp 17ndash22 1998
[BRO 61] BROCA P Bulletin de la socieacuteteacute franccedilaise drsquoanthropologie no 1 April 1861
[BRO 01] BROCK WA DURLAUF SN ldquoDiscrete choice with social interactionsrdquo Revue of Economics Studies vol 68 pp 235ndash260 2001
[BUR 78] BURNS JM Leadership Harper and Row New York NY 1978
[BUR 87] BURT RS ldquoSocial contagion and innovation cohesion versus structural equivalencerdquo American Journal of Sociology vol 92 pp 1287ndash1335 1987
[BUR 93] BURGOON JK ldquoInterpersonal expectations expectancy violations and emotional communicationrdquo Journal of Language and Social Psychology vol 12 pp 30ndash48 1993
[CAL 10] CALVEZ JY ldquoEacutethique morale deacuteontologie proches et diffeacuterentes lrsquoeacutethique en peacuteriode de criserdquo Revue franccedilaise du marketing vol 226 pp 1ndash5 2010
[CAP 07] CAPRON M QUAIREL F La responsabiliteacute sociale drsquoentreprise La Deacutecouverte Paris 2007
[CAR 17] CARDON MS POST C FORSTER WR ldquoTeam entrepreneurial passion its emergence and influence in new venture teamsrdquo Academy of Management Review vol 42 pp 283ndash305 2017
[CAS 98] CASTRO JL GUERIN F LAURIOL J ldquoLe modegravele des 3C en questionrdquo Revue Franccedilaise de Gestion vol 118 pp 75ndash89 1998
[CHA 90] CHANLAT J-F (ed) Lrsquoindividu dans lrsquoorganisation les dimensions oublieacutees Eska Paris 1990
120 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
[CHA 98] CHATMAN JA POLZER JT BARSADE SG et al ldquoBeing different yet feeling similar the influence of demographic composition and organizational culture on work processes and outcomesrdquo Administrative Science Quarterly vol 43 no 4 pp 749ndash780 1998
[CHA 01] CHATMAN JA FLYNN FJ ldquoThe influence of demographic heterogeneity on the emergence and consequences of cooperative norms in work teamsrdquo Academy of Management Journal vol 44 no 5 pp 956ndash974 2001
[CHA 03] CHANLAT J-F ldquoEacutemotions organisation et management une reacuteflexion sur la notion drsquointelligence eacutemotionnellerdquo Travailler vol 1 no 9 pp 113ndash132 2003
[CHE 92] CHERNISS C ldquoLong term consequences of burn out an exploratory studyrdquo Journal of Organic Behavior vol 13 pp 1ndash11 1992
[CHR 14] CHRYSIKOU EG WEBER MJ THOMPSON-SCHILL SL ldquoA matched filter hypothesis for cognitive controlrdquo Neuropsychologia vol 62 pp 341ndash365 2014
[CLA 95] CLARKSON MBE ldquoA stakeholder framework for analysing and evaluating corporate social performancerdquo Academy of Management Review vol 20 no 1 pp 92ndash117 1995
[CLA 97] CLARK CE CAVANAUGH NC BROWN CV et al ldquoBuilding change-readiness capabilities in the IS organization insights from the bell Atlantic experiencerdquo MIS Quarterly vol 21 no 4 pp 425ndash455 1997
[COL 05] COLLE R PERETTI J-M CERDIN J-L ldquoLa fideacutelisation des salarieacutes par lrsquoentreprise agrave la carterdquo Revue de Gestion des Ressources Humaines vol 55 pp 2ndash21 2005
[DAL 47] DALE HH ldquoWalter Bradford Cannon 1871ndash1945rdquo Obituary Notices of Fellows of the Royal Society vol 5 no 15 pp 407ndash426 1947
[DAM 94] DAMASIO AR Lrsquoerreur de Descartes la raison des eacutemotions Odile Jacob Paris 1994
[DAM 00] DAMASIO AR ldquoA second chance for emotionrdquo in RICHARD DR LANE L NADEL GL et al (eds) Cognitive Neuroscience of Emotion Oxford University Press Oxford 2000
[DAR 72] DARWIN C The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animal John Murray London 1872
Bibliography 121
[DAR 95] DARWALL S The British Moralists and the Internal ldquoOughtrdquo Cambridge University Press Cambridge 1995
[DAS 02] DASBOROUGH MT ASHKANASY NM ldquoEmotion and attribution of intentionality in leader-member relationshipsrdquo The Leadership Quarterly vol 13 no 5 pp 615ndash634 2002
[DAU 99] DAUMAS C ldquoDeacutemunis face aux tensionsrdquo Libeacuteration available at httpwwwliberationfrcahier-special19991018vincent-dubois-sociologue-a-passe-six-mois-aux-guichets-des-allocations-familiales-demunis-face-aux-_286563 October 1999
[DEB 16] DEBBAH S VAN HOOREBEKE D ldquoTravail collaboratif agrave distance lrsquoinfluence de lrsquointelligence eacutemotionnelle une eacutetude exploratoirerdquo XXIe Congregraves de lrsquoAssociation Information et Management Lille May 2016
[DEM 06] DE MARTINO B KUMARAN D SEYMOUR B et al ldquoFrames biases and rational decision-makingrdquo Human Brain Science vol 313 no 5787 pp 684ndash687 2006
[DER 87] DERBAIX C ldquoLe comportement de lrsquoacheteur voies drsquoeacutetudes pour les anneacutees agrave venirrdquo Recherche et Applications Marketing vol 2 no 2 pp 81ndash92 1987
[DER 89] DERBAIX C PHAM M ldquoPour un deacuteveloppement des mesures de lrsquoaffectif en marketing synthegravese des preacute-requisrdquo Recherche et Applications Marketing vol 4 no 4 pp 71ndash87 1989
[DES 37] DESCARTES R Discours de la meacutethode Flammarion Paris 1637
[DES 49] DESCARTES R Les Passions de lrsquoacircme Henry le Gras Paris 1649
[DIE 03a] DIEFENDORFF JM GOSSERAND RH ldquoUnderstanding the emotional labor process a control theory perspectiverdquo Journal of Organizational Behavior vol 24 no 8 pp 945ndash959 2003
[DIE 03b] DIEFENDORFF JM RICHARD EM ldquoAntecedents and consequences of emotional display rule perceptionsrdquo Journal of Applied Psychology vol 88 pp 284ndash294 2003
[DIE 04] DIETRICH A ldquoNeurocognitive mechanisms underlying the experience of flowrdquo Consciousness and Cognition vol 13 no 4 pp 746ndash761 2004
[DOD 05] DODDS PS WATTS DJ ldquoA generalized model of social and biological contagionrdquo Journal of Theoritical Biology vol 232 no 4 pp 587ndash604 2005
122 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
[DRE 52] DREVER J A Dictionary of Psychology Penguin London 1952
[DRU 93] DRUCKER PF Post-capitalist Society HarperCollins New York NY 1993
[DUB 08] DUBOIS V La vie au guichet Relation administrative et traitement de la misegravere Economica Paris 2008
[DUR 67] DURKHEIM E Le suicide Eacutetude de sociologie 2nd edition PUF Paris 1967
[EAR 00] EARLEY PC MOSAKOWSKI E ldquoCreating hybrid teams culture an empirical test of transnational team functioningrdquo Academy of Management Journal vol 43 no 1 pp 26ndash49 2000
[EIS 99] EISENHARDT KM HOPE PELLED L XIN KR ldquoExploring the black box an analysis of work group diversity conflict and performancerdquo Administrative Science Quarterly vol 44 pp 1ndash28 1999
[EKM 79] EKMAN P OSTER H ldquoFacial expressions of emotionrdquo Annual Review of Psychology vol 30 pp 527ndash554 1979
[ELF 07] ELFENBEIN HA OrsquoREILLY CA ldquoFitting in the effects of relational demography and person-organization fit on group process and performancerdquo Group and Organization Management vol 32 no 1 pp 109ndash142 2007
[ELI 94] ELIAS N The Civilizing Processes 1 and 2 Blackwell Oxford 1994
[FAV 06] FAVI The story of FAVI The company that believes that man is good Paper available at httpukukwoneuFile20Storage 5160692_7_The-story-of-favipdf 2006
[FEH 17] FEHR R FULMER A AWTREY E et al ldquoThe grateful workplace a multilevel model of gratitude in organizationsrdquo Academy of Management Review vol 42 pp 361ndash381 2017
[FES 57] FESTINGER L A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance Stanford University Press Stanford CA 1957
[FIM 03] FIMBEL E ldquoNature et enjeux strateacutegiques de lrsquoexternalisationrdquo Revue franccedilaise de gestion vol 143 no 2 pp 27ndash42 2003
[FIN 00] FINEMAN S ldquoEmotional arenas revisitedrdquo in FINEMAN S (ed) Emotions in Organisations Sage Publications London 2000
Bibliography 123
[FIO 94] FIOL CM ldquoConsensus diversity and learning in organizationsrdquo Organization Science vol 5 no 3 pp 403ndash420 1994
[FIS 00] FISHER CD ldquoMood and emotions while working missing pieces of job satisfactionrdquo Journal of Organizational Behavior vol 21 pp 185ndash202 2000
[FIT 00] FITNESS J ldquoAnger in the workplace an emotion script approach to anger episodes between workers and their superiors co-workers and subordinatesrdquo Journal of Organizational Behavior vol 21 pp 147ndash162 2000
[FLE 06] FLEMING L MARX M ldquoManaging creativity in small worldsrdquo California Management Review vol 48 no 4 pp 6ndash27 2006
[FLE 07] FLEMING L MINGO S CHEN D ldquoCollaborative brokerage generative creativity and creative successrdquo Administrative Science Quarterly vol 52 pp 443ndash475 2007
[FRA 94] FRANCE KR SHAH RH PARK CW ldquoThe impact of emotional valence and intensity on Ad evaluation and memoryrdquo in ALLEN C ROEDDER-JOHN D (eds) Advances in Consumer Research 21 Association for Consumer Research Duluth MN 1994
[FRA 03] FRANK J ldquoNatural selection rational economic behavior and alternative outcomes of the evolutionary processrdquo Journal of Socio-Economics vol 32 pp 601ndash622 2003
[FRA 10] FRAY AM SOPARNOT R ldquoLe manager responsablerdquo in DE BRY F IGALENS J PERETTI J-M (eds) Eacutethique et Responsabiliteacute Sociale EMS Eacuteditions Paris 2010
[FRE 84] FREEMAN RE (ed) ldquoStrategic management framework and philosophyrdquo Strategic Management A Stakeholder Approach Pittman Marshfield WI 1984
[FRE 99] FREEMAN RE ldquoDivergent stakeholder theoryrdquo The Academy of Management Review vol 24 no 2 pp 233ndash236 1999
[FRE 02] FREUD E Œuvres complegravetes vol 15 PUF Paris 2002
[FRI 86] FRIJDA NH The Emotions Cambridge University Press Cambridge MA 1986
[FRI 87] FRIEDMAN HS BOOTH-KEWLEY S ldquoThe disease-prone personality a meta-analytic view of the constructrdquo American Psychologist vol 42 pp 539ndash555 1987
124 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
[FRI 88] FRIJDA NH ldquoThe laws of emotionrdquo American Psychologist vol 43 no 5 pp 349ndash358 1988
[FRI 00] FRISOU J ldquoConfiance interpersonnelle et engagement une reacuteorientation beacutehavioristerdquo Recherche et Applications en Marketing vol 15 pp 63ndash80 2000
[FUD 05] FUDENBERG LA IMHOF D NOWAK MA ldquoEvolutionary cycles of cooperation and defectionrdquo Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences vol 102 pp 10797ndash10800 2005
[GAG 03] GAGNON MP GODIN G GAGNEacute C et al ldquoEvolutionary cycles of cooperation an adaptation of the theory of interpersonal behaviour to the study of telemedicine adoption by physiciansrdquo International Journal of Medical Informatics vol 71 no 3 pp 103ndash115 2003
[GAR 85] GARDNER MP ldquoMood states and consumer behavior a critical reviewrdquo Journal of Consumer Research vol 12 no 3 pp 281ndash300 1985
[GAZ 78] GAZZANIGA MS LEDOUX JE The Integrated Mind Plenum New York NY 1978
[GEO 89] GEORGE JM ldquoConflict and performance in mood and absencerdquo Journal of Applied Psychology vol 74 pp 317ndash324 1989
[GEO 90] GEORGE JM ldquoPersonality affect and behavior in groupsrdquo Journal of Applied Psychology vol 75 pp 107ndash116 1990
[GEO 07a] GEORGE JM ldquoEmotions and leadership the role of emotional intelligencerdquo in MANSTEAD A (ed) Psychology of Emotions vol 2 Sage Publications London 2007
[GEO 07b] GEORGE JM BRIEF AP ldquoFeeling good-doing good a conceptual analysis of the mood at work ndash organizational spontaneity relationshiprdquo in ANDERSON N (ed) Fundamentals of HRM vol 3 Sage Publications London 2007
[GOF 59] GOFFMAN E The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life Doubleday Anchor New York NY 1959
[GOL 97] GOLEMAN D Lrsquointelligence eacutemotionnelle Robert Laffont Paris 1997
[GOL 02] GOLEMAN D BOYATZIS R MACKEE A Primal Leadership Harvard Business School Press New York NY 2002
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[GOL 04] GOLEMAN D ldquoWhat Makes a Leaderrdquo Harvard Business Review available at httpswwwthebraudisgroupcomwp-content uploads201605What-Makes-A-Leader-_-1pdf 2004
[GOL 14] GOLEMAN D Lrsquointelligence eacutemotionnelle analyser et controcircler ses sentiments et ceux des autres Jrsquoai lu Paris 2014
[GOU 71] GOUAUX C ldquoInduced affective states and interpersonal attractionrdquo Journal of Personality and Social Psychology vol 20 pp 37ndash43 1971
[GOY 07] GOYAL S VEGA-REDONDO F ldquoStructural holes in social networksrdquo Journal of Economic Theory vol 137 pp 460ndash492 2007
[GRA 78] GRANOVETTER M ldquoThreshold models of collective behaviourrdquo American Journal of Sociology vol 83 pp 1420ndash1443 1978
[GRA 00] GRATCH J ldquoModelling the interplay between emotion and decision-makingrdquo 9th Conference on Computer Generated Forces and Behavioral Representation Orlando FL 2000
[GRA 03] GRANDEY A ldquoWhen lsquothe show must go onrsquo surface and deep acting as predictors of emotional exhaustion and service deliveryrdquo Academy of Management Journal vol 46 no 1 pp 86ndash96 2003
[GRA 05a] GRACIAacuteN B Oraculo manual y arte de prudencia Translated from Spanish by Joseph Jacobs Andrew Burke 2005
[GRA 05b] GRANDEY AA FISKA GM MATTILAB AS et al ldquoIs lsquoservice with a smilersquo enough Authenticity of positive displays during service encountersrdquo Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes vol 96 pp 38ndash55 2005
[GRI 03] GRIMA F TREPO G ldquoInitier une innovation organisationnelle tactiques drsquoinfluence et processus de persuasion mis en œuvre par les championsrdquo Revue de gestion des ressources humaines vol 50 p 23 2003
[GRO 92] GROENESTIJN E BUUNK BP SCHAUFELI WB ldquoThe danger of burnout contagion the role of social comparison processesrdquo in BUUNK M VAN LANGE V (eds) Sociale Psychologie De Boek The Hague 1992
126 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
[GUE 98] GUERRERO LK ANDERSEN PA TROST MR ldquoCommunication and emotion basic concepts and approachesrdquo in ANDERSEN PA GUERRERO LK (eds) Handbook of Communication and Emotion Research Theory Applications and Contents Academic Press San Diego CA 1998
[GUI 98] GUILHON A ldquoLe changement est un apprentissagerdquo Revue Franccedilaise de Gestion vol 120 pp 98ndash107 1998
[GUM 97] GUMP BB KULIK JA ldquoStress affiliation and emotional contagionrdquo Journal of Personality and Social Psychology vol 722 pp 305ndash319 1997
[HAC 92] HACKMAN JR ldquoGroup influences on individuals in organizationsrdquo in DUNNETTE MD HOUGH LM (eds) Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology Consulting Psychologists Press Palo Alto CA 1992
[HAN 02] HANSEN MT ldquoKnowledge networks explaining effective knowledge sharing in multiunit companiesrdquo Organization Science vol 13 pp 232ndash248 2002
[HAT 94] HATFIELD E CACIOPPO JT RAPSON RL Emotional Contagion Cambridge University Press Paris 1994
[HEI 88] HEINER R ldquoImperfected decisions and routinized production implication for evolutionary modelling and inertial technical changerdquo in DOSI G (ed) Technical Change and Economic Theory Pinter Publishers London 1988
[HEL 64] HELSON H Adaptation-level Theory Harper and Row New York NY 1964
[HER 04] HERRBACH O LERAT-PYTLAK J ldquoImplication et eacutemotions au travail une eacutetude empiriquerdquo 15e congregraves de lrsquoAssociation francophone de gestion des ressources humaines ESG UQAM Montreal 2004
[HOC 83] HOCHSCHILD AR The Managed Heart Commercialization of Human Feeling University of California Press Los Angeles CA 1983
[HOU 77] HOUSE RJ ldquoA 1976 theory of charismatic leadershiprdquo in HUNT JG LARSON LL (eds) Leadership The Cutting Edge SIUP Carbondale IL 1977
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[HOW 85] HOWES MJ HOKANSON JE LOWENSTEIN DA ldquoIntroduction of depressive affect after prolonged exposure to a mildly depressed individualrdquo Journal of Personality and Social Psychology vol 49 pp 1110ndash1113 1985
[HOW 06] HOWARD A ldquoPositive and negative emotional attractors and intentional changerdquo Journal of Management Development vol 25 no 7 pp 657ndash670 2006
[HOW 15] HOWARD LW LI-PING TANG T AUSTIN MJ ldquoTeaching critical thinking skills ability motivation intervention and the Pygmalion effectrdquo Journal of Business Ethics vol 128 no 1 pp 133ndash147 2015
[HUM 02] HUMPHREY H ldquoThe many faces of emotional leadershiprdquo The Leadership Quarterly vol 13 no 5 pp 493ndash504 2002
[HUY 02] HUY QN ldquoEmotional balancing of organizational continuity and radical change the contribution of middle managersrdquo Administrative Science Quarterly vol 47 pp 31ndash69 2002
[IAC 05] IACOBINI M ldquoNeural mechanisms of imitationrdquo Current Opinion in Neurobiology vol 15 no 6 pp 632ndash637 2005
[ISE 02] ISEN AM ldquoMissing in action in the AIM positive affectrsquos facilitation of cognitive flexibility innovation and problem solvingrdquo Psychological Inquiry vol 13 no 1 pp 57ndash65 2002
[IZA 77] IZARD CE Human Emotions Plenum Press New York NY 1977
[IZA 84] IZARD CE KAGAN J ZAJONC R (eds) Emotions Cognition and Behaviour Cambridge University Press Cambridge MA 1984
[JAM 84] JAMES W ldquoWhat is an emotionrdquo Mind vol 9 pp 188ndash205 1884
[JAM 89] JAMES N ldquoEmotional labour skill and work in the social regulation of feelingsrdquo Sociological Review vol 37 pp 15ndash32 1989
[JAN 82] JANIS IL Victims of Groupthink Houghton Mifflin Boston MA 1982
[JAR 04] JARCHO JM BERKMAN ET LIEBERMAN MD ldquoThe neural basis of rationalization cognitive dissonance reduction during decision-makingrdquo Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience vol 6 no 4 pp 460ndash467 2004
128 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
[JEH 95] JEHN KA ldquoA multimethod examination of the benefits and detriments of intragroup conflictrdquo Administrative Science Quarterly vol 42 pp 530ndash557 1995
[JEH 97] JEHN KA SHAH P ldquoInterpersonal relationship and task performance an examination of mediating processes in friendship and acquaintance groupsrdquo Journal of Personality and Social Psychology vol 72 pp 775ndash790 1997
[JEN 00] JENNINGS DF ARTZ K GILLIN LM et al ldquoDeterminants of trust in global strategic alliances Amrad and the Australian biomedical industryrdquo Competitiveness Review vol 10 no 1 pp 25ndash44 2000
[JOH 82] JOHNSON-GEORGE CE SWAP WC ldquoMeasurement of specific interpersonal trust construction and validation of scale to assess trust in specific otherrdquo Journal of Personality and Social Psychology vol 43 pp 1306ndash1317 1982
[JON 98] JONES GR GEORGE JM ldquoThe experience and evolution of trust implications for cooperation and teamworkrdquo Academy of Management Review vol 23 no 3 pp 531ndash546 1998
[JON 99] JONES TM WICKS AC ldquoConvergent stakeholder theoryrdquo Academy of Management Review vol 24 pp 206ndash221 1999
[JOR 09] JORDAN PJ LAWRENCE SA ldquoEmotional intelligence in teams development and initial validation of the short version of the workgroup emotional intelligence profile (WEIP-S)rdquo Journal of Management and Organization vol 15 pp 452ndash469 2009
[KAH 73] KAHNEMAN D TVERSKY A ldquoOn the psychology of predictionrdquo Psychological Review vol 80 no 4 pp 237ndash251 1973
[KAN 98] KANT I Critique of Pure Reason Cambridge University Press New York NY 1998
[KEM 78] KEMPER TD A Social Interactional Theory of Emotions Wiley New York NY 1978
[KIS 05] KISHI T ELMQUIST JK ldquoBody weight is regulated by the brain a link between feeding and emotionrdquo Molecular Psychiatry vol 10 pp 132ndash146 2005
[KOE 87] KOESTENBAUM P The Heart of Business Ethics Power and Philosophy Saybrook Publishing San Francisco CA 1987
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[KOG 92] KOGUT B ZANDER U ldquoKnowledge of the firm combinative capabilities and the replication of technologyrdquo Organization Science vol 3 no 3 pp 383ndash397 1992
[KOT 90] KOTTER JP A Force for Change How Leadership Differs from Management The Free Press New York NY 1990
[KOT 02] KOTTER JP COHEN DS The Heart of Change Harvard Business School Press Boston MA 2002
[KRO 69] KROP HD ALEGRE CE WILLIAMS CD ldquoEffect of induced stress on convergent and divergent thinkingrdquo Psychological Reports vol 24 pp 895ndash898 1969
[KRU 00] KRUML JR GEDDES D ldquoExploring the dimensions of emotional labourrdquo Management Communication Quarterly vol 14 no 1 pp 8ndash49 2000
[KRY 08] KRYSTYNA G ldquoThe role of affect in developing communicative and cultural competence in ESPrdquo English Education and English for Specific Purposes Crane Publishing Co Taipei 2008
[KUG 12] KUGLER T KAUSER EE MARTIN G et al Are groups more rational than individuals A review of interactive decision making in groups Document no 3701 CESifo January 2012
[LAB 94] LABORIT H Les bases biologiques des comportements sociaux Fides Montreal 1994
[LAD 07] LADHARI R ldquoThe movie experience a revised approach to determinants of satisfactionrdquo Journal of Business Research vol 60 no 5 pp 454ndash462 2007
[LAZ 91] LAZARUS RS Emotion and Adaptation Oxford University Press Oxford 1991
[LEB 63] LE BON G Psychologie des foules PUF Paris 1963
[LEB 04] LE BAS C ldquoManagement responsable et neacutecessaire reacutegulation globalerdquo Eacuteconomie et Humanisme no 370 pp 58ndash59 2004
[LED 97] LEDOUX JE MULLER J ldquoEmotional memory and psychopathologyrdquo Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society vol 352 pp 1719ndash1726 1997
[LED 98] LEDOUX JE The Emotional Brain Weidenfeld and Nicolson London 1998
130 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
[LEE 93] LEE RT ASHFORTH BE ldquoA longitudinal study of burnout among supervisors and managers comparisons between the Leiter and Maslach (1988) and Golembiewski et al (1986) modelsrdquo Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes vol 54 pp 369ndash398 1993
[LEE 96] LEE RT ASHFORTH BE ldquoA meta-analystic examination of the correlates of the three dimensions of job burnoutrdquo Journal of Applied Psychology vol 81 pp 123ndash133 1996
[LEE 03] LEENDERS RTAJ VAN ENGELEN JML KRATZER J ldquoVirtuality communication and new product team creativity a social network perspectiverdquo Journal of Engineering and Technology Management vol 20 no 1 pp 69ndash92 2003
[LEE 15] LEE C AN M NOH Y ldquoThe effects of emotional display rules on flight attendantsrsquo emotional labor strategy job burnout and performancerdquo Service Business vol 9 no 3 pp 409ndash425 2015
[LEF 06] LEFLEY F ldquoCan a project champion bias project selection and if so how can we avoid itrdquo Management Research News vol 29 no 4 pp 174ndash183 2006
[LEacuteP 05] LEacutePINEUX F ldquoStakeholder theory society and social cohesionrdquo Corporate Governance vol 5 no 2 pp 99ndash110 2005
[LER 06] LERNER JS TIEDENS LZ ldquoPortrait of the angry decision maker how appraisal tendencies shape angerrsquos influence on cognitionrdquo Journal of Behavioral Decision Making vol 19 pp 115ndash137 2006
[LER 11] LEROUX E VAN HOOREBEKE D ldquoSI eacuteco-responsables et innovation les pratiques des salarieacutes dans les PMErdquo Gestion 2000 vol 28 no 4 pp 119ndash135 2011
[LES 98] LE SCANFF C ldquoLa preacuteparation-entraicircnement psychologique pour des situations extrecircmes application au sport de haut niveaurdquo Bulletin de Psychologie vol 51 no 6 pp 765ndash781 1998
[LEW 51] LEWIN K Field Theory in Social Science Selected Theoretical Papers Harper and Row New York NY 1951
[LEW 00] LEWIS KM ldquoWhen leaders display emotion how followers respond to negative emotional expression of male and female leadersrdquo Journal of Organizational Behavior vol 21 pp 221ndash234 2000
[LIN 65] LINDGREN HC LINDGREN F ldquoCreativity brainstorming and orneriness a cross-cultural studyrdquo Journal of Sociology and Psychology vol 67 pp 23ndash30 1965
Bibliography 131
[LIU 05] LIU Y PERREWEacute PL ldquoAnother look at the role of emotion in the organizational change a process modelrdquo Human Resource Management Review vol 15 pp 263ndash280 2005
[LOE 03] LOEWENSTEIN G LERNER JS ldquoThe role of affect in decision makingrdquo in DAVIDSON RJ et al (eds) Handbook of Affective Science Oxford University Press Oxford 2003
[LOS 02] LOSTRA F ldquoLe cerveau eacutemotionnel ou la neuroanatomie des eacutemotionsrdquo Cahiers critiques de theacuterapie familiale et de pratiques de reacuteseaux vol 29 no 2 pp 73ndash86 2002
[LOU 00] LOU H LUO W STRONG D ldquoPerceived critical mass effect on groupware acceptancerdquo European Journal of Information Systems vol 9 pp 91ndash103 2000
[MAC 75] MACLEAN PD ldquoSensory and perspective factors in emotional functions of the trinue brainrdquo in LEVI L (ed) Emotions Their Parameters and Measurement Raven New York NY pp 71ndash92 1975
[MAC 00] MACDONALD AW COHEN JD STENGER VA et al ldquoDissociating the role of the dorsolateral prefrontal and anterior cingulate cortex in cognitive controlrdquo Science vol 288 pp 1835ndash1838 2000
[MAE 10] MAES B FONTANAUD N PRONOST A-M ldquoEffet de la mise en place drsquoun instrument drsquoeacutevaluation continue de la qualiteacute des soins infirmiers sur la satisfaction au travail des soignants et sur leur implication affectiverdquo Recherche en soins infirmiers vol 102 no 3 pp 42ndash49 2010
[MAF 96] MAFFESOLI M Eacuteloge de la raison sensible Grasset Paris 1996
[MAL 96] MALVILLE P Leccedilons litteacuteraires sur les lsquoConfessionsrsquo de Jean-Jacques Rousseau PUF Paris 1996
[MAN 61] MANSFIELD E ldquoTechnical change and the rate of imitationrdquo Econometrica vol 29 no 4 pp 741ndash766 1961
[MAN 13] MANJOO F ldquoThe happiness machine how Google became such a great place to workrdquo Slate Magazine available at httpwwwslatecom articlestechnologytechnology201301google_people_operations_the_secrets_of_the_world_s_most_scientific_humanhtml January 2013
[MAS 82] MASLACH C Burnout The Cost of Caring Englewood Cliffs New York NY 1982
132 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
[MAS 02] MASON CM GRIFFIN MA ldquoGroup task satisfaction applying the construct of job satisfaction to groupsrdquo Small Group Research vol 33 no 3 pp 271ndash312 2002
[MAS 09] MASCLET D COLOMBIER N DENANT-BOEMONT L et al ldquoGroup and individual risk preferences a lottery-choice experiment with self-employed and salaried workersrdquo Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization vol 70 no 3 pp 470ndash484 2009
[MCA 95] MCALLISTER DJ ldquoAffect- and cognition-based trust as foundations for interpersonal cooperation in organizationsrdquo Academy of Management Journal vol 38 no 1 pp 24ndash60 1995
[MCC 84] MCCRAE RR ldquoSituational determinants of coping responses loss threat and challengerdquo Journal of Personality and Social Psychology vol 46 no 4 pp 919ndash928 1984
[MER 99] MERCIER S Lrsquoeacutethique dans les entreprises La Deacutecouverte Paris 1999
[MID 89] MIDDLETON DR ldquoEmotional style the cultural ordering of emotionsrdquo Ethos vol 17 pp 187ndash201 1989
[MON 05] MONOD-BROCA P Paul Broca un geacuteant du XIXe siegravecle Vuibert Paris 2005
[MOR 81] MORRIS T GREER S PETTINGALE KW et al ldquoPattern of expression of anger and their psychological correlates in women with breast cancerrdquo Journal of Psychosomatic Research vol 25 pp 111ndash117 1981
[MOR 96] MORRIS JA FELDMAN DC ldquoThe dimensions antecedents and consequences of emotion laborrdquo The Academy of Management Review vol 21 no 4 pp 986ndash1010 1996
[MOR 97] MORRIS JA FELDMAN DC ldquoManaging emotions in the workplacerdquo Journal of Managerial Issues vol 9 no 3 pp 257ndash274 1997
[MOR 02] MORANA J VAN HOOREBEKE D ldquoLe facteur humain au cœur du supply chain managementrdquo Gestion 2000 vol 6 pp 131ndash141 2002
[MOR 06] MORIN E Eacutethique vol 6 Le Seuil Paris 2006
[MUR 89] MURRAY AI ldquoTop management group heterogeneity and firm performancerdquo Strategic Management Journal vol 10 pp 125ndash141 1989
Bibliography 133
[NEA 86] NEALE MA BAZERMAN MH NORTHCRAFT GB et al ldquoChoice shift effects in group decisions a decision bias perspectiverdquo International Journal of Small Group Research vol 23 pp 33ndash42 1986
[NEL 00] NELSON K BOWEN J ldquoThe effect of employee uniforms on employee satisfaction the Cornell Hotel and Restaurantrdquo Administration Quarterly vol 41 no 2 pp 86ndash95 2000
[NEW 02] NEWCOMBE MJ ASHKANASY NM ldquoThe role of affect and affective congruence in perceptions of leaders an experimental studyrdquo Leadership Quarterly vol 13 pp 601ndash614 2002
[OAK 96] OAKLAND S OSTELL A ldquoMeasuring coping a review and critiquerdquo Human Relations vol 49 no 2 p 133 1996
[OKE 04] OKETCH M ldquoThe corporate stake in social cohesionrdquo Corporate Governance vol 4 no 3 pp 5ndash19 2004
[OLD 54] OLDS J MILNER PM ldquoPositive reinforcement produced by electrical stimulation of the septal area and the other regions of the rat brainrdquo Journal of Comparative and Psychological Psychology vol 47 pp 419ndash427 1954
[PAE 93] PAESE PW BIESER M TUBBS ME ldquoFraming effects and choice shifts in group decision makingrdquo Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes vol 56 pp 149ndash165 1993
[PAP 37] PAPEZ JP ldquoA proposed mechanism of emotionrdquo Archives of Neurology amp Psychiatry vol 38 pp 725ndash743 1937
[PAU 03] PAULUS P NIJSTAD B Group Creativity Innovation through Collaboration Oxford University Press New York NY 2003
[PEC 03] PECH RJ ldquoMemes and cognitive hardwiring why are some memes more successful than othersrdquo European Journal of Innovation Management vol 6 no 3 pp 173ndash181 2003
[PEL 05] PELLISSIER-TANNON A ldquoLrsquoadoption drsquoune attitude socialement responsable et ses fondements psychologiques un point de vue aristoteacutelicienrdquo Congregraves International de lrsquoADERSE Lyon October 2005
[PER 06] PERRY-SMITH JE ldquoSocial yet creative the role of social relationships in facilitating individual creativityrdquo Academy of Management Journal vol 49 pp 85ndash101 2006
[PET 83] PETERS T WATERMAN R Le prix de lrsquoexcellence InterEacuteditions Paris 1983
134 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
[PET 96] PETER JP OLSON JC Consumer Behavior and Marketing Strategy Irwin Chicago IL 1996
[PFE 98] PFEFFERBAUM B PFEFFERBAUM RL ldquoContagion in stress ndash an infectious disease model for post-traumatic stress in childrenrdquo Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America vol 7 p 183 1998
[PIA 37] PIAGET J La construction du reacuteel chez lrsquoenfant Delachaux et Niestleacute Paris 1937
[PIC 95] PICARD D ldquoRecherche performance humaine deacutesespeacutereacutement la contribution de cabinets de conseilrdquo Cahier de recherche du Gregor no 10 1995
[PIR 04] PIROLA-MERLO A MANN L ldquoThe relationship between individual creativity and team creativity aggregating across people and timerdquo Journal of Organizational Behavior vol 25 pp 235ndash257 2004
[PLU 80] PLUTCHIK R Emotion A Psychoevolutionary Synthesis Harper and Row New York NY 1980
[QUI 06] QUIRK J BEER JS ldquoPrefrontal involvement in the regulation of emotion convergence of rat and human studiesrdquo Current Opinion in Neurobiology vol 16 pp 723ndash727 2006
[RAF 89] RAFAELI A SUTTON RI ldquoThe expression of emotion in organizational liferdquo Research in Organizational Behavior vol 11 pp 1ndash42 1989
[REI 45] REICH W ldquoLa peste eacutemotionnellerdquo in REICH W (ed) Lrsquoanalyse caracteacuterielle Petite Bibliothegraveque Payot Paris 1945
[REI 01] REIS HT ldquoRelationship experiences and emotional well-beingrdquo in RYFF CD SINGER BH (eds) Emotion Social Relationship and Health Oxford University Press Oxford 2001
[REM 85] REMPEL JK HOLMES JG ZANNA MD ldquoTrust in close relationshipsrdquo Journal of Personality and Social Psychology vol 49 pp 95ndash112 1985
[RHO 01] RHODE P STEGEMAN M ldquoNon-Nash equilibria of Darwinian dynamics with applications to duopolyrdquo International Journal of Industrial Organization vol 19 pp 415ndash453 2001
[RIB 30] RIBOT T La psychologie des sentiments Alcan Paris 1930
[RIM 05] RIME B Le partage social des eacutemotions PUF Paris 2005
Bibliography 135
[ROB 97] ROBINSON MD JOHNSON JT ldquoIs it emotion or is it stress Gender stereotypes and the perception of subjective experiencerdquo Sex Roles vol 36 pp 235ndash258 1997
[ROG 95] ROGERS E The Diffusion of Innovations The Free Press New York NY 1995
[ROU 03] ROUSSILLON S Les eacutemotions dans le travail Research paper no 200312 EMLYON Business School December 2003
[ROU 15] ROUSSEAU N ldquoEn entreprise le bonheur est contagieuxrdquo La Tribune available at httpacteursdeleconomielatribunefrdebats conferences2015-02-04en-entreprise-le-bonheur-est-contagieuxhtml February 2015
[RUS 79] RUSSELL JA ldquoAffective space is bipolarrdquo Journal of Personality and Social Psychology vol 37 no 3 pp 345ndash356 1979
[SAM 06] SAMET R VAN HOOREBEKE D ldquoLa contagion eacutemotionnelle de groupe interpreacutetation numeacuterique du processus observeacute au travailrdquo Confeacuterence ACFAS Montreal 2006
[SAN 93] SANDELANDS L ST CLAIR L ldquoToward an empirical concept of grouprdquo Journal for the Theory of Social Behavior vol 23 pp 423ndash458 1993
[SAR 38] SARTRE J-P Esquisse drsquoune theacuteorie des eacutemotions Hermann Paris 1938
[SAV 54] SAVAGE L The Foundations of Statistics Dover Publications New York NY 1954
[SCH 71] SCHACHTER S Emotion Obesity and Crime Academic Press New York NY 1971
[SCH 73] SCHELLING TC ldquoHockey helmets concealed weapons and daylight saving a study of binary choices with externalitiesrdquo Journal of Conflict Resolution vol 17 pp 381ndash428 1973
[SCH 89] SCHERER KR ldquoVocal correlates of emotional arousal and affective disturbancerdquo in WAGNER H MANSTEAD A (eds) Handbook of Social Psychophysiology John Wiley amp Sons New York NY 1989
[SCH 94] SCHERER KR ldquoAffect burstsrdquo in VAN GOOZEN HM VAN DE POLL NE SERGEANT JA (eds) Emotions Essays on Emotion Theory Lawrence Erlbaum Hillsdale 1994
136 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
[SCH 98] SCHLAG K ldquoWhy imitate and if so how A boundedly rational approach to multi-armed banditsrdquo Journal of Economic Theory vol 78 no 1 pp 130ndash156 1998
[SCH 00] SCHAUBROECK J JONES JR ldquoAntecedents of workplace emotional labor dimensions and moderators of their effects on physical symptomsrdquo Journal of Organizational Behavior vol 21 pp 163ndash183 2000
[SCH 14] SCHMIDT E ROSENBERG J How Google Works John Murray London 2014
[SCO 80] SCOTT CLldquoInterpersonnel trust a comparison of attitudinal and situational factorsrdquo Human Relations vol 33 pp 805ndash812 1980
[SHA 87] SHAVER P SCHWARTZ J KIRSON D et al ldquoEmotion knowledge further exploration of a prototype approachrdquo Journal of Personality and Social Psychology vol 52 pp 1061ndash1086 1987
[SHI 03] SHIROM A ldquoJob related burnout a reviewrdquo in QUICK JC TETRICK LE (eds) Handbook of Occupational Health Psychology American Psychological Association Washington DC 2003
[SIM 59] SIMON HA ldquoTheories of decision-making in economics and behavioral sciencerdquo The American Economic Review vol 49 no 3 pp 253ndash283 1959
[SIM 87] SIMON HA ldquoMaking management decisions the role of intuition and emotionrdquo Academy of Management Executive vol 1 no 1 pp 57ndash64 1987
[SMI 76] SMITH VL ldquoExperimental economics induced value theoryrdquo American Economic Review Papers and Proceedings vol 66 no 2 pp 274ndash279 1976
[SMI 94] SMITH KG SMITH KA OLIAN JD et al ldquoTop management team demography and process the role of social integration and communicationrdquo Administrative Science Quarterly vol 39 pp 412ndash438 1994
[SMO 02] SMOLIAR SW SPRAGUE R ldquoCommunication and understanding for decision supportrdquo Proceedings of International Conference IFIP TC8WG83 Cork pp 107ndash119 2002
[SOL 98] SOLOMON RC ldquoThe politics of emotionrdquo Midwest Studies in Philosophy vol 22 no 1 pp 1ndash20 1998
Bibliography 137
[STA 89] STASSER G TAYLOR LA HANNA C ldquoInformation sampling in structured discussions of three- and six-person groupsrdquo Journal of Personality and Social Psychology vol 57 pp 57ndash67 1989
[STA 01] STASSER G DIETZ-UHLER B ldquoCollective choice judgment and problem solvingrdquo in HOGG MA TINDALE RS (eds) Handbook of Social Psychology Group Processes Blackwell Publishers Hoboken NJ 2001
[STE 93] STEARNS PN ldquoHistory of emotions the issue of changerdquo in
LEWIS M HAVILAND JM (eds) Handbook of Emotions Guilford New York NY 1993
[SUT 90] SUTTON RJ RAFAELI A ldquoBusy stores and demanding customers how do they affect the display of positive emotionrdquo Academy of Management Journal vol 33 no 3 pp 623ndash637 1990
[SUT 91] SUTTON RI ldquoMaintaining norms about expressed emotions the case of bill collectorsrdquo Administrative Science Quarterly vol 36 pp 245ndash268 1991
[TAB 08] TABIBNIA G SATPUTE AB LIEBERMAN MD ldquoThe sunny side of fairness preference for fairness activates reward circuitry (and disregarding unfairness activates self-control circuitry)rdquo Psychological Science vol 19 pp 339ndash347 2008
[TAJ 04] TAJFEL H TURNER JC ldquoThe social identity theory of intergroup behaviorrdquo in JOST TJ SIDANIUS J (eds) Political Psychology Psychology Press New York NY 2004
[TAN 92] TANNENBAUM SI BEARD RL SALAS E ldquoTeam building and its influence on team effectiveness an examination of conceptual and empirical developmentsrdquo in KELLEY K (ed) Issues Theory and Research in IndustrialOrganizational Psychology North Holland New York NY 1992
[THEacute 00] THEacuteVENET M Le plaisir de travailler favoriser lrsquoimplication des personnes Eacuteditions drsquoOrganisation Paris 2000
[THEacute 92] THEacuteVENET M Impliquer les personnes dans lrsquoentreprise Eacuteditions Liaisons Paris 1992
[THO 20] THORNDIKE EL ldquoA constant error in psychological ratingrdquo Journal of Applied Psychology vol 4 pp 25ndash29 1920
138 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
[THO 96a] THOMAS D ELY R ldquoMaking differences matter a new paradigm for managing diversityrdquo Harvard Business Review vol 74 no 5 pp 79ndash92 1996
[THO 96b] THOMASSET A Paul Ricœur une poeacutetique de la morale University Press Leuven 1996
[TIC 87] TICKLE-DEGNEN L ROSENTHAL R ldquoGroup rapport and nonverbal behaviourrdquo in HENDRICK C et al (eds) Group Processes and Intergroup Relations Review of Personality and Social Psychology vol 9 Sage Publications Beverly Hills CA 1987
[TOD 70] TODT D ldquoZur ordnung im gesang der nachtigall (Luscinia megarhynchos)rdquo Verhandlungen der Deutschen Zoologischen Gesellschaft vol 64 pp 249ndash252 1970
[TOD 71] TODT D ldquoAumlquivalente und konvalente gesangliche Reaktionen einer extrem regelmaumlssig singenden Nachtigall (Luscinia megarhynchos B)rdquo Zeitschrift fuumlr vergeichende Physiologie vol 71 pp 262ndash285 1971
[TOD 81] TODT D ldquoOn functions of vocal matching effect of counter-replies on song-post choice and singingrdquo Zeitschrift fuumlr Tierpsychologie vol 57 pp 73ndash93 1981
[TOD 96] TODT D HULTSCH H ldquoAcquisition and performance of repertoires ways of coping with diversity and versatilityrdquo in KROODSMA DE MILLER EH (eds) Ecology and Evolution of Communication Cornell University Press Ithaca 1996
[TOL 02] TOLBERT AS MCLEAN GN MYERS RC ldquoCreating the global learning organization (GLO)rdquo International Journal of Intercultural Relations vol 26 pp 462ndash472 2002
[TOT 98] TOTTERDELL P KELLETT S TEUCHMANN K et al ldquoEvidence of mood linkage in work groupsrdquo Journal of Personality and Social Psychology vol 74 pp 1504ndash1515 1998
[TOT 03] TOTTERDELL P HOLMAN D ldquoEmotion regulation in customer service roles testing a model of emotional laborrdquo Journal of Occupational Health Psychology vol 8 no 1 pp 55ndash73 2003
[TRA 93] TRAUE HC MICHAEL AM ldquoBehavioral and emotional inhibition in head painrdquo in TRAUE HC PENNEBAKER JW (eds) Emotion Inhibition and Health Hogrefe and Huber Publishers Seattle DC 1993
Bibliography 139
[TRE 96] TREWEEK P ldquoComparing interfaces should we assume that ease of use influences users preferencerdquo OzChirsquo96 Conference Proceedings IEEE Computer Society Press Hamilton 1996
[TUR 87] TURNER JC HOGG MA OAKES PJ et al Rediscovering the Social Group A Self-Categorization Theory Blackwell Oxford 1987
[TUR 01] TURBAN E ARONSON JE LIANG T-P Decision Support Systems and Intelligent Systems Prentice-Hall International Upper Saddle River NJ 2001
[TVE 80] TVERSKY A KAHNEMAN D ldquoCausal schemas in judgments under uncertaintyrdquo in FISHBEIN M (ed) Progress in Social Psychology Erlbaum Hillsdale MI 1980
[TYL 01] TYLER M HANCOCK P ldquoFlight attendants and the management of gendered lsquoOrganizational Bodiesrsquordquo in BACKETT-MILBURN K MCKIE L (eds) Constructing Gendered Bodies Explorations in Sociology Palgrave Macmillan London 2001
[VAN 03a] VAN HOOREBEKE D ldquoLe management des eacutemotions au travail une reconsideacuteration des pratiques organisationnellesrdquo Revue de Gestion des Ressources Humaines vol 49 2003
[VAN 03b] VAN HOOREBEKE D Les eacutemotions au travail processus conseacutequences et leviers de gestion PhD Thesis Universiteacute Aix-Marseille III 2003
[VAN 04] VAN HOOREBEKE D ldquoLa dissonance eacutemotionnelle au travail une approche ethnomeacutethodologiquerdquo Management et Avenir vol 3 pp 62ndash81 2004
[VAN 06] VAN HOOREBEKE D ldquoLa contagion eacutemotionnelle problegraveme ou ressource pour les relations interpersonnelles dans lrsquoorganisation rdquo Humanisme et Entreprise vol 279 pp 23ndash42 2006
[VAN 07a] VAN HOOREBEKE D ldquoContagion eacutemotionnelle facteur modeacuterateur de creacuteativiteacute et de performance de groupe au travail rdquo 9e Universiteacute de printemps de lrsquoIAS Moscow May 2007
[VAN 07b] VAN KLEEF GA COcircTEacute S ldquoExpressing anger in conflict when it helps and when it hurtsrdquo Journal of Applied Psychology vol 92 pp 1557ndash1569 2007
[VAN 08a] VAN HOOREBEKE D ldquoLrsquoeacutemotion et la prise de deacutecisionrdquo Revue Franccedilaise de Gestion vol 2 no 182 pp 33ndash44 2008
140 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
[VAN 08b] VAN HOOREBEKE D ldquoProposition de mesure de la performance des normes de comportements organisationnelles agrave lrsquoatteinte drsquoun service agrave la clientegravele authentiquerdquo Revue des Sciences de Gestion vol 1 no 229 pp 11ndash27 2008
[VAN 08c] VAN HOOREBEKE D BRASSEUR M ldquoEntre tradition et innovation la gestion des eacutemotions au travail eacutetude des leviers de gestionrdquo 15e congregraves de psychologie du travail et des organisations entre tradition et innovation comment transformons-nous lrsquounivers du travail Laval Quebec August 2008
[VAN 16] VAN HOOREBEKE D ldquoThe process of sharing ideas within a group while maintaining individual creativity a management leverrdquo International Review of Social Sciences vol 3 pp 34ndash45 2016
[VAS 05] VAS A ldquoLa vitesse de lrsquoadoption du changement au sein des grandes organisationsrdquo Revue Franccedilaise de Gestion no 155 pp 135ndash151 2005
[VAT 03] VATTEVILLE E Management strateacutegique de lrsquoemploi EMS Eacuteditions Paris 2003
[VEG 97] VEGA-REDONDO F ldquoThe evolution of Walrasian behaviorrdquo Econometrica vol 65 no 3 pp 375ndash384 1997
[VIN 86] VINCENT JD Biologie des passions Odile Jacob Paris 1986
[VON 44] VON NEUMANN J MORGENSTERN O Theory of Games and Economic Behavior Princeton University Press Princeton NJ 1944
[WAT 80] WATZLAWICK P Le langage du changement eacuteleacutements de communication theacuterapeutique Le Seuil Paris 1980
[WAT 02] WATTS DJ DODDS PS NEWMAN MEJ ldquoIdentity and search in social networksrdquo Science vol 296 pp 1302ndash1305 2002
[WEB 09] WEBER EU JOHNSON EJ ldquoMindful judgment and decision makingrdquo Annual Review of Psychology vol 60 pp 53ndash85 2009
[WEI 88] WEISBERG RW ldquoProblem solving and creativityrdquo in STERNBERG RJ (ed) The Nature of Creativity Contemporary Psychological Perspectives Cambridge University Press Cambridge 1988
[WEI 93] WEICK KE ROBERTS KH ldquoCollective mind in organizations heedful interrelating on flight decksrdquo Administrative Science Quarterly vol 38 pp 357ndash381 1993
Bibliography 141
[WEI 96] WEISS HM CROPANZANO R ldquoAffective events theory a theoretical discussion of the structure causes and consequences of affective experiences at workrdquo Research in Organizational Behavior vol 18 pp 1ndash74 1996
[WES 91] WESTBROOK RA OLIVER RL ldquoThe dimensionality of consumption emotion patterns and consumer satisfactionrdquo Journal of Consumer Research vol 18 no 1 pp 84ndash91 1991
[WIL 98] WILLIAMS KW OrsquoREILLY CA ldquoDemography and diversity in organizations a review of 40 years of researchrdquo Research in Organizational Behavior vol 20 pp 77ndash140 1998
[YAN 11] YANIV I ldquoGroup diversity and decision quality amplification and attenuation of the framing effectrdquo International Journal of Forecasting vol 27 pp 41ndash49 2011
[ZAP 02] ZAPF D ldquoEmotion work and psychological well-being a review of the literature and some conceptual considerationsrdquo Human Resource Management Review vol 12 pp 237ndash268 2002
[ZER 08] ZERBE WJ HAumlRTEL CEJ ASHKANASY NM (eds) Research on Emotion in Organizations vol 4 Emerald Group Publications Bingley 2008
[ZID 06] ZID R Comprendre le changement organisationnel agrave travers les eacutemotions Working paper University of Quebec Montreal 2006
[ZOU 16] ZOUHAOUI F BOISARD-CASTELLUCCIA S VAN HOOREBEKE D ldquoLa reacutesistance au changement expliqueacutee par le respect de lrsquoeacutequilibre cognition-eacutemotion le cas de lrsquoimplantation drsquoun nouveau logiciel dans une entreprise internationale de servicerdquo 6e colloque de lrsquoIseor avec divisions lsquoDeacuteveloppement Organisationnel et Changementrsquo et lsquoManagement Consultingrsquo de lrsquoAcademy of Management Lyon June 2016
Index
A B C
acting deep 20 33 35 39 surface 20 33 36
adjustment 8 adoption 82 affective 2 anger 6 authentic 84 balance 108 behavior 15 bias
champion 68 decisional 67
capacity 108 categories of emotions 2 change 98 cognition 13 16 55 62 77 95
108 113 cognitive 12 13 15 38 45 53
57 59 76ndash78 84 90ndash93 95 104 109
cohesion 85 collective 16 complex 96 conflict 90
contagion 15 50 61 68 81 82 85 87 90 93 96ndash99 101ndash103 111 emo-decisional 63 65 emotional 14
creativity 95
D E G
decision 11 dissonance
cognitive 13 49 61 91 emotional 14 25 33 36 39
40 45 78 99 divergence 100 diversity 89 e-motion 14 29 51 110ndash112 emotion 1ndash4 6ndash9 12 13 15ndash17
20ndash23 29 32 33 35 38ndash40 42ndash47 49 50 52 53 55ndash57 59 62 63 65 67ndash70 73 76ndash80 82 83 85ndash87 92 93 95ndash99 102 104 113
emotional plague 83 experimentation 103 expression 6 group 89 groupthink 68
The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management First Edition Delphine van Hoorebeke copy ISTE Ltd 2018 Published by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley amp Sons Inc
144 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
H I J
heterogeneity 94 hormones 14 43ndash46 57 imitation 15 impression 3 inhibition 8 13 14 31 43ndash49
96 98 intelligence 100
emotional 71 73ndash75 intensity 5 joy 6
K L M N
knowing 16 limbic 10 management 5
sunflower 68 mimicry 15 84 model 101 mood 3 negative 100 nervous system 7 norms 96
P R S T
perception 6 positive 100 process 3 7ndash9 12ndash16 19 22
31ndash33 35ndash39 42 46 50 52ndash54 56 57 60 61 63 65 66 71 74 75 77 80 81 84 85 89ndash91 94 95 98 101 111
rational 104 sadness 6 satisfaction 30 share 5 social influence 71 task-unrelated thoughts 95 temperament 3
V W
ventromedial regions 57 work
collaborative 96 collaborative remote 74 emotional 20 22 25 32 33
35 36 38 71 110
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WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENTGo to wwwwileycomgoeula to access Wileyrsquos ebook EULA
- Cover
- Half-Title Page
- Title Page
- Copyright Page
- Contents
- Foreword by Martine Brasseur
- Foreword by Claude Berghmans
- Preface
- Introduction
- 1 Emotion
-
- 11 Emotion a complex concept
- 12 Expression
- 13 An adjustment tool
- 14 A neurological system
- 15 A complex system
- 16 Subject to dissonance and inhibition
- 17 Contagion
-
- 2 Managing Individuals
-
- 21 The art of managing customer focus the relations dependent on monitoring and margins to maneuver
-
- 211 Organizational norms
- 212 Dissonances
-
- 22 The art of motivating commitment and satisfaction
-
- 221 Different types of commitment
- 222 Commitmentndashsatisfactionndashe-motion
-
- 23 The art of administering well the process approach a proactive and sustainable method
-
- 231 Emo-management a process that concerns everyone
- 232 A multitude of effects in the workplace
- 233 Levers for managing
-
- 24 The art of ensuring health and safety in the workplace well-being at work
-
- 241 A neurobiological process
- 242 Reasons to become ill
- 243 Real consequences
- 244 A schema like this in business
-
- 25 A factual approach for effective decision-making knowledge of the emotional decision-making process
-
- 251 Decision and emotion
- 252 Decision and emotion at the origin a rejection
- 253 Decision and the neurobiological process
- 254 Decision and emo-management
- 255 Decision emo-management and contagion
-
- 3 Managing a Collective
-
- 31 An evidence-based approach for effective collective
- 32 The art of leading authentic leadership and emotional intelligence
-
- 321 The manager and emotions
- 322 The manager and emotional intelligence
- 323 Is everyone capable of emo-managing
-
- 33 The art of reconciling the present with the future the principle of continuous improvement
-
- 331 Change and emotion
- 332 Change = trust = emotion
- 333 Change a shared emotional acceptance
- 334 Lever for the acceptance of change through
-
- 34 The art of bringing people together mutually beneficial relations with others and the social aspect of managerial responsibility
-
- 341 Collective emotion arsenal of emo-management
- 342 A paradoxical arsenal positive and negative effects
-
- 35 The art of managing diversity learning and creating collectively
-
- 351 Diversity between conflicts and group work
- 352 Managing diversity with emo-management
- 353 Emo-management a factor in diversity
-
- 36 A common point an essential element for collective intelligence emotional contagion
-
- 361 Emo-management dealing with emotional contagion
- 362 Mathematical and economic tools to better manage emotional contagion
-
- Conclusion
- Bibliography
- Index
- Other titles from iSTE in Innovation Entrepreneurship and Management
- EULA
-
The Management of Living Beings
or Emo-management
The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
Delphine van Hoorebeke
First published 2018 in Great Britain and the United States by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley amp Sons Inc
Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study or criticism or review as permitted under the Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 this publication may only be reproduced stored or transmitted in any form or by any means with the prior permission in writing of the publishers or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licenses issued by the CLA Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the undermentioned address
ISTE Ltd John Wiley amp Sons Inc 27-37 St Georgersquos Road 111 River Street London SW19 4EU Hoboken NJ 07030 UK USA
wwwistecouk wwwwileycom
copy ISTE Ltd 2018 The rights of Delphine van Hoorebeke to be identified as the author of this work have been asserted by her in accordance with the Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988
Library of Congress Control Number 2018943317 British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 978-1-78630-292-2
Contents
Foreword by Martine Brasseur ix
Foreword by Claude Berghmans xiii
Preface xvii
Introduction xxi
Chapter 1 Emotion 1
11 Emotion a complex concept 1 12 Expression 6 13 An adjustment tool 8 14 A neurological system 10 15 A complex system 12 16 Subject to dissonance and inhibition 13 17 Contagion 14
Chapter 2 Managing Individuals 19
21 The art of managing customer focus the relations dependent on monitoring and margins to maneuver 19
211 Organizational norms 21 212 Dissonances 23
22 The art of motivating commitment and satisfaction 27 221 Different types of commitment 27 222 Commitmentndashsatisfactionndashe-motion 29
vi The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
23 The art of administering well the process approach a proactive and sustainable method 31
231 Emo-management a process that concerns everyone 32 232 A multitude of effects in the workplace 35 233 Levers for managing 38
24 The art of ensuring health and safety in the workplace well-being at work 42
241 A neurobiological process 43 242 Reasons to become ill 44 243 Real consequences 45 244 A schema like this in business 48
25 A factual approach for effective decision-making knowledge of the emotional decision-making process 52
251 Decision and emotion 52 252 Decision and emotion at the origin a rejection 53 253 Decision and the neurobiological process 57 254 Decision and emo-management 60 255 Decision emo-management and contagion 62
Chapter 3 Managing a Collective 65
31 An evidence-based approach for effective collective decision-making understanding the process of emo-decisional contagion 65 32 The art of leading authentic leadership and emotional intelligence 69
321 The manager and emotions 70 322 The manager and emotional intelligence 71 323 Is everyone capable of emo-managing 73
33 The art of reconciling the present with the future the principle of continuous improvement 75
331 Change and emotion 76 332 Change = trust = emotion 78 333 Change a shared emotional acceptance 81 334 Lever for the acceptance of change through emo-management 82
Contents vii
34 The art of bringing people together mutually beneficial relations with others and the social aspect of managerial responsibility 84
341 Collective emotion arsenal of emo-management 85 342 A paradoxical arsenal positive and negative effects 86
35 The art of managing diversity learning and creating collectively 89
351 Diversity between conflicts and group work 90 352 Managing diversity with emo-management 93 353 Emo-management a factor in diversity 94
36 A common point an essential element for collective intelligence emotional contagion 99
361 Emo-management dealing with emotional contagion 101 362 Mathematical and economic tools to better manage emotional contagion 101
Conclusion 107
Bibliography 115
Index 143
Foreword by Martine Brasseur
The management of emotions in companies is a necessity It is nevertheless a difficult challenge especially as emotions are associated with an inalienable liberty of the subject At first their spontaneous character appears to be in conflict with any attempts at management Even when addressing the question of emotional control and distinguishing perception from emotional expression at the risk of placing people in cognitive dissonance a second objection to the potential management of emotions seems to reside in the possible intervention of a third party into an intrapsychic process that each individual is already struggling to channel How can we move past the stage of philosophical debates like the ongoing one [DAR 95] opposing in particular the Earl of Shaftesbury1 who like the Stoics
1 ldquoIt may be objected here that these passions unnatural as they are carry still a sort of pleasure with them and that however barbarous a pleasure it be yet still it is a pleasure and satisfaction which is found in pride or tyranny revenge malice cruelty exerted Now if it be possible in nature that anyone can feel a barbarous or malicious joy otherwise than in consequence of mere anguish and torment then we may perhaps allow this kind of satisfaction to be called pleasure or delight But the case is evidently contrary To love and to be kind to have social or natural affection complacency and good-will is to feel immediate satisfaction and genuine content It is in itself original joy depending on no preceding pain or uneasiness and producing nothing beside satisfaction merely On the other side animosity hatred and bitterness are original misery and torment producing no other pleasure or satisfaction than as the unnatural desire is for the instant satisfied by something which appeases itrdquo [ASH 07 p 110]
x The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
called for a self-government outside of all external laws and all sanctions solely through the satisfaction of good deeds and Immanuel Kant for whom self-determination fell under individual will and consisted of imposing the application of moral law on oneself For both emotions are understood as passions that cloud or distort judgment This is not a matter for management because managing emotions would be reduced to personal discipline very far from the challenges of developing professional skills or interacting with others and reinforcing traditional conceptions that place emotions outside of the field of management
Delphine van Hoorebekersquos approach developed based on several scientific disciplines including sociology psychology and neuroscience is very different and allows her to address the complexity of motivations and emotional processes while demonstrating that their integration into management practices is not only possible but also represents an important performance factor Approaching management like a relational exercise requiring the development of human qualities in the people who practice it [CHA 90] she treats emotion as a manifestation resulting in a bias one consisting of ldquotaking something at face valuerdquo [THO 96b] Emotions come to play the roles of indicators or alerts Their capacity to make certain aspects of professional situations intelligible leads to an evocation of the existence of a form of emotional intelligence in line with Sartre [SAR 38] who considered that ldquoemotional consciousness is primarily consciousness of the worldrdquo or Robert Solomon [SOL 98] for whom emotions ldquodo not just happen to usrdquo they help us to face other people In its pedagogical development this book shows us step by step how emotions intervene in each step of management and what mechanisms managers should use
Over the course of these pages a model emerges of a professional practice that by considering the emotions of the subject and the role attributed to feelings toward other people comes to promote the recognition of humanity in the other while giving managers the opportunity to affirm their own existence as human beings It is
Foreword by Martine Brasseur xi
through the management of people this emo-management that is so aptly named that we can humanize management
Martine BRASSEUR Professor at the Universiteacute Paris-Descartes Chief editor of the interdisciplinary journal
Management Homme amp Entreprise
Foreword by Claude Berghmans
The management of organizations has experienced many evolutions and mutations in the last 50 years that are directly related to the multiple evolutions of our society (technological human economic and political) and the major organizational figures who compose it in the context of globalization From the scientific organization of labor in Taylorian structures to different methods of participatory management that we can observe in our current societies the changes have been numerous and varied New research disciplines and rich innovative conceptual contributions have appeared in human resources and management sciences under the necessary pressure of multiple social changes that we have observed in English-speaking countries Subsequently the globalization of these approaches appeared and today we find very similar management methods in different areas around the world moving toward a kind of standardization in the management of human capital The same organizational and managerial dynamics are found in major financial or industrial groups In addition there are also innovative areas similar to small groups or networks that can provide new modifications to the understanding of how our organizations work and outline new managerial development paths that highlight innovation limitless creativity boldness and emotional intelligence Notably we see this in the management models of companies in Silicon Valley that are increasingly discussed and that spotlight the spirit of innovation and risk-taking where imagination stands alongside large-scale industrial and financial projects This is true for both the
xiv The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
success of small start-ups that transform into titanic structures like Elon Muskrsquos SpaceX company that offers private spacecraft launches or the great monsters of GAFA (Google Amazon Facebook Apple) that are headed for world domination in their sectors Sometimes insignificant in their infancy these companies have succeeded in adapting and developing by relying on their human capital To do this many factors were necessary including the consideration of emotional intelligence as a participative process of management The role of emotions in companies is beginning to be felt in many organizations First studied from a psychological angle in the 1980s the consideration of emotions quickly became an essential and necessary element in the management of human capital in companies
In practice many HR managers address this question by trying to implement innovative approaches that allow them to develop and work on what some call ldquoemotional competencerdquo in order to make the most of it in the daily managerial practices of our colleagues All the same the concept is difficult and it is not so easy to integrate the management of emotions into the managerial best practices that an organization needs to optimize its performance French university research in management sciences is only just beginning in this field and there are many ways to approach it Of course there are several methods of working on emotions in managerial practices but what about their long-term effectiveness HR practitioners today need precise methodological and conceptual foundations based on serious experimental research that has been proven in order to benefit from a real expertise on the subject to provide clarity in a field that is still very abstract and to be guided through this type of approach
This is exactly the aim of Delphine van Hoorebekersquos book which based on several years of research about managing emotions brilliantly proposes a meticulous argument showing that emotions are found in most management innovation and decision-making processes in large companies Emotions have long been underestimated in companies Here the author shows how managerial practices are connected to managing emotions whether it is at the level of decision-making conflict management or emotional contagion Her work highlights the important role of emotions in life
Foreword by Claude Berghmans xv
skills and the professional interactions that we observe in the daily life of our organizations Too long studied and perceived as a thinking machine employees are emotional beings who need to thrive and use the emotional potential that they possess in order to optimize their individual and collective performances within their organization Developing our emotional intelligence to optimize our managerial practices is becoming a necessity at the start of the 21st Century where the dynamics of change are numerous and continue to accelerate The future of our companies will need colleagues who can consider a larger facet of our cognitive potential and base themselves on what optimal emotional management can contribute to our daily work Not accounting for emotions within companies is nonsensical From now on we must equip ourselves with solid and precise foundations for comprehension that allow practitioners in organizations to implement the use of this concept and provide pragmatic approaches that are adapted to the needs of organizations
This book offers a new vision of management where emotions play an important role at both the individual and collective levels Using a clear and didactic approach the author offers us the possibility of constructing a precise understanding of emotional management and its implications at the level of individual and collective management processes that are necessary to all successful organizations It is an innovative and indispensable tool for anyone who wishes to reflect on the matter and optimize the management practices of their companies in order to equip themselves with tools and especially specific frameworks that underscore the necessity of developing the emotional aspects of our modes of management that often still respond to the cold logic of past organizational models The consideration of emotions in our managerial practices is now a necessity for responding to todayrsquos growing performance requirements
Claude BERGHMANS HR Manager
Eurofoil Luxembourg SA
Preface
Management is in the process of restructuring In an era of remote collaborative work (where cooperation is both inter-cultural and asynchronous) the social responsibility of companies (where a collaboration is envisioned between the stakeholders in a company) and uberization (where every person becomes their own employer subject to the opinions of clients and harsh market forces) the management of people in the workplace requires some adjustment in order to consider the neurological psychological and psychobiological aspects of human beings in both their ways of managing and of being managed and in the consequences of their management for themselves and others Faced with technologies management must rediscover its humanity to secure its position This expression of the ldquohumanizationrdquo of the human is based on the fact that in companies until now humans have only very rarely and exceptionally been considered as a whole often they were considered to be only robots (bodies) brains (heads) and above all beings without emotions which are often viewed as sentimentality at work (hearts) However the soft skills that are so sought-after in management today are based on a combination of these three pillars
The many behavioral issues and reactions of a group which often explain the failure or success of a given project depend on this consideration and a holistic understanding of the human at work This necessity is all the more fundamental because the current problem is
xviii The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
part of a radical change in our society with no one arguing the need for a new economic paradigm The new order of the economy in the making prompts us to change the reasoning and model of human relations
Driven by social networks and societal economic and environmental evolutions human relations are led to change Here one element takes a position that was unexpected until now disrupting several accepted meanings the heart
ldquoThe increase in hearts in the production process will shake up companies and society1 [hellip] The power of the heart the capacity to work together to establish trust beyond a simple transactionrdquo becomes an essential commodity in the economy that lies ahead in the coming years ldquoWe have reached a time when the rational manager model and its basic premise the rational actor are exhaustedrdquo explained Chanlat [CHA 03] in 2003 in his article ldquoEacutemotions organisation et management une critique sur la notion drsquointelligence eacutemotionnellerdquo in the journal Travailler
Although the term ldquomanagementrdquo was originally used to indicate a way to ride a horse (managere to guide by hand) the emotional aspect has long been removed from it However horse riding is renowned for a specific feature the respect of the animal and of the humanndashanimal relationship This situation is related to the confrontation between emotion and rationality Philosophers have often extolled the virtues of rationality through for example Descartesrsquo famous phrase ldquoI think therefore I amrdquo [DEC 37] Emotion was therefore perceived as a deviance Yet thanks to the developments and advancements of research the place of emotion in management is becoming increasingly clear and verified Its role as a relational decisional tool even as a support for rationality has granted it an important place in the development of decision-making and collaborative work software tools If software makes it possible to follow an entirely ldquorationalrdquo logic managers and their teams need
1 For more details see httpswwwlesechosfridees-debatseditos-analyses0216206 97193-quand-les-entreprises-embaucheront-des-coeurs-1192532phpdOb8GWQrZ m5v90vD99
Preface xix
human contacts to decide collaborate innovatehellip Without privileging the new types of practices of a future increasingly digital management this book seeks to show that emotion is already present at all of these levels In addition the new practices already seem to be driving forces that will accelerate the different processes established and amplify emotional relationships To understand the emerging management it is essential to understand todayrsquos management through this aspect that is too often ignored even rejected despite being an explanatory factor in many problems
To do this by discussing emo-management and the management of people this text seeks to show how management is already predominantly composed of what we call ldquoe-motionsrdquo to emphasize their etymological significance put into motion It is a question of testing describing and illustrating the connections between management practices and psychological sociological and neurological components of e-motion Therefore its objective is to understand how emotion with its three pillars that are already in place can become essential in the future In a context where collaborative work is increasingly happening remotely supported by software tools management becomes a true tool of group coaching mediating instructing and a factor of managerial innovation According to a great deal of research in this type of collaboration of social responsibility a group needs a physical marker to avoid chaos and ensure that it performs well This is the future role of the manager that is emerging Through two elements the management of individuals and the management of a group this book describes the intervention of e-motion at each level from the client relationship to group management passing through the process approach and individual and collective decision-making
The body of this text reveals the presence of two factors playing on paradoxes e-motion and its contagion At the individual level e-motion supports the good relationships but can also be the source of bad relationships especially when it is inauthentic E-motion both encourages well-being and yet can provoke health problems It supports decision-making but it can demonstrate a decisional bias At the collective level it can help with collaborative work and also play
xx The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
a central role in amplifying group idiosyncrasies (jealousy for example) Its contagion is also at the origin of genuine positive competition in the group and genuine collective self-destruction Management cannot escape these dimensions Faced with a future of homo collectivum where the social aspect is central emo-management assumes its full importance
Delphine VAN HOOREBEKE May 2018
Introduction
ldquoAnyone who uses violence knocks over beer or pronounces offensive language will be reprimandedhelliprdquo states the French register of the association of baker apprentices in 1904 In 2012 the baker apprentice handbook1 specifies ldquoProfessional attitudes and behaviors punctuality personal hygiene [hellip] sense of responsibilities industriousness teamwork attention to detailhelliprdquo The management of workplace behavior is not new and it has evolved a great deal If at the start the goal was to avoid intense emotions we now find more moderate terms Have they become independent of all emotion
If in the Middle Ages lower class gatherings were dominated by rowdiness and confusion whilst the behavior of the elite in the European courts was restrained and refined [ELI 94] In the 15th and 16th Centuries emerging associations of merchants and artisans attempted to regulate mutual interactions Among the regulations established by these associations we find the foundations of our current meeting procedures In the 17th Century a Spanish priest [GRA 05a] developed strategic refinement The advice that his book Oraculo manual y arte de prudencia (The Art of Worldly Wisdom) [GRA 05a] offers does not only recommend specific rules of behavior
1 Available online at httpcsmocaorgpdfcarnetapprentissageboulangerjuin 2012pdf
xxii The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
but also outlines the goal of developing a position of power In this book we find an undeniable emotional aspect
ndash ldquoThe passions are the gates of the soul The most practical knowledge consists of disguising themrdquo (p 98)
ndash ldquoDo and be seen doing Things do not pass for what they are but for what they seem To be of use and to know how to show yourself of use is to be twice as usefulrdquo (p 130)
ndash ldquoThe art of getting into a passion [hellip] The first step towards getting into a passion is to announce that you are in a passion By this means you begin the conflict with command over your temper for one has to regulate onersquos passion to the exact point that it is necessary and no further This is the art of arts in falling into and getting out of a ragerdquo (p 155)
ndash ldquoDo not pass for a Hypocrite [hellip] Sincerity should not degenerate into simplicity nor sagacity into cunningrdquo (p 219)
ndash ldquoAnticipate injuries and turn them into Favors [hellip] for he leaves no time for injuries that fills it up with gratituderdquo (p 259)
These different premises form the foundation of contemporary rules of conduct This advice is very indicative of the place of emotions and the management that they require in order not to fall into non-conformity Today at the intersection of production policies business collaborative work and uberization more and more individuals in our society have adopted them
This has not always been the case In the first industrial organizations only the directors of companies and their immediate environment enjoyed this type of consideration The employees were required to follow rules that notably resembled those of the registers of associations in the 15th Century Today the image of the organization as a pyramid of command and control is no longer compatible with the modern design of the company that is increasingly turning toward units in a network Exchange and horizontal coordination are in order Employees must have the ability to cooperate calmly and to adjust their behavior upon request In this
Introduction xxiii
context hierarchical conduct of superiority becomes incompatible Expressing a robust confidence keeping onersquos composure and directing others strategically are no longer the issue Interdependency requires reducing modeled behaviors and increasing more informal mannerisms These informal mannerisms require interlocutors to test themselves and test the other person in the relationship Because of this the individual must only rely on their own judgment and manage their own emotions [ELI 94]
To simplify two types of emotions appear in companies negative and positive Concerning the negative emotions jealousy disappointment anger gossip and power struggles constantly occupy individuals at work According to the website of Thibodeau2 a human resources consultant an emotion is a tool to reach a previously decided goal ldquoYou should not use a screwdriver if you want to drive in some nails you should choose a hammerrdquo According to this author the same thing applies to emotions Certain emotions seek to control others in order to obtain something For example people use anger as a way to get others to obey them Others use hate to get back at someonehellip Does this work Not always and when it does the results are only temporary In the medium- and long-term the use of anger grudges resentment criticism blame intimidation threats shaming and other emotions of the same type to manipulate or control others or to get something from them degenerates into major conflicts and sometimes a distressing failure Other emotions can plague us and prevent us from getting what we want They are presented in the form of fears that can generate various blockages
However there are also emotions like enthusiasm joy love passion and pleasure These emotions facilitate good relationships with others The rationalization of interaction in our modern organizations calls for taking charge managing the ldquoirrationalityrdquo of emotions and notably the so-called ldquonegativerdquo emotions Employees are encouraged to seek to express themselves authentically They learn to be more direct and also more respectful and flexible as evidenced
2 Available online at http wwwpsycho-ressourcesombibliemotions-et-croya nceshtml
xxiv The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
by articles found in the mainstream press In the French newspaper Les Eacutechos an article called ldquoLes eacutemotions dans lrsquoentrepriserdquo [BAT 02] tells us ldquoThe hour no longer belongs to the docile employee who is never responsible or guiltyrdquo The difficulty of managing emotions that are considered negative often leads to greater stress For Arriveacute [ARR 01] not expressing anything aside from the suffering that this conduct induces cuts us off from all real relationships and creates aggressive attitudes related to the frustration The most destructive ways of reducing this stress such as gossip insinuations cynicism paranoia and disagreements can drive the organization to a breaking point The pressure of growing interdependencies and the capacity to manage it are so precarious that a dynamic of increasing friction is very likely to develop For proof an article in the French newspaper Libeacuteration entitled ldquoDeacutemunis face aux tensionsrdquo [DAU 99] features an interview with the sociologist Vincent Dubois [DUB 08] who recounts the case of tellers for family allowance funds in his book La vie au guichet ldquoI have seen agents break down on several occasions they let themselves boil over they are no longer able to separate the personal from the professional [hellip] All this creates tensions and an uncomfortable situationrdquo (p 3) Humans must be able to manage this type of situation that they may encounter to overcome this frustration They must be able to express themselves and liberate their emotions
Faced with this first shift managers are not spared either Now they must decide on a rational and optimal way of managing their emotions and those of others by demonstrating emotional intelligence showing that they are responsible and ensuring well-being This has become so important that in the article ldquoThe happiness machine how Google became such a great place to workrdquo (2013) Farhad Manjoo wrote ldquo[hellip] there was the happiness problem Google monitors its employeesrsquo well-being to a degree that can seem absurd to those who work outside Mountain Viewrdquo [MAN 13] Yet if the concept of emotion evokes something for everyone then we must be able to understand it and pinpoint it even more so when it comes to managers This is what we hope to accomplish with this book understanding this kind of ldquoliving beingrdquo in order to manage more responsibly
Introduction xxv
In fact currently and parallel to an exacerbated collectivism accountability emerges The organization and its management modify their vision of things their way of operating and gain responsibility A change in how they operate or how they view their operations In this context managing in contemporary companies requires specific skills that make it possible to
1) create rapport that is based on a common identity
2) generate a social cohesion between different talents in the company
3) but also make good decisions very quickly
4) establish well-being in the workplace
5) secure the acceptance of changes that are indispensable for the flexibility of the organization faced with a market that is constantly evolving
6) be accountable
In our view future management depends on a collective intelligence a governance a responsible dimension that considers people in the workplace (managers and employees) to be an overall entity one complete and complex being that is both cognitive and intuitive physical and emotional
At this level the complexity of management takes on its full meaning To ensure a thoughtful integration of the new management on the horizon for companies the latter must consider people in the workplace in all their complexity This leads us to move beyond the studies that have already been conducted for more than 20 years to move past divisions and to show that management should be considered holistically In our opinion the current management on the ground has an unfortunate tendency to limit itself by acting on elements that are too specific Far be it from us to say that points of detail should be neglected but they remain restrictive Acting on an ad hoc basis is more conducive to being reactive than proactive Emo-management advocates understanding the quality of life the quality of human relations the quality of work relations and the quality of choices made
xxvi The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
The other particularity of emo-management is that it takes into consideration the stakeholders in the company These stakeholders are not restricted to only contractual parties but constitute a much larger set including ldquoany group or individual that can affect or be affected by the decisions and the realization of an organizationrsquos objectivesrdquo [FRE 84 p 48] and that ldquovoluntarily or involuntarily assumes a risk because of the companyrdquo [CLA 95] In the context of these theories the sought-after rule is cooperative balance [CAP 07] This means that the success of a strategy requires considering the interests of all stakeholders as emphasized by Jones and Wicks [JON 99] in order to be effective [FRE 99] However Vatteville [VAT 03] underscored the difficulty of governing stakeholders because they often have different or even competing objectives As noted by Capron and Quairel-Lanoizeleacutee [CAP 07] the issues at stake require implementing mediation and compromises that satisfy the majority of the parties concerned The new managerial rules based on collectivism (the search for a quantitative and qualitative collective wealth) [ASS 09] once again assign great importance to e-motion
To unlock the mysteries of this new and more complex vision of management which aims to manage a variety of stakeholders and an increase in individual interests using collective intelligence it is indispensable to conduct a study and analysis of human behavior through emotions which are seen as a natural biological psycho-cognitive psycho-sociological and neurological element
Historically after even the idea of the existence of emotions in animals had been rejected by scientific research Charles Darwin the founder of the theory of evolution in 1872 defined emotion as the ability of the living organism to adapt and survive He saw it as innate universal and communicative It is only in the last 20 years that emotions have been studied in social contexts In fact not long ago there was still a concerted effort in psychology to dismiss emotion from research emotions were considered ldquoan unscientific concept characterized by subjectivismrdquo [LAZ 91] an epiphenomenon From a behavioral point of view emotion was ultimately perceived as a
Introduction xxvii
ldquomotivatorrdquo something that influences the choice of an individual in response to an internal or external stimulus It is recognized that an emotion exists in both the personal and individual dimensions of a person It forms this ability to adapt and change a link that establishes our relationships and allows us to interact with the other Recent studies (in particular the many studies by OrsquoRegan in the 2000s) in cognitive research have demonstrated that emotions are a combination of several biochemical sociocultural and neurological factors They are translated by specific reactions motor (muscle tone shaking etc) behavioral (inability to move agitation escape aggression etc) and physiological (pallor flushing pulse acceleration palpitations sense of discomfort etc) These have become integral parts of human beings and their daily life Everyone manages their emotions daily and in doing so as noted by Hochschild [HOC 83] the management of emotions becomes a dominant aspect of social life with a capital ldquoSrdquo Emotions are at present considered to be a central concept and theories have multiplied As proof many disciplines study emotions The life sciences study the role of emotions in mental processes disorders and neural mechanisms such as psychiatry and psychology and also linguistics and education (concerning the role of emotions in learning) The social sciences often examine emotions for the role that they play in human culture and social interactions through anthropology ethology criminology law political science communication philosophy and even history where the discipline examines documents and other sources to interpret and analyze activities in the past and speculate about the emotional state of the authors of historical documents as a tool of interpretation In addition two facets of research that could seem contradictory to the irrational aspect attributed to emotions have been developed In the field of economics micro-economics examines production distribution and the consumption of goods and services in order to evaluate the role of emotions in the perception of decision-making and purchasing risk In the field that this text belongs to management science the intervention of emotions in companies is studied in the decisions of directors the behavior of employees and even customers
xxviii The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
The enthusiasm for emotions in these varied types of research corroborates the interest in their study in all areas of life including at work and in people management Supporting our position McAllister [MCA 95] explained that research in management recognizes that a large part of managerial work is accomplished through interpersonal interaction and that the nature of the relations between managers and their peers can determine their capacity to accomplish their work In this sense in its biological neurological and psychological aspects the contribution of emotion to modern management in daily life seems undeniable However at a time when work is becoming increasingly collaborative when we ask managers to listen to colleagues to show humility to know how to recognize their errors and to demonstrate empathy and when research on the subject is extensive and has been for several years now [ASH 17] can we consider that management can and must contemplate their intervention in a more in-depth way To answer this question after establishing a quick synopsis of the original definitions and concepts of emotion the goal is to show the role of emotions in decision-making change management authority and social relations between and within companies through a theoretical analysis and review of recent literature in management neurology and psychology
Starting from its original definition the term ldquomanagementrdquo comes from the French word ldquomeacutenagementrdquo borrowed by the English and later reintroduced into French in a somewhat modified form It is commonly defined by consensus as a set of techniques aiming to optimize the use of resources in an organization (company administration or even association) in order to realize an objective Based on these origins the management of teams and resources requires a capacity to know how to handle them (as in the adage ldquoslow and steady wins the racerdquo) According to Le Littreacute the term ldquomanagementrdquo describes this discipline as an art ldquothe art of directing steering handling motivatinghellip even the action of regulating effectively administering wellrdquo The history of management shows both the novelty of the discipline and the rapid evolution of mentalities in this area from Taylor with his scientific organization of
Introduction xxix
labor that was attuned to precision and rationality passing through Fayol with his functional approach to a management that was predictive organizing decisive coordinating and controlling to Weber with what some call the ldquotechno-scientific knowledgerdquo in management sciences knowledge resulting from combinations of different areas of research to improve the organization
Management (managing by hand) and ldquoemo-managementrdquo (managing emotions) Guiding by hand and managing emotions are two systems that may seem incompatible However the management of a horse by hand presumes trust from the animal Managing the emotions of a human presumes trust and an art of action and behavior
In its historical context management has undergone several theoretical and practical advancements in every area related to it and notably recently in terms of the social responsibility of companies ethics and governance In this regard Lewin [LEW 51] introduced the individual actor at the center of the organization by showing that a grouprsquos behavior is prompted by the manager According to Mercier [MER 99] managers have social influence and determine the spirit and values of companies a term that is commonly used in management [FRA 10] and their actions serve as a reference for the desired conduct The ethics of managers also have a direct influence on workplace behaviors according to Hiregravech3 Through interpersonal trust created by the perception of the ethical behavior of a manager and procedural justice a concept that encourages the assessment of manager ethics the employee will develop organizational citizenship
We believe that emo-management is inherently connected to the ldquointelligentrdquo understanding integration and regulation of emotions and this is what this text suggests Whether it is at the individual or collective level management cannot simply withdraw and omit emotions since they are an integral part of what humans do in all areas of life After establishing a description of what emotion is to
3 Available online at httpsbasepubdauphinefrbitstreamhandle1234567892883 Hireche_Loreapdfsequence=2
xxx The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
complete our demonstration we will consider Le Littreacutersquos definition of management broken down into two parts the individual level and the collective level
In these parts several management approaches are described based on the intervention of emotions
ndash The first approach concerns ldquocustomer focusrdquo or the art of establishing an authentic relationship with clients it has one principle efficient client relations Companies depend on their clients and count on their managers to lead a team that will take good care of them It is therefore important that its members understand their present and future needs meet their demands and strive to exceed their expectations To reach this goal the customer focus must be experienced and authentic Customer relations can be subject to organizational and occupational standards which can lead to emotional cognitive or conative dissonances The objective is through a literal analysis of a rating scale of these dissonances to attempt to limit them and in doing so minimize their negative effects such as ldquoinappropriaterdquo and inauthentic behavior that should be avoided in customer relations and causes distrust in the relationship This objective can in this context prove to be an invaluable aid for management
ndash The second approach ldquothe art of motivating commitment and satisfactionrdquo indicates that some studies have shown or demonstrated the interrelations between commitment and emotion in the workplace In this sense effective and intentional commitment cannot anchor certain practices within a company if it is imposed inhibited falsified or simulated
ndash The third approach ldquothe art of administering well the process approach a sustainable and proactive methodrdquo describes the process of creating workplace behaviors The description of this process based on a global approach (biological psychological cognitive and emotional) encourages managers to consider how they themselves function internally as well as how their colleagues operate and indicates existing management mechanisms to them
Introduction xxxi
ndash The fourth approach is based on ldquothe art of assessing workplace health and safety well-being at workrdquo It must be considered that responsible management cannot overlook the consideration of health and safety in the workplace This section describes the emotional aspect and its biological effects related to psychosocial risks at work
ndash The fifth approach concerns ldquothe factual approach for effective decision-making understanding the irrational decision processrdquo This approach develops in detail the process of decision-making elaborated by Berthoz [BER 03] and Damasio [DAM 94] This biological process describes the impact of emotions and the limbic system on decision-making in neurological terms In our view knowledge of how this works is more than essential for management to integrate the systems and factors that lead to a good or bad decision in its individual or collective aspects
ndash The sixth approach describes ldquothe art of leading authentic leadership and emotional intelligencerdquo This shows that leadership which can lead to responsible management according to Le Bas [LEB 04] is generated by authentic expression Studies on the subject go so far as to demonstrate that even anger when appropriate and expressed according to certain rules of decorum corresponds to an expectation of employees
ndash The seventh approach ldquothe art of reconciling the present to the future a pure principle of continuous improvementrdquo highlights the acceptance of change necessary for prospective actions and the continuity of the company which is compelled to adapt to market developments and imposed standards In this regard employees play a crucial role with their acceptance of change The latter depends on a connection of established and lasting trust to avoid having to confront conflicts refusals and resistance (voluntary or not) to the process of change implemented
ndash The eighth approach indicates that management is the art of bringing people together based on one principle mutually beneficial relations with others The art of bringing people together cannot happen without a leaderrsquos charisma Nevertheless in addition to this
xxxii The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
important factor this section presents the role of contagion and the contagious aspect of one or more individuals leading the group team or meeting whether it consists of colleagues suppliers clients or any other stakeholder An organization and its suppliers are interdependent and mutually beneficial relations increase joint capacities to create value Contagion cannot be established without a relationship of trust like the effect that a crowd movement can have on social interaction group cohesion cooperative exchanges and social inclusion or isolation
ndash The ninth approach ldquothe art of managing diversity learning and creating collectivelyrdquo highlights the effect of insights and emotions on activities for groups with multiple diversities Diversity is no longer sought in a single logic of equality but also in a logic of learning about difference and performance Managing diversity requires not only managing cognitive conflicts but also and especially more complex affective conflicts In this regard positive emotional contagion can prove to be a mechanism for cohesion and collective learning regardless of the heterogeneity and diversity of individuals and encourage performance
ndash The final approach focuses on a point that recurs in the other approaches emotional contagion a critical point of a group contagion a new collective ldquointelligencerdquo management tool Like the effect that a strike can have on social cohesion and cooperation contagion is present at all levels of the company internally and externally This can foster support as much as defiance conflict and dissolution Contagion resulting from emotion is purely innate to human beings As social beings since our origins we often seek activity in groups imitate our peers through mimicry to affirm our belonging and our real desire and ability to act like others The objective is not to be marginalized or excluded from the group
As specified earlier these different approaches are divided into two large sections managing individuals and managing a collective The future of management is no longer in individualism but in the collective and so particular emphasis is placed on the collective
Introduction xxxiii
Paradoxically on this point this text is in agreement with Descartes famous for his phrase ldquocogito ergo sumrdquo According to him the individual can be considered as a means to assess individual talents to construct a viable collective organization a social intelligence In 1649 in his book The Passions of the Soul he wrote the following in article 156 [DES 49]
ldquoThose who are Generous in this way are naturally inclined to do great things and yet to undertake nothing they do not feel themselves capable of And because they esteem nothing more highly than doing good to other men and for this reason scorning their own interest they are always perfectly courteous affable and of service to everyone And along with this they are entirely masters of their Passions ndash particularly Desires Jealousy and Envy because there is nothing whose acquisition does not depend on them which they think is worth enough to deserve being greatly wished forrdquo4
In fact to ensure efficient lasting and responsible collective management individuals cannot be considered as single entities in a group They are in this book at all times perceived as a distinctive being equipped with reason and emotion In a collective individuals must be able to obtain personal recognition and self-esteem fulfill their own needs and feel satisfied about being committed in a continuous fashion in their company and its projects It is notably this paradox of collectivismindividualism that makes this new vision of management sophisticated especially when we understand that it is based on a non-negligible emotional aspect emo-management
4 Translation taken from the 1989 English edition translated by Stephen Voss and published by Hackett Publishing Company
1
Emotion
11 Emotion a complex concept
Mr Baume just got a telephone call from a dishonest customer He hung up in anger and left to smoke a cigarette A commercial manager must not show his emotions Ms Nathaly is thrilled about her performance She thinks she will get a bonus Can she show her joy Some people will be happy for her but others will be disappointed that they did not do as well These are specific examples of emotions in companies Why are they so complex to manage
First to understand them well a detailed definition of the term ldquoemotionrdquo is necessary This immediately poses a problem however as emotion remains a notion that is vague and difficult to define [ALV 02] because it is idiosyncratic that is specific and unique to each individual creating several definitions and roles Etymologically speaking emotion comes from the Latin ex (exterior) and movere (motion movement) In his book Esquisse drsquoune theacuteorie des eacutemotions (Sketch for a Theory of the Emotions) Sartre [SAR 38 p 62] defines emotion as ldquoan abrupt drop of consciousness into magic We have seen how during an emotion the consciousness abases itself and abruptly transmutes the determinist work in which we live into a magical worldrdquo1 This idea of a magical world shows
1 Translation taken from the 1994 English edition translated by Philip Mairet and published by Routledge
The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management First Edition Delphine van Hoorebeke copy ISTE Ltd 2018 Published by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley amp Sons Inc
2 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
how closely tied emotions are to a spiritual realm that is difficult to discern
Emotions have in fact been categorized by several studies For example Shaver et al [SHA 87] established a hierarchical typology on a sample of 213 students starting from Averillrsquos [AVE 75] A Semantic Atlas of Emotional Concepts which contains 558 words with emotional connotations At the base of this typology they define five or six basic categories of emotions love joy surprise anger sadness and fear
Emotion is also distinguished from other concepts like mood and impression by several differentiating criteria although Ledoux [LED 98] and Damasio [DAM 94] do not agree on the subject One advocates for similarity and the other for differentiation
We will base this section on the writings of Derbaix [DER 87] which are more widely accepted According to him the affective includes emotions impressions humors [DER 87] and motivations [BAT 86] Derbaix and Pham [DER 89] distinguished these seven affective types through the intermediary of
1) the degree of specificity of the intended target or the stimulus provoking the reaction (emotion unlike preference depends more on the person than the stimulus)
2) the somatic and autonomic intensity (emotions are more intense than mood and are associated with a higher level of alertness)
3) the frequency of somatic and autonomic experiences (emotions are always accompanied by such experiences)
4) durability (feelings are more lasting than emotions)
5) the desire to control a facial or bodily expression the possibility of controlling the expression (an emotion is more difficult to control than a judgment)
6) the probability of a fundamental subjective experience (the probability of the awareness of emotions is high)
Emotion 3
7) the importance of cognitive antecedents and cognitive processes afterwards
Derbaix and Pham [DER 89] summarized several conceptions and organized emotion which they prefer to call ldquothe affectiverdquo into seven categories
1) Shock emotion (eg surprise) which is the most affective of reactions it translates into violent but brief psychological reactions such as laughter sobbing rage and neuro-vegetative phenomena palpitations tightness in the throat momentary paralysis even fainting as in fear
2) Impression emotion (eg pride) less anarchical more lasting and also spontaneous such as the aesthetic emotion produced by musical execution moral indignation at the spectacle of a revolting act etc
3) Mood [GAR 85] (eg melancholy) must be distinguished from emotion [FRA 94] because it is considered to be less severe more invasive and more ephemeral than felt emotions [BAT 86] In addition the psychological urgency of emotion its motivational potential and its situational specificity are comparatively greater [WES 91]
4) Temperament more related to the personality of the individual
5) Preference (eg the ranking of brands) also related to the personality of the individual
6) Attitude (eg an opinion)
7) Appreciation (eg evaluation of alternatives) corresponds to the most cognitive reaction
To this typology Vincent [VIN 86] added passion which has the primitive sense of ldquosufferingrdquo indicating a passive character as opposed to the notion of movement in emotions ldquoguided actionsrdquo It is defined as a ldquoviolent state of feelings that bring us toward another person (passionate love) or toward another object that consumes our mind (passion for gambling for example)rdquo (p 19)
4 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
Plutchik [PLU 80] established a circumplex model of emotions2 (Figure 11)
Figure 11 The wheel of emotions (source Plutchik [PLU 80]) For a color version of this figure see wwwistecoukvanhoorebekemanagementzip
Plutchikrsquos wheel of emotions has the advantage of displaying words that are easily comprehensible and distinguish the degree of the perception Although the words make it possible to discern the degree does their experimentation allow it as easily This is where Peter and Olson [PET 96] suggested distinguishing the emotion based on the
2 Available online at httpmassilia-coachingcomwp-contentuploads201310roue-des-eacutemotionspng
Emotion 5
degree of physiological excitation and the intensity of the perception (see Table 11)
Type of affective response
Degree of physiological
excitation
Intensity or strength of perception
Examples
Emotions Strong degree of
excitation and activation
Very strong Joy love fear
guilt anger
Specific perceptions
Appreciation satisfaction
warmth disgust sadness
Mood Alert relaxed
calm indifferent tired
Evaluations Weak degree of excitation and
activation Very weak
Good favorable appreciated bad
unfavorable
Table 11 Differentiation based on the degree of excitation (source Peter and Olson [PET 96 p 50])
These researchers concluded that emotions reflect psychological reactions and experiences They realized that an essential part of experiencing emotions is emotional expression through various forms of interpersonal communication In fact individuals are naturally inclined to share their emotions with others Even when these emotions are not intentionally communicated they are often revealed through spontaneous non-verbal manifestations that are difficult to manage In addition modern society has created a new role for emotional communication According to Stearns [STE 93 p 24] ldquothe importance of managing emotions through talking rather than active expression has become a dominant themerdquo3 When individuals fail to express a traumatic event verbally they fail to come to terms with it
3 Translation taken from the 3rd edition edited by Michael Lewis Jeannette M Haviland-Jones and Lisa Feldman Barret published in 2008 by The Guildford Press
6 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
12 Expression
Above we wondered about the perception of the degree of emotion felt based on the degree of excitation If discernment becomes more complex what about perception by others
These emotions depending on their degree of perception are in fact expressed Perhaps only specialists in psychology are able to identify micro-expressions (expressions so fleeting and tiny that they are difficult to distinguish) but apart from a few specific cases the majority of individuals are capable of identifying an emotion from its expression Ekman and Oster [EKM 79] studied this and noted that they are also universal Figure 12 shows some examples of expressions of ldquobasicrdquo emotions With expressions ranging from anger to joy passing through aggressiveness disapproval sadness regret and disappointment this image shows that some emotions are clearly more perceptible than others further complexifying their precise definition I leave it to you to try the exercise
Figure 12 Examples of facial expressions of emotions (source Ekman and Oster [EKM 79 p 77])
Emotion 7
Emotions can certainly exist outside of interpersonal interactions Looking at the sun can produce joy Hurting yourself can provoke anger Nevertheless these are most often exceptions to the rule More typically emotions result from social interactions [AND 96] According to Ekman and Oster [EKM 79] emotions result from social interactions whether they are real remembered anticipated or imagined Some are particularly socially dependent like jealousy shame guilt embarrassment and pride According to Laborit [LAB 94] the nervous system is used to acting but this action occurs in a space or spaces that contain objects and beings If the same space is occupied by other individuals each person seeks to find the means to please themselves and preserve a nervous balance which creates competition between the parties in question The objective is to dominate the other in order to have the pleasure of freely expressing your emotions
Because it reveals emotion expression can also represent a way of dealing with or ldquofacingrdquo a situation in the interest of adapting to the environment The emotional response is therefore used as a process of adjustment to the environment The adaptation corresponds to the individualrsquos search for balance in relation to his environment This balance is sought through an adjustment process in response to an event [JAM 89] Perception makes it possible to structure individual behaviors in a normal way to fit the circumstances Motivation directs them toward goals that are likely to obtain satisfaction for the individual Learning ensures the acquisition and modification of behavior to improve the personrsquos effectiveness in accomplishing projects and thriving in the environment
Discerning emotions can sometimes prove complex but the objective of the emotional response is not limited to communicating with others as we have seen It is also a tool of adaptation through the signals that it sends
8 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
13 An adjustment tool
According to McCrae [MCC 84] emotional response is an adjustment tool that follows a process
ndash confrontation (holding fast and fighting for what I want trying to find the person responsible to change his mind etc)
ndash detachment (continuing as if nothing happened not letting the problem affect me refusing to think too much about it etc)
ndash self-control (trying to keep my emotions to myself preventing others from learning how bad this problem is etc)
ndash seeking out social support (talking to someone who can do something concrete to solve the problem accepting someonersquos sympathy and understanding etc)
ndash accepting responsibility (self-criticizing or lecturing myself realizing that I created the problem etc)
ndash evasive action (wanting the situation to go away or to be rid of it in some way trying to make myself feel better by eating drinking smoking taking drugs or medication etc)
ndash planning the solution to the problem (knowing what must be done and increasing my efforts so that it works having an action plan and following it etc)
ndash positive re-evaluation (changing for the better or maturing finding a faith etc)
Andersen and Guerrero [AND 96] explained that every social rule of behavior leads to modifying the expression of spontaneous emotions to be socially normal through simulation inhibition intensification de-intensification or substitution
ndash simulation involves feigning an emotion when the individual does not really feel it
ndash inhibition or neutralization entails the inverse process of simulation giving the impression of not feeling any emotion while the individual really does feel an emotion
Emotion 9
ndash intensification or maximization makes it possible to pretend to feel an intense emotion without really experiencing it
ndash de-intensification or minimization follows the same process as intensification but to express a less intense emotion than what is felt
ndash substitution involves expressing a totally different emotion from the one actually experienced
The individual has the power to act on his emotions when they are not of too great an intensity [GOL 97] Based on interactionist theories Drever [DRE 52] described the emotional process followed to adapt in three elements First the strong impulse to act in a certain way such as attacking or expressing affection for someone Then a model of physical change paired with this inclination to act which is generally accompanied by a mobilization in the interest of a final adaptation
Scherer [SCH 94] described four components of the emotional experience as a result of the processes detailed above
ndash the cognitive component that refers to the interpretation of the event that caused the emotion or the stimulus and to all changes that resulted based on individual perceptions and beliefs
ndash the willingness to act that corresponds to the increase or decrease in the desire of the individual to act Frijda [FRI 86] considered that this willingness to act can result in expressing an emotion or controlling it
ndash sensations which correspond to the valence of the emotion that is the pleasurepain dimension caused by the emotion experienced
ndash the physiological change that corresponds to the increase or decrease in the level of excitation and physiological reactions like sweaty palms or blushing
It should be noted that the presence of only one of these components is not sufficient to identify an emotional experience
10 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
Earlier Burgoon [BUR 93] showed for example that physiological change is not synonymous with emotional experience as physiological changes can occur due to physical exercise increased attention or a false movement which are non-emotional stimuli Supporting this interactionist theory this procedural aspect is also perceived in neurology
14 A neurological system
I think therefore I amI tremble therefore I am afraid Emotion is not incompatible with cognition but at the cerebral level it follows a process and activates very specific regions Cultural heritage has long opposed cognition and emotion the brain and the mind Emotions were therefore reserved for the domain of psychology and mental illness [LOS 02]
For more than a century however we have eagerly searched for the cerebral structures that could be responsible for emotions According to Dale [DAL 47] this began with Walter Cannon who studied subjects who suffered from brain lesions incapable of feeling certain emotions He deduced that the hypothalamus was a cerebral center of emotions In 1937 the anatomist James Papez went further He showed that the emotions experienced were related to the action of a circuit relating the hypothalamus to the medial cortex In 1952 Paul MacLean used the expression ldquolimbic systemrdquo for the first time This term was introduced in 1861 by the French anatomist Paul Broca famous for the Brocarsquos area to designate the ring shape of the medial part of the cortex (from the Latin limbus edge) [MON 05] The limbic system designates the affective brain of the rhinencephalon (the most ancient part of the cortex) which is the locus of emotions According to MacLeanrsquos theory this system is integrated It includes the amygdala the septum and the prefrontal cortex
MacLeanrsquos theory may seem basic today The brain and its emotional areas have since been widely examined Several emotions have been studied with precision thanks to new medical technologies like MRIs
Emotion 11
The current idea is that each emotion corresponds to a cerebral network [LED 97] At present neurologists agree on recognizing the absence of a single locus of emotions like reason motor function vision or language There are ldquosystems of interrelationsrdquo between several cerebral units
Some results have made it possible to emphasize the important advancements that are usable and accessible in management In his theory from 1977 Ledoux showed that when information is emotional patients cannot describe the object but can say what they feel His theory indicated that emotion passes through different circuits He is particularly interested in the emotion of anger [GAZ 78] He wrote a book The Emotional Brain which describes how it functions in an accessible way
In the same way in 1994 Damasio [DAM 94] published one of his most famous books Descartesrsquo Error He explains his experience with the case of Phineas Gage deprived of emotions following a stroke The results of his analysis show that decision-making cannot occur without emotions
Far from wanting to detail the function of the brain ndash with its synapses its 100 billion neurons its glial cells4 that are 10ndash50 times more numerous than the neurons its zones its four ventricles its lobes5 its gray6 and white matter its myelin7 ndash one thing is certain emotions occupy a significant place in the system of cerebral interrelations They follow neuronal and then hormonal processes in order to influence the soma (body) From a more psychological point of view emotions are also described from the perspective of a system of adaptation to the environment deepening the process of adjustment described above
4 These cells surround the neurons represent about 50 of the brainrsquos volume and produce myelin 5 Frontal parietal occipital and temporal lobes 6 The most superficial part of the brain 7 Extension of neurons a sheath around the axons of neurons
12 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
15 A complex system
As we have seen emotions follow a process This process is complex on both the neurological and psychological levels and in addition to their utility as an adjustment tool they form a whole system of adaptation to the environment This is where Lazarus [LAZ 91] explained the process based on the emotional reactions that correspond to a process of adapting to the environment
1) Inclination toward action which is non-observable because it refers to impulses that may or not be active
2) Subjective emotional experiences (often considered affective) that are non-observable
3) Personndashenvironment relations a connection between two complex sub-systems the states resulting from these sub-systems are interpretive
4) Adjustment processes which are often experienced by actions or thoughts that probably influence emotions
5) Assessment processes constituting the center of the cognitive-motivational-relational theory of emotions Individuals gauge their emotions based on the goals that they pursue their relation to the environment and what they know to be good or bad for them
6) A frustration which is derived from the inability to follow the goals that the individual set and can lead to a blockage and aggression after various negative affective responses
Weiss and Cropanzano [WEI 96] illustrated this emotional process using the example of the process concerning happiness and sadness without considering this structure for all kinds of emotions (Figure 13)
Emotion 13
Figure 13 Process of assessment for happiness and sadness (source Weiss and Cropanzano [WEI 96 p 35])
The latter process shows the different steps that emotions cover to reach expression Through this process and the descriptions we can see that emotion does not act alone but in interconnection with cognition
16 Subject to dissonance and inhibition
Dissonance in opposition to consonance is a difference that can exist between two elements Festinger [FES 57] discussed cognitive dissonance to define the cognitive difference that can exist between what the individual knows and what they actually experience
14 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
Middleton [MID 89] and Hochschild [HOC 83] referred to emotional dissonance to define the difference that can exist between what is felt by the individual and what he knows he must express These two types of dissonance are seen as psychological states that are difficult to bear by the individual
Biological studies go even further To summarize this research described in more detail in section 24 (ldquoan art of ensuring health and safety in the workplacerdquo) conducted by Friedman and Booth-Kewley [FRI 87] Laborit [LAB 94] and Quirk and Beer [QUI 06] among others it is proven that inhibition corresponds to a resistance to respond to an increase in adrenaline This resistance provokes the secretion of hormones resulting from negative emotions This secretion repeated and accumulated over time can weaken some organs forced to repeat the response to hormonal messages that are being sent incessantly by the brain These hormones resulting from what we call e-motions (a biological process that sets in motion) intervene internally in the human body
17 Contagion
Hatfield et al [HAT 94] defined emotional contagion as an automatic unintentional and generally unrecognized tendency to imitate and synchronize facial expressions body movements and vocalizations during meetings with other individuals In addition when the same characteristics are synchronized with another individual we are capable of feeling them through the emotions of the other person that is feeling the same or complementary emotions This emotional contagion can lead to the crowd effects and mass hysteria described by Le Bon [LEB 63] Emotions can in fact be synchronized or imitated and become contagious The synchronization appears when two individuals express similar behaviors or when one person responds to the behavioral changes of the other by adopting the same behavioral changes [AND 96]
Emotion 15
Emotional contagion is a phenomenon that is both behavioral [HAT 94] and neurological [IAC 05] This contagion is influenced by three cognitive emotional and neurological processes (mirror neurons insular cortex of the brain and the cortex) Sometimes these three processes coincide but sometimes the central nervous system directly controls mimicking emotional contagion and empathy through mirror neurons [IAC 05] According to some researchers the transmission mechanism is cognitive and related to conscious reasoning analysis and imagination justified by this transmission close to empathy Individuals imagine what they would feel in the otherrsquos place (empathy) and thereby share their emotions Another theory involves imitation and feedback According to this mechanism
1) Individuals tend to imitate and synchronize their movements automatically and unconsciously to the facial expressions voices postures muscles rhythm and behavior of others
2) This imitation is dependent on all reactions from the other In this order the individual tends to seize upon the emotion of others in order to reach several objectives not being marginalized identifying with the other through contemplation attempting to feel what the other feels in a situation and detaching from the other Some people consider that mirror neurons play a role in human evolution They allow humans to reproduce consciously (imitation) or not (mimicry) and adapt to both the other emotions and the situation
It can also be perceived as negative Le Bonrsquos theory [LEB 63] described a mental contagion among individuals leading them to find a mental unity a single mode of thinking for a group of individuals Sometimes this mental contagion leads to collective hallucination In this context Le Bon cites the example of the Belle Poule frigate8 This boat was searching in daylight for a cruiser9 from which it had been separated by a storm When a ship
8 Small escort boat 9 High-seas escort ship
16 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
in distress was signaled the entire crew alarmed described a raft loaded with waving castaways In the end the raft was nothing but a mass of tree branches
In conclusion this chapter has made it possible to highlight the fact that emotion follows a complex process is distinguished from other concepts such as sentiment affect and mood varies depending on degrees is essentially expressed in a bodily way and is endowed with contagion However emotion has several factors that remain complex or even indiscernible This does not help its deep understanding and management Nevertheless although emotion in the workplace is not always considered favorably its presence is undeniable The individual cannot let go at work even if they can feign it At the collective level it is all the more significant especially since it acts as an adjustment tool within the construction or deconstruction of interindividual relations The next two chapters describe how emotion intervenes first in management at the individual level and then at the collective level Management viewed at the individual level cannot be totally separated from the relation to the other because the managerial world almost never allows for being alone or totally cutting oneself off from the other regardless of the profession accountant computer engineer etc Individuals must often regulate their emotions alone especially when they are in contact with clients as explained by Hochschild [HOC 83] It is at this time that the individuals must be able to self-regulate their emotions know how to understand them know what is expected of them and how they can harmful or on the contrary beneficial The role of management is in this case to set the frameworks while leaving a wide margin to maneuver to establish an authentic relationship all while striving to follow and enforce the established standards This is shown by the different descriptions of emotions in psychology research an emotionndashcognition balance Quite the paradox
Emotion 17
On the Website of the ManpowerGroup10 a temporary employment agency
we can read ldquoIn 1994 the neuropsychologist Antonio Damasio showed that
lsquohuman beings need emotions to make decisions when their futures are at stake
and particularly when they are uncertainhellip It is irrational to think that these
decisions are made rationallyrsquordquo11
An interview with Franccediloise Gri (President of ManpowerGroup for southern
Europe and Manpower France) is also presented on the site ldquoUsing emotions
effectively allows the company and its key players to succeed [They] can become
formidable performance drivers when they are personally assumed by the
manager and shared constructively with his colleaguesrdquo
Emotion to unite teams
Franccediloise Gri believes that regardless of their hierarchical level the key
players in a company ldquoknow how to use their emotions as performance drivers
with a desire to succeed and sharerdquo They know how to celebrate ldquoa teamrsquos
victory a complex project to convince a client with shared joy tears and shoutsrdquo
But accepting emotion ldquoalso means bearing the difficult momentsrdquo in front of
their teams
Listening and daring to confront
Within reason practically this consists of ldquoprompting an emotional state []
by questioning an interlocutor with tact and pertinence and listening to oneself
and the otherrdquo Listening to the other person does not only mean paying attention
to his words ndash because the body also expresses emotions It also means venturing
to confront the other person when necessary However it is important to know
how to use emotion with discretion ldquoThere is no need for emotion everywhere
Find a balance Everything in moderationrdquo
Sharing emotions a ldquotipping pointrdquo
The article underscores that ldquosharing emotions can become a tipping point a
pertinent driving force uniting simplicity and emotionrdquo
Case Study 11 Specific example of considering emotion in companies
10 Available online at httpwwwmanpowergroupfrlemotion-au-service-du-management 11 Translation from the French
2
Managing Individuals
Managing individuals well involves not only knowing how to listen to them but also being able to understand them Lacking expertise in psychology managers must demonstrate empathy be sincere establish trust identify any seeds of discontent in the workplace and decide wisely There is a solution to mitigate the lack of psychological expertise understanding onersquos own functioning in order to be better able to understand the other person Chapter 1 showed how many studies notably in psychology have had difficulty in completely identifying emotions and the number of roles they can have especially in the many processes of adjusting and adapting to the environment These elements are assets for managers and their teams but it is still necessary to use the right tools and implement the right mechanisms With this in mind this chapter sets out to address individual management under the aegis of Le Littreacute and the different arts that make up management The art of managing customer focus motivating administering well ensuring health and safety and decision-making is depicted based on the role played by e-motions For a deeper understanding the three pillars (psychological sociological and neurological) are considered
21 The art of managing customer focus the relations dependent on monitoring and margins to maneuver
Organizations depend on their clients and so it is important that they understand their present and future needs satisfy their
The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management First Edition Delphine van Hoorebeke copy ISTE Ltd 2018 Published by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley amp Sons Inc
20 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
requirements and endeavor to go above and beyond their expectations Today in order to ensure that good quality service is provided to the customer base organizations train new employees after a period of socialization that teaches the rules and customs The existence of implicit or explicit behavioral norms caused Sutton and Rafaeli [SUT 90] to argue that employees are compelled by the hierarchy to express ldquonormative emotionsrdquo that help employees to gain control over others in a way that promotes the objectives of the organization [SUT 91]
In this respect the measure of the effectiveness of organizational behavioral norms cannot be limited to the strict adherence of the employees to formal rules of workplace behavior In fact employees must not only follow these rules but also other informal norms like the organizationrsquos values In addition the demands of the company and its management regarding contact with the customer go further than simply following the norms It requires authenticity in the behaviors expressed to the customer However this authenticity cannot exist without adhering to the norms and emotional perception [VAN 08b] Human behavior inevitably derives from experiencing emotions When employees do not feel this emotion but know that they should feel it to respond to the norms they simulate it like an actor wearing a mask or modify their emotion Research in the domain of emotions in the workplace calls this ldquosurface acting and deep actingrdquo [HOC 83] According to this author surface acting consists of feigning and wearing a mask while deep acting corresponds to expressing what the individual feels In the second case the individual conducts a ldquodeeprdquo work to try to perceive what he must express according to the norm According to Hochschild the first emotion felt really can be modified
The next problem posed for management concerns the effectiveness of the norms taught Are they accepted by the employees meaning will they be respected Could they be the cause of an ldquoabnormalrdquo or ldquoinappropriaterdquo behavior for the situation of a real inauthenticity (perceived by the customer) and of various negative consequences The act of imposing organizational norms can lead to an undeniable and unavoidable robotization when the
Managing Individuals 21
employee is forced to repeat this ldquoemotional laborrdquo in a redundant and incessant way [HOC 83] The employee rendered inauthentic experiences a dissonance which is intolerable over the long term
To manage this problem the first step is to take stock of the norms imposed at work and then list their probable negative consequences for the organization Then a tool can be used to manage them measuring the effectiveness of the norms in the context of a quest for authenticity and sincerity According to the philosopher Sartre [SAR 38] authenticity surpasses sincerity and is morally superior to it For Taylor the ideal of an individualrsquos authenticity supposes that he expresses beyond all social conformity his ldquointerior truthrdquo to which he must be faithful
211 Organizational norms
Rafaeli and Sutton [RAF 89] outline the existence of two types of behavioral norms that employees must follow at work These are in addition to societal norms that all individuals follow in private life occupational norms related to the role held by the individual and organizational norms unique to each company
ndash The first type corresponds logically to the expectations of the customer Rafaeli and Sutton [RAF 89] cite the example of bailiffs and bouncers who are paid to express hostility while undertakers must express sadness In contrast the expression of kindness and a positive attitude is expected for service jobs such as servers and salespeople They add that other roles call for suppressing emotion for example the Budget Minister must express neutrality especially when announcing the annual budget
ndash Organizational norms specify the companyrsquos expectations in matters of conduct based on the culture of the company They are sometimes disseminated through the book (the bible) in which they make reference to moral values
ndash Occupational norms are directly related to the position occupied and the behaviors that this position requires According to Rafaeli and Sutton [RAF 89] occupational and organizational norms are the primary influences on the expression of emotions at work The authors
22 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
do not separate them in their article claiming their difficult distinction They provide the example of doctors who must learn professional maintenance during their studies in medicine and must express this maintenance in the different hospitals where they practice In our view this example typically describes an occupational norm because it does not differ depending on the hospitals and instead depends on the role held
A study [VAN 08c] analyzes the impact of three levers (two preventative and one curative) that could make it possible to facilitate emotional labor (uniforms scripts and emotionalized areas) The results establish a significant relationship between the item ldquostarting to feel joy if we pretend to be happy when we help clientsrdquo and the variable ldquopresence of a formal normrdquo (script) This link indicates not only that the fact of imposing behavioral norms can lead to feeling them as Hochschild [HOC 83] indicates but also offers a crucial element to ensure the leverage effect described above the fact of conducting emotional labor leads to emotional experience The quantitative results of the analysis also indicate that uniforms have a greater impact on surface acting than on deep acting They also show that if norms do not have a significant impact on the emotional labor of surface acting they do have a direct and significant connection with deep acting
A second study was conducted by analyzing the content of a dress code at an international bank operating in Switzerland This dress code stirred up multiple controversies due to certain things that it demanded of employees it went so far as to specify the undergarments that the staff must wear
Combined with the qualitative data these results support normalizing emotions in the workplace to allow employees to feel the emotion expressed This result supports Hochschildrsquos text [HOC 83] about the internal regulation of emotions experienced based on the emotions expressed Despite this as our results show the process of passing from appearance to feeling which can reinforce the feeling of ldquowell-beingrdquo hoped for by the company regarding the authenticity of the behaviors expressed is not systematic if normalization is too implicit Here are a few examples verbatim ldquoyou will feel better and improve your performance at workrdquo ldquothere are established connections between following this guide and lsquowell-beingrsquo at workrdquo ldquo[following this guide is] essential for pleasing others and yourself and also contributes decisively to your well-beingrdquo ldquofor aesthetic and hygienic reasons as well as for questions of general well-beingrdquo and ldquoan impeccable appearance can prompt inner peace and a feeling of securityrdquo
This is prescribed emotion as described by Ashforth and Humphrey [ASH 95] and critiqued by Watzlawick [WAT 80] for paradoxical injunctions like ldquobe spontaneousrdquo
Managing Individuals 23
The results obtained by these two interrelated analyses indicate that the managerial
levers put in place are not sufficient to ensure the expected emotional labor
influencing customer satisfaction nor even to guarantee the positive image of the
company The case studied is typical It shows that the company benefitted from a
great deal of publicity and articles about its approach to dress codes Nevertheless
international articles were very critical of the gesture made by the company even if
it was conducted totally legally What created the buzz was one detail of the dress
code requiring cream-colored undergarments This detail is a distinctive element of
the very directive aspect of the dress code described by this Swiss bank as a factor
in better performance Despite the efforts of the latter to indicate the recommended
or suggested nature of the guide it is significant that this variable seems far from
being sufficient to ensure authentic customer contact as a result of commitment and
a factor in customer satisfaction1
Case Study 21 Analysis of an internal dress code document
212 Dissonances
This type of managerial practice can cause a dissonance to appear between the inhibitory normalization of emotions and feeling
The perception of various somatic hormonal reactions is allowed through bodily expression This is how our research led us to evoke the notions of conative and behavioral dissonances downstream These two dissonances indicate the difference between the attitude and the behavior expressed by the individual and the attitude and the behavior that he knows is expected The company may hope for specific behaviors but the individual may want to express his emotion in spite of everything or may not be able to prevent himself from doing so depending on the case Goleman [GOL 97] discusses emotional takeovers
The objective is to avoid the likely effects of these dissonances (cognitive emotional and conative or behavioral) that are difficult to bear The latter are experienced and induced by imposed norms 1 Available online at httparchiveslesechosfrarchivescercle20120419cercle_45946html
24 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
[FES 57 HOC 83] and will inevitably lead to inauthentic or even ldquoabnormalrdquo conduct by the individual It seems necessary that the manager be able to recognize the origin of these problems to fix them For the manager to clearly perceive the type of action to implement it is helpful to unpack the three types of dissonances that can occur (emotional conative behavioral) The following diagrams present summaries of these dissonances and suggest a way to measure them (see Figures 21 and 22)
Figure 21 Measure of the difference between organizational behavioral norms and the expressions actually expressed in the workplace by the mediation of emotions No-Ex mediating variable of normative effectiveness No-Em cognitive dissonance Em-Ex emotional dissonance No-Ex conative dissonance
Figure 22 Measure of the conative dissonance (difference between the expected behaviors and the
actual employee behaviors) (source [VAN 08b])
Emotional dissonance conflict between what is felt andwhat is expected by the organization
Norms (No)
Emoon (Em) Expression (Ex)
DifferenceCognitive dissonanceconflict betweenpersonal norms andorganizational norms
Conative dissonanceconflict between the behavior ofemployees and the behaviorexpected by the company
Expected expression Emotion felt Expression emitted
Cognitive dissonance Emotional dissonance
Organizationaloccupational norms
Dissonance of normsexpressions really emitted (conative)
Managing Individuals 25
According to these diagrams the conative dissonance axis (in this case inauthentic or abnormal behavior) corresponds to the addition of two dissonances emotional dissonance and cognitive dissonance
Managers cannot act directly on the conative difference because on the one hand it seems impossible to predict what individuals will express and on the other hand they are unable to impose a feeling [WAT 80] That is why in order to reduce the difference between the expression expected by the organizational behavioral norms and the expression manifested by the employee management will have to attempt to correct one of the following three options
1) the difference between the organizational behavioral norms and societal and personal norms by bringing them closer together or by selecting individuals whose personal norms are in line with the companyrsquos norms
2) the difference between what is felt by the individual and what he expresses through different levers like uniforms or emotionalized areas [VAN 03a] These levers make it possible to limit the difference by acting on the accumulation of emotional dissonance
In their study Nelson and Bowen [NEL 00] show that the first lever uniforms affects not only the attitudes of employees (attitudes about work performance work satisfaction etc) but also their capacity to serve guests In addition they reveal that wearing a uniform has a significant positive impact on all employees and not just employees in contact with customers Uniforms not only have psychological and behavioral implications for the wearer but also positive effects that extend beyond contact with customers During contact even in frustrating interactions with the customer the uniform can help the employees to feel good about their work This can be explained by what Goffman [GOF 59] calls ldquoactingrdquo At work the individual becomes an actor playing a role According to Hochschildrsquos theory [HOC 83] by playing this role deeply by regulating their emotions individuals can experience the emotions that they express
According to Fineman [FIN 00] the second lever the emotionalized area facilitates deep emotional labor To do this the
26 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
company must create a variety of places where employees can express their negative emotions or take a break This makes it possible to avoid negative effects thanks to the availability of a place to release emotions that are inhibited during work
3) both differences at the same time We have all seen the behavior of cashiers who sigh or proceed mechanically in their way of saying hello asking for your loyalty card and saying goodbye This type of behavior if it is defined and corresponds to norms reveals the dissonances experienced by the cashier The expressions of the employee are in this example the result of a mechanization a Taylorization of emotions This conduct which corresponds to the norms expected by the company does not respond to the customerrsquos expectations The measure of the conative dissonance makes it possible to gain a comprehensive understanding of the feeling compared by the individual to what he knows about the imposed norm and not just of the employeersquos expression which is just the tip of the iceberg
During a study of managerial practices at McDonaldrsquos and Walt Disney Bilts [BIL 95] shows that we teach new employees through a handbook what expressions are required toward the customer ldquoFirst we practice a friendly smile at all times with our guests and ourselves Second we use friendly and courteous phrases lsquoCan I help yoursquo lsquoThank yoursquo and lsquoHave a good dayrsquo [hellip] or any other similar expressions throughout [our] work dayrdquo This script taught to employees calls for authenticity that the latter will not be able to experience at all times
Another example is the company Favi a company that has no hierarchy which specifies in one of its publications about its management style that employees must demonstrate sincerity toward the client2
Case Study 22 Examples of expected authenticity in a company
Sincerity is therefore what the company and its management seek To be able to respond to this expectation the employee must feel committed to the company To ensure full and complete commitment management must provide satisfaction
2 Available online at httpwwwfavicommanagement
Managing Individuals 27
22 The art of motivating commitment and satisfaction
Commitment and satisfaction at work are anchoring points for the engagement of members of the company
221 Different types of commitment
Currently according to Autissier and Wacheux [AUT 06] work affected by a crisis of pessimism calls for a return to meaning to foster commitment Could lack of commitment be due to a crisis of pessimism and negative emotions According to Allen and Meyer [ALL 97] commitment is a psychological state resulting from the employeersquos desires will obligations and interests and the organizationrsquos intended action Commitment is based on three dimensions an affective category that corresponds to the individualrsquos identification of the organizationrsquos goals and values a calculated category that can be defined as the intention to leave an organization or not and a normative category that corresponds to the individualrsquos engagement because he thinks that it is his obligation to do so Calculated commitment is associated with avoiding costs normative commitment is characterized by moral obligation and affective commitment is marked by desire
Theacutevenet [THEacute 92] argues that there are three dimensions of commitment attitudinal or behavioral moral or calculating and active or passive
ndash Attitudinal or behavioral Attitudinal commitment concerns the identification and engagement of the individual with the organization that employs him while behavioral commitment consists of a permanent cycle of behaviors (or actions) that reinforce attitudinal commitment in return
ndash Moral or calculating Commitment is moral because it refers to deep mechanisms of identification and it presupposes a strong similarity of goals and values between the individual and the organization The ldquocalculatingrdquo approach describes commitment as an attachment resulting from a calculation of costs associated with
28 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
leaving In this situation the desire to invest effort must be legitimately compensated by a gain
ndash Active or passive Commitment sometimes evokes passive adherence to the goals and values of the organization or even their complacent acceptance However authors generally address active commitment which is to say the desire to act to ldquomake an effortrdquo to take it upon ourselves to move in the direction of these goals and values
To support the interest of this active commitment an exploratory study of employees in companies in various industries argues that employee engagement in certain company practices in this case sustainable development is based on a certain number of commitment factors (Figure 23)
Case Study 23 Exploratory study of commitment
Figure 23 Employee commitment factors and consequences (source Leroux and van Hoorebeke [LER 11]) For a color version of this figure see wwwistecoukvanhoorebekemanagementzip
Emo-management must therefore consider employee satisfaction commitment (namely the desire to continue to be a part of the organization as indicated by the research) as well as beliefs and a
Managing Individuals 29
certain positive attitude toward the companyrsquos managerial practices and notably according to the results an affective attitude
222 Commitmentndashsatisfactionndashe-motion
The management of emotions can influence an employeersquos commitment to work and an individualrsquos satisfaction According to Herrbach and Leacuterat-Pytlak [HER 04] individualsrsquo emotions at work and the different kinds of commitment can be considered to be the consequences of their experiences at work In addition emotions are regulators of commitment to work [THEacute 00]
Since modes of management can allow expression or on the contrary forbid it through the restrictions of the job and the choices of the company these modes of functioning remain at the base of positive and negative emotions experienced in the workplace They provide the possibility of doing what we love on a daily basis a major factor of internal motivation In this sense it has been shown that affective or emotional commitment is negatively related to uncertain relations [KRY 08] weighing on the management and expressions of the leader Emotions require more appropriate management especially given that besides commitment emotions influence individual satisfaction The valence of emotion (positivenegative) is seen by many psychologists to be related to the satisfaction of individual interest According to Lazarus [LAZ 91] emotion depends on a combination of motivationndashinterestndashenvironment Everyone has his or her own interests and personal values This authorrsquos analysis supports one of the complex aspects of personnel satisfaction given the multiplication of individual interests provided
Just as many marketing studies have largely demonstrated the impact of emotions on customer satisfaction [LAD 07] human resources are no exception Satisfaction at work can be defined as the agreeable or positive affective response of the person regarding their work environment In this respect the data collected by Adelmann [ADE 95] reveals that employees in positions that require a great deal of emotional management have less satisfaction at work lower self-esteem more symptoms of depression and weaker health
30 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
Weiss and Cropanzano [WEI 96] and Morris and Feldman [MOR 97] support these results revealing that emotions are preliminary even predictive of satisfaction at work More recently Fisher [FIS 00] has noted connections between the moods and emotions measured in real time and the standard measures of commitment and satisfaction at work Although certain authors have shown that emotion and satisfaction constitute two perfectly related theoretical constructs Westbrook and Oliver [WES 91] report that certain categories of emotional responses can be preliminary and coexist with the judgment of satisfaction In addition studies conducted by Russell [RUS 79] and Plutchik [PLU 80] reveal that the state of strong satisfaction is accompanied by unequivocal emotional connotations like ldquohappyrdquo and ldquocontentrdquo that are only models of satisfaction [WES 91] Since interactions between individuals become more predictive emotional management favors avoiding intense conflicts and preserving each personrsquos emotional balance [ASH 93] fostering satisfaction at work Several authors have developed the subject Colle et al [COL 05] Herrbach and Leacuterat-Pytlak [HER 04] and Theacutevenet [THEacute 00]
In addition to these two criteria ndash commitment and satisfaction ndash Theacutevenet [THEacute 00] argues that in addition to having a certain effect on efficiency at work on the condition of a precise definition of the term emotions also affect happiness at work Lazarus [LAZ 91] highlights the impact of positive emotions on facilitating performance and social functioning He cites the example of research that experimentally created good moods in various individuals by triggering positive emotions by listening to soothing music reading emotionally positive scenarios watching happy movies experiencing joy having successful experiences etc
The consequences of this experimentation are pro-social behavior such as helping others and quality performance (better performance much less tense cognitive activity) When individuals have positive experiences they feel more confident assured expressive satisfied committed and simply better at work [ZAP 02]
A study conducted by Maes et al [MAE 10] about the implementation of a tool to
continuously evaluate the quality of nurse care shows that satisfaction at work and
affective commitment are crucial for nurses The results indicate that
Managing Individuals 31
responsibilities recognition and the feeling of belonging to a group are positive
incentives and allow organizational objectives to be realized
Although the affective commitment of staff who care for patients may appear to be
a cause for concern in the sense that it does not allow for the detachment necessary
for this type of profession in certain circumstances affective commitment to the
institution fosters not only a good environment but also good results
Case Study 24 Study of commitment in nurses
Feeling good at work due to positive emotions is a process that can seem complex and naive However according to the studies in the fields of neuropsychology and management which will be described later this is less true than it may seem Remember that emotions are a basic function for many living beings Management cannot and does not seem to hide it but generally this consideration of emotions at work remains unconscious and too often unexpressed However the quality of life at work is part of the three pillars of responsible management under its social dimension
23 The art of administering well the process approach a proactive and sustainable method
The inhibition that we mentioned earlier in section 212 about dissonances can have negative consequences The art of administering well which is to say organizing well and preparing to ensure responsible management follows a process Most often the process approach in a company is part of the context of a quality approach It consists of making the major company processes more apt to satisfy the end customers at the best cost by making the different actors in the process participate in this objective Considering ldquoprocessrdquo in management comes down to being proactive because it consists of seeking to act upstream as much as downstream In our view the process approach to management can be based on the fact that since the 1960s many researchers (described in Chapter 1) have shown that emotions follow a process that makes it possible to manage their positive and negative effects at work In fact many theories have
32 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
attempted to describe it in everyday life (Darwin [DAR 72] Jamesrsquo peripheral theory [JAM 84] Freudrsquos discourse of psychoanalysis [FRE 02] Izardrsquos theory of differential emotions [IZA 77] Ekman and Osterrsquos neuro-cultural theory [EKM 79] Goffmanrsquos schematic theories including social constructivism and acting theory [GOF 59] resulting from the variability of emotions)
231 Emo-management a process that concerns everyone
Whatever it may be this process starts with a stimulus and ends with consequences When this process is negative the consequences that can result from it have a strong probability of being negative [LAZ 91] This process is similar to labor although Hochschild [HOC 83 p 7] determines what she calls emotional labor in the public sphere by distinguishing it from emotion work or management which she uses to refer to the same acts in the private sphere The latter could also be termed ldquoemotional taskrdquo What she calls ldquoemotional laborrdquo is the management of emotions in order to create a publicly observable facial or bodily expression [HOC 83] Before detailing this process it is important to specify that it consists of a process that only occurs when emotions or affective experiences [WEI 96] do not have an extreme intensity According to Goleman [GOL 97] the intensity of the emotion felt directly influences the behavior During an intense emotion the left neocortex the thinking brain does not have time to choose the best-suited reaction and only the amygdala of the right brain which commands emotions acts It is because of this process that emotions sometimes ldquotake overrdquo become uncontrollable and cause so-called automatic behaviors which is to say involuntary without effort and cognitively inert
A study was conducted over a period of nine months with three months of
participatory observation in a subordinate role followed by six months of weekly visits
and then regular visits for the next two years The site observed was a unit of
office workers a mathematics research laboratory in the CNRS composed of 72
researchers and seven administrators This study examined a situation that showcased
Managing Individuals 33
emotions in the workplace because it required managing intense emotions an open
relational conflict3 [HOC 83] This observation of nine cases of the most revealing
emotional situations was conducted using an ethnogram during a situation that was deemed
problematic or stressful [LAZ 91] The nine cases included a case of insults in the
workplace a case of insults in an anonymous email several cases of disputes between
colleagues related to misunderstandings or diverging interests and a case of collective
laughter in the breakroom This study observed the behaviors of individual actors to
identify the emotions felt whether they were expressed or not which were confirmed
with in-depth interviews carried out in real time or just after the problematic event [VAN
03a VAN 03b] This study made it possible to reveal an emotional process (see Figure
24) summarized in the case study below
Case Study 25 Study of the emotional process at work context
In summary when an event occurs (stimulus) it can create emotional dissonance
(discussed in the first approach) in employees if what they feel about the event is
incompatible with the organizationrsquos behavioral norms a rationalndashemotional
discordance [MID 89] If aware of this dissonance the individual will after
reflecting carry out emotional labor to reduce the tension caused by the unbearable
dissonance [FES 57] There are two solutions deep acting which means recalling an
experience with a normal expression or surface acting and gesturally simulating the
expected expression [HOC 83] If deep acting fails employees reveal an abnormal
expression or use surface acting to feign a normal expression In the first case they
continue to experience a dissonance resulting from the choice they made expressing
what they feel because this feeling is incompatible with the organizational norms In
the second case the dissonance remains because they only feigned an expression on
the surface In order for the dissonance to disappear the individual must be able to
modify one of the two dimensions [FES 57] As stated by Hochschild [HOC 83]
because norms are fixed and imposed in the workplace individuals generally modify
their emotions This process described by participatory observation shows that not
only does a dissonance precede emotional labor but it also results in a ldquoresidualrdquo
emotional dissonance due to the failure of deep acting or surface acting The
accumulation of the residual dissonance can be at the origin of many issues from
demotivation and intent to leave to psychological and physical issues [VAN 04]
Case Study 26 Emotional process observed at work
3 This open relational conflict was particularly revealing because the emotions were extremely intense to the point of clearly showing inappropriate behavior (anonymous insult letters) detrimental consequences for service isolated and rejected people and a constant deep-rooted preoccupation for the actors
34 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
Figu
re 2
4 P
roce
ss e
xper
ien
ced
at w
ork
and
its m
ana
ge
men
t m
echa
nism
s
Managing Individuals 35
On the site petite-entreprisenet it says ldquoWhen managers feel anger bubbling up 4
inside of them at their place of work or if they have not managed to do away with the feeling before it boils over they must avoid at all costs offloading on the first person to cross their paths or on all of their colleagues Acting impulsively is never recommended because the harm caused by unfair or hurtful comments is often difficult to repair and can lead to poor relations between managers and colleagues which will inevitably have repercussions on the teamrsquos performance On the contrary the right attitude consists of isolating oneself in onersquos office in silence for a few minutes and trying to calm downrdquo Managers must be able to take the time necessary to manage and regulate their emotions But what about employees How can they proceed in the workplace A study conducted by van Hoorebeke [VAN 03b] in the field shows that employees who do not have a personal space to collect themselves use washrooms stairwells and walking outside of the company to regulate their strong emotions Any type of emotion can be disruptive depending on the situation Even joy despite being a positive emotion is not necessarily simple to demonstrate Managers may be afraid to show their appreciation at the risk of receiving requests for raises or be afraid to get excited about their promotions as they are worried about jealousy etc The emotional process makes it possible to better understand emotions to better manage them and avoid unexpected setbacks
Case Study 27 A process with surprising consequences
232 A multitude of effects in the workplace
The emotional process has many effects in the organization (Figure 24) Research shows that the consequences of this emotional labor extend from inauthenticity to emotional exhaustion and physical symptoms [MOR 97 SCH 00]
ndash Concerning authenticity deep acting can destroy the emotional reactions that help all individuals to sense the situation and make connections with others [DAR 72] and in this respect can hinder someonersquos authenticity [ASH 00a] In addition according to Grandey et al [GRA 05b] authenticity has a direct impact on customer satisfaction and customer relations as detailed in the first approach
4 Available online at httpswwwpetite-entreprisenetP-2857-81-G1-comment-mettre-a-profit-ses-emotions-au-travailhtml
36 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
ndash Emotional exhaustion corresponds to a reaction related to stress considered to be a key component in the process of burnout or physical exhaustion Maslach [MAS 82] reports that staff whose positions require a great deal of emotional labor are more likely to experience emotional exhaustion The results obtained by Morris and Feldman [MOR 97] demonstrate that the probability of experiencing this mental exhaustion increases based on the frequency and duration of the emotional labor required and the dissonance felt and experienced Totterdell and Holman [TOT 03] show that it is surface acting that causes emotional exhaustion through a sense of numbness and fatigue felt by the people interviewed
ndash Contrary to the frequency of the interactions that require emotional labor the duration of the emotional labor increases the internalization of the role This variable refers to the way in which the individual integrates his personal identity with organizational demands [MOR 97]
van Hoorebeke [VAN 03a VAN 03b] lists the likely effects of the different steps in the emotional process or emotional management in the workplace including the concepts of emotional labor emotional dissonance and the expression of emotions at work In view of the results obtained the negative consequences of managing emotions in the workplace affect three levels of the unit the individual (health performance enhancement task execution) the group (cohesion collaboration) and the organization (strategic management of human resources image absenteeism) The positive consequences also affect the levels of the individual the group and the organization (normal expression well-being satisfaction at work and relief after liberating oneself from an abnormal expression)
Three categories of variables that influence these effects appear in the literature
1) disposition variables related to the individualrsquos characteristics (the individualrsquos gender with women doing more emotional labor than men ndash Grandey [GRA 03] Hochschild [HOC 83] Kruml and Geddes [KRU 00]) emotional adaptability the positivenegative affective feature that is a character trait of individuals related to their
Managing Individuals 37
capacity to be enthusiastic anxious or guilty [SCH 00] situation variables (the type of event) the gender of the interlocutor (less emotional effort is made toward women ndash Sutton and Rafaeli [SUT 90]) hierarchical respect and organizational characteristics
2) characteristics of the position (face-to-face contact ndash Diefendorff and Gosserand [DIE 03a] Hochschild [HOC 83] Morris and Feldman [MOR 96] Schaubroeck and Jones [SCH 00]) the frequency of interactions [LEE 15 MOR 97 TOT 03] the duration of interactions [DIE 03b GRA 03 MOR 97] and the demands of the supervisor
3) the norms imposed by the organization as well as by the manager or the supervisor according to various degrees of requirements [DIE 03b] behavioral rules that are formally imposed and often written [MOR 96] positivenegative rules meaning rules regarding the suppression of negative emotions or rules requesting positive emotions [DIE 03a] autonomy at work [MOR 96 MOR 97] routine tasks [MOR 96 MOR 97] social support the presence of the individual often an attentive colleague [TOT 03] guides and training about the expressions expected at work [DIE 03a]
To summarize the effects of this emotional process in the workplace can be negative or positive Previous studies and the field study show that a negative process can produce individual and collective effects ranging from demotivation and a desire to leave the company to the performance of individuals and their colleagues These effects do not depend solely on management Certain personal characteristics can foster a negative process as can the type of normalization and the position occupied depending on management Administering well requires management to consider these characteristics to limit the harmful effects of the negative process upstream and support the positive ones Fortunately when the process is set in motion these characteristics must be supported by the management levers of this process The field study made it possible to identify several management levers of the negative process Here are the details
38 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
233 Levers for managing
Most of these variables can prove to be organizational or managerial levers or in other words a tool to facilitate the emotional management and emotional labor of employees (subordinates and managers) in the workplace According to the perception of employees in twenty different kinds of professions from nurses and secretaries to business managers and undertakers management can intervene in the ldquosometimes negativerdquo emotional process in the workplace using preventative or curative levers [VAN 03a VAN 03b]
1) Preventative levers upstream the variables integral to work (interest autonomy responsibility trust sufficient staff good material etc) and to its environment (setting atmosphere etc) limit the existence of daily conflicts and tensions that influence emotions The variables that influence the cognitive aspects (norms) knowing what we must do to do it well influence normal expression Most preventative levers correspond to the influence variables of several concepts such as satisfaction at work well-being etc Coaching autonomy motivation and career management and fairness are some of the most-studied levers in these areas Other levers can intervene in the process [VAN 03b] For example some companies play on the setting with research about decor colors or wearing a uniform These levers directly influence the emotions in a climate that is conducive to normal expression The demands of training notably in psychology and personal development allow the employees to get to know themselves better and understand others better in ldquorole-playing gamesrdquo It encourages training with appropriate behaviors Le Scanff [LES 98] discusses intensive training with tasks to complete in conditions that are similar to those encountered in a real environment to acquire an automatic response and consequently an increased sense of control Unfortunately this lever could lead to a kind of robotization of the human stripped of emotion and reproduce the bad through the desire to do good
Managing Individuals 39
2) Curative levers downstream places to express emotions physical and mental activities and discussion groups are needed and would limit the accumulation of emotional dissonance by liberating tension The need for social support would facilitate deep acting and help individuals to assess their emotion (listening leader psychologist) These would influence abnormal expression
When they exist these levers are often too under-used or poorly used in companies to have a real and effective impact
In a qualitative study conducted with 22 people in different professions including office employee undertaker naval firefighter independent artisan plumber university lecturer administrative executive business executive employment agent high-school teacher nursery-school assistant accountant executive secretary manager store salesperson pharmacist and home-care nurse van Hoorebeke [VAN 03a] lists managerial practices for managing emotions
Thanks to these different levers to counteract the negative process the consideration of the basic conditions necessary for administering well positive processes should be encouraged through well-being in the workplace The example of PepsiCo shows that the company is capable of going further engaging the manager in the search for well-being which is seen as the main driving force for growth
As indicated by the process illustrated earlier (see Figure 24) one category of effects is negative and can totally disrupt this search for well-being These negative effects create health problems sometimes serious in individuals who inhibit their emotions In order to better capture the operation the next section focuses on exploring it in more depth through different areas of study
40 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
Method Neutralizing
emotions Isolating emotions
Prescribing emotions
Reducing emotional dissonance
Standardization procedure
Control logic
Norms of rationality
Control logicControl logic
Rules of conduct
No control logic
Support logic
Action on the organizational
climate setting fairness training
Actions on the perception of injustice and
obligation better self-knowledge
emotional expression
Diffusion
Rigorous structuring of
roles relations and
language
Internal regulation
Implicit norms
Diffusion through scripts
Teaching through training
Joint regulation
Control Punishment Punishment Punishment and
autonomy Between control and
autonomy
Objectives
No expression of
emotions
Good performance
of role
Prevention against the expressions
of inappropriate
emotions
Masking inappropriate expressions
Good performance
of role
Showing appropriate
expressions in all situations
Regulation of norms and emotions
Reducing the difference between the emotion felt and
the expression revealed
Decreasing inappropriate expressions
Avoiding consequences on
health performance and relations with others (conflicts)
Table 21 Managerial practices in the management of emotions (source van Hoorebeke [VAN 03a])
Managing Individuals 41
Steacutephane Saba (PepsiCo) stated that ldquoWell-being in the workplace is the primary driving force of our growthrdquo
Florence Davy with the journal Personnel5 explained
ldquoWhat is well-being in the workplace at PepsiCo and what are its main components
ldquoWell-being in the workplace at PepsiCo is a commitment of HR but also and especially of management This commitment is at the core of our managerial strategy around three major pillars
1) the relationship of trust that managers must establish with their colleagues the quality of this relationship is one of the key levers of well-being at work If our colleagues are happy to go to work it is because they have managers that listen to them and nurture them These elements are measured in our surveys on social climate and by Great Place To Work When we leave a company we are often leaving a manager because the relationship is complicated We make a point to ensure that managerial quality is experienced by our colleagues every day as a factor in motivation and development
2) the personal and professional fulfillment of every person notably through the search for balance between private and professional life For example we do everything we can to be able to offer our colleagues the possibility of remote working regardless of their position
3) conviviality At PepsiCo we have a tradition of conviviality in both our products and our managerial operations We celebrate successes and incorporate conviviality into professional relations with all our colleagues
ldquoHow are these principles represented in your practices and operating procedures
ldquoTo help managers develop relationships based on trust we invest heavily in training Independently of the classic tools we have implemented a section about the management of emotions that provides an infusion of soul that is very appreciated by everyone Besides that to help us to continuously move this relationship forward each year we conduct a survey on managerial quality that allows colleagues to assess their manager on a certain number of criteria sending a strong message about the way they are managed throughout the year
ldquoRegarding the worklife balance beyond remote working we have implemented
many initiatives related to well-being including access to gyms to a company
nutritionist and to care or specific concierge services The conviviality
component is explored through a certain number of ways of doing things
notably by recognition through awards but also and especially through 5 Available online at httpsbusinesslesechosfrdirections-ressources-humaines ressources-humainesbien-etre-au-travailstephane-saba-pepsico-le-bien-etre-au-travail-est-le-levier-principal-de-notre-croissance-60773php
42 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
fun events to celebrate the successes of our colleagues This year PepsiCo France
celebrated its 20th anniversary From a conviviality point of view we did
something fairly exceptional for this occasion We organized a music contest
involving all the companyrsquos teams It was a rather spectacular event and very good
for team-buildingrdquo
Case Study 28 Example of managing the process toward well-being at work
24 The art of ensuring health and safety in the workplace well-being at work
One question remains how can emotions disrupt psychological and physical health Since the start of the 1900s a theory was established on an organic model that defined emotion as a biological process For Freud [FRE 02] emotion was a libidinal release which is to say a liberation of instinctual psychic energy For Darwin [DAR 72] it corresponds to an instinct and for James [JAM 84] it corresponds to the perception of a psychological process From these premises neuroscience has been developing the concept for a few years now Neuroscience has a two-fold approach psychobiological which researches the biological bases of behaviors and psychological which studies mental function (the psyche) Among them many current research projects in behavioral neuroscience focus on emotions and explain their biological operation [DAM 94 LAB 94 VIN 86] This part describes the foundations in a succinct and accessible way without denying the extreme complexity of this organ that has yet to reveal all of its secrets and from a specific point of view that of the famous surgeon Professor Laborit
According to Laborit [LAB 94] the brain a regulated system is composed of three systems (1) a reward system (2) a punishment system and (3) an inhibition of action system (balancing system) Hormonal bundles join these different brains [OLD 54] and intervene in the accumulation of experiences and the choice of behavior
1) One of these bundles called the Medial Forebrain Bundle (MFB) which is the reward bundle is involved when an action gratifies us when what we do keeps us in a state of pleasure
Managing Individuals 43
biological equilibrium We know the chemical mediators or hormones the catecholamines
2) Another bundle the Periventricular System (PVS) corresponds to the punishment bundle [LAB 94] These two bundles trigger action or expression When we are kicked we have two options fight or flight If the behavior chosen during the first experience is effective we will repeat this behavior because we avoided punishment and gave ourselves pleasure
3) Then there is a system that inhibits action studied by Laborit [LAB 94] among others This system functions when we cannot choose between fight or flight it consists of not acting of restraining ourselves
Based on the situation the brain makes the hormonal decision to convey a given expression in order to avoid punishment According to Vincent in nerve mechanisms ldquoit is almost always a question of two centres (one inhibiting the other exciting) to manage the same functionrdquo [VIN 86 p 160] The reward bundle activated by pleasure and the intuitive punishment bundle both trigger action Inversely the third bundle corresponds to a system that inhibits action Because the first two trigger action (gratification fight or flight) they are liberating Because it hinders action the third does not allow us to feel pleasure fight or flee This inhibition is the most problematic state
First of all we must summarize the interconnections of the different systems of reward punishment and inhibition
241 A neurobiological process
Following an event an emotion is felt When it is a positive emotion the system of gratification is set in motion ndash this action triggers pleasure ndash and catecholamine hormones are secreted When this happens the action-inhibiting system is inactive because it is unnecessary without the signal of an alarm
When a negative emotion is felt the punishment (fight or flight) system is initiated Hormones (peptides analgesics) are secreted by
44 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
the hypothalamus At the same time the action-inhibiting system activates because an alarm system is initiated by the pituitary gland and its hormone corticotrophin (ACTH) The activation of the inhibitory system acts as a safeguard or precautionary principle because the pituitary gland allows for faster and more effective action
If fight or flight is successful then there is no more reason for the pituitary gland to intervene The system is re-established and returns to the gratification system once the alarm or danger has passed Inversely if the action is ineffective and the danger remains the brain inhibits the action and the pituitary gland commands the adrenal glands to secrete glucocorticoids anti-inflammatory hormones similar to cortisone Unfortunately at this time it is impossible to get out of the inhibition system to return to the reward system Over time the glucocorticoid hormones (asymp cortisol7) secreted by the adrenal glands can destroy the thymus (immune protection) and thereby allow some microbial cells even cancerous ones hosted by the individual to multiply This hormone often attacks the stomachrsquos protective lining (mucus) which can lead to stomach ulcers and perforated ulcers Secreted by the adrenal glands they also alter REM sleep (hypertension) given that protein synthesis in the brain also controls restorative sleep
242 Reasons to become ill
If the inhibition of action can be harmful to us why do we restrain our actions Individuals inhibit their emotions for several reasons
ndash according to Freud [FRE 02] inhibition reveals an impulse that is impossible to satisfy Inhibition can reveal an informational deficit or an imaginary impetus of anxiety
ndash according to Laborit [LAB 94] it is the dominant-dominated relationship that compels one of the individuals present to inhibit his or behaviors in order to avoid punishment
ndash according to Traue and Michael [TRA 93] the expression of emotion leads to an act of controlling the environment In doing so inhibition is part of the set of emotional conduct
Managing Individuals 45
ndash according to MacLean [MAC 75] this inhibition or ldquoschizophysiologyrdquo of the limbic system and the neocortex originates from the conflict between what our neo-mammalian (cognitive) brain knows and what our paleo-mammalian (affective) brain feels
Some [HOC 83 MID 89 VAN 03a VAN 03b] call this ldquoemotional dissonancerdquo
Norms are not everything in a company Companies are like hives or anthills and human interactions are not always simple and to conform to the majority individuals will hold back their emotions
243 Real consequences
The following studies explain and demonstrate the impact of this inhibition According to Laborit [LAB 94] the inhibitory system is triggered by glucocorticoid hormones when the individual is compelled to restrain his behavior or action This conclusion is the result of various experiments conducted on rats In one study he compares the results obtained with two dominant rats enclosed for eight days in a cage with an electrified floor and one single rat in the same situation for the same period In the end despite receiving multiple electrical shocks the first two rats were eating well and had a smooth coat of fur The single rat however had persistent hypertension For a month after the experience his stomach was ulcerated to the point of causing death The difference between these two experiments is action On the one hand the two rats acted and always continued to fight despite the electrical shocks while on the other hand the single rat remained inactive curled up fur dishevelled inhibited It had no behavior According to Traue and Michael [TRA 93] inhibition is the self-control of behavior related to restraint or repression of an emotion Their study demonstrated that holding back anger tested on migraine sufferers resulted in short-term headaches related to high muscular tension and muscle hyperactivity due to an inhibition of emotion
This inhibition of behavior or the underlying emotion is the source of several pathological issues Bischoff and Traue [BIS 83] state that
46 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
ldquoan individual develops myogenic pain [headaches] in a particular muscular system when the muscles have an increased activity [related to inhibition] up to a critical point during a certain timerdquo Several researchers have discovered that the degree of inhibition is associated with compromised immune function and cancer [MOR 81]
The suppression of anger is usually correlated with a high rate of immunoglobulin A in the blood Immunoglobulin A is also associated with the propagation of metastases in breast cancers The inhibition of anger is not the only example Friedman and Booth-Kewley [FRI 87] indicate that other negative emotions measured are also connected with health problems including asthma ulcers headaches immune disorders etc In addition to physical pathologies many researchers in psychobiology and medicine have demonstrated the link between emotions and mental health or ldquobrain healthrdquo whether it is in chronic pathologies (schizophrenia autism etc) or not The biological descriptions of depression (a mental disorder if ever there was one because it can lead to suicide nine times out of ten suicide is related to a form of mental disorder generally severe depression) stress and anxiety indicate that emotions (affective part of the brain) intervene and weaken the different regions of the cortex (rational part of the brain) During the process of the mental disorder emotions ldquotake overrdquo through neurotransmitters and hormones They biologically disrupt the cortex that can no longer remember to act to inhibit the negative emotions and to lead the individual to think about something else (the individuals focus on the problem that was marked by a longer-term emotional process [QUI 06]) As emphasized by Kishi and Elmquist [KIS 05] the bodyrsquos whole process of homeostasis (equilibrium) is affected for a large number of patients with mental disorders
ldquoNo matter what emotion we feel there are consequences for the bodyrdquo explains
Henrique Sequeira professor in affective neuroscience at the University of Lille (I
and II) ldquoEmotions are a true interface between the brain and the body They cause
muscular hormonal neurological and immune reactions These are the links
explored by psychosomatic medicine according to which repeated emotions can
in certain predisposed individuals have effects that are positive (faster recovery
from cancer) or negative (cardiovascular vulnerability asthma) on health by
Managing Individuals 47
repeatedly and unnecessarily striking the same organrdquo he adds Now for each
ldquoemotional maprdquo it remains to define the precise physiological indicators that can
be measured objectively and be used to identify potential emotional dysfunction
The first body map of emotions is illustrated in Figure 25 Finnish researchers
detailed the physical effects of happiness fear sadness and other sentiments
Case Study 29 Effects of emotions at the soma level
Figure 25 The first body map of emotions by Pauline Freacuteour published 01062014 (source lefigarofr) For a color version of this figure see wwwistecoukvanhoorebekemanagementzip
In light of this clinical research any doubts about the bodyemotion relationship and especially the emotion inhibitionhealth relationship can no longer be challenged but confirmed and specified Nevertheless given the various reasons for the inhibition of action (containing onersquos behavior or emotion) it seems likely that inhibition will be increased in an organizational context
48 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
244 A schema like this in business
A variety of research in management describes the phenomenon in the workplace Ashforth and Humphrey [ASH 93] report that the inhibition of emotions in the workplace can provoke emotional exhaustion psychological discontent frustration and stress [SCH 00]
The organizational context seems at first glance to present notable differences from private life ndash complexity repetitive professional relations tasks to accomplish with performance etc ndash yet the organization is a real standardized and regulated emotional arena where several reasons listed as action-inhibiting are perfectly normal Different elements support this perspective
First Rafaeli and Sutton [RAF 89] argue for the addition of two types of behavioral norms that employees must follow at work in comparison to an individualrsquos private life regulated by societal norms occupational norms related to the role held by the individual and organizational norms unique to each company described in section 21
Second the company seeks through its practices what can be called ldquoemotional rationalityrdquo broken down into types depending on the companyrsquos profile and operation
1) The neutralization or total inhibition of emotions prevents the emergence of intense negative emotions with the very strict structuring of roles and interpersonal relations [ASH 95]
2) The system of isolating emotions requires the non-expression of inappropriate emotions without forcing the employee to use particular behaviors [ASH 95] In this context although the individuals are not compelled to express specific dictated emotions the prevention and inhibition of abnormal expressions are no less imposed and sanctioned
3) The prescription of emotions [ASH 95] which tries to control both normal and abnormal expressions of employees is based on the employeersquos adherence to good conduct Individuals must not only follow behavior scripts learn to manage their stress and inhibit certain emotions but most importantly they are asked to thrive
Managing Individuals 49
4) The normalization of emotion has the goal of rationalizing emotions that occur inappropriately It takes the form of making excuses using humor or expressing regret on the part of the employee who said it
Third the organization is the site of diverse social interactions between employees and each other employees and clients employees and managers etc The duration and frequency of these interactions can vary greatly depending on their nature
According to Hochschild [HOC 83] workplace situations that require the regulation of emotions (emotional demands) have three characteristics
1) they require vocal or facial contact with the public
2) they ask the employee to produce an emotional state or reaction from the consumer
3) they provide the employer with the opportunity to control the employeersquos emotional activities
In a company the inhibition of action thus demanded of employees corresponds to a request to hold back their emotions when they do not correspond to the behavioral norms expected by managers among others As we specified in the first approach this request creates the so-called emotional dissonance [HOC 83] in the individual that as with cognitive dissonance [FES 57] generates an unbearable psychological and physical tension related to this restraint inhibition of the emotion that if it is accumulated can have consequences on the mental or biological health of the individual
It has been proven that burnout is just as connected to psychological and affective variables [CHE 92 LEE 93] as to organizational consequences such as turnover the intent to leave negative attitudes in the workplace and decreased performance [LEE 96] especially because these issues have proven to be contagious [BAK 05] In this respect the manager can intervene to limit the effects considering the procedural aspect of emotions in the workplace described earlier and their management levers
50 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
This process is of great interest to management in order to mitigate absenteeism and the direct and indirect costs that absenteeism generates but it cannot negate emotional contagion The risk of the contagion of stress and anxiety has been demonstrated by psychologists and sociologists [BEH 94 GUM 97 PFE 98] To our knowledge only a few studies [BAK 01 BAK 05 GRO 92] have demonstrated the existence of the contagion of burnout and physical exhaustion resulting from emotional exhaustion [SHI 03] However these few studies are specialized in clinical psychology in the professions of a specific domain medical care and in this instance doctors and nurses While Bakker et al [BAK 01] demonstrates that burnout like other mental disorders is not automatically connected to a process of contagion research about depression does demonstrate the existence of a connection [HOW 85]
An important point should be noted Like the role played by pain emotion remains a somatic and psychological signal that reveals several factors including managerial failures From a positive point of view emotions have the ability to foster well-being at work The emotional intelligence and competence of a leader are particularly important
The company Google measures well-being at work This evaluation is part of an
annual evaluation of every employee According to directors Eric Schmidt and
Jonathan Rosenberg in their book How Google Works the Google culture does not
think it is acceptable for employees to feel bad in their place of work Google is also
perceived as a company where people have a good time ldquohave funrdquo The directors
specify that it is not about having fun for funrsquos sake but indeed to intensify
creativity and increase the irresistible desire to work find solutions advance create
and work together [SCH 14]
The online journal Innovation Manageacuteriale6 features an article with the title
ldquolsquoChoose a job you love and you will never have to work a day in your lifersquo
(Confucius)rdquo Although 64 of French people consider themselves satisfied with
their work the percentage drops to 20 when asked if they ldquoget pleasure from
workingrdquo according to a 2014 Ipsos study
The 2016 barometer of well-being in the workplace relies on 10 items grouped into 6 Available online at httpwwwinnovationmanagerialecomconceptsde-la-gestion-du-savoir-faire-au-management-de-laimer-faire
Managing Individuals 51
three essential pillars (see Figure 24) work environment emotion and attention
The work environment corresponds to equipment and the balance between private
and professional life Attention corresponds to the consideration on the part of the
hierarchy and the management of skills Well-being also depends on the consideration
that the manager gives to employees Emotion corresponds to the pleasure of coming
to work in the morning the interest in onersquos work or its stimulating aspect What the
employee feels on a daily basis is also considered7
One particular example is this in England a company had the idea to implement an
uncommon and extremely practical type of leave for employees If they drink too
much on a night out employees at the British online ticket agency DICE can now
ask for ldquohangoverrdquo leave According to the founder of the London-based company
Phil Hutcherson this measure allows colleagues to ldquoembracerdquo the company culture
Employees are expected to attend concerts and festivals regularly and this type of
leave allows them to take advantage of the events without feeling worried about a
difficult day after To set up their day employees only need to follow one extremely
simple step They must send a WhatsApp message to their boss containing the
ldquomusicrdquo ldquobeerrdquo and ldquosickrdquo emojis Regarding this new kind of leave Phil
Hutcherson said ldquoOur whole team lives for music and some of the best
opportunities in the industry happen after a concert We trust each other and we
want people to be open if they are going to see live music No need to pretend to be
sickrdquo On average employees have each asked for four ldquohangoverrdquo leaves since the
measure was implemented Phil Hutcherson says he is delighted with the trust and
transparency that this has created within DICE8
Case Study 210 Emotion and well-being at work an indisputable link
These examples are clearly indicative of the fact that modern management cannot not react faced with the consequences of the poor management of e-motions In addition emo-management can have consequences on health and penalize a company through the costs that it represents something that was unthinkable until about ten years ago Emo-management plays a role in rational decision-making
7 Available online at httpmipsosfrengager-ses-equipes-et-conduire-changement 2016-05-26-barometre-edenred-ipsos-2016-quels-sont-piliers-pour-comprendre-et-agir-sur-bien-etre-au-travail 8 Available online at httpwwwohmymagcominsolitecette-entreprise-propose-des-conges-gueule-de-bois-a-ses-employes_art112460html
52 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
25 A factual approach for effective decision-making knowledge of the emotional decision-making process
Apart from the impact on work emotion has influences that have long been unimaginable Decision-making has been demonstrated to be dependent on emotion a stunning breakthrough
251 Decision and emotion
In fact it is only in the past few years that emotions have been a subject of interest for research about decision-making although some authors anticipated it According to Simon [SIM 59] organizations do not automatically follow the maximization of profits but rather a result deemed satisfactory relative to a level of aspiration Until recently the decision-maker was addressed as a being someone who acted according to rational and distinctly formulated principles Since Plato Kant and Descartes it has been considered that proper logic purely rational and mathematical stripped of all affective considerations can lead to a solution regardless of the problem According to these theories a decision is inspired by sensory data events facts and documents or principles based on which it is enough to correctly deduce only truth from truth [DES 37 KAN 98] If the premises of an emotional intervention in decision-making are already discernable in Darwinrsquos principle of anti-thesis9 [DAR 72] or the research of Lazarus [LAZ 91] it was only in 1994 that Damasio clearly affirmed that emotions are necessary for decision-making According to his theory about somatic indicators or the perception of the secondary emotions of foreseeable consequences ([DAM 94 p 240]) this neurologist explains not only the process of making decisions but especially the time that it takes our brains to decide from a few fractions of a second to a few minutes depending on the case According to him pure or mathematical reasoning requires a memory with an unlimited capacity to retain the multitude of probable
9 Principle of expressions of opposite emotions highlighting the mechanisms implemented during opposite choices A hostile and aggressive dog will walk stiffly head held high tail up ears directed to the front A dog greeting his master will hold its body low tail and ears directed backward The two expressions and postures are opposite and ldquoantitheticalrdquo
Managing Individuals 53
combinations to predict the consequences of any given decision ndash a capacity that humans do not have This is why memory is supported by various emotional indicators A decision that is perceived by emotion as negative and automatically associated with an unpleasant sensation in the body (soma) is then immediately rejected in order to restrict the choice to fewer foreseeable alternatives to better decide When the emotion experienced is positive the alternative is ldquomarkedrdquo and preserved This theory was partially demonstrated by Bechara et al [BEC 98]
Neurologically speaking making a decision is very fast much less than a second when it consists of reacting to an immediate danger and emotion is therefore predominant When the decision is established as a cognitive process with time for reflection where the consequence is a choice between various solutions emotion intervenes without predominating Do we not say ldquoI lsquofeelrsquo that I did not make the right decisionrdquo At that point emotion presents itself as an unconscious signal of the effectiveness of our choice [LAZ 91] In addition at first glance as a process of adjustment and evaluation it plays a moderating role in the control of rational decisions [GRA 00] Emotion is an integral part of decisional complexity
252 Decision and emotion at the origin a rejection
To understand this complexity let us examine how emotions were rejected from the domain of research in decision-making then how they came to be included in it From the start Plato (427 BCE) rejected the world of the senses because it posed too many various obstacles to understanding Instead he dedicated himself to reason and pure understanding In the same sense Kant [KAN 98 p 36] in his Critique of Pure Reason says ldquoEncouraged by such a proof of the power of reason the drive for expansion sees no boundsrdquo10 Similarly Descartes in his Discourse on Method [DES 37] considers that it is reason that makes us human and so we should cultivate our own intelligence According to Berthoz [BER 03] regarding these theories
10 Translation taken from the 1998 English edition translated and edited by Paul Guyer and Allen W Wood and published by Cambridge University Press
54 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
and various other original normative descriptive and prescriptive theories of decision-making it remains ideally rational and essentially cognitive In this context normative currents with numerous variations indicate the way in which to proceed to make a decision descriptive theories detail the process prescriptive theories seek to improve the relevance of the choices made Each field of research has its own perspective and method of measuring cerebral function during decision-making Nevertheless one point remains common to all of them calculation or evaluation It is also this evaluation that is at the heart of the discourse on research about decision-making through emotions
In fact evaluation speculation and even betting are recurrent themes in cognitive research about decision-making The distinctions that are allocated to it in cognitivist research have more to do with its function than with its foundation No matter what the choice to be made is the individual considers predicts and bets on the possible consequences or on the preference that he gives it Based on these currents this estimate depends on three major paradigms
1) The utility function (mathematical formula) [BER 13 VON 44] where decision-making is based on the beliefs and values of the individual and the expected results The ldquosure thing principlerdquo an approach suggested by Savage [SAV 54] revising the utility function considers the choice as dependent on the preferences and beliefs of the individual despite the consequences Finally the theory of the prospect is a mathematical prediction function combining a function of the values and a function of the subjective probabilities [KAH 73]
2) Limited rationality showing that the human limits and deviations of prediction cannot be reproduced by theoretical models An economical person can in fact content themselves with a solution that is satisfying in their eyes without it being proven to be the optimal solution [SIM 59]
3) The algebraic process in the form of equations and weighted means is the aggregate calculation of the judgment
Far from being able to be considered as divergent cognitive processes the differentiation of these three currents summarized by
Managing Individuals 55
Berthoz [BER 03] mainly concerns the role of this evaluation and the strategies undertaken to determine it Evaluation remains an iterative term to such a point that cognitivist approaches and emotional approaches are compatible
As noted earlier already in 1872 in his observations Darwin remarked that decision-making was accompanied by a furrowing of the brow indicating a difficulty in the mind and an emotion expressed before the action Then several theories suggested the predictive aspect of emotions These theories were established by Ribot [RIB 30] for whom an idea that is not felt is nothing and then Sartre [SAR 38] according to whom the emotional conscience is the conscience of the world and finally Schachter [SCH 71] who said that the existence of a cognition associated with physiological activation is indicative of the very nature of emotion It was over the course of the development of these various foundational approaches that emotion was considered to be a real tool of evaluation because of its predictive character Scherer [SCH 89] examined emotion as constituting an affective mechanism of evaluation that intervened between the cognitive evaluation of a situation and human action In his view emotions cause a decoupling of the behavior and the stimuli rendering the individual capable of substituting more flexible kinds of behaviors for reflexive instinctive or usual responses in a given situation Next came the perspective of Lazarus [LAZ 91] according to whom emotions have several functions such as informing people about the quality of what they are experiencing here and now helping them to evaluate situations in which they find themselves and the effectiveness of their conduct (satisfaction or dissatisfaction) giving meaning and value to their experience facilitating the communication of intentions stimulating reflection and the development of thought etc Finally in the 1990s the neurologist Damasio [DAM 94] posed and tested the clearly defined hypothesis that emotion plays a biological role in reasoning and decision-making First he noted that over the course of several experiments using the measurement of certain biological parameters11 there was a strange connection 11 Modification of the resistance of the skin to the electrical current and positron emission tomographer in order to film the brainrsquos reactions
56 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
between the absence of emotions and the disruption of reasoning In short emotions are 100 indispensable for reasoning It was through his questioning of the case of Phineas Gage who was stripped of emotions and unable to make decisions following a brain injury that Damasio suggested in his book Descartesrsquo Error that ldquomechanisms making it possible to express and feel emotions [hellip] all play a role in the faculty of reasoningrdquo12 ([DAM 94 p 10]) In fact while Gage had preserved all of his aptitudes for reasoning he had lost his ability to reason To solve this mystery Damasio studied a patient (Elliot) whom had had a tumor on his meninges removed Although Elliot could reflect talk count and remember he was unable to make good decisions manage his time or execute tasks in several steps An experiment showed that he felt no emotion when presented with shocking photos Because it consisted uniquely of sang-froid Damasiorsquos conclusion was that the faculty of reasoning was affected by the emotional deficit the loss of the ability to experience emotions could be the source of irrational behavior According to him the brain would therefore be a series of loops and infinite cross-referencing between the intellect and the affect
His next studies conducted in collaboration with other researchers [BEC 98 BEC 99] demonstrate that decision-making is a process that is dependent on emotion Some of his studies prove that damage to the ventromedial prefrontal cortex prevents the ability to use the emotions necessary to guide decisions in an advantageous direction In the anatomical analysis of 10 subjects with damaged brains and 16 normal subjects the results demonstrate that damage to the amygdala of the brain the locus of emotions disrupts decision-making
To support this perspective according to Berthoz [BER 03] throughout human
history there seem to be several examples that demonstrate the influence of
emotions on decision-making For example between 1978 and 1980 Stansfield
Turner director of the CIA decided not to order the destruction of a foreign
plane declared to be transporting nuclear missiles on American territory
Despite the imminent danger he did not make the decision to act The events that
followed would prove he was right as the information that had been
communicated to him was false and related to a simple technical error in
12 Translation from French
Managing Individuals 57
transmission Why did he react this way faced with a crucial danger putting in
danger his life and the lives of millions of people Had he considered that it could
be an error Did he evaluate his decision based on his values his representations
No one knows not even him
Case Study 211 Example of an ldquoirrationalrdquo decision
253 Decision and the neurobiological process
In order to better understand and visualize it below is a short overview of the anatomy of the nervous system based on descriptions by Vincent [VIN 86] Damasio [DAM 94] Laborit [LAB 94] and Berthoz [BER 03]
The brain has central parts and peripheral parts
ndash the central system is composed of a right hemisphere and a left hemisphere united
by the corpus callosum ventromedial regions (a set of connective fibers
convergence zone and white matter)
ndash the central nervous system including the diencephalon contains the thalamus and
the hypothalamus placed respectively at the center and under the hemispheres as
well as the midbrain brainstem cerebellum spinal cord and others
In the central nervous system the arrangement of the gray matter provides
information about its role
ndash in layers this corresponds to the cortex which forms the outer layer covering the
hemispheres the most recently evolved part of the cortex is called the neocortex
generally associated with cognition
ndash arranged like nuts gray matter corresponds to different nodes buried in each
hemisphere such as the amygdala (almond-shaped) it is the least recent part in
terms of evolution the limbic cortex associated with emotion
These two systems are interrelated by electrical currents diffusing from neurons (cell
bodies) to the points of contact (synapses) by conductors (axons) The synapses can
then release the neurotransmitters chemical messengers that will carry the message
through the spinal cord and the peripheral nervous system (corporeal) to the next
neuron and to different organs or glands in order to trigger action (or not) and
transmit information about the result back to the brain To put it simply depending
on the situation some parts of the brain (an electrical factory) send through
neurons messages (neurotransmitters) to a point of contact (synapse) that will in
turn send the message to another point of contact and so on until the message
arrives at its destination the body (a chemical factory) At the time of the
58 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
last point of contact the message is decoded (the electrical message becomes a
chemical message) so that it can be read by the receptor
In the context of decision-making both systems (central and peripheral) play a role
[BEC 98 BEC 99 BEC 00 BER 03] More precisely it is the ventromedial regions
notably the prefrontal cortex and the amygdala that come into play The
ventromedial zone located in the prefrontal cortex is where representations that the
individual constructs of a situation are stored This is where the information is
classified based on the experience of the individual and where scenarios describing
the likely consequences of a decision can be found This zone is also directly related
to the so-called primary regions of the cortex such as the motor region certain
ganglions or the amygdala As a central receptor for information the latter is
according to the metaphor used by Damasio ldquothe Bureau of Standards and
Measuresrdquo [DAM 94 p 250] In this sense experiencing an emotion activates the
amygdala of the brain which triggers among other things the ventromedial cortex
The latter sends signals to the motor system so that the muscles create the
expression of emotions on the face and specific postures in the body and activate
endocrine and nervous system hormone secretors (chemical neurotransmitters)
inducing changes in the state of the body and the brain Each of these actions allows the
individual to perceive a corporeal and mental state This is what provides him or her
with information about the choice to make
In a decision-making situation the cognitive brain and the limbic system (emotions)
send messages concurrently The cognitive brain makes an inventory of the
consequences of each probable choice It sends each scenario to the limbic brain
which acts like a customs checkpoint The latter selects the best scenarios or the most
relevant messages For each message received it sends a message directly to the part
of the brain that triggers bodily movements starting from the feeling of the individual
in a given scenario This allows the individual to quickly and distinctly perceive the
message Finally it stores the best scenarios which are the ones that correspond best to
the values interests and experiences of the individual a work that is always carried out
together by the parts of the brain The process continues in this way until there is only
one choice left the best one according to the individualrsquos perception
Case Study 212 Description of the neurological functioning of a decision
The studies by Bechara et al [BEC 98 BEC 99 BEC 00] and Damasio [DAM 94] demonstrate that when making a decision the so-called secondary emotions because they result from representations and images related to scenarios with probable
Managing Individuals 59
consequences for the decision to be made intervene and activate the amygdala and the ventromedial systems One of the results of their latest study [BEC 99 BEC 00] showed that more bad decisions were made by patients with damage to the ventromedial cortex and the amygdala compared to patients with damage to the hypothalamus or who are totally normal These individuals reiterated their poor decisions despite the repetition of experience because the emotion emulating the action could not be inhibited by the prefrontal cortex according to Berthozrsquos theory [BER 03]
Lazarus [LAZ 91] argues that the emotionndashdecision relation is clear Decisions depend on values that revolve around our humanity religion politics loyalty righteousness justice compassion or even trust and personal interest In that respect the maximization of utility by a purely cognitive decision presupposes that each person knows and is aware of his or her own interest Yet according to the economists we only know it when we are wrong
Berthoz [BER 03] indicates that concerning the cognitionndashemotion debate [IZA 84 LAZ 91] emotion has a role that is essential but not consciously perceived in the pre-categorization of stimuli that guide cognitive assessment As confirmation according to the computational approach emotion ldquoalerts the consciousness to evaluate the situation identify what triggered this activity and reorganize the action plansrdquo [BER 03 p 67] Gratch [GRA 00] provides us with an example by establishing a computer program to monitor decision-making in the context of military aviation plans Starting from the observation that the current programs are limited by their incapacity to model different moderators influencing the performance of troops on the ground such as stress emotions and individual differences he mathematically models the way in which individuals evaluate events emotionally and the influence of this evaluation on decision-making Another case supports this argument decisions made under the influence of anger Lerner and Tiedens [LER 06] present the fact that this emotion disrupts the objectivity and rationality that is useful for decision-making When angry individuals experience excessive confidence and optimism which encourages rash risk-taking
60 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
The objective of these descriptions is to show that the intervention of emotions in decision-making is not only effective but also shared by all human beings regardless of the context (private or professional life) status or hierarchical level of the individual confronted with making a decision Probable distinctions are located in the essential and crucial aspect of the consequences of this or in other words in the type of decision to make Research shows that emotions guide us throughout our daily life Whether they are negative or positive they are meaningful for our decisions
254 Decision and emo-management
In a context like the one in an organization decision-making is especially perceived as a rational process because it is anchored in an essentially economic domain However the decisional rationality of managers is also subject to emotions just like each member of the organization Faced with fierce competition the company and its decision-makers must make fast and effective strategic decisions In order to make the best decisions conventional theories which assume that the decision-makers maximize their expected utility through a complete rational analysis of the information are opposed to neo-classical theories that argue that decision-makers have limited capacities to dissect and assess this information The difficulty that these conventional theories encounter in their study of the behavior of economic and rational individuals is that each partially or totally irrational behavior must be randomized and excluded because it is deviant [AKE 82] Since then some studies have considered intuition and irrationality in decision-making [FRA 03 HEI 88 SIM 87] This intuition or irrationality is considered to be a predictor in the context of decision-making with a lack of information or partial information In 2003 in the section of his article entitled ldquoLa dimension strateacutegique du recours agrave lrsquoexternalisation les contributions anteacuterieuresrdquo (p 27) Fimbel [FIM 03] explained ldquoIn the decision-making phase the issues are the subject of an assessment in which the degree of rationality is limited these concerns can be understood as a set of gains or losses that the operation in question will produce Finally in the duration the
Managing Individuals 61
operational phase will reveal the qualitative and quantitative intensity of the real strategic effects which is to say the intensity of the gains andor losses observedrdquo
In addition the concept of cognitive dissonance [FES 57] notably used in organizational strategy indicates that individuals have a tendency to persist in their convictions when faced with contradictory evidence Whatrsquos more this contradiction is perceived as a confirmation of their first conviction This approach leads to considering that companies react in the same way and show themselves to be resistant to change due to their certainty when faced with an opposite or divergent approach Individuals place more importance on the state of their situation compared to a level of reference rather than on ldquoabsoluterdquo characteristics [HEL 64] This established fact suggests that companies do not imitate simply to copy but out of interest In addition to this definition the cognitive dissonance described by Festinger [FES 57] has another aspect that is as much cognitive as it is emotional One of the reasons for this imitation is not to be marginalized and to ensure positive relationships with different actors surrounding the company The contagion that companies can demonstrate as shown in studies about in-progress bankruptcies and the influence of negotiation [ALE 01] is a considerable driving force for the implementation of a new paradigm of practices and managerial perspectives According to these studies contagion can occur extremely quickly (avalanche theory [ALE 01]) However it can be managed if the decision-maker is aware of the many decisional biases that affect decisions and the psychological neurological and sociological processes that the decision follows
The European Helicopter Safety Analysis Team (EHSAT) in its analysis of
helicopter accidents between 2000 and 2005 indicated in its final 2010 report that
ldquoWe observed that most of the fatal crashes were due to errors in judgment rather
than errors in perception or execution Many incidents were also connected to errors
in decision-making These could translate into accidents if the situation was not
rectified in time Although we cannot eliminate human error an in-depth
understanding of the principles of human factors can lead to appropriate strategies
62 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
methods and practical tools in order to prevent most errors better detect and
manage them and limit their negative impact on air safetyrdquo13
Case Study 213 Example of decisional bias
Therefore managing an individual requires an emo-management that
ndash views the individual as a being gifted in the strategy of adjustment and adaptation capable of limiting dissonances and responding to the companyrsquos needs
ndash considers emotions as a limiting factor of discontent in the workplace
ndash considers the impact of emotions on well-being in the workplace which is very meaningful in an era when some companies are leading by example and reaping substantial benefits
ndash considers the rational to which the manager has been subject for several years under its emotional aspect Damasio [DAM 94] specifies that emotion precedes cognition The decision cannot be made without emotion
In this regard emo-management gives the individual the opportunity to be successful
255 Decision emo-management and contagion
Loewenstein and Lerner [LOE 03] outline a theory of the contagion of decisions through emotions They use the example of an investor confronted with the choice of a risky investment To make his decision the individual attempts to predict the probabilities of different consequences earning or losing money The immediate emotion when he makes his decision anxiety can either discourage him or cause him to dismiss his regrets if it proves to be a bad choice To limit the risk the choice of the investor can also be to imitate
13 Translation from French Available online at httpswwwecologique-solidairegouvfrsitesdefaultfilesSymposium2012_HE4pdf
Managing Individuals 63
others and make similar decisions The image of the stock market crash can be used to illustrate this situation If human decision-making depends on an emotional process then a decision can be dependent on its contagion an emo-decisional contagion Because in an organization getting all actors to accept a decision is vital the emotional aspect of the decision can prove to be a powerful tool [VAN 08a] According to Lazarus [LAZ 91] emotion induces the individualization of the decision Every person has his or her own interests and personal values which lead notably in the context of an organization to a multiplication of decisions and individual choices that complexify effective successful management We find ourselves once again in an issue of decisional individualism versus collectivism This raises several questions
Since it has been shown that decision-making is dependent on emotion and contagion what about collective decisions It has also been proven that human relations depend on emotions that have allowed the human species to survive since its very beginning through the social instinct that resulted from it Does this precious combination favor more rational judgment
3
Managing a Collective
31 An evidence-based approach for effective collective decision-making understanding the process of emo-decisional contagion
The decisional processes described for many years in the research seem to have similar foundations at first glance regardless of whether they are individual or collective decisions aside from the negotiation or discussion aspect that is involved However some of the studies that focus on game theory and decision-making analyze different types of imitation dynamics based on which agents are more inclined to adopt popular andor winning strategies [FUD 05] ndash decisions that were a success or that the majority can appreciate In a group and especially in a crowd individuals more easily become fierce imitators (such as via herd mentality mimicry) They tend to lose their own reference frame to share common beliefs and to communicate their collective emotion between themselves acting in the same way even to the point of engaging in excesses Greed fear admiration enthusiasm contempt hatred and many other emotions influence the action of investors This causes the stock market to fluctuate rapidly It has often been suggested in the literature that competitors in an oligopolistic market can be guided more by imitation than by calculations of profitability Following a suggestion by Todt [TOD 70 TOD 71 TOD 81 TOD 96] in the analysis of an experimental study of investment decisions and price fixing Goyal and Vega-Redondo [GOY 07] Rhode and Stegeman [RHO 01] Schlag [SCH 98] and Vega-Redondo [VEG 97] describe the process of imitation as a
The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management First Edition Delphine van Hoorebeke copy ISTE Ltd 2018 Published by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley amp Sons Inc
66 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
factor in decision-making faced with competition in the context of game theory
In the same way however in the context of the theories of natural selection and evolution there is a presumption that competition excludes irrational entities Although according to these models group behavior seems more rational than individual behavior it can be supposed that a company viewed as a decision-making group occasionally feigns its rationality It seems reasonable to assume the opposite far from being the exception these models assume these irrational behaviors (and supposed anomalies) are the norm in decision-making Based on comparative studies of individual and collective decisions there does not appear to be a real consensus on the predominance of one or the other regardless of the domain of study (see Table 31) However there is a consensus within organizations the decision-making process cannot be understood in terms of one single actor in an individual way The decision-making process is collective and sequential in organizations [ALL 71] Decision-making processes in organizations generally involve several actors interacting with one another [SMO 02]
Decision-making
Risk-taking Participants take significantly fewer risks when they are in a group [MAS 09]
Trust According to Kugler et al [KUG 12] the group has a similar level of trust as the individuals have between themselves
Information Information has more influence on a decision when it is shared than when it is not [STA 89]
Framing effect
ndash Is reduced when making decisions in a group [NEA 86] ndash Is greater for decisions in homogenous groups [PAE 93] ndash Is not significantly increased or decreased when making decisions in a group [WEB 09] ndash Is amplified by the group [YAN 11]
Rationality The group members mutually correct their errors and pool complementary resources [STA 01]
Similar choices Advantages
Collaborative decision-making makes it possible to better discern and better understand problems [TUR 01]
Table 31 Comparative studies of collectiveindividual decision-making
Managing a Collective 67
Although there is not a complete consensus on the concepts in Table 31 it is still undeniable and taken for granted that there are a multitude of individual and collective biases involved in decision-making
If the individual biases are extremely numerous a review of collective biases interacting with decisional rationality also supports the involvement of emotion in individual and collective biases From an individual perspective according to the results of the neurological study by De Martino et al [DEM 06] the decisional bias of the framing effect or the effect of manipulating the formulation of choices is limited when emotion is managed Their study reveals specific activation in areas of the brain that are not active during decision-making without manipulation The activation of the emotional zone ndash the brainrsquos amygdala in this case ndash is significantly more intense when individuals choose the positive formulation ldquochance of winningrdquo The authors conclude ldquoOur data raise an intriguing possibility that more lsquorationalrsquo individuals have a better and more refined representation of their own emotional biases that enables them to modify their behavior in appropriate circumstancesrdquo [DEM 06 p 686]
The framing effect was revealed [TVE 80] through an experiment that revolved around a hypothetical epidemic threatening the USA The number of victims was estimated at 600 people Two programs were proposed to fight it If program A was adopted 200 people would be saved if program B was chosen there was one chance in three that the 600 people would be saved and a probability of two out of three that no one would be saved The choice 72 of participants chose program A and 28 chose program B
The researchers then reproduced the same experiment with other participants This time they presented not the number of people that would be saved but the number of people who would not survive It was explained to the subjects that if program A was chosen 400 people would die and if program B was chosen there was a probability of 1 out of 3 that no one would die and a probability of 2 out of 3 that 600 people would die These program results are exactly equivalent to the previous ones but the presentation is different a positive aspect as opposed to a negative aspect They are framed differently In the second experiment 78 of participants chose program B and only 22 chose program A
The two authors concluded that human beings have a tendency to refuse to take risks when they think of the potential gains (as in the first phase of the experiment) and accept to take them when they think of the potential losses (as in the second phase of the experiment) The framing effect reveals that opinions may differ when messages about the same subject are presented in different lights causing individuals to evaluate them based on different considerations
Case Study 31 The framing effect
68 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
There is no consensus to privilege the collective over the individual in decision-making but there is a consensus about the fact that the collective like the individual has its own biases An analysis of the literature points out that emotional bias is significant in collective decision-making (see Table 32)
Collective bias Definition Terms related to the emotion
Groupthink [JAN 82] Conformism effort to establish a consensus at the expense of a realistic evaluation of alternatives
Conformism
Halo effect [THO 20 ASC 55]
Effect of contamination Selective interpretation and perception of information in line with a first impression that we try to confirm
Contamination
Sunflower management [BOO 05]
Tendency to align with the leaderrsquos vision
Social influence by the vision of the leadership
Champion bias [LEF 06]
Evaluation based on the experience of a person rather than on facts
Social influence
Emo-decisional contagion [VAN 08a]
Effect of contagion of emotions experienced and expressed
Contagion unconscious mimicry
Table 32 Biases related to emotion
The surveys conducted by Alvesson and Spicer [ALV 15] regarding the paradox of stupidity revealed several examples of situations where reasonable decisions were ignored ldquoTop executives who rely on consultantsrsquo PowerPoint shows rather than careful analysis [hellip] IT analysts who prefer to ignore problems so as not to undermine the upbeat tone of their workplace [hellip] Marketing managers who are obsessed with their brand strategy while the only thing that should have mattered was the price Companies capable of spending millions on lsquorebranding exercisesrsquo and that in case of failure start again and again Senior figures in the armed forces who prefer to run rebranding exercises rather than military exercisesrdquo The positive impact of these different decisions favoring group cohesion and limiting disruptive questions which the authors call the paradox of stupidity
Case Study 32 Examples of stupid or biased decision-making
Managing a Collective 69
Table 32 highlights the emotional aspects perceptible in each of the collective biases listed It indicates that if the group is connected to emotion in order to create interpersonal relationships then unfortunately through a boomerang effect the same is true for biases
Faced with the observation that emotion is disruptive for decision-making in the form of a bias we should not neglect the fact that it can also prove to be a tool for rationalization In fact in his theory of somatic indicators Damasio [DAM 94] considers it to be an antecedent and a necessity for rational decision-making Another point that recurs in Table 32 can remedy this problem Collective decision-making is not only subject to group biases but also to the managerrsquos influence Managers must be aware that their attitudes and behaviors influence the group and collective judgment In this respect the emo-manager by ethical principle does not wield this power inappropriately Emotion can prove to be a harmful tool Nevertheless it is important not to forget the authenticity described in section 11 Emotion cannot be based on calculating and manipulative strategies at the risk of destroying its advantages for the group and the company If emo-managers must know how to be charismatic leaders who can consciously and unconsciously influence a group they must also know how to lead by example avoid excessively emotion-driven decisions as shown in the previous example and have the honesty to alert the group to biases that it may confront
32 The art of leading authentic leadership and emotional intelligence
To influence human behavior in the workplace the leadership of a manager is qualified as ldquotransformationalrdquo by Burns [BUR 78] or as charismatic leadership [BAS 99] Koestenbaum [KOE 87] dedicates his first reflections on leadership by trying to relate it to the ethical dimension considering that management and leadership are catalysts for commitment [PET 83] According to Le Bas [LEB 04] current thinking revolves around reflections about leadership and ethics in companies as a state of mind Leadership comes from the Anglo-Saxon verb ldquoto leadrdquo Here again we find the concepts of leading and guiding close to the term of managing What is the difference It is assumed that
70 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
a manager is not necessarily a leader A leader is seen as a personality and has political psychological and social influence over an individual or a group Leaders have personal skills that make them different and allow them to be listened to and followed by a group of people Managers manage things Leaders manage people [KOT 90]
Leaders work with people and must try in spite of this to ensure decisional autonomy Unfortunately according to Koestenbaum [KOE 87] the traditional scheme hopes for and relies on absolute control which does not ensure the subjectrsquos emancipation A companyrsquos staff do not often have any other option than to submit to authority It is with this in mind that this section attempts to understand how what some people call ldquofreely consenting to submitrdquo can be a totally legitimate and natural reaction
To understand this let us return to the details of how emotions work In everyonersquos daily lives including in organizations emotions are integral to the phenomenon of expression which is to say to behavior [AND 96] Nevertheless the natural condition of emotion is to be expressed interpersonally Emotive expression includes actions that occur in private (such as grimacing and swearing if we hit our hand with a hammer) spontaneous emotive expressions (such as smiling automatically in response to someone elsersquos smile) and strategic communication (such as telling someone that we love them before critiquing them) Humans can also express (or not) emotion using rules of expression that involve their emotive expression in a logical and strategic manner based on their personal objectives or the rules of social norms [GUE 98]
321 The manager and emotions
To re-establish the link with the managerrsquos and leaderrsquos behavior Fitness [FIT 00] indicates that several people interviewed in his study said that they had feigned anger in order to intimidate their subordinates In this context the emotion of anger is used as an intimidation tactic [OAK 96] Angry individuals are more often perceived as ldquodominantrdquo [CLA 97 VAN 07b] In addition this study indicates that anger from a hierarchical superior far from being
Managing a Collective 71
shocking is expected by employees Another study analyzes the place of emotional work and emotional power in the workplace for care staff It shows that emotional labor is an integral part of the task of nurses and considers that we should understand emotion as a source of power [TRE 96] On this topic Lazarus [LAZ 91] like Hochschild [HOC 83] discusses social influence and compares the power and status of hierarchical superiors to those of parents According to this point of view several or even all types of emotions play a role in the superiorndashsubordinate relationship [KEM 78] Kemper [KEM 78] defines power as an individual possessing the capacity to command others Some feel safe holding power over other people while others feel awkward The first group can feel anxious or sad when they do not benefit from this power sufficiently or at all while the second group considers it unfair that they benefit from it and feel guilty
The study by Dasborough and Ashkanasy [DAS 02] shows that leadership is an inherently emotional process in which leaders express emotions and tend to cause emotions to be felt in others Humphrey [HUM 02] supports this view specifying that in certain circumstances the expression of emotions has more impact on the perception of the leader than on the content of the leaderrsquos message and that one of the keys to leadership is to manage the emotions of the group In this context studies have demonstrated that the ability of managers to manage their own emotions and influence those of others has an impact on results and performance Although in this case leaders play an important role (namely bringing out the best in others) the results of another study [BON 07] demonstrate that leaders influence employees in different ways Employees whose supervisors express more positive emotions demonstrate that they experience positive emotions in their interactions with their leader The employees experience these positive emotions throughout their workday including in their interactions with colleagues and clients and feel more satisfaction at work and less stress
322 The manager and emotional intelligence
According to Goleman [GOL 97] leaders require a certain emotional intelligence and certain skills in the art of managing other
72 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
peoplersquos emotions but also in managing their own emotions as well as the ability to reward themselves and others to understand control and redirect emotions and to feel personal and social emotions With this in mind Goleman created a typology in four categories based on personal competence social competence recognition of emotions and regulation of emotions self-awareness social awareness self-management and relationship-management Self-awareness combines personal competence and recognition of emotions while social awareness includes social competence and the recognition of emotions
George [GEO 90] specifies that dynamic enthusiastic and energetic managers are likely to stimulate their subordinates and similarly managers who feel anxious and aggressive will probably have a negative effect on their subordinates For example given that managers who display sadness seem less effective [LEW 00] their subordinates will seem less enthusiastic and motivated through contact with them The importance of emotions is used as a directive tool in leadership styles that encourage the charismatic aspect of the manager Consequently managers are charismatic [HOU 77] primal [GOL 02] and transformational to the extent that the charismatic style is a part of the transformational leadership style [BAS 85] using emotions to motivate employees communicate ideas and prompt interest from employees to attain strategic long-term ideals and objectives [BER 01] Transformational managers must not only be receptive to the needs of their subordinates and pay attention to each one of them or at least give the impression of doing so (a task that requires getting involved on an emotional level) but must also feel and display optimism [ASH 00b]
There is no doubt that these leadership styles can have a great deal of success However recommending the use of emotions as a management tool does have a certain number of risks [ZER 08] First managers who strategically use their emotions risk having to regularly ldquocreaterdquo the emotions necessary to reach a particular objective In addition the success of transformational or charismatic leadership lies on the impression of authenticity that emerges from the managerrsquos emotions More precisely emotional behaviors used simply as management tools can prove to be ineffective or even produce unexpected harmful effects Employees react negatively to managers
Managing a Collective 73
whose tone betrays their words ndash a typical clash over simulated interest and sympathy [NEW 02] In addition managers who try in vain to hide negative emotions can be perceived to be manipulative and calculating [DAS 02] It is therefore important that transformational and charismatic leaders be masters of regulating emotions which is truly a considerable challenge Although emotions are universal [EKM 79] expressions depend on culture personality gender and other factors For these reasons people do not express emotions in the same way a fact that is increasingly important in multicultural company environments In fact the same emotion transmitted by a man a woman or a member of a different ethnic group is not perceived in the same way which has been demonstrated in the case of women occupying management positions [LEW 00 MOR 96 ROB 97]
323 Is everyone capable of emo-managing
Although some specific examples suggest that all hierarchical superiors have the ability to hold the position of manager nothing proves that they have the personality of a leader which is just as requested by most companies Is it essential
An example of so-called ldquoliberatedrdquo companies where every employee is seen as responsible shows that everyone can become a manager The company Favi is one of the companies that share its management method The title of a book about this company called The Company that Believes that Man is Good [FAV 06] advocates for the art of managing by leaving all autonomy to the operators This case is a counter-example In most companies it is expected that managers be leaders gifted with emotional intelligence to better manage the emotions of colleagues
In his article about what makes a leader in the Harvard Business Review in 2004 Daniel Goleman gives a specific example of emotional intelligence ldquoImagine an executive who has just watched a team of his employees present a botched analysis to the companyrsquos board of directors In the gloom that follows the executive might find himself tempted to pound on the table in anger or kick over a chair He could leap up and scream at the group Or he might maintain a grim silence glaring at everyone before stalking off But if he had a gift for self-regulation he would choose a different approach He would pick his words carefully acknowledging the teamrsquos poor performance without rushing to any hasty judgment He would then step back to consider the reasons for the failure Are they personal ndash a lack of effort Are there any mitigating factors What was his role in the debaclerdquo [GOL 04]
Case Study 33 Are we all leaders
74 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
Golemanrsquos text indicates that individual emotional intelligence is seen as a true performance According to Goleman et al [GOL 02] the most effective managers according to employees are those who listen are attentive to what goes on in the workplace and are capable of regulating their emotions
Although some articles note that emotional intelligence can be used for nefarious purposes the majority of studies about emotional intelligence praise it extensively and consider it to be an indispensable skill for todayrsquos managers When the terms ldquoemotional intelligencerdquo are searched on the Internet a plethora of training courses tools guides and tests comes up This is because in todayrsquos competitive commercial climate organizations need leaders with technical skills and with people skills to maintain a competitive advantage
To return to the somewhat contradictory example of the liberated company note that a new form of emotional intelligence is now taking precedence group emotional intelligence It is a movement that is based on the involvement of a set of intelligences to construct a collective intelligence ldquoGroup intelligence [hellip] depends on emotional intelligencerdquo [GOL 14 p 234]
An exploratory quantitative study analyzes the invention of group emotional intelligence on collaborative remote work [DEB 16] Although it has not been studied extensively collaborative remote working is an effective concept for work now and in the future In the goal of better understanding the inner workings to improve management this study focuses on managementrsquos direct impact on group creativity and performance The concept of mediated collaborative work is described as another type of group work These so-called virtual teams are groups of people who collaborate to execute a specific project They are dispersed in time and space without this distance being an obstacle for their collaboration They communicate thanks to modern technologies managed by computer [LEE 03] Virtual teams offer several advantages over traditional teams However their flexibility also faces challenges due to their own integral characteristics Given the separation in time and space some factors can negatively affect communication between members by creating a conflict The concept of group emotional intelligence is seen as a dimension of collective intelligence It is assessed for its role as a moderator of connections between the collaborative work performance and creativity of the group Since Tannenbaum et al [TAN 92] show that group performance is influenced by the characteristics process and structure of the group emotional intelligence is seen as a characteristic of the group as in Jordan and Lawrence [JOR 09] where the area studied is a professional and amateur collaborative discussion site about botany with the goal of completing
Managing a Collective 75
international projects The first results obtained were drawn from 40 usable questionnaires Thanks to these results it is possible to assume that collective work by mediation is indeed marked by creativity and group performance seen through its ldquoproblem-solvingrdquo aspect Group emotional intelligence takes on its full meaning there demonstrating a very significant relation between emotional intelligence and collaborative remote working
Case Study 34 Study of the influence of emotional intelligence on the performance and creativity of a remote group
Has group leadership become the new key to a collective emotional intelligence In any case in companies it is unfortunately not enough for the manager and the team to demonstrate charisma and emotional intelligence it is also necessary to anticipate the future and focus on maintaining quality even improving over time with continuous improvement This improvement can prompt regular changes and modifications and these changes must be accepted by each member of the company
33 The art of reconciling the present with the future the principle of continuous improvement
Continuous improvement in a company can effectively lead to constant regulatory and economic changes Resulting from updating the standards or a prospective strategy this improvement considers the employeesrsquo acceptance of change This factor is essential for implementing any process Because of this there is a lot of research investigating the concepts of resistance to change change management and the adoption of organizational change According to Guilhon [GUI 98] organizational change is generally defined as ldquoa process of radical or marginal transformation of the structures and skills that punctuate an organizationrsquos evolutionary processrdquo A change is a passage from state 1 to state 2 This change can meet with success or failure One of the criteria of success is the acceptance and then appropriation of the project by the relevant actors
76 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
331 Change and emotion
Most research highlights the cognitive aspect of the adoption of change It proposes tools such as various forms of information training or influence by leaders or champions [GRI 03] capable of leading the majority to adhere to the change through rational persuasion tactics (raising awareness about the targets with oral communication articulating the alignment of a project with the target priorities directly convincing the targets through speech) However according to some researchers including Le Bon [LEB 63] Durkheim [DUR 67] and Hatfield et al [HAT 94] this ignores an important human factor the emotional aspect which can be contagious One research current in particular about the intervention of emotion in organizational change has been gradually growing for a few years Liu and Perreweacute [LIU 05] suggest a procedural model describing the role of emotions in organizational change According to the authors during the period of change ambiguity and uncertainty gradually appear and evaluation of gains andor losses for the individual or the organization also surfaces Until the period of change comes to an end emotions of varying intensity and content are experienced prompting various attitudes and behaviors Howard [HOW 06] argues that in the context of organizational change positive emotion facilitates the individual intention to change A study by Zid [ZID 06] complements these findings and demonstrates that organizational change has an effect on emotions during changes employees feel emotions that are both positive (50) and negative (50) and the explanation and comprehension of changes has positive effects on certain emotions In his case study Huy [HUY 02] analyzes the effect of emotional engagement in middle managers on the adaptation to change through learning an engagement that has been shown to be key Regardless emotion cannot be absent from a period of change because it serves at all times as a safeguard as it is described by research in psychology and psychobiology Changes in the organizational values of the collective in the workplace that we notice during strategy changes company takeovers reorganizations privatizations etc are often experienced by the people concerned as serious breaches of the psychological contract with the company these breaches cause strong negative and painful emotions which can even be similar to a grieving
Managing a Collective 77
process and can translate into de-motivation and rejecting or resisting the change [ROU 03]
A paper written by Zouhaoui Boisard-Castelluccia and van Hoorebeke [ZOU 16] studies this resistance It has been the subject of a lot of research notably in its cognitive aspect Nevertheless one element remains little-studied the role of emotions That was the objective of this study Through participant observation over about two years at an international service company facing a change in computer software the role of the balance necessary between emotions and cognitions was revealed The results obtained included
ndash a series of resignations including by people involved in the change project
ndash staff reluctance or blocking faced with the gradual but imposed change
ndash categorical rejection of the tool by 13 of users
ndash the change provoked by this project not only concerned the work methods of the actors but also the content of their missions
ndash constant pressure from the manager on the team to finish training and tests related to the new software despite the teamrsquos work load
ndash the attitude of the manager forced the team not to share real impressions but to use simulated behaviors that were appropriate to expectations
Faced with this failure management decided to entrust this process to a team of external experts
In this context the emotions experienced are negative and lead to emotional exhaustion They remain hidden and inhibited but behaviors allow them to be perceived (demotivation lack of enthusiasm etc) revealing a real cognitionndashemotion conflict The team does not get involved and suffers in silence forcing the manager who is compelled to follow the change process to the result expected by management to request external intervention
Case Study 35 Analysis of an organizational change and the emotioncognition influence
This example shows not only to what point the change is connected to emotional impressions ndash inhibited in this case ndash but also to what point the psychological contract established between managers and employees is fragile In fact regarding the acceptance of change one factor is key in this psychological contract (perceived to be breached in this case) and it is a factor that organizations attempt to preserve trust [MOR 02] Although the reputation of partners and the perception of honesty and integrity are evaluated by each actor freely the emergence of implicit and explicit rules obliges them to follow the
78 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
choice enforced by the organization Paradoxically the employee is forced to have spontaneous trust
How can we invite an actor to adopt and even appreciate a change if the trust that they feel is forced Is it necessary for each actor to have immediate trust in order to commit
332 Change = trust = emotion
In fact actors can commit without trust through simulation [CAS 98] leaving the door open to power relations There are many examples that illustrate this idea Thus some employees who do not trust their hierarchical superior still execute their tasks and follow instructions but in a routine fashion Nevertheless the degree of cooperation that management can expect from these employees remains limited [BAB 99] The concept of emotional dissonance [MID 89] also takes on its full meaning here Imposing instructions forces the individual to behave in a certain way which also reveals the existence of a dissonance between feeling and expression identified by the individual given the imposed norms
No research seems to deny that emotions are an element that influences behavior when facing a change In addition although Baumard and Benvenuti [BAU 98] identify four types of trust the literature resulting from research in sociopsychology supports a distinction between only two forms of trust Johnson-George and Swap [JOH 82] distinguish and test two dimensions of trust reliability and emotional trust Similarly Rempel et al [REM 85] makes a distinction between security and faith as unique forms of trust Finally McAllister [MCA 95] reveals one dimension based on the cognitive and another dimension based on the affective which are interconnected
Cognitive trust is positioned from a rational point of view and considers competence responsibility integrity credibility and consistency [SCO 80] It is said to be based on the cognitive because the individual chooses who to trust according to what criteria and in what circumstances This choice is based on ldquogood reasonsrdquo that serve
Managing a Collective 79
as foundations for trust decisions It is especially necessary for affective trust in fact a certain level of cognitive trust is necessary for its development [MCA 95]
Like emotion is distinguished from rationality so affective trust is distinguished from cognitive trust [DAM 94] Affective trust has an emotional connotation It is based on care altruism involvement commitment mutual respect the ability to listen and understand and a belief in reciprocity of feelings [SCO 80] The affective foundations of trust correspond to the emotional ties that exist between individuals Individuals make emotional investments in trust relationships express care feel concerned about others and believe in the virtue of these relationships and that their feelings are mutual [MCA 95] The results of McAllisterrsquos study [MCA 95] demonstrate the importance of relationships built on affective trust and the expressive qualities of interpersonal behavior In particular he specifies that research in management recognizes that a large part of managerial work is accomplished through interpersonal action and that the nature of the relationships between managers and their peers can determine their capacity to accomplish their work and accept change
Definitively affective trust is a prerequisite for accepting change It is also intangible and difficult to control given its emotional character and thus remains a preoccupying problem for organizations The intangibility and the difficulty of controlling affective trust stems from the fact that it is the result of an emotional evaluation of the situation carried out by all actors concerned by a change As highlighted by Baba [BAB 99] its complexity comes from its existence at all levels of the organization ndash micro- meso- and macroscopic ndash and in relationships with international suppliers or with stakeholders closer to home colleagues
In order to promote affective trust between two or more parties managers must understand how individuals feel trust toward another person group or organization and how this trust evolves over time It is necessary to study it psychologically before identifying the essential
80 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
issue of the company leading an internal actor to feel real trust to accept and adopt the change and be flexible
Trust is a complex multidimensional mechanism whose affective dimension interacts with emotions In specific and general ways emotions act on several levels of trust which is to say upstream and downstream
First of all individuals often decide to trust someone after examining the emotions that they feel toward this person [JON 98] The step preceding the decision to trust corresponds to an evaluation of the emotion felt A positive emotion leads to trust while a negative emotion causes distrust
Second the emotional process that follows the traditional schema (emotion evaluation adaptation [LAZ 91]) is primarily based on experience This means that the way in which individuals will judge the interlocutor worthy of trust also depends on their affective experience with them Having experienced positive emotions causes individuals to perceive the situation of a solicitation of trust more positively More generally we talk about faith in human nature [GOU 71] As a concrete example we say things like ldquoI donrsquot feel connected to himrdquo
Third emotion is an expectation of human beings regarding trust If these expectations are not satisfied the emotions we feel warn us about a violation of trust [FRI 88] Emotions are a warning signal for a trust relationship In this sense they evolve over time in order to signal changes perceived in the experience of trust At each point of exchange emotions affect the experience and significance of the relationship
Finally it is the expression of the emotions experienced in the context of an experience of trust that will be consistent or not with the behavior expected by the organization and more specifically managers In fact it increases the probability that the parties will develop shared schemas entering into a collaborative relationship more quickly by adjusting to the other person and learning about one another
Managing a Collective 81
333 Change a shared emotional acceptance
Therefore a companyrsquos problem is partly due to affective trust because this causes publicly visible behaviors [FRI 00] and because it is the result of emotions that in the context of implementing change can go as far as to cause a project to fail [JEN 00] In fact a contagion-like effect gives emotions the ability to propagate rapidly between individuals in a social group [HAT 94] ldquoNegativerdquo emotions felt by certain actors can through this process spread to all levels and in doing so hinder all cooperation
A positive emotional contagion can lead to mass acceptance of an organizational change through the phenomenon of imitation The simplest case of contagion between individuals includes a minimum of two people one individual who has not yet adopted a change called ldquoegordquo by Burt [BUR 87] in contact with another individual called ldquoalterrdquo who has already adopted it The more similar the relations of ldquoegordquo and ldquoalterrdquo with other people are the more the alter that can be substituted for ego in relations with others If alter adopts before ego there is a good chance that they will become a source of more attractive relations than ego which pushes ego to adopt the change quickly and contributes to creating a feeling of competition between alter and ego Despite this vision of the adoption of change only the minority of research tends to demonstrate the impact of the affective in the context of adopting change notably with new technologies [GAG 03] Rogers [ROG 95] is one of the pillars in this domain with his description of the adoption of new products by consumers ndash he does not hide in any way the intervention of irrationality in a decision to purchase supporting the concept of imitation in behavior models This model of adoption that Bass [BAS 69] drew up and his mathematical formulation have been taken up by Vas [VAS 05] concerning the adoption of organizational change
Finally one question remains given the possible existence of an emotional contagion how can an internal andor an external actor be convinced that the strategic approach followed by the organization is
82 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
beneficial so that the actor feels and spreads the emotions perceived and authentically experienced as ldquopositiverdquo
334 Lever for the acceptance of change through emo-management
One proposed solution in addition to other more cognitive ones is based on research in sociology and more recently in information and communication sciences through the perceived critical mass effect [LOU 00] The authors argue that it is essential to create a critical mass of users or to reach a certain number of supporters in the first steps of implementing an internal network for it to be accepted by the majority This highlights the influence of the group on individuals The critical mass effect is based on the principle of adoption by imitation where innovators or early adopters adopt new technologies and influence late adopters who imitate them Of course it is important to underscore that this solution is not perfect because in the case of information technologies the interdependence between the two types of adopters is mutual [LOU 00] Thus an early adopter can also be influenced by a late adopter For instance if the late adopter is not inclined to accept a technology after a certain period the innovator may decide to reject it However Lou et alrsquos study [LOU 00] demonstrates the positive effect of perceived critical mass on the intention to use the perception of ease of use and the perceived utility
Given the influence of the critical mass on the group previously revealed by Maffesoli [MAF 96] among others the emotion that is then spread between individuals would be positive This would make it possible to promote affective trust and simultaneously promote the adoption of change [MOR 02] This is why companies must encourage emotional communication by individuals who have a specific aptitude in the matter [HAT 94] a relevant decisional message emotionally speaking With their emotions individuals imitate one another through emotional contagion in order to avoid any marginalization The message transmitted must then convince the majority of the group such that it adheres to the decision presented [BER 03] The use of these tools may appear simple at first glance
Managing a Collective 83
but their opportune use cannot be realized without the existence of organizational ethics and evidence of the existence of real trust between managers and employees
Continuous improvement is the hallmark of quality management Some companies have noticed that it is not only found at the level of customer relations or logistics It is also based on managerial innovation and good interpersonal relations In their book The Heart of Change Kotter and Cohen [KOT 02] indicate several steps to successfully implement a change based on an analysis of 100 company cases The first two are
1) to create a sense of urgency the example given is a company that played a video showing customers who were dissatisfied with the services provided by the company in order to prompt the employees to feel that it was high time to act
2) to consider that it is a story of heart members of the project team must become a source of inspiration through their optimism devotion credibility ability and networking
The Sciences Humaines website provides an evidentiary and constructed example of the role of emotion in change ldquoMichel is on a winter sports vacation with his friends This morning he let himself be dragged to the top of the ski hill As a beginner skier he is not comfortable on the black diamond slope Snowplowing is not ideal His friend Bertrand advises him to turn on the moguls by sliding his skis parallel like he did yesterday on the blue slopes But Michel clings to the technique that he knows the best For the moment taking the risk of falling on this steep slope is out of the question Michel adopts the behaviors that is most reassuring in the immediate even though he knows that this is not the best method to proceedrdquo1
Case Study 36 Change and emotion
This concern for control over emotion in the short term is a frequent obstacle for the progression of learning and change in companies Companies must try to find out the emotional level that the change elicits from their employees
In the same vein it should not be forgotten that the adherence of all members is essential to avoid the ldquoemotional plaguerdquo [REI 45] of a defiant majority or a possible outbreak of panic In this respect mutually beneficial relations and the climate of established trust detailed earlier become major assets
1 Available online at httpwwwscienceshumainescomle-role-des-emotions_fr_ 12036html
84 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
34 The art of bringing people together mutually beneficial relations with others and the social aspect of managerial responsibility
In a context subject to irrationality and imitation one of the other roles of managers is to ensure mutually beneficial relations internally in their teams Studies show that the closer the individuals are the faster the contagion and diffusion that occurs [ROG 95] In effect understanding social processes in work groups becomes an essential managerial focus given the organizational tendency to move toward high-performing and dynamic work team relationships
This focus shared between a company and an employee still faces existing conflicts between the economic and the social Owing to the struggle between the rational and emotional within an organization relations cannot be established there and even less in the sincere and authentic way that the company is looking for
Along the same lines research in management has put particular emphasis on the cognitive aspect of interpersonal relations exploring the cognitive method and process of sharing ideas memories and constructs While understanding the sharing of cognition contributes to discerning the group dynamic it does not represent the complete picture Only the affective and especially the emotional aspect make it possible to distinguish the quality of intragroup and intergroup interactions According to Barsade [BAR 02] one of the reasons for a company to consider group emotions would be to encourage the social cohesion of its employees
On the one hand according to Oketch [OKE 04] companies require social cohesion of their employees as a strategy to increase their profits and face periods of economic and budgetary restrictions On the other hand in some new technology and information organizations the concept of a community at work plays an important role
In the context of the concept of social capital or the management of company talent the existence of social cohesion is essential to the very function of the organization In this regard it consists of
Managing a Collective 85
fostering the group dynamic and establishing relationships between individuals Yet the diffusion of emotions in a group is a characteristic that is integral to the existence of the group [SAN 93 p 445] In fact as described in Chapter 1 emotions can be synchronized or imitated and become contagious Imitation corresponds to a step in the learning and socialization processes One of the explanations of these processes is emotional contagion even if it remains unexplained by research More than a process of synchronization and unintentional imitation when the same characteristics are synchronized with another individual we are capable of feeling them through the emotions of the other person which is to say feeling the same emotions or complementary emotions
341 Collective emotion arsenal of emo-management
This is why managers must pay particular attention to collective emotion a concept studied notably in the analysis of organizational behaviors such as the social cohesion of a group sharing of values and organizational culture [TIC 87] Emotionrsquos capacity for contagion can prove to be a considerable driving force for communication and emulation Through the cohesion that it can amplify it encourages performance through emulation and cooperation of teams spontaneity and trust [GEO 89 GEO 07b JON 98 WEI 93] Texts by George [GEO 89 GEO 90] demonstrate the influence of the grouprsquos mood on pro-social behavior in relation to colleagues and customers as well as performance and absenteeism Finally Barsade [BAR 02] demonstrates that group emotion dependent on emotional contagion influences the group dynamic and performance results corroborated by van Hoorebeke [VAN 07a] From another perspective an observational study ndash a case of participatory observation during a six-month strike in Canada ndash outlined the development of interprofessional relationships the creation of social interactions cohesion or even disconnections caused by negative emotional contagion [VAN 06]
86 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
During the six-month strike including three months where there were daily protests in the street group connections were solidified The objective of the study after observing the links created between individuals was to analyze the strength of the relations established The observation indicated that following the strike strong connections proved to be rarer than relations of work or courtesy According to the analysis of the observations gathered the social cohesion established during the strike appeared fragile There are several explanations for this First these people were brought together by a negative situation This situation highlighted a social interaction that appeared by definition between individuals in a relationship or not and referring to an event Second the negative and positive emotions felt remained fleeting and highly variable reinforcing their transient nature Third the ephemeral aspect of this one-off situation could lead to a social rapprochement whose importance tended to fade way over time Nevertheless research in psychology proves that an emotion that is felt and experienced remains etched on the affective memory consciously or unconsciously This fact contributes to extending the social rapprochement
Observed in the field ldquosolidrdquo connections were indeed created from this situation leading some individuals to discover common work interests for example After the strike the organizational climate was perceived as healthier and more relaxed by the majority of members Only one group of individuals was isolated indicating that the disconnections resulting from the negative emotions experienced at a certain time can continue but in their own terms in a situation that they voluntarily sought out In the six months following the strike a new confrontation arose between this group and the union regarding an increase in union dues The objective of this increase was to replenish the union coffers in two years while the group argued that the union had enough money coming from its investments However this observation shows that the members of the respective groups continued to communicate for professional reasons and that these confrontations did not negatively affect working relationships
Case Study 37 Emotion a factor in social connections and disconnections
342 A paradoxical arsenal positive and negative effects
The results obtained in the study described above clearly demonstrate the paradoxical effect of emotional contagion on interpersonal relations creating both cohesion and disconnection because the collective spirit is subject to individual differences [WEI 93]
This example points out that in spite of this emotions are factors of authenticity in relationships [GRA 05b VAN 08b] and promote lasting relationships when they are experienced and not feigned In a company managers seek out authenticity in their subordinates notably those in contact with customers or in work teams and aim to
Managing a Collective 87
inspire it ndash which seems to be a waste of time since emotions are not manipulable and normalizing them can only be paradoxical as in ldquobe spontaneousrdquo [WAT 80] Real social cohesion requires a synchronicity euphony and eurhythmy2 between actors [LEacuteP 05] According to The Standing Committee on Social Affairs3 social cohesion refers to a situation where everyone has the opportunity to establish basic social relations in society in the context of work family and social or political activities The affective contagion on which this is based is not moral We do not consider the value and the quality of othersrsquo feelings Form prevails over content Therefore the idea of the social contract presented by Rousseau (ldquoThere are a thousand ways of assembling men and only one of uniting themrdquo) shows that the establishment of a fundamental social pact is essential [MAL 96] This pact formed by the community of interests and the awareness of these interests is based on the absence of control restrictions and obligations ldquoEvery man submits his will to the general will and in doing so becomes free These operating conditions sanctify the contract and sustain itrdquo
To understand the concept of social cohesion it is necessary to distinguish the social connections that result from it individual interactions According to Reis [REI 01] cohesion refers to a lasting association between individuals Its existence implies that these people established connections with one another and that this link had specific properties such as a story or an awareness of the nature of this relationship that influenced the thoughts feelings and behaviors of each protagonist In contrast interaction appears between individuals whether or not they are in a relationship and refers to an event The common factor in these two types of human relations is emotions In interaction emotion is expressed ndash or rather simulated ndash whether it is felt or not and in cohesion emotion is experienced and then expressed hence the perception of authenticity [ASH 00a] Emotional reactions help all individuals to be aware of the situation and make connections with others [DAR 72] Simulation can destroy these
2 Euphony and eurhythmy harmony of sound and rhythms without wrong notes or breaks 3 Available online at httpslopparlcacontentlopresearchPublicationsprb0756-ehtml
88 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
reactions and impede someonersquos authenticity [ASH 00a] and the foundation of a sincere and engaged relationship established on effective trust In this respect only social linkage can help to form social cohesion
The Journal du Net gives us three examples of companies that innovated to emphasize the trust and dynamics required for interpersonal relations within the company
In France at Mars Chocolat CEO Thierry Gaillard organizes one 30-minute meeting every six weeks called ldquoCcedila se discuterdquo (ldquoThatrsquos debatablerdquo) where he answers any questions from his colleagues This practice is all the more intriguing since we know that employees have much less trust in their directors than in their direct managers
In India at HCL Technologies employees can express their doubts and questions on an internal forum called UampI (ldquoyou and Irdquo) to members of management (CEO included) who commit to answering them even if it is just to say that they do not know To establish trust management must take a step that is essential but not always pleasant for them authorizing the expression of doubts concerns and criticism It is better to channel these expressions than to let them spread through the halls around the coffee machine or with clients
In California the software publisher Intuit organizes what it calls ldquocelebrating failurerdquo to recognize failures in such a way as to ldquocollectively turn the pagerdquo and learn from mistakes To err is human so why deny it It is better to accept failures and make good use of them than to deny them and allow them to darken the mood and affect trust4
Case Study 38 Establishing trust examples
Consequently to achieve a true social cohesion formed from constructive links between all of the participants emotions must be synchronized or imitated and also felt by the parties as part of an established trust In this context it is the fact of feeling emotions that introduces a depth to the exchanges The individual is not faking they are authentic and sincere This solidifies the connection
According to Weick and Roberts [WEI 93] managers can only encourage the homogeneity of teams that facilitate the depth of connection However the time has come for managing cultural
4 Available online at httpwwwjournaldunetcommanagementexpert58679les-pratiques-manageriales-les-plus-innovantes-du-mondeshtml
Managing a Collective 89
diversity and group heterogeneity This requires not only regulating group emotions and building a climate of trust but also managing the diversity of individuals in order to create and learn together
35 The art of managing diversity learning and creating collectively
There has been an increasing interest in diversity management over the past 15 years related to the consideration of the ldquolearningrdquo dimension Diversity management no longer only consists of increasing the representation of different minorities in the workplace It is now built on a new paradigm of learning and efficiency [THO 96a] that no longer only considers individuals based on their appearance or background but according to the different knowledge and perspectives they can provide In other words diversity is no longer sought only in terms of equality but also in terms of learning about difference [BOI 10]
The literature in management sciences retraces 50 years of research on the effects of demographic diversity on a work team and its performance Although it does support the argument that the demographic diversity of a group has a certain influence on its processes and performance it does not clearly establish whether diversity is a source of performance Demographic diversity (or heterogeneity) corresponds to the degree to which a unit (a managing team work team or organization) is heterogeneous in terms of demographic characteristics age sex nationality seniority and the functional area in which individuals apply their training and finally family status [EIS 99]
Field studies over the past 50 years have shown that variations in group composition can have significant effects on performance [WIL 98] Demographic heterogeneity in terms of seniority sex and nationality could have negative effects on behavior in the workplace and on performance [CHA 98 SMI 94] Inversely increased demographic homogeneity could have positive effects on appreciation satisfaction commitment seniority and performance and reduce turnover [ELF 07] Authors like Earley and Mosakowski [EAR 00]
90 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
and Murray [MUR 89] have highlighted an intermediary approach based on which homogeneity and heterogeneity could both be sources of performance Heterogenous groups would be more effective in a changing environment while homogenous groups would be more effective in stable and competitive environments [MUR 89] For a team to benefit from its diversity and be effective it must manage to collectively learn ndash that is to create a common mental model or even a consensus characterized by the values beliefs and representations shared its members among other things [FIO 94] The creation of this common representation becomes a necessary condition for the teamrsquos performance
However the demographic diversity of a team creates situations where members have mental representations that are not totally compatible A mental representation is ldquothe product and process of a mental activity through which an individual or a group reconstructs the reality that it confronts and attributes a specific signification to itrdquo [ABR 89] The representation is then an organized set of opinions attitudes beliefs and information that refers to an object or a situation Conflict between the mental representations of different team members can stir up intragroup conflicts that are cognitive which can be a source of creativity Yet cognitive conflicts cannot emerge without the parallel appearance of another type of intragroup conflict affective conflicts which leech off the benefits of the cognitive conflict and affect the teamrsquos capacity to create a common mental model and thereby affect its performance
How then can we guarantee benefits from demographic diversity Could emotional contagion reduce the harmful effects of affective conflicts while preserving the compelling properties of cognitive conflicts
351 Diversity between conflicts and group work
Traditionally organization theorists assumed that conflict was harmful for the organization In the past few years hypotheses about organizational conflict have radically changed It is now considered inevitable and even a positive indicator of an organizationrsquos good
Managing a Collective 91
management It is generally accepted that conflict is both functional and dysfunctional for an organization It is functional when it provides better solutions to problems or when it makes it possible to reach the objectives of the individual the group and the organization It is essential to study the conflicts that take place within groups given that today individuals interact daily more and more often Conflict management is an important part of a teamrsquos efficiency To be effective teams must be able to manage the conflicts that are naturally part of their environment
The literature distinguishes two types of intragroup conflicts cognitive conflict and affective conflict Cognitive conflict involves opposing ideas within a group or a disagreement over content or task completion It is born out of differences in judgment or confrontations between different individual representations This type of disagreement is a natural part of a teamrsquos proper functioning It is natural in the sense that when members get together to make important decisions they all bring ideas opinions and perspectives that are different and representative of each personrsquos environment
Taken in isolation cognitive conflict appears when members examine compare and reconcile their differences This process is very important because it makes it possible to reach high-quality decisions that are understood and accepted by all This conflict is beneficial because it requires the engagement of the team in activities that are essential to its efficiency By facilitating open communication and making good use of the membersrsquo diversity (meaning their different gifts and skills) this type of conflict produces understanding and engagement in objectives and decisions The result is not only a better decision but a decision that can be applied more effectively To the extent that cognitive conflict is the result of confrontation between individual representations we can deduce that it elicits an internal conflict in the individual that is expressed in the form of cognitive dissonance [FES 57] By eliciting cognitive dissonance cognitive conflict will trigger individual learning within the person The learning individual modifies or radically changes their mental representations thereby creating something new We can then talk about creativity which is itself a source of performance Neurologists have described the process
92 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
of creativity This process is according to their analyses the result of several concurrent cognitive processes that include unfocused attention cognitive flexibility cognitive control and several cognitive constructs [DIE 04] Thanks to the cognitive dissonance that it creates group diversity allows for the reconstruction of mental representations This internal conflict makes it possible to break with inhibitions and open up to different perspectives
Within a diversified group cognitive and affective conflicts are necessarily born together as we cannot appear without the other When members have different perspectives there is often cognitive disagreement As this disagreement is frequently misinterpreted and perceived as a personal criticism affective conflict necessarily emerges in parallel It seems that an affective conflict situation is very harmful
To explain this consider that even if conceptually the affective is distinguished from emotion their link is such that they are often seen as more than indissociable since emotion is considered by some to be a dimension of the affective However emotions not only have specific characteristics that can harm human relations but they also have the particularity of not always being manageable
Consider these two conflictual configurations [BOI 10]
ndash The level of the cognitive conflict (CC) exceeds that of the affective conflict
(CA) CC gt CA In this case the team benefits fully from its diversity and the debate
of opinions that it elicits The negative effect of the affective conflict is neutralized
The emotions of the group are manageable
ndash Inversely the level of the affective conflict is greater than or equal to that of
the cognitive conflict CA ge CC The team is then overwhelmed by its affective
conflicts and cannot benefit fully from the wealth of its diversity Debates over
opinions become sterile and can be likened to settling accounts The emotions of group
members have taken over
Case Study 39 Analysis to limit an affective conflict that is problematic for the group
Managing a Collective 93
However only statistical studies examine this issue deeply which involve considering the group at only one moment t These studies have shown that affective conflict is detrimental to the performance of individuals and whole groups to the satisfaction of its members and to the probability that individuals involved in this group will work again in the future [JEH 95] The anxiety created by interpersonal animosity is likely to inhibit cognitive work and distract members from their tasks Owing to this they work less efficiently and produce sub-optimal results Inversely moderate levels of cognitive conflict are beneficial to group performance for certain types of tasks [JEH 95 JEH 97]
In our view effectively managing the demographic diversity of a team comes down to guaranteeing a type 1 conflict configuration which is a situation in which cognitive conflict exceeds affective conflict
352 Managing diversity with emo-management
In the specific work context striving for diversity management there is a solution to foster positive emotions and affect in a group positive emotional contagion as a catalyst and cohesive force for conflicts Barsade [BAR 02] demonstrates with experiments that not only is group emotion influenced by the dynamic and performance of the group it is also dependent on a contagion
An experimental study on 223 individuals broken down in to 29 teams demonstrated that positive contagion influenced group performance through the action of an actor who was involved in the experiment [VAN 07a] This accomplice selected for his contagion based on the scale presented in Hatfield et al [HAT 94] propagated a negative or positive emotion through acting The accomplice played the role of an evaluator who was satisfied or disappointed by the grouprsquos work According to the groups and during the execution of their work the actor spread a positive or negative contagion The results obtained confirm those obtained by Barsade [BAR 02] and show that teams performed better when group emotional contagion was provoked and judged positive
Case Study 310 Emotional contagion a factor in group performance
94 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
Annual reports for publicly traded companies indicate that cultural diversity is an asset in the context of globalization and in terms of image a point that is essential for the good operation of a new management system in both the context of NorthndashSouth relations and from a socio-global angle In this respect studies show that when well-managed diversity is a real competitive advantage in favor of performance and creativity Unfortunately the existence of affective conflicts can lead to demotivation resulting in the counter-performance of a team if it is poorly managed
Recruitment firms propose candidates based on a diversity that corresponds perfectly to the profile requested by the company which makes the ultimate decision However ldquothis does not fix everythingrdquo says Mariam Khattab a recruiter and adviser at the firm Mozaiumlk Nevertheless diversity has several advantages for companies opening up the diversity of customers and backers accentuating creativity and creating a dialogue between stakeholders with different backgrounds5
Case Study 311 Diversity several advantages
353 Emo-management a factor in diversity
Despite the cognitive and affective differences that can create conflicts heterogenous groups encourage not only high-quality group work and synergy but most of all creativity [CHA 01 TOL 02] Heterogeneity limits the effect of conformism which is reduced because differences within the group are affirmed Nevertheless as is the case early in the life of a group heterogeneity can give way to individual affinities that can favor conformism in the long term In fact when a group is created the group composition is an important initial factor that can have permanent effects on its affective and cognitive processes When a work group meets for the first time the social identity [TAJ 04] and self-categorization theory [TUR 87] require that members define their social categories within the group When individuals are familiar with the differences that exist between members they can favor those who they consider similar to themselves and isolate themselves from those who they perceive to be
5 Available online at httpswwwzamanfrancefrarticlemanagement-diversit-atout-entreprises
Managing a Collective 95
different Heterogeneity can then only be temporary If emotion fosters inter-individual connections does it encourage heterogeneity a factor in creativity
Creativity is defined as the use of knowledge to form new ideas [DRU 93] Social relations and the emotions connected to them play a significant role in this process [KOG 92] From a neurological point of view researchers describe a biological process arguing that creativity is not the result of one cognitive process but several cognitive processes including unfocused attention cognitive flexibility cognitive control and other cognitive constructions [DIE 04] The production of something new seems to depend in part on the neuronal processes of disinhibition within a central network of neurons Creative cognition is similar to other types of cognition but is more specialized in its direction [MAC 00] Creative cognition can be simulated in a network of regions in the brain dedicated to thoughts unrelated to the task (experimental thoughts and futures that are unrelated to the project)
Creativity as an individual construction is defined as the creation of ideas products processes or solutions [AMA 83] This construction can include creative solutions to problems the company faces The study of creativity is traditionally related to psychology and typically includes research geared toward understanding why some individuals are more creative than others Owing to this researchers know little about the social context and how it affects individuals when producing ideas or solutions According to Dietrich [DIE 04] there are four types of creativity based on their emotional or cognitive aspects emotional or deliberate cognitive creativity and emotional or spontaneous cognitive creativity These four types indicate different neurocognitive processes of creativity The author tends to show by these processes that creativity is accessible to all It is also known that stress is detrimental to creativity The first studies showed a decrease in the creative process associated with an increase in stress-induced stimulation [KRO 69] especially social stress [LIN 65] The production of something new depends on in part an uninhibited process According to Chrysikou [CHR 14] performance in creativity requires the perception of filters at low levels This filtration is related
96 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
to the prefrontal cortex that regulates perceptual data However group creativity involves a collection of individuals [PIR 04] Like group performance it appears when a group of individuals work interdependently toward the common goal [HAC 92] of developing ideas that are both new and useful [AMA 83] Unfortunately this community can inhibit creativity in order to correspond to imposed norms The famous concept of conformity can intervene to incite individuals to conform not only to the norms described in approach 1 (societal organizational and occupational norms) but also implicit group norms Here critical thinking is in favor of creativity [HOW 15] According to certain conclusions the so-called creative personalities assign a particular role to intuition and have rightly an aversion to norms which makes it difficult for them to face others (inhibition stress) However other studies show that collaborative work reinforces individual learning and creativity [PAU 03] Previous studies have shown a connection between social network parameters and individual creativity [FLE 07 PER 06] As suggested by Hansen [HAN 02] this research was established on a study of knowledge networks and the complex networks that workers confront
We can then question whether groups encourage creativity and because an essential function of emotion is the coordination of social interactions [LAZ 91] whether emotional contagion can be a lever for creativity or a multiplying factor of conformism within a group
Two studies were conducted on the contagion of mood and emotion in work groups As we saw earlier the first study [GEO 90] shows that a perfect emotional agreement can exist within a group of salespeople The second study [TOT 98] reveals that the average mood of one member can predict the mood of a group at a given moment t In this sense the effect of contagion is often associated with a convergence of moods and attitudes in the workplace [MAS 02] However according to Barsade [BAR 02] a single member of the group can have a negative effect and lead the entire group to reject creative ideas Inversely Isen [ISE 02] shows that positive emotions are associated with individual and collective creativity
To our knowledge there are few studies about the impact of emotional contagion on group creativity [FLE 06] so one was
Managing a Collective 97
conducted to test the effect of emotional contagion on group creativity [VAN 16]
A quantitative study conducted with young professionals in training sought to examine the link between social cohesion emotional contagion and creativity According to the literature emotional contagion remains fleeting and only produces a temporary mental unity If this contagion leads to a social interaction it does not necessarily lead to the social cohesion of a group which requires simultaneity euphony (harmony) and eurythmy between actors [LEacuteP 05] Group cohesion is strong when members appreciate one another make the most of group objectives adopt group values and are convinced that adherence is crucial to obtain their personal interests Emotion and its contagion are seen as moderating factors because they are the basis for positive and negative human relations In this respect this study tests whether emotional contagion can improve the relation of group cohesion and influence group performance and creativity
The study experiment conducted three times focused on a general sample of 223 young managers in training within a ldquocommunity of practicerdquo in the context of a management simulation The sample was arranged into 29 different teams by way of three groups of around 70 people Positive or negative emotional contagion was measured in a binary way its presenceabsence based on observations made through the management simulation Group cohesion was measured by a team evaluation based on the scale from Beal et al [BEA 03] according to five elements (group efficiency fairness in task sharing similarity of objectives pursued collective decision-making team member involvement) on a five-point semantic scale Group performance was measured based on the results gathered in each team report and their efficiency that is the teamrsquos results in terms of sales in the last period of the game on a ranking function based on the market and the net profit of all of the teams over four periods The ranking was binary based on an evaluation on a five-point semantic scale with 2 = good profits (mark 5 and 4) and 1 = poor profits (3 2 1) Creativity was measured based on the degree of effort provided by the team for creative exercises (according to observations) and the final result of the creativity in the game The coding of creative thought was based on Weisburgrsquos description [WEI 88] of creativity as the act of solving new problems or generating ideas and real solutions The coding schema defined creative thinking as
1) a discovery or an idea 2) the action of searching for an idea or solution to create or solve a problem The evaluation was made on a five-point scale that was part of the overall
grade on the final report The results indicated that if group cohesion positively affects performance it does not directly affect creativity These results contradict the results reported in some earlier studies Nevertheless the results provide additional clarification that the moderating effect of emotional contagion improves the relation between group cohesion and performance but it does not have any significant impact on the relation between group cohesion and creativity These results highlight the paradox revealed in the literature about creativity
Case Study 312 Effect of emotional contagion on group performance
98 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
Emotion and its contagion must be considered in a group during an exercise in creativity However the idea that it can encourage group conformity or creative enthusiasm has not yet been demonstrated Emotional contagion definitely has a role to play but other more specific studies need to be conducted to better understand how this contagion is involved and how it can provide levers to promote group creativity and encourage innovation whether it is ordinary or not in management However the results [VAN 16] also show that the key to understanding the neuroscience of creativity and the ldquoconstruction of dynamic mental simulationsrdquo is based on different modes of neural activation and deactivation at different steps in the creative process Since emotional contagion is related to synchronization it can both hinder creativity and support it According to Brand [BRA 98] creative organizations have a tendency to be flexible and grant a great deal of independence Our analysis agrees with this revealing that it is sometimes useful for neurological networks to work together and that sometimes this cooperation can impede the creative process due to the behaviors that are subject to the norms of the group Creativity requires specific conditions
To better understand the above we will turn to neurology Creativity is predicated on a lack of inhibition Norms create neural inhibitions related to a dissonance between the emotions experienced and the expressions expected by a group or an organization [FES 57] Fortunately the psychological distress associated with dissonance can be quickly resolved thanks to a change in attitude [JAR 04] The change in attitude resolves this internal conflict but can also lead to a re-evaluation of the process and such a re-evaluation is often associated with a stimulation of the neurological zone of inhibition [TAB 08] Unfortunately these processes of inhibition can in turn impede creativity To solve this conflict it is essential to limit the dissonance from the start Amabile [AMA 96] advocates for good relationships between group members that make it possible to act freely and spontaneously All the same when members are not free to act as they wish and in a creative climate ensured by positive emotions and creative cohesion a lever is necessary an area to liberate instinct to connect these cognitive behaviors [PEC 03] free of inhibitions and open to creativity
Managing a Collective 99
Ubisoft like other high-technology companies is a good example At Ubisoft the offices have large panels to allow for the flow of traffic within the company which also act as expression spaces where collaborators can present their creations There are also spaces dedicated to relaxation In these spaces there are game consoles foosball tables newspapers comics etc The human resources manager and Yann Beauvinon who is responsible for buildings and arrangements at Ubisoft go further and affirm wanting some offices because creators must have their own universe tools and space to be able to isolate themselves and be creative6
Case Study 313 Freedom and creativity
36 A common point an essential element for collective intelligence emotional contagion
Two recurring elements must be managed in emo-management Emotional dissonance intervenes in management repeatedly at the individual level and emotional contagion intervenes repeatedly at the collective level Emotional dissonance can appear within a group and harm the whole group dynamic because it is subject to contagion like emotion It is impossible not to consider this contagion in collective and collaborative management
It is because of these effects that in their book Emotional Contagion [HAT 94] Hatfield et al suggest that ldquothe power of contagion gives us a realistic perception as to how much we can expect to influence social situationsrdquo [HAT 94 p 193] One question remains are emotions the friends or enemies of collective intelligence in companies
Emotions make it possible to synchronize with others and share decisions as well as attitudes and behaviors They are gifted with contagion When a manager makes a good decision they feel that they are headed for success The emotions experienced are positive when the decision appears favorable to them They comforted The decision maker then only needs to communicate consciously or unconsciously their feeling to others to better convince them of the good choice So how can a manager convince others to follow
6 2015 Ubisoft annual report
100 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
Through the contagion conferred by their emotions a manager can inspire enthusiasm Not everyone knows how to transmit these emotions however According to Hatfield et al [HAT 94] some people have a greater ability to contaminate others and ldquoseducerdquo others more easily Through the margin of maneuver and the freedom that a manager imparts to their colleagues they can unleash creativity On this topic the directors at Google [SCH 14] advocate for the right to express objections and divergences In this respect contagion must avoid replacing normative restrictions and conformity
Since emotions are an integral part of the mechanism of collective sharing their contagion helps to convince to share decisions behaviors and attitudes and to integrate and involve the team in managerial practices Managers and directors of a large or small company can no longer ignore emotions and argue that pure rationality and pragmatism are necessary to lead a company and team projects Emotions are a pillar of this rationality and its diffusion and acceptance in ldquocollective intelligencerdquo by the team or partners
Nevertheless contagion must be a characteristic that makes it possible to ldquolive and play togetherrdquo Unconscious it must not conform but group in a temporary and fleeting way It must be corroborated by a group cohesion that authorizes divergence in an intelligent way
Studies have shown that some emotions are more collective than others Cardon et al [CAR 17] and Fehr et al [FEH 17] studied collective emotions shared between members of a group Collective emotions do not only reflect a homogenous group at the emotional level Some emotions are shared more easily For example 70 of the group members reported feeling negative emotions whereas only 30 reported positive ones
Unfortunately these results highlight that contagion is more prevalent when negative emotions occur This is all the more problematic since contagion is a phenomenon that remains little understood and can be hard to manage as shown by stock market crashes crowd movements or waves of insults and ridicule on the Internet One of the objectives for research in areas
Managing a Collective 101
such as psychology finance economy sociology epidemiology and neuro-economics is therefore to model the contagion to better understand it endeavoring to rationalize it and find ways to deal with it With this in mind several studies have sought to measure contagion
361 Emo-management dealing with emotional contagion
The first model of social contagion was proposed by Mansfield [MAN 61] His mathematical model makes reference to models of contagion originating in epidemiology Different determinist or stochastic models of social contagion are used to describe decisions made by individuals about adopting an innovation [BAN 92 BAS 69 BIK 92 BRO 01 GRA 78 SCH 73 WAT 02]
Aleksiejuk and Holyst [ALE 01] discuss avalanche theory to describe a contagion of bank failures Like network theory their model shows that networks between banks can lead to a contagion of bankruptcies Later Adamatzky [ADA 02] models emotional interactions based on the paradigm of artificial chemistry This author considers four emotional states as molecules that make up an affective liquid Dodds and Watts [DOD 05] use different existing models and combine them Their model considers an individualrsquos memory of exposure to a contagious entity (mood or illness) the magnitude of the exposure (doses size) the degree of susceptibility of the individual to be contaminated and an individual emerging from a contagion becoming susceptible to being contaminated again immediately
362 Mathematical and economic tools to better manage emotional contagion
Through a digital interpretation of an observation in vivo Samet and van Hoorebeke [SAM 06] measure how contagion works between individuals This text establishes a measurement scale deduced from the observed process and the scale presented by Hatfield et al [HAT 94]
102 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
This study was conducted over a period of four months and more specifically given the fleeting nature of emotions and especially emotional contagion two three-hour observations The site observed was a class of 193 students in two groups (101 in group A and 92 students in group B) at an American university The contagion observed during a course resulted from the accumulation of several negative events (a teachersrsquo strike the risk of losing a semester if the strike continued a class exercise that had technical issues an exam where the majority of grades were not the results expected) According to the observation the emotional contagion appeared over a period of only 20 min A model of the observation conducted is presented in Figure 31 Like Dodds and Watts [DOD 05] it was attributed measurements that qualify the different degrees of the transmission of emotion in the group observed
Case Study 314 Measuring emotional contagion a study in vivo
Figure 31 Graphical representation of emotional contagion (EC) For a color version of this figure see wwwistecoukvanhoorebekemanagementzip
According to the results emotional contagion characterized by its fleeting and temporary nature is not at the origin of a social contagion but is rather a sudden crowd effect It is at a given moment t that emotional contagion takes on its full meaning According to the observation at this precise moment contagious individuals have the highest degree of emotional feeling and other individuals as described in Hatfield et al [HAT 94] follow them unconsciously through what we could call irrational imitation or mimicry Based on the observation to create emotional contagion a measure of group emotional feeling is necessary This dose according to the dose scale can only be attained by an accumulation of high doses of emotional feelings ndash in this case four consecutive events and a minimum of one individual to contaminate ten people
Case Study 315 Measuring emotional contagion results
Managing a Collective 103
Another way of modeling contagion is experimentation in a laboratory by reconstructing a situation of managerial decision-making under control by isolating the elements of individual decision-making to the maximum7 Repeating the experiment makes it possible to draw meaningful conclusions
Below a description of the study reveals its inner workings
In this experiment conducted with 70 players divided into five groups each member of the group (14 members who do not know each other) must choose between 14 similar managerial choices8 After reading a document that provides some information (partial and complex) about each choice the individuals must adjudicate based on their strategy belief analysis and choice perceived by the other players (unconscious perception communication prohibited) Only one choice is the winner and is awarded a prize a decision that is drawn beforehand at random by the experimenter
The initial analyses of the results of this study indicate that 41 of players recognize having copied the decisions of other players when they noted that these other players always selected the same decision Watching video tapes of the experiment indicates that the majority of winners displaying expressions of satisfaction and contentment (discreet for some but perceptible) caused players who had lost up to that point to make a greater effort to win While some recognized having discreetly scanned the decisions written by other players others confessed to having quickly understood the rules of the game and coping knowingly Several participants denied having copied the results of others totally omitting this explanation of their correct choice (random trial-and-error) although the videos and the results noted on their decision sheet indicated the opposite Their results indicate that they followed the results of their neighbor when the neighbor changed his behavior (grinning indication of assurance relaxing in his seat and speed of responding nonchalantly) Although in the end there was a tie between conscious imitation and unconscious mimicry the results indicate that only the mimicry (emotional contagion) made it possible to accelerate making the right decision More advanced results indicate that emo-decisional contagion can prove to be a bias that causes individuals who lack information and time to ldquoimitaterdquo decisions made by other individuals simply by seeing the emotions they express
Case Study 316 Emo-decisional contagion a study in vitro
These two studies clearly show that emotional contagion can be grasped because it is perceptible and measurable In this respect it 7 Unpublished study realized in 2008 8 Based on our statistical and probabilistic calculations
104 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
could prove to be a management lever that is indispensable for decision-making and group management Group emotion can also prove to be positive and encourage the establishment of this new vision of management through emotional involvement Of course collective intelligence cannot always rely on emotion to guide or decide Information and the rational are important The new manager must strike a balance between the rational and the emotional
NEGATIVE EXAMPLEndash ldquoLe burnout un syndrome contagieuxrdquo (ldquoBurnout Is it contagiousrdquo) is the title of an article from May 25 2005 on the site activrsquo assistante9 ldquoWhen a symptom gradually contaminates the professional areas in a society including assistant positions observing it is no longer enough We must fight the evil at the source With Pascale Venara president of the Institut de preacutevention du burn out discover how to recognize it and act before the curtain falls on burnt out colleaguesrdquo POSITIVE EXAMPLEndash The focus was on happiness at the regional council reception of the Ordre des Experts-Comptables on Friday January 30 For the occasion the president Jacques Maureau invited Rodolphe Carle to debate about the happiness of entrepreneurship along with Bernard Jacquand The CEO of Babilou discussed accepting the social dimension of onersquos company today in that it takes on a ldquouseful dimension for the companyrdquo and contributes to ldquoliving well togetherrdquo ldquoThis usefulness is part of our DNA and our values Values that are shared by all of our employees Because we must never forget that a company is not built alone A company is first and foremost the men and women who come together around a project with meaning united around common values driven by the same energy and the same desire to work together The sense of entrepreneurship must be contagious shared communicated within a grouprdquo [ROU 15]
Case Study 317 Examples of contagion in the workplace
The underlying question we faced at the start of our reflection was how can we envision a new style of management that would foster complete responsibility marked by authentic commitment that is favorable for individuals and the collective in a company Our work suggests that the first step is for the company to consider humans in a holistic way (cognitively rationally biologically emotionally) to better draw a common benefit if the relationship is balanced marked by trust and in particular deep understanding To put it simply and metaphorically how can we make a machine work if we do not 9 Available online at httpwwwactivassistantecomvie-pro-persomissions-proefficacite-prole-burn-out-un-syndrome-contagieux
Managing a Collective 105
understand the basic inner mechanisms How can we consider human behavior if we only think of a person as a simple android the main responsibility of the company How can we make people stick with changes or projects without affecting their deep emotions and galvanizing feelings To get them involved it is essential to ensure an individual well-being that is unique to them and an economic efficiency The company is confronted by the same issues to respond to the requirements and challenges that the future holds with emo-management changing a short-term perspective or perception for a long-term challenge
Conclusion
To summarize the contribution of this text and address our goal of describing and demonstrating the role of emotions in management the progression of our text made it possible to situate the intervention of emotions at all levels of management at both the individual and collective levels Supported by research analyses and concrete examples this text shows that management and emotions are one and the same Management must manage humans in their relations in person or at a distance Currently humans are recognized as psychological biological and emotional Future management of these beings must adapt to this
Emo-management completes the traditional exogenous approach to management based on people by proposing an endogenous approach to management for and by people It considers humans in a holistic way as beings gifted with rationality and irrationality psychobiological and emotional beings Traditional management where the objective is to make profit for profitrsquos sake is evolving toward searching out advances for the collective interest The fundamental distinction compared to classic management is how we view people in the workplace whether they are managers or employees Managers must understand how they themselves work (biologically rationally and emotionally) and how their colleagues work Managers must advocate for and respect values leading in all probability to sharing them
The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management First Edition Delphine van Hoorebeke copy ISTE Ltd 2018 Published by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley amp Sons Inc
108 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
This leads to a ldquocollective intelligencerdquo in favor of these values Some historical authors (Fayol Mayo etc) would be surprised to find that their theories are still current and that despite our extremely rapid developments no new vision has yet really gained ground in companies where hierarchy remains necessary
Emo-management the new vision of management must not only perceive individuals as single entities but also as a chain in a real collective ldquointelligencerdquo ndash the quotation marks underscore that this type of intelligence can only occur with a balance between cognition and emotion [DAM 00] Some talk about returning to the source Companies see that humans as social beings need to return to their intuitions and emotions and re-learn how to understand and experience them
To summarize this approach to management originating in fields as varied as psychology sociology management and even neurobiology allows us to propose a new idea of management a more global vision that considers the different realities and resources of human beings To the basic definition of management proposed in Le Littreacute (that is the art of the possible ldquothe art of directing steering handling motivatinghellip even the action of regulating effectively administering wellrdquo) we can add the definition of a modern management that is capable of reconciling the present to the future solving daily problems while predicting future problems and that has the primary role of knowing managing onersquos own emotions and those of others which we call a savoir faire-faire (or the skill of directing) It is an economic performance that is individual and also collective composed of different pieces of knowledge described by Picard [PIC 95] that notably includes e-motions through the knowledge and skills necessary to ensure them and ensure management
The basic elements are similar including a set of capacities
ndash the capacity to do at least what is necessary this individual economic performance considers measurable and tangible results
Conclusion 109
through a temporary vision Some call this type of performance ldquoproductivity at workrdquo ensured by the individualrsquos cognitive aspect
ndash the capacity to do what is necessary in a responsible way this socio-economic performance combines a concern for short-term cost-effectiveness with long-term flexibility It consists of the managersrsquo capacity to take on their part of the responsibilities and adapt their actions The ability of managers to engage in economic objectives factors of organizational flexibility is determined by their ability to manage skills knowing the needs and expectations of each person
ndash a capacity to do things well this consists of addressing situations better or differently with knowledge and learning Picard [PIC 95 p 5] called this type of individual economic performance ldquoefficiencyrdquo This corresponds to a mastery of ldquothe good methods of progressive people management [and] holding positions of power appropriatelyrdquo This capacity can be applied to the collective level as well Doing things better consists then of doing things in complementarity and with good understanding
ndash and finally a capacity for collective sharing
Relying on several studies in psychology Rimeacute [RIM 05] indicated in his book about the social sharing of emotions that the expression of emotions is not a source of emotional recovery notably in the case of post-traumatic stress Nevertheless social sharing and debriefing are according to the participants in a multitude of experiments on the topic a tool for satisfaction in that they provide a feeling of having been helped Without needing to become experts in psychology in our view each actor (manager and group members) involved in collective sharing helps to initiate the bringing together of the individual and the collective
For this the capacities of the manager include several other kinds of knowledge aside from savoir-faire (technical skills)
ndash Savoir-ecirctre (social or interpersonal skills) the management of behaviors Managers must have an emotional adaptability and a capacity to make an effort to manage their emotions and do emotional
110 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
labor [HOC 83] They must also develop the capacity to be aware of their behavior and to acquire ldquobody techniquesrdquo [TYL 01] Faced with new market conditions more and more companies want to evaluate the performances of their managers in terms of soft skills to close the gap between actual and expected behaviors This faculty requires acting whether it is a performance of theatrically simulating expressions or intensively working on managing behaviors [GOF 59] Levers help to foster this emotional work without triggering harmful inhibitions
ndash Savoir-vivre (life management skills) having the capacity to master the right processes improve coordination optimize customer relations and in all cases detect difficulties as soon as they arise It is added to social skills as an indispensable element for a manager and staff in contact with the public Life management skills literally correspond to ldquothe art of conducting onersquos life well civilityrdquo It is considered here as the art of managing relations with others through the management of onersquos own e-motions and those of others Amherdt [AMH 05] suggested five recommendations to ensure optimal operations for team members According to this author this type of manager has very clear expectations displays real interest for his team is a good decision maker inspires confidence knows how to overcome challenges and present them to his team and knows how to show a leaderrsquos charisma In its ideal form this management of self and others is sincere and authentic In the 2005 seminar called ldquoLrsquoadoption drsquoune attitude socialement responsable et ses fondements psychologiques Un point de vue Aristiteacutelicienrdquo (ldquoThe adoption of a socially responsible attitude and its psychological foundations an Aristotelian perspectiverdquo) Pellissier-Tanon [PEL 05] stated ldquoThe famous definition of power as the capacity of making someone do something that they would not have done themselves suggests that management to the extent that it consists in the exercise of a power of adherence borders on manipulation We may also be tempted to extend to management the suspicion that weighs on manipulation donrsquot managers risk abusing their power of adherencerdquo
Sincerity and authenticity are two keywords that can mark the difference of a modern manager considering the knowledge and recognition of the intervention of several factors in his behavior
Conclusion 111
decisions managerial processes team cohesion the well-being of his subordinates and colleagues and his tolerance of diverging opinions
ndash The final savoir the skill of deciphering and internalizing emotions knowing how to empathize through experiencing emotions similar to those of the interlocutor so that emotions are felt on both sides and knowing how to encourage a positive emotional contagion coming out of a debriefing Far from standing apart from emotional intelligence this type of knowledge goes deeper and prompts the notion of integration Although individuals are particularly contagious according to Hatfield et al [HAT 94] and emotionally intelligent [GOL 97] our various experiments have shown that everyone can become contagious just as everyone can be susceptible to contamination With this skill the manager can integrate the power and function of emotions The key to collective sharing the manager subscribes not only to developing the aforementioned skills personally but also developing them in the members of his team The emo-manager seeks mutual integration1 accommodation2 [PIA 37] and the expression of critical thinking
This vision of management advocates a management in movement (like the original definition of e-motion) an emo-management that is appropriate for the current context of flexibility speed and collectivity
Thus future management involves a referential change in time and space The strategies must be designed for the long term and for a global space Emo-management totally fits because the common point of all managerial tasks is contagion which does not only account for the quantitative dimension (such as growth) but also introduces reflection at a qualitative and even emotional level of analysis that undeniably exists in management especially collaborative management This concept renounces the accumulation of wealth by
1 Process by which each scheme becomes capable of integrating the domain of the other (coordination between vision and prehension) 2 Mechanism that modifies schemes to adjust them to new data
112 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
ldquoindividual egoismrdquo [SMI 76] which even if there is no need to renounce individual interests seems not to be unique in the very origins of humanity in favor of the search for mutual survival that is collectively intelligent because it is aware of human behavior The ultimate objective of implementing a new vision of management which must know how to combine the adherence of every person with knowledge (understanding and integration) is to encourage a deep change in mentality As Calvez [CAL 10] states in his article ldquoEacutethique morale deacuteontologie proches et diffeacuterentes lrsquoeacutethique en peacuteriode de criserdquo (ldquoEthics Morality Deontology Similar and Different Ethics in Times of Crisisrdquo) from 2010 ldquoJust like in the ideas of a Charles Maurras of yore politics being lsquophysicalrsquo there was no place for a debate about politics and ethics [hellip] In most economic realities and the measures taken to enact them we are indeed obliged [hellip] to consider the thoughts desires and needs of people as well as their intolerances and their prejudices And we must also consider their specific history family choices health demographic with these realities being certainly likely to be understood to some extent in a statistical wayrdquo Thus the future of management requires a ldquocollective intelligencerdquo that is not fleeting based on a simple passing fad and this collective intelligence is a panacea of current and future society as well as the developing economy Because of this emo-management which is not only an evolutive vision but also fundamental to current management essentially advocates for knowing and understanding human foundations for a ldquoreasonedrdquo management and as far as possible basic human reactions to ensure movement
Knowledge of human ldquoemotionsrdquo and ldquothe heuristics of fearrdquo as specified by Jonas can also unfortunately encourage acceptance by submission and resignation in the face of certain events In this respect these e-motions can also paralyze and restrict some types of management ldquoTo ldquoreform thoughtrdquo If the obligation cannot be deduced from knowledge the obligation needs knowledge The moral conscience cannot be deduced from the intellectual conscience But it needs the intellectual conscience that is thought and reflection Good intention risks leading to bad actions and moral will can have immoral consequencesrdquo Like Edgar Morin in Eacutethique [MOR 06] we believe
Conclusion 113
that it is indeed through the knowledge of the various modes of operation evoked in this book that human beings can evolve while responding to the social economic and environmental needs to which the future economy will subject us This economy will be based on the ldquoheart and the collectiverdquo but despite the speed of its development knowledge sharing and globalization it must not neglect the search for balance between cognition and emotion to conserve its homeostasis and ethics
According to the writings of Ashkanasy et al [ASH 17] the manager must acquire an ldquoemotional sophisticationrdquo to win in opposition to the robots Emo-management buoyed by the skills to engage motivate and create emulation in a sustainable group inimitable by any robot to date must understand the strengths and weaknesses of emotion Emo-management is not content to ldquosimulaterdquo emotional enthusiasm nor to provoke it This management must know how to tame it moderate it or guide it in full awareness
Bibliography
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[ADA 02] ADAMATZKY A ldquoOn dynamics of affective liquidsrdquo Dynamical Psychology available at httpwwwgoertzelorgdynapsyc2002 emot2708html 2002
[ADE 95] ADELMANN PK ldquoEmotional labor as a potential source of job stressrdquo in SAUTER SL MURPHY LR (eds) Organizational Risk Factors for Job Stress American Psychological Association Washington DC 1995
[AKE 82] AKERLOF G DICKENS W ldquoThe economic consequence of cognitive dissonancerdquo American Economic Review vol 72 no 3 pp 307ndash319 1982
[ALE 01] ALEKSIEJUK A HOŁYST JA ldquoA simple model of bank bankruptciesrdquo Physica A vol 299 nos 1ndash2 pp 198ndash204 2001
[ALL 71] ALLISON GT Essence of Decision Explaining the Cuban Missile Crisis Little Brown Boston 1971
[ALL 97] ALLEN NJ MEYER JP Commitment in the Workplace Theory Research and Application Sage Publications Thousand Oaks 1997
[ALV 02] ALVARADO N ADAMS S BURBECK S The role of emotion in an architecture of mind IBM available at httpspdfssemanticscholarorg c9f698270d71811742cf7f17a36d9a11f1735b35pdf 2002
[ALV 15] ALVESSON M SPICER A The Stupidity Paradox The Power and Pitfalls of Functional Stupidity at Work Profile Books London 2015
The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management First Edition Delphine van Hoorebeke copy ISTE Ltd 2018 Published by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley amp Sons Inc
116 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
[AMA 83] AMABILE TM ldquoThe social psychology of creativity a componential conceptualizationrdquo Journal of Personality and Social Psychology vol 45 pp 357ndash377 1983
[AMA 96] AMABILE TM CONTI R COON H et al ldquoAssessing the work environment for creativityrdquo Academy of Management Journal vol 39 no 5 pp 1154ndash1184 1996
[AMH 05] AMHERDT C-H La santeacute eacutemotionnelle au travail Demos Eacuteditions Paris 2005
[AND 96] ANDERSEN P-A GUERRERO LK ldquoPrinciples of communication and emotion in social interactionrdquo in ANDERSEN P-A GUERRERO LK (eds) Handbook of Communication and Emotion Research Theory Applications and Contents Academic Press San Diego CA 1996
[ARR 01] ARRIVE JY Savoir vivre ses eacutemotions Retz Paris 2001
[ASC 55] ASCH SE ldquoOpinions and social pressurerdquo Scientific American vol 193 no 5 pp 31ndash35 1955
[ASH 93] ASHFORTH BE HUMPHREY RH ldquoEmotional labor in service roles the influence of identityrdquo Academy of Management Review vol 18 no 1 pp 88ndash115 1993
[ASH 95] ASHFORTH BE HUMPHREY RH ldquoEmotion in the workplace a reappraisalrdquo Human Relations vol 48 no 2 pp 97ndash125 1995
[ASH 00a] ASHFORTH BE TOMIUK MA ldquoEmotional labour and authenticity views from the service agentsrdquo in FINEMAN S (ed) Emotion in Organizations Sage Publications London 2000
[ASH 00b] ASHKANASY NM TSE B ldquoTransformational leadership as management of emotion a conceptual reviewrdquo in ASHKANASY N HARTEL C ZERBE W (eds) Emotions in the Workplace Developments in the Study of the Managed Heart Quorum Books Westport CT 2000
[ASH 07] ASHLEY COOPER A (EARL OF SHAFTESBURY) An Inquiry Concerning Virtue or Merit The Internet Archive available at httpsarchiveorgstreaminquiryconcernin00shafuoftpagen0 mode2up 2007
[ASH 17] ASHKANASY NM HUMPHREY RH HUY QN ldquoIntegrating emotions and affect in theories of managementrdquo Academy of Management Review vol 42 no 2 pp 175ndash189 2017
Bibliography 117
[ASS 09] ASSELINEAU A PIRE-LECHALARD P ldquoLe deacuteveloppement durable un paradigme geacuteneacuterateur drsquoune rupture drsquoinnovationrdquo Management et Avenir Lrsquoorganisation revisiteacutee au travers du deacuteveloppement durable une approche multidisciplinaire Special edition no 26 2009
[AUT 06] AUTISSIER D WACHEUX F Manager par le sens les cleacutes de lrsquoimplication au travail Eyrolles Paris 2006
[AVE 75] AVERILL JR ldquoA semantic atlas of emotional conceptsrdquo JSAS Catalogue of Selected Documents in Psychology vol 5 p 330 1975
[BAB 99] BABA ML ldquoDangerous liaisons trust distrust and information technology in American work organizationsrdquo Human Organization vol 58 no 3 pp 331ndash346 1999
[BAK 01] BAKKER AB SIXMA HJ BOSVELD W ldquoBurnout contagion among general practionersrdquo Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology vol 20 no 1 p 82698 2001
[BAK 05] BAKKER AB LEBLANC PM SCHAUFELI WB ldquoBurnout contagion among intensive care nursesrdquo Nursing Theory and Concept Development or Analysis vol 51 no 3 pp 276ndash287 2005
[BAN 92] BANERJEE AV ldquoA simple model of herd behaviorrdquo The Quarterly Journal of Economics vol CVII no 3 pp 797ndash817 1992
[BAR 02] BARSADE SG ldquoThe Ripple effect emotional contagion and its influence on group behaviourrdquo Administrative Science Quarterly vol 47 pp 647ndash675 2002
[BAS 69] BASS F ldquoA new product growth model for consumer durablesrdquo Management Science vol 15 pp 215ndash227 1969
[BAS 85] BASS BM Leadership and Performance Beyond Expectation Free Press New York NY 1985
[BAS 99] BASS BM ldquoEthics character and authentic transformational leadership behaviourrdquo Leadership Quarterly vol 10 no 2 p 81 1999
[BAT 86] BATRA R RAY ML ldquoAffective responses mediating acceptance of advertisingrdquo Journal of Consumer Research vol 13 no 2 pp 234ndash249 1986
[BAT 02] BATLLE A ldquoLrsquoeacutemotion dans lrsquoentrepriserdquo Les Eacutechos February 2002 Available at httpswwwlesechosfr26022002LesEchos 18602-118-ECH_l-emotion-dans-l-entreprisehtm
118 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
[BAU 98] BAUMARD P BENVENUTI J-A Compeacutetitiviteacute et systegravemes drsquoinformation De lrsquooutil drsquoanalyse au management strateacutegique InterEditions Paris 1998
[BEA 03] BEAL DJ COHEN RR BURKE MJ et al ldquoCohesion and performance in groups a meta-analytic clarification of construct relationsrdquo Journal of Applied Psychology vol 88 no 6 pp 989ndash1004 2003
[BEC 98] BECHARA A DAMASIO H TRANEL D et al ldquoDissociation of working memory from decision making within the human prefrontal cortexrdquo Journal of Neurosciences vol 18 pp 428ndash437 1998
[BEC 99] BECHARA A DAMASIO H DAMASIO AR et al ldquoDifferent contributions of the human amygdala and ventromedial prefrontal cortex to decision-makingrdquo The Journal of Neuroscience vol 19 no 13 pp 5473ndash5481 1999
[BEC 00] BECHARA A DAMASIO H DAMASIO AR ldquoEmotion decision-making and orbitofrontal cortexrdquo Cerebral Cortex vol 10 no 3 pp 295ndash307 2000
[BEH 94] BEHNKE PR SAWYER CR KING P-E ldquoContagion theory and the communication of public speaking state anxietyrdquo Communication Education vol 43 pp 246ndash251 1994
[BER 13] BERNOULLI J Ars conjectandi opus posthumum Accedit Tractatus de seriebus infinitis et epistola galliceacute scripta de ludo pilae reticularis Thurneysen Brothers Basel 1713
[BER 01] BERSON Y ldquoThe relationship between vision strength leadership style and contextrdquo Leadership Quarterly vol 12 no 1 pp 53ndash74 2001
[BER 03] BERTHOZ A La deacutecision Odile Jacob Paris 2003
[BIK 92] BIKHCHANDANI S HIRSHLEIFER D WELCH I ldquoA theory of fads fashion custom and cultural change as informational cascadesrdquo Journal of Politics and Economics vol 100 pp 992ndash1026 1992
[BIL 95] BILTS R Walt Disney The Dreamer the Realist and the Critic Dynamic Learning Publications Library of Congress Catalog in Publications Data Washington 1995
[BIS 83] BISCHOFF C TRAUE HC ldquoMyogenic headacherdquo in HOLROYD KA SCHLOTE B ZENZ H (eds) Perspectives in Research on Headache Levinston New York NY Hogrefe and Huber Publishers Toronto 1983
Bibliography 119
[BOI 10] BOISARD-CASTELLUCCIA S VAN HOOREBEKE D ldquoLe management de la diversiteacute des eacutequipes par la contagion eacutemotionnelle au cœur de la performance de grouperdquo Revue Management et Avenir vol 8 no 38 pp 240ndash256 2010
[BON 07] BONO J JACKSON-FOLDES H VINSON G et al ldquoWorkplace emotional regulation the role of supervision and leadershiprdquo Journal of Applied Psychology vol 9 no 5 p 1357 2007
[BOO 05] BOOT AWA THAKOR V MILBOURN TT ldquoSunflower management and capital budgetingrdquo The Journal of Business vol 78 no 2 pp 501ndash527 2005
[BRA 98] BRAND A ldquoKnowledge management and innovation at 3Mrdquo Journal of Knowledge Management vol 2 no 1 pp 17ndash22 1998
[BRO 61] BROCA P Bulletin de la socieacuteteacute franccedilaise drsquoanthropologie no 1 April 1861
[BRO 01] BROCK WA DURLAUF SN ldquoDiscrete choice with social interactionsrdquo Revue of Economics Studies vol 68 pp 235ndash260 2001
[BUR 78] BURNS JM Leadership Harper and Row New York NY 1978
[BUR 87] BURT RS ldquoSocial contagion and innovation cohesion versus structural equivalencerdquo American Journal of Sociology vol 92 pp 1287ndash1335 1987
[BUR 93] BURGOON JK ldquoInterpersonal expectations expectancy violations and emotional communicationrdquo Journal of Language and Social Psychology vol 12 pp 30ndash48 1993
[CAL 10] CALVEZ JY ldquoEacutethique morale deacuteontologie proches et diffeacuterentes lrsquoeacutethique en peacuteriode de criserdquo Revue franccedilaise du marketing vol 226 pp 1ndash5 2010
[CAP 07] CAPRON M QUAIREL F La responsabiliteacute sociale drsquoentreprise La Deacutecouverte Paris 2007
[CAR 17] CARDON MS POST C FORSTER WR ldquoTeam entrepreneurial passion its emergence and influence in new venture teamsrdquo Academy of Management Review vol 42 pp 283ndash305 2017
[CAS 98] CASTRO JL GUERIN F LAURIOL J ldquoLe modegravele des 3C en questionrdquo Revue Franccedilaise de Gestion vol 118 pp 75ndash89 1998
[CHA 90] CHANLAT J-F (ed) Lrsquoindividu dans lrsquoorganisation les dimensions oublieacutees Eska Paris 1990
120 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
[CHA 98] CHATMAN JA POLZER JT BARSADE SG et al ldquoBeing different yet feeling similar the influence of demographic composition and organizational culture on work processes and outcomesrdquo Administrative Science Quarterly vol 43 no 4 pp 749ndash780 1998
[CHA 01] CHATMAN JA FLYNN FJ ldquoThe influence of demographic heterogeneity on the emergence and consequences of cooperative norms in work teamsrdquo Academy of Management Journal vol 44 no 5 pp 956ndash974 2001
[CHA 03] CHANLAT J-F ldquoEacutemotions organisation et management une reacuteflexion sur la notion drsquointelligence eacutemotionnellerdquo Travailler vol 1 no 9 pp 113ndash132 2003
[CHE 92] CHERNISS C ldquoLong term consequences of burn out an exploratory studyrdquo Journal of Organic Behavior vol 13 pp 1ndash11 1992
[CHR 14] CHRYSIKOU EG WEBER MJ THOMPSON-SCHILL SL ldquoA matched filter hypothesis for cognitive controlrdquo Neuropsychologia vol 62 pp 341ndash365 2014
[CLA 95] CLARKSON MBE ldquoA stakeholder framework for analysing and evaluating corporate social performancerdquo Academy of Management Review vol 20 no 1 pp 92ndash117 1995
[CLA 97] CLARK CE CAVANAUGH NC BROWN CV et al ldquoBuilding change-readiness capabilities in the IS organization insights from the bell Atlantic experiencerdquo MIS Quarterly vol 21 no 4 pp 425ndash455 1997
[COL 05] COLLE R PERETTI J-M CERDIN J-L ldquoLa fideacutelisation des salarieacutes par lrsquoentreprise agrave la carterdquo Revue de Gestion des Ressources Humaines vol 55 pp 2ndash21 2005
[DAL 47] DALE HH ldquoWalter Bradford Cannon 1871ndash1945rdquo Obituary Notices of Fellows of the Royal Society vol 5 no 15 pp 407ndash426 1947
[DAM 94] DAMASIO AR Lrsquoerreur de Descartes la raison des eacutemotions Odile Jacob Paris 1994
[DAM 00] DAMASIO AR ldquoA second chance for emotionrdquo in RICHARD DR LANE L NADEL GL et al (eds) Cognitive Neuroscience of Emotion Oxford University Press Oxford 2000
[DAR 72] DARWIN C The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animal John Murray London 1872
Bibliography 121
[DAR 95] DARWALL S The British Moralists and the Internal ldquoOughtrdquo Cambridge University Press Cambridge 1995
[DAS 02] DASBOROUGH MT ASHKANASY NM ldquoEmotion and attribution of intentionality in leader-member relationshipsrdquo The Leadership Quarterly vol 13 no 5 pp 615ndash634 2002
[DAU 99] DAUMAS C ldquoDeacutemunis face aux tensionsrdquo Libeacuteration available at httpwwwliberationfrcahier-special19991018vincent-dubois-sociologue-a-passe-six-mois-aux-guichets-des-allocations-familiales-demunis-face-aux-_286563 October 1999
[DEB 16] DEBBAH S VAN HOOREBEKE D ldquoTravail collaboratif agrave distance lrsquoinfluence de lrsquointelligence eacutemotionnelle une eacutetude exploratoirerdquo XXIe Congregraves de lrsquoAssociation Information et Management Lille May 2016
[DEM 06] DE MARTINO B KUMARAN D SEYMOUR B et al ldquoFrames biases and rational decision-makingrdquo Human Brain Science vol 313 no 5787 pp 684ndash687 2006
[DER 87] DERBAIX C ldquoLe comportement de lrsquoacheteur voies drsquoeacutetudes pour les anneacutees agrave venirrdquo Recherche et Applications Marketing vol 2 no 2 pp 81ndash92 1987
[DER 89] DERBAIX C PHAM M ldquoPour un deacuteveloppement des mesures de lrsquoaffectif en marketing synthegravese des preacute-requisrdquo Recherche et Applications Marketing vol 4 no 4 pp 71ndash87 1989
[DES 37] DESCARTES R Discours de la meacutethode Flammarion Paris 1637
[DES 49] DESCARTES R Les Passions de lrsquoacircme Henry le Gras Paris 1649
[DIE 03a] DIEFENDORFF JM GOSSERAND RH ldquoUnderstanding the emotional labor process a control theory perspectiverdquo Journal of Organizational Behavior vol 24 no 8 pp 945ndash959 2003
[DIE 03b] DIEFENDORFF JM RICHARD EM ldquoAntecedents and consequences of emotional display rule perceptionsrdquo Journal of Applied Psychology vol 88 pp 284ndash294 2003
[DIE 04] DIETRICH A ldquoNeurocognitive mechanisms underlying the experience of flowrdquo Consciousness and Cognition vol 13 no 4 pp 746ndash761 2004
[DOD 05] DODDS PS WATTS DJ ldquoA generalized model of social and biological contagionrdquo Journal of Theoritical Biology vol 232 no 4 pp 587ndash604 2005
122 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
[DRE 52] DREVER J A Dictionary of Psychology Penguin London 1952
[DRU 93] DRUCKER PF Post-capitalist Society HarperCollins New York NY 1993
[DUB 08] DUBOIS V La vie au guichet Relation administrative et traitement de la misegravere Economica Paris 2008
[DUR 67] DURKHEIM E Le suicide Eacutetude de sociologie 2nd edition PUF Paris 1967
[EAR 00] EARLEY PC MOSAKOWSKI E ldquoCreating hybrid teams culture an empirical test of transnational team functioningrdquo Academy of Management Journal vol 43 no 1 pp 26ndash49 2000
[EIS 99] EISENHARDT KM HOPE PELLED L XIN KR ldquoExploring the black box an analysis of work group diversity conflict and performancerdquo Administrative Science Quarterly vol 44 pp 1ndash28 1999
[EKM 79] EKMAN P OSTER H ldquoFacial expressions of emotionrdquo Annual Review of Psychology vol 30 pp 527ndash554 1979
[ELF 07] ELFENBEIN HA OrsquoREILLY CA ldquoFitting in the effects of relational demography and person-organization fit on group process and performancerdquo Group and Organization Management vol 32 no 1 pp 109ndash142 2007
[ELI 94] ELIAS N The Civilizing Processes 1 and 2 Blackwell Oxford 1994
[FAV 06] FAVI The story of FAVI The company that believes that man is good Paper available at httpukukwoneuFile20Storage 5160692_7_The-story-of-favipdf 2006
[FEH 17] FEHR R FULMER A AWTREY E et al ldquoThe grateful workplace a multilevel model of gratitude in organizationsrdquo Academy of Management Review vol 42 pp 361ndash381 2017
[FES 57] FESTINGER L A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance Stanford University Press Stanford CA 1957
[FIM 03] FIMBEL E ldquoNature et enjeux strateacutegiques de lrsquoexternalisationrdquo Revue franccedilaise de gestion vol 143 no 2 pp 27ndash42 2003
[FIN 00] FINEMAN S ldquoEmotional arenas revisitedrdquo in FINEMAN S (ed) Emotions in Organisations Sage Publications London 2000
Bibliography 123
[FIO 94] FIOL CM ldquoConsensus diversity and learning in organizationsrdquo Organization Science vol 5 no 3 pp 403ndash420 1994
[FIS 00] FISHER CD ldquoMood and emotions while working missing pieces of job satisfactionrdquo Journal of Organizational Behavior vol 21 pp 185ndash202 2000
[FIT 00] FITNESS J ldquoAnger in the workplace an emotion script approach to anger episodes between workers and their superiors co-workers and subordinatesrdquo Journal of Organizational Behavior vol 21 pp 147ndash162 2000
[FLE 06] FLEMING L MARX M ldquoManaging creativity in small worldsrdquo California Management Review vol 48 no 4 pp 6ndash27 2006
[FLE 07] FLEMING L MINGO S CHEN D ldquoCollaborative brokerage generative creativity and creative successrdquo Administrative Science Quarterly vol 52 pp 443ndash475 2007
[FRA 94] FRANCE KR SHAH RH PARK CW ldquoThe impact of emotional valence and intensity on Ad evaluation and memoryrdquo in ALLEN C ROEDDER-JOHN D (eds) Advances in Consumer Research 21 Association for Consumer Research Duluth MN 1994
[FRA 03] FRANK J ldquoNatural selection rational economic behavior and alternative outcomes of the evolutionary processrdquo Journal of Socio-Economics vol 32 pp 601ndash622 2003
[FRA 10] FRAY AM SOPARNOT R ldquoLe manager responsablerdquo in DE BRY F IGALENS J PERETTI J-M (eds) Eacutethique et Responsabiliteacute Sociale EMS Eacuteditions Paris 2010
[FRE 84] FREEMAN RE (ed) ldquoStrategic management framework and philosophyrdquo Strategic Management A Stakeholder Approach Pittman Marshfield WI 1984
[FRE 99] FREEMAN RE ldquoDivergent stakeholder theoryrdquo The Academy of Management Review vol 24 no 2 pp 233ndash236 1999
[FRE 02] FREUD E Œuvres complegravetes vol 15 PUF Paris 2002
[FRI 86] FRIJDA NH The Emotions Cambridge University Press Cambridge MA 1986
[FRI 87] FRIEDMAN HS BOOTH-KEWLEY S ldquoThe disease-prone personality a meta-analytic view of the constructrdquo American Psychologist vol 42 pp 539ndash555 1987
124 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
[FRI 88] FRIJDA NH ldquoThe laws of emotionrdquo American Psychologist vol 43 no 5 pp 349ndash358 1988
[FRI 00] FRISOU J ldquoConfiance interpersonnelle et engagement une reacuteorientation beacutehavioristerdquo Recherche et Applications en Marketing vol 15 pp 63ndash80 2000
[FUD 05] FUDENBERG LA IMHOF D NOWAK MA ldquoEvolutionary cycles of cooperation and defectionrdquo Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences vol 102 pp 10797ndash10800 2005
[GAG 03] GAGNON MP GODIN G GAGNEacute C et al ldquoEvolutionary cycles of cooperation an adaptation of the theory of interpersonal behaviour to the study of telemedicine adoption by physiciansrdquo International Journal of Medical Informatics vol 71 no 3 pp 103ndash115 2003
[GAR 85] GARDNER MP ldquoMood states and consumer behavior a critical reviewrdquo Journal of Consumer Research vol 12 no 3 pp 281ndash300 1985
[GAZ 78] GAZZANIGA MS LEDOUX JE The Integrated Mind Plenum New York NY 1978
[GEO 89] GEORGE JM ldquoConflict and performance in mood and absencerdquo Journal of Applied Psychology vol 74 pp 317ndash324 1989
[GEO 90] GEORGE JM ldquoPersonality affect and behavior in groupsrdquo Journal of Applied Psychology vol 75 pp 107ndash116 1990
[GEO 07a] GEORGE JM ldquoEmotions and leadership the role of emotional intelligencerdquo in MANSTEAD A (ed) Psychology of Emotions vol 2 Sage Publications London 2007
[GEO 07b] GEORGE JM BRIEF AP ldquoFeeling good-doing good a conceptual analysis of the mood at work ndash organizational spontaneity relationshiprdquo in ANDERSON N (ed) Fundamentals of HRM vol 3 Sage Publications London 2007
[GOF 59] GOFFMAN E The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life Doubleday Anchor New York NY 1959
[GOL 97] GOLEMAN D Lrsquointelligence eacutemotionnelle Robert Laffont Paris 1997
[GOL 02] GOLEMAN D BOYATZIS R MACKEE A Primal Leadership Harvard Business School Press New York NY 2002
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[GOL 04] GOLEMAN D ldquoWhat Makes a Leaderrdquo Harvard Business Review available at httpswwwthebraudisgroupcomwp-content uploads201605What-Makes-A-Leader-_-1pdf 2004
[GOL 14] GOLEMAN D Lrsquointelligence eacutemotionnelle analyser et controcircler ses sentiments et ceux des autres Jrsquoai lu Paris 2014
[GOU 71] GOUAUX C ldquoInduced affective states and interpersonal attractionrdquo Journal of Personality and Social Psychology vol 20 pp 37ndash43 1971
[GOY 07] GOYAL S VEGA-REDONDO F ldquoStructural holes in social networksrdquo Journal of Economic Theory vol 137 pp 460ndash492 2007
[GRA 78] GRANOVETTER M ldquoThreshold models of collective behaviourrdquo American Journal of Sociology vol 83 pp 1420ndash1443 1978
[GRA 00] GRATCH J ldquoModelling the interplay between emotion and decision-makingrdquo 9th Conference on Computer Generated Forces and Behavioral Representation Orlando FL 2000
[GRA 03] GRANDEY A ldquoWhen lsquothe show must go onrsquo surface and deep acting as predictors of emotional exhaustion and service deliveryrdquo Academy of Management Journal vol 46 no 1 pp 86ndash96 2003
[GRA 05a] GRACIAacuteN B Oraculo manual y arte de prudencia Translated from Spanish by Joseph Jacobs Andrew Burke 2005
[GRA 05b] GRANDEY AA FISKA GM MATTILAB AS et al ldquoIs lsquoservice with a smilersquo enough Authenticity of positive displays during service encountersrdquo Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes vol 96 pp 38ndash55 2005
[GRI 03] GRIMA F TREPO G ldquoInitier une innovation organisationnelle tactiques drsquoinfluence et processus de persuasion mis en œuvre par les championsrdquo Revue de gestion des ressources humaines vol 50 p 23 2003
[GRO 92] GROENESTIJN E BUUNK BP SCHAUFELI WB ldquoThe danger of burnout contagion the role of social comparison processesrdquo in BUUNK M VAN LANGE V (eds) Sociale Psychologie De Boek The Hague 1992
126 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
[GUE 98] GUERRERO LK ANDERSEN PA TROST MR ldquoCommunication and emotion basic concepts and approachesrdquo in ANDERSEN PA GUERRERO LK (eds) Handbook of Communication and Emotion Research Theory Applications and Contents Academic Press San Diego CA 1998
[GUI 98] GUILHON A ldquoLe changement est un apprentissagerdquo Revue Franccedilaise de Gestion vol 120 pp 98ndash107 1998
[GUM 97] GUMP BB KULIK JA ldquoStress affiliation and emotional contagionrdquo Journal of Personality and Social Psychology vol 722 pp 305ndash319 1997
[HAC 92] HACKMAN JR ldquoGroup influences on individuals in organizationsrdquo in DUNNETTE MD HOUGH LM (eds) Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology Consulting Psychologists Press Palo Alto CA 1992
[HAN 02] HANSEN MT ldquoKnowledge networks explaining effective knowledge sharing in multiunit companiesrdquo Organization Science vol 13 pp 232ndash248 2002
[HAT 94] HATFIELD E CACIOPPO JT RAPSON RL Emotional Contagion Cambridge University Press Paris 1994
[HEI 88] HEINER R ldquoImperfected decisions and routinized production implication for evolutionary modelling and inertial technical changerdquo in DOSI G (ed) Technical Change and Economic Theory Pinter Publishers London 1988
[HEL 64] HELSON H Adaptation-level Theory Harper and Row New York NY 1964
[HER 04] HERRBACH O LERAT-PYTLAK J ldquoImplication et eacutemotions au travail une eacutetude empiriquerdquo 15e congregraves de lrsquoAssociation francophone de gestion des ressources humaines ESG UQAM Montreal 2004
[HOC 83] HOCHSCHILD AR The Managed Heart Commercialization of Human Feeling University of California Press Los Angeles CA 1983
[HOU 77] HOUSE RJ ldquoA 1976 theory of charismatic leadershiprdquo in HUNT JG LARSON LL (eds) Leadership The Cutting Edge SIUP Carbondale IL 1977
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[HOW 85] HOWES MJ HOKANSON JE LOWENSTEIN DA ldquoIntroduction of depressive affect after prolonged exposure to a mildly depressed individualrdquo Journal of Personality and Social Psychology vol 49 pp 1110ndash1113 1985
[HOW 06] HOWARD A ldquoPositive and negative emotional attractors and intentional changerdquo Journal of Management Development vol 25 no 7 pp 657ndash670 2006
[HOW 15] HOWARD LW LI-PING TANG T AUSTIN MJ ldquoTeaching critical thinking skills ability motivation intervention and the Pygmalion effectrdquo Journal of Business Ethics vol 128 no 1 pp 133ndash147 2015
[HUM 02] HUMPHREY H ldquoThe many faces of emotional leadershiprdquo The Leadership Quarterly vol 13 no 5 pp 493ndash504 2002
[HUY 02] HUY QN ldquoEmotional balancing of organizational continuity and radical change the contribution of middle managersrdquo Administrative Science Quarterly vol 47 pp 31ndash69 2002
[IAC 05] IACOBINI M ldquoNeural mechanisms of imitationrdquo Current Opinion in Neurobiology vol 15 no 6 pp 632ndash637 2005
[ISE 02] ISEN AM ldquoMissing in action in the AIM positive affectrsquos facilitation of cognitive flexibility innovation and problem solvingrdquo Psychological Inquiry vol 13 no 1 pp 57ndash65 2002
[IZA 77] IZARD CE Human Emotions Plenum Press New York NY 1977
[IZA 84] IZARD CE KAGAN J ZAJONC R (eds) Emotions Cognition and Behaviour Cambridge University Press Cambridge MA 1984
[JAM 84] JAMES W ldquoWhat is an emotionrdquo Mind vol 9 pp 188ndash205 1884
[JAM 89] JAMES N ldquoEmotional labour skill and work in the social regulation of feelingsrdquo Sociological Review vol 37 pp 15ndash32 1989
[JAN 82] JANIS IL Victims of Groupthink Houghton Mifflin Boston MA 1982
[JAR 04] JARCHO JM BERKMAN ET LIEBERMAN MD ldquoThe neural basis of rationalization cognitive dissonance reduction during decision-makingrdquo Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience vol 6 no 4 pp 460ndash467 2004
128 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
[JEH 95] JEHN KA ldquoA multimethod examination of the benefits and detriments of intragroup conflictrdquo Administrative Science Quarterly vol 42 pp 530ndash557 1995
[JEH 97] JEHN KA SHAH P ldquoInterpersonal relationship and task performance an examination of mediating processes in friendship and acquaintance groupsrdquo Journal of Personality and Social Psychology vol 72 pp 775ndash790 1997
[JEN 00] JENNINGS DF ARTZ K GILLIN LM et al ldquoDeterminants of trust in global strategic alliances Amrad and the Australian biomedical industryrdquo Competitiveness Review vol 10 no 1 pp 25ndash44 2000
[JOH 82] JOHNSON-GEORGE CE SWAP WC ldquoMeasurement of specific interpersonal trust construction and validation of scale to assess trust in specific otherrdquo Journal of Personality and Social Psychology vol 43 pp 1306ndash1317 1982
[JON 98] JONES GR GEORGE JM ldquoThe experience and evolution of trust implications for cooperation and teamworkrdquo Academy of Management Review vol 23 no 3 pp 531ndash546 1998
[JON 99] JONES TM WICKS AC ldquoConvergent stakeholder theoryrdquo Academy of Management Review vol 24 pp 206ndash221 1999
[JOR 09] JORDAN PJ LAWRENCE SA ldquoEmotional intelligence in teams development and initial validation of the short version of the workgroup emotional intelligence profile (WEIP-S)rdquo Journal of Management and Organization vol 15 pp 452ndash469 2009
[KAH 73] KAHNEMAN D TVERSKY A ldquoOn the psychology of predictionrdquo Psychological Review vol 80 no 4 pp 237ndash251 1973
[KAN 98] KANT I Critique of Pure Reason Cambridge University Press New York NY 1998
[KEM 78] KEMPER TD A Social Interactional Theory of Emotions Wiley New York NY 1978
[KIS 05] KISHI T ELMQUIST JK ldquoBody weight is regulated by the brain a link between feeding and emotionrdquo Molecular Psychiatry vol 10 pp 132ndash146 2005
[KOE 87] KOESTENBAUM P The Heart of Business Ethics Power and Philosophy Saybrook Publishing San Francisco CA 1987
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[KOG 92] KOGUT B ZANDER U ldquoKnowledge of the firm combinative capabilities and the replication of technologyrdquo Organization Science vol 3 no 3 pp 383ndash397 1992
[KOT 90] KOTTER JP A Force for Change How Leadership Differs from Management The Free Press New York NY 1990
[KOT 02] KOTTER JP COHEN DS The Heart of Change Harvard Business School Press Boston MA 2002
[KRO 69] KROP HD ALEGRE CE WILLIAMS CD ldquoEffect of induced stress on convergent and divergent thinkingrdquo Psychological Reports vol 24 pp 895ndash898 1969
[KRU 00] KRUML JR GEDDES D ldquoExploring the dimensions of emotional labourrdquo Management Communication Quarterly vol 14 no 1 pp 8ndash49 2000
[KRY 08] KRYSTYNA G ldquoThe role of affect in developing communicative and cultural competence in ESPrdquo English Education and English for Specific Purposes Crane Publishing Co Taipei 2008
[KUG 12] KUGLER T KAUSER EE MARTIN G et al Are groups more rational than individuals A review of interactive decision making in groups Document no 3701 CESifo January 2012
[LAB 94] LABORIT H Les bases biologiques des comportements sociaux Fides Montreal 1994
[LAD 07] LADHARI R ldquoThe movie experience a revised approach to determinants of satisfactionrdquo Journal of Business Research vol 60 no 5 pp 454ndash462 2007
[LAZ 91] LAZARUS RS Emotion and Adaptation Oxford University Press Oxford 1991
[LEB 63] LE BON G Psychologie des foules PUF Paris 1963
[LEB 04] LE BAS C ldquoManagement responsable et neacutecessaire reacutegulation globalerdquo Eacuteconomie et Humanisme no 370 pp 58ndash59 2004
[LED 97] LEDOUX JE MULLER J ldquoEmotional memory and psychopathologyrdquo Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society vol 352 pp 1719ndash1726 1997
[LED 98] LEDOUX JE The Emotional Brain Weidenfeld and Nicolson London 1998
130 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
[LEE 93] LEE RT ASHFORTH BE ldquoA longitudinal study of burnout among supervisors and managers comparisons between the Leiter and Maslach (1988) and Golembiewski et al (1986) modelsrdquo Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes vol 54 pp 369ndash398 1993
[LEE 96] LEE RT ASHFORTH BE ldquoA meta-analystic examination of the correlates of the three dimensions of job burnoutrdquo Journal of Applied Psychology vol 81 pp 123ndash133 1996
[LEE 03] LEENDERS RTAJ VAN ENGELEN JML KRATZER J ldquoVirtuality communication and new product team creativity a social network perspectiverdquo Journal of Engineering and Technology Management vol 20 no 1 pp 69ndash92 2003
[LEE 15] LEE C AN M NOH Y ldquoThe effects of emotional display rules on flight attendantsrsquo emotional labor strategy job burnout and performancerdquo Service Business vol 9 no 3 pp 409ndash425 2015
[LEF 06] LEFLEY F ldquoCan a project champion bias project selection and if so how can we avoid itrdquo Management Research News vol 29 no 4 pp 174ndash183 2006
[LEacuteP 05] LEacutePINEUX F ldquoStakeholder theory society and social cohesionrdquo Corporate Governance vol 5 no 2 pp 99ndash110 2005
[LER 06] LERNER JS TIEDENS LZ ldquoPortrait of the angry decision maker how appraisal tendencies shape angerrsquos influence on cognitionrdquo Journal of Behavioral Decision Making vol 19 pp 115ndash137 2006
[LER 11] LEROUX E VAN HOOREBEKE D ldquoSI eacuteco-responsables et innovation les pratiques des salarieacutes dans les PMErdquo Gestion 2000 vol 28 no 4 pp 119ndash135 2011
[LES 98] LE SCANFF C ldquoLa preacuteparation-entraicircnement psychologique pour des situations extrecircmes application au sport de haut niveaurdquo Bulletin de Psychologie vol 51 no 6 pp 765ndash781 1998
[LEW 51] LEWIN K Field Theory in Social Science Selected Theoretical Papers Harper and Row New York NY 1951
[LEW 00] LEWIS KM ldquoWhen leaders display emotion how followers respond to negative emotional expression of male and female leadersrdquo Journal of Organizational Behavior vol 21 pp 221ndash234 2000
[LIN 65] LINDGREN HC LINDGREN F ldquoCreativity brainstorming and orneriness a cross-cultural studyrdquo Journal of Sociology and Psychology vol 67 pp 23ndash30 1965
Bibliography 131
[LIU 05] LIU Y PERREWEacute PL ldquoAnother look at the role of emotion in the organizational change a process modelrdquo Human Resource Management Review vol 15 pp 263ndash280 2005
[LOE 03] LOEWENSTEIN G LERNER JS ldquoThe role of affect in decision makingrdquo in DAVIDSON RJ et al (eds) Handbook of Affective Science Oxford University Press Oxford 2003
[LOS 02] LOSTRA F ldquoLe cerveau eacutemotionnel ou la neuroanatomie des eacutemotionsrdquo Cahiers critiques de theacuterapie familiale et de pratiques de reacuteseaux vol 29 no 2 pp 73ndash86 2002
[LOU 00] LOU H LUO W STRONG D ldquoPerceived critical mass effect on groupware acceptancerdquo European Journal of Information Systems vol 9 pp 91ndash103 2000
[MAC 75] MACLEAN PD ldquoSensory and perspective factors in emotional functions of the trinue brainrdquo in LEVI L (ed) Emotions Their Parameters and Measurement Raven New York NY pp 71ndash92 1975
[MAC 00] MACDONALD AW COHEN JD STENGER VA et al ldquoDissociating the role of the dorsolateral prefrontal and anterior cingulate cortex in cognitive controlrdquo Science vol 288 pp 1835ndash1838 2000
[MAE 10] MAES B FONTANAUD N PRONOST A-M ldquoEffet de la mise en place drsquoun instrument drsquoeacutevaluation continue de la qualiteacute des soins infirmiers sur la satisfaction au travail des soignants et sur leur implication affectiverdquo Recherche en soins infirmiers vol 102 no 3 pp 42ndash49 2010
[MAF 96] MAFFESOLI M Eacuteloge de la raison sensible Grasset Paris 1996
[MAL 96] MALVILLE P Leccedilons litteacuteraires sur les lsquoConfessionsrsquo de Jean-Jacques Rousseau PUF Paris 1996
[MAN 61] MANSFIELD E ldquoTechnical change and the rate of imitationrdquo Econometrica vol 29 no 4 pp 741ndash766 1961
[MAN 13] MANJOO F ldquoThe happiness machine how Google became such a great place to workrdquo Slate Magazine available at httpwwwslatecom articlestechnologytechnology201301google_people_operations_the_secrets_of_the_world_s_most_scientific_humanhtml January 2013
[MAS 82] MASLACH C Burnout The Cost of Caring Englewood Cliffs New York NY 1982
132 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
[MAS 02] MASON CM GRIFFIN MA ldquoGroup task satisfaction applying the construct of job satisfaction to groupsrdquo Small Group Research vol 33 no 3 pp 271ndash312 2002
[MAS 09] MASCLET D COLOMBIER N DENANT-BOEMONT L et al ldquoGroup and individual risk preferences a lottery-choice experiment with self-employed and salaried workersrdquo Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization vol 70 no 3 pp 470ndash484 2009
[MCA 95] MCALLISTER DJ ldquoAffect- and cognition-based trust as foundations for interpersonal cooperation in organizationsrdquo Academy of Management Journal vol 38 no 1 pp 24ndash60 1995
[MCC 84] MCCRAE RR ldquoSituational determinants of coping responses loss threat and challengerdquo Journal of Personality and Social Psychology vol 46 no 4 pp 919ndash928 1984
[MER 99] MERCIER S Lrsquoeacutethique dans les entreprises La Deacutecouverte Paris 1999
[MID 89] MIDDLETON DR ldquoEmotional style the cultural ordering of emotionsrdquo Ethos vol 17 pp 187ndash201 1989
[MON 05] MONOD-BROCA P Paul Broca un geacuteant du XIXe siegravecle Vuibert Paris 2005
[MOR 81] MORRIS T GREER S PETTINGALE KW et al ldquoPattern of expression of anger and their psychological correlates in women with breast cancerrdquo Journal of Psychosomatic Research vol 25 pp 111ndash117 1981
[MOR 96] MORRIS JA FELDMAN DC ldquoThe dimensions antecedents and consequences of emotion laborrdquo The Academy of Management Review vol 21 no 4 pp 986ndash1010 1996
[MOR 97] MORRIS JA FELDMAN DC ldquoManaging emotions in the workplacerdquo Journal of Managerial Issues vol 9 no 3 pp 257ndash274 1997
[MOR 02] MORANA J VAN HOOREBEKE D ldquoLe facteur humain au cœur du supply chain managementrdquo Gestion 2000 vol 6 pp 131ndash141 2002
[MOR 06] MORIN E Eacutethique vol 6 Le Seuil Paris 2006
[MUR 89] MURRAY AI ldquoTop management group heterogeneity and firm performancerdquo Strategic Management Journal vol 10 pp 125ndash141 1989
Bibliography 133
[NEA 86] NEALE MA BAZERMAN MH NORTHCRAFT GB et al ldquoChoice shift effects in group decisions a decision bias perspectiverdquo International Journal of Small Group Research vol 23 pp 33ndash42 1986
[NEL 00] NELSON K BOWEN J ldquoThe effect of employee uniforms on employee satisfaction the Cornell Hotel and Restaurantrdquo Administration Quarterly vol 41 no 2 pp 86ndash95 2000
[NEW 02] NEWCOMBE MJ ASHKANASY NM ldquoThe role of affect and affective congruence in perceptions of leaders an experimental studyrdquo Leadership Quarterly vol 13 pp 601ndash614 2002
[OAK 96] OAKLAND S OSTELL A ldquoMeasuring coping a review and critiquerdquo Human Relations vol 49 no 2 p 133 1996
[OKE 04] OKETCH M ldquoThe corporate stake in social cohesionrdquo Corporate Governance vol 4 no 3 pp 5ndash19 2004
[OLD 54] OLDS J MILNER PM ldquoPositive reinforcement produced by electrical stimulation of the septal area and the other regions of the rat brainrdquo Journal of Comparative and Psychological Psychology vol 47 pp 419ndash427 1954
[PAE 93] PAESE PW BIESER M TUBBS ME ldquoFraming effects and choice shifts in group decision makingrdquo Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes vol 56 pp 149ndash165 1993
[PAP 37] PAPEZ JP ldquoA proposed mechanism of emotionrdquo Archives of Neurology amp Psychiatry vol 38 pp 725ndash743 1937
[PAU 03] PAULUS P NIJSTAD B Group Creativity Innovation through Collaboration Oxford University Press New York NY 2003
[PEC 03] PECH RJ ldquoMemes and cognitive hardwiring why are some memes more successful than othersrdquo European Journal of Innovation Management vol 6 no 3 pp 173ndash181 2003
[PEL 05] PELLISSIER-TANNON A ldquoLrsquoadoption drsquoune attitude socialement responsable et ses fondements psychologiques un point de vue aristoteacutelicienrdquo Congregraves International de lrsquoADERSE Lyon October 2005
[PER 06] PERRY-SMITH JE ldquoSocial yet creative the role of social relationships in facilitating individual creativityrdquo Academy of Management Journal vol 49 pp 85ndash101 2006
[PET 83] PETERS T WATERMAN R Le prix de lrsquoexcellence InterEacuteditions Paris 1983
134 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
[PET 96] PETER JP OLSON JC Consumer Behavior and Marketing Strategy Irwin Chicago IL 1996
[PFE 98] PFEFFERBAUM B PFEFFERBAUM RL ldquoContagion in stress ndash an infectious disease model for post-traumatic stress in childrenrdquo Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America vol 7 p 183 1998
[PIA 37] PIAGET J La construction du reacuteel chez lrsquoenfant Delachaux et Niestleacute Paris 1937
[PIC 95] PICARD D ldquoRecherche performance humaine deacutesespeacutereacutement la contribution de cabinets de conseilrdquo Cahier de recherche du Gregor no 10 1995
[PIR 04] PIROLA-MERLO A MANN L ldquoThe relationship between individual creativity and team creativity aggregating across people and timerdquo Journal of Organizational Behavior vol 25 pp 235ndash257 2004
[PLU 80] PLUTCHIK R Emotion A Psychoevolutionary Synthesis Harper and Row New York NY 1980
[QUI 06] QUIRK J BEER JS ldquoPrefrontal involvement in the regulation of emotion convergence of rat and human studiesrdquo Current Opinion in Neurobiology vol 16 pp 723ndash727 2006
[RAF 89] RAFAELI A SUTTON RI ldquoThe expression of emotion in organizational liferdquo Research in Organizational Behavior vol 11 pp 1ndash42 1989
[REI 45] REICH W ldquoLa peste eacutemotionnellerdquo in REICH W (ed) Lrsquoanalyse caracteacuterielle Petite Bibliothegraveque Payot Paris 1945
[REI 01] REIS HT ldquoRelationship experiences and emotional well-beingrdquo in RYFF CD SINGER BH (eds) Emotion Social Relationship and Health Oxford University Press Oxford 2001
[REM 85] REMPEL JK HOLMES JG ZANNA MD ldquoTrust in close relationshipsrdquo Journal of Personality and Social Psychology vol 49 pp 95ndash112 1985
[RHO 01] RHODE P STEGEMAN M ldquoNon-Nash equilibria of Darwinian dynamics with applications to duopolyrdquo International Journal of Industrial Organization vol 19 pp 415ndash453 2001
[RIB 30] RIBOT T La psychologie des sentiments Alcan Paris 1930
[RIM 05] RIME B Le partage social des eacutemotions PUF Paris 2005
Bibliography 135
[ROB 97] ROBINSON MD JOHNSON JT ldquoIs it emotion or is it stress Gender stereotypes and the perception of subjective experiencerdquo Sex Roles vol 36 pp 235ndash258 1997
[ROG 95] ROGERS E The Diffusion of Innovations The Free Press New York NY 1995
[ROU 03] ROUSSILLON S Les eacutemotions dans le travail Research paper no 200312 EMLYON Business School December 2003
[ROU 15] ROUSSEAU N ldquoEn entreprise le bonheur est contagieuxrdquo La Tribune available at httpacteursdeleconomielatribunefrdebats conferences2015-02-04en-entreprise-le-bonheur-est-contagieuxhtml February 2015
[RUS 79] RUSSELL JA ldquoAffective space is bipolarrdquo Journal of Personality and Social Psychology vol 37 no 3 pp 345ndash356 1979
[SAM 06] SAMET R VAN HOOREBEKE D ldquoLa contagion eacutemotionnelle de groupe interpreacutetation numeacuterique du processus observeacute au travailrdquo Confeacuterence ACFAS Montreal 2006
[SAN 93] SANDELANDS L ST CLAIR L ldquoToward an empirical concept of grouprdquo Journal for the Theory of Social Behavior vol 23 pp 423ndash458 1993
[SAR 38] SARTRE J-P Esquisse drsquoune theacuteorie des eacutemotions Hermann Paris 1938
[SAV 54] SAVAGE L The Foundations of Statistics Dover Publications New York NY 1954
[SCH 71] SCHACHTER S Emotion Obesity and Crime Academic Press New York NY 1971
[SCH 73] SCHELLING TC ldquoHockey helmets concealed weapons and daylight saving a study of binary choices with externalitiesrdquo Journal of Conflict Resolution vol 17 pp 381ndash428 1973
[SCH 89] SCHERER KR ldquoVocal correlates of emotional arousal and affective disturbancerdquo in WAGNER H MANSTEAD A (eds) Handbook of Social Psychophysiology John Wiley amp Sons New York NY 1989
[SCH 94] SCHERER KR ldquoAffect burstsrdquo in VAN GOOZEN HM VAN DE POLL NE SERGEANT JA (eds) Emotions Essays on Emotion Theory Lawrence Erlbaum Hillsdale 1994
136 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
[SCH 98] SCHLAG K ldquoWhy imitate and if so how A boundedly rational approach to multi-armed banditsrdquo Journal of Economic Theory vol 78 no 1 pp 130ndash156 1998
[SCH 00] SCHAUBROECK J JONES JR ldquoAntecedents of workplace emotional labor dimensions and moderators of their effects on physical symptomsrdquo Journal of Organizational Behavior vol 21 pp 163ndash183 2000
[SCH 14] SCHMIDT E ROSENBERG J How Google Works John Murray London 2014
[SCO 80] SCOTT CLldquoInterpersonnel trust a comparison of attitudinal and situational factorsrdquo Human Relations vol 33 pp 805ndash812 1980
[SHA 87] SHAVER P SCHWARTZ J KIRSON D et al ldquoEmotion knowledge further exploration of a prototype approachrdquo Journal of Personality and Social Psychology vol 52 pp 1061ndash1086 1987
[SHI 03] SHIROM A ldquoJob related burnout a reviewrdquo in QUICK JC TETRICK LE (eds) Handbook of Occupational Health Psychology American Psychological Association Washington DC 2003
[SIM 59] SIMON HA ldquoTheories of decision-making in economics and behavioral sciencerdquo The American Economic Review vol 49 no 3 pp 253ndash283 1959
[SIM 87] SIMON HA ldquoMaking management decisions the role of intuition and emotionrdquo Academy of Management Executive vol 1 no 1 pp 57ndash64 1987
[SMI 76] SMITH VL ldquoExperimental economics induced value theoryrdquo American Economic Review Papers and Proceedings vol 66 no 2 pp 274ndash279 1976
[SMI 94] SMITH KG SMITH KA OLIAN JD et al ldquoTop management team demography and process the role of social integration and communicationrdquo Administrative Science Quarterly vol 39 pp 412ndash438 1994
[SMO 02] SMOLIAR SW SPRAGUE R ldquoCommunication and understanding for decision supportrdquo Proceedings of International Conference IFIP TC8WG83 Cork pp 107ndash119 2002
[SOL 98] SOLOMON RC ldquoThe politics of emotionrdquo Midwest Studies in Philosophy vol 22 no 1 pp 1ndash20 1998
Bibliography 137
[STA 89] STASSER G TAYLOR LA HANNA C ldquoInformation sampling in structured discussions of three- and six-person groupsrdquo Journal of Personality and Social Psychology vol 57 pp 57ndash67 1989
[STA 01] STASSER G DIETZ-UHLER B ldquoCollective choice judgment and problem solvingrdquo in HOGG MA TINDALE RS (eds) Handbook of Social Psychology Group Processes Blackwell Publishers Hoboken NJ 2001
[STE 93] STEARNS PN ldquoHistory of emotions the issue of changerdquo in
LEWIS M HAVILAND JM (eds) Handbook of Emotions Guilford New York NY 1993
[SUT 90] SUTTON RJ RAFAELI A ldquoBusy stores and demanding customers how do they affect the display of positive emotionrdquo Academy of Management Journal vol 33 no 3 pp 623ndash637 1990
[SUT 91] SUTTON RI ldquoMaintaining norms about expressed emotions the case of bill collectorsrdquo Administrative Science Quarterly vol 36 pp 245ndash268 1991
[TAB 08] TABIBNIA G SATPUTE AB LIEBERMAN MD ldquoThe sunny side of fairness preference for fairness activates reward circuitry (and disregarding unfairness activates self-control circuitry)rdquo Psychological Science vol 19 pp 339ndash347 2008
[TAJ 04] TAJFEL H TURNER JC ldquoThe social identity theory of intergroup behaviorrdquo in JOST TJ SIDANIUS J (eds) Political Psychology Psychology Press New York NY 2004
[TAN 92] TANNENBAUM SI BEARD RL SALAS E ldquoTeam building and its influence on team effectiveness an examination of conceptual and empirical developmentsrdquo in KELLEY K (ed) Issues Theory and Research in IndustrialOrganizational Psychology North Holland New York NY 1992
[THEacute 00] THEacuteVENET M Le plaisir de travailler favoriser lrsquoimplication des personnes Eacuteditions drsquoOrganisation Paris 2000
[THEacute 92] THEacuteVENET M Impliquer les personnes dans lrsquoentreprise Eacuteditions Liaisons Paris 1992
[THO 20] THORNDIKE EL ldquoA constant error in psychological ratingrdquo Journal of Applied Psychology vol 4 pp 25ndash29 1920
138 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
[THO 96a] THOMAS D ELY R ldquoMaking differences matter a new paradigm for managing diversityrdquo Harvard Business Review vol 74 no 5 pp 79ndash92 1996
[THO 96b] THOMASSET A Paul Ricœur une poeacutetique de la morale University Press Leuven 1996
[TIC 87] TICKLE-DEGNEN L ROSENTHAL R ldquoGroup rapport and nonverbal behaviourrdquo in HENDRICK C et al (eds) Group Processes and Intergroup Relations Review of Personality and Social Psychology vol 9 Sage Publications Beverly Hills CA 1987
[TOD 70] TODT D ldquoZur ordnung im gesang der nachtigall (Luscinia megarhynchos)rdquo Verhandlungen der Deutschen Zoologischen Gesellschaft vol 64 pp 249ndash252 1970
[TOD 71] TODT D ldquoAumlquivalente und konvalente gesangliche Reaktionen einer extrem regelmaumlssig singenden Nachtigall (Luscinia megarhynchos B)rdquo Zeitschrift fuumlr vergeichende Physiologie vol 71 pp 262ndash285 1971
[TOD 81] TODT D ldquoOn functions of vocal matching effect of counter-replies on song-post choice and singingrdquo Zeitschrift fuumlr Tierpsychologie vol 57 pp 73ndash93 1981
[TOD 96] TODT D HULTSCH H ldquoAcquisition and performance of repertoires ways of coping with diversity and versatilityrdquo in KROODSMA DE MILLER EH (eds) Ecology and Evolution of Communication Cornell University Press Ithaca 1996
[TOL 02] TOLBERT AS MCLEAN GN MYERS RC ldquoCreating the global learning organization (GLO)rdquo International Journal of Intercultural Relations vol 26 pp 462ndash472 2002
[TOT 98] TOTTERDELL P KELLETT S TEUCHMANN K et al ldquoEvidence of mood linkage in work groupsrdquo Journal of Personality and Social Psychology vol 74 pp 1504ndash1515 1998
[TOT 03] TOTTERDELL P HOLMAN D ldquoEmotion regulation in customer service roles testing a model of emotional laborrdquo Journal of Occupational Health Psychology vol 8 no 1 pp 55ndash73 2003
[TRA 93] TRAUE HC MICHAEL AM ldquoBehavioral and emotional inhibition in head painrdquo in TRAUE HC PENNEBAKER JW (eds) Emotion Inhibition and Health Hogrefe and Huber Publishers Seattle DC 1993
Bibliography 139
[TRE 96] TREWEEK P ldquoComparing interfaces should we assume that ease of use influences users preferencerdquo OzChirsquo96 Conference Proceedings IEEE Computer Society Press Hamilton 1996
[TUR 87] TURNER JC HOGG MA OAKES PJ et al Rediscovering the Social Group A Self-Categorization Theory Blackwell Oxford 1987
[TUR 01] TURBAN E ARONSON JE LIANG T-P Decision Support Systems and Intelligent Systems Prentice-Hall International Upper Saddle River NJ 2001
[TVE 80] TVERSKY A KAHNEMAN D ldquoCausal schemas in judgments under uncertaintyrdquo in FISHBEIN M (ed) Progress in Social Psychology Erlbaum Hillsdale MI 1980
[TYL 01] TYLER M HANCOCK P ldquoFlight attendants and the management of gendered lsquoOrganizational Bodiesrsquordquo in BACKETT-MILBURN K MCKIE L (eds) Constructing Gendered Bodies Explorations in Sociology Palgrave Macmillan London 2001
[VAN 03a] VAN HOOREBEKE D ldquoLe management des eacutemotions au travail une reconsideacuteration des pratiques organisationnellesrdquo Revue de Gestion des Ressources Humaines vol 49 2003
[VAN 03b] VAN HOOREBEKE D Les eacutemotions au travail processus conseacutequences et leviers de gestion PhD Thesis Universiteacute Aix-Marseille III 2003
[VAN 04] VAN HOOREBEKE D ldquoLa dissonance eacutemotionnelle au travail une approche ethnomeacutethodologiquerdquo Management et Avenir vol 3 pp 62ndash81 2004
[VAN 06] VAN HOOREBEKE D ldquoLa contagion eacutemotionnelle problegraveme ou ressource pour les relations interpersonnelles dans lrsquoorganisation rdquo Humanisme et Entreprise vol 279 pp 23ndash42 2006
[VAN 07a] VAN HOOREBEKE D ldquoContagion eacutemotionnelle facteur modeacuterateur de creacuteativiteacute et de performance de groupe au travail rdquo 9e Universiteacute de printemps de lrsquoIAS Moscow May 2007
[VAN 07b] VAN KLEEF GA COcircTEacute S ldquoExpressing anger in conflict when it helps and when it hurtsrdquo Journal of Applied Psychology vol 92 pp 1557ndash1569 2007
[VAN 08a] VAN HOOREBEKE D ldquoLrsquoeacutemotion et la prise de deacutecisionrdquo Revue Franccedilaise de Gestion vol 2 no 182 pp 33ndash44 2008
140 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
[VAN 08b] VAN HOOREBEKE D ldquoProposition de mesure de la performance des normes de comportements organisationnelles agrave lrsquoatteinte drsquoun service agrave la clientegravele authentiquerdquo Revue des Sciences de Gestion vol 1 no 229 pp 11ndash27 2008
[VAN 08c] VAN HOOREBEKE D BRASSEUR M ldquoEntre tradition et innovation la gestion des eacutemotions au travail eacutetude des leviers de gestionrdquo 15e congregraves de psychologie du travail et des organisations entre tradition et innovation comment transformons-nous lrsquounivers du travail Laval Quebec August 2008
[VAN 16] VAN HOOREBEKE D ldquoThe process of sharing ideas within a group while maintaining individual creativity a management leverrdquo International Review of Social Sciences vol 3 pp 34ndash45 2016
[VAS 05] VAS A ldquoLa vitesse de lrsquoadoption du changement au sein des grandes organisationsrdquo Revue Franccedilaise de Gestion no 155 pp 135ndash151 2005
[VAT 03] VATTEVILLE E Management strateacutegique de lrsquoemploi EMS Eacuteditions Paris 2003
[VEG 97] VEGA-REDONDO F ldquoThe evolution of Walrasian behaviorrdquo Econometrica vol 65 no 3 pp 375ndash384 1997
[VIN 86] VINCENT JD Biologie des passions Odile Jacob Paris 1986
[VON 44] VON NEUMANN J MORGENSTERN O Theory of Games and Economic Behavior Princeton University Press Princeton NJ 1944
[WAT 80] WATZLAWICK P Le langage du changement eacuteleacutements de communication theacuterapeutique Le Seuil Paris 1980
[WAT 02] WATTS DJ DODDS PS NEWMAN MEJ ldquoIdentity and search in social networksrdquo Science vol 296 pp 1302ndash1305 2002
[WEB 09] WEBER EU JOHNSON EJ ldquoMindful judgment and decision makingrdquo Annual Review of Psychology vol 60 pp 53ndash85 2009
[WEI 88] WEISBERG RW ldquoProblem solving and creativityrdquo in STERNBERG RJ (ed) The Nature of Creativity Contemporary Psychological Perspectives Cambridge University Press Cambridge 1988
[WEI 93] WEICK KE ROBERTS KH ldquoCollective mind in organizations heedful interrelating on flight decksrdquo Administrative Science Quarterly vol 38 pp 357ndash381 1993
Bibliography 141
[WEI 96] WEISS HM CROPANZANO R ldquoAffective events theory a theoretical discussion of the structure causes and consequences of affective experiences at workrdquo Research in Organizational Behavior vol 18 pp 1ndash74 1996
[WES 91] WESTBROOK RA OLIVER RL ldquoThe dimensionality of consumption emotion patterns and consumer satisfactionrdquo Journal of Consumer Research vol 18 no 1 pp 84ndash91 1991
[WIL 98] WILLIAMS KW OrsquoREILLY CA ldquoDemography and diversity in organizations a review of 40 years of researchrdquo Research in Organizational Behavior vol 20 pp 77ndash140 1998
[YAN 11] YANIV I ldquoGroup diversity and decision quality amplification and attenuation of the framing effectrdquo International Journal of Forecasting vol 27 pp 41ndash49 2011
[ZAP 02] ZAPF D ldquoEmotion work and psychological well-being a review of the literature and some conceptual considerationsrdquo Human Resource Management Review vol 12 pp 237ndash268 2002
[ZER 08] ZERBE WJ HAumlRTEL CEJ ASHKANASY NM (eds) Research on Emotion in Organizations vol 4 Emerald Group Publications Bingley 2008
[ZID 06] ZID R Comprendre le changement organisationnel agrave travers les eacutemotions Working paper University of Quebec Montreal 2006
[ZOU 16] ZOUHAOUI F BOISARD-CASTELLUCCIA S VAN HOOREBEKE D ldquoLa reacutesistance au changement expliqueacutee par le respect de lrsquoeacutequilibre cognition-eacutemotion le cas de lrsquoimplantation drsquoun nouveau logiciel dans une entreprise internationale de servicerdquo 6e colloque de lrsquoIseor avec divisions lsquoDeacuteveloppement Organisationnel et Changementrsquo et lsquoManagement Consultingrsquo de lrsquoAcademy of Management Lyon June 2016
Index
A B C
acting deep 20 33 35 39 surface 20 33 36
adjustment 8 adoption 82 affective 2 anger 6 authentic 84 balance 108 behavior 15 bias
champion 68 decisional 67
capacity 108 categories of emotions 2 change 98 cognition 13 16 55 62 77 95
108 113 cognitive 12 13 15 38 45 53
57 59 76ndash78 84 90ndash93 95 104 109
cohesion 85 collective 16 complex 96 conflict 90
contagion 15 50 61 68 81 82 85 87 90 93 96ndash99 101ndash103 111 emo-decisional 63 65 emotional 14
creativity 95
D E G
decision 11 dissonance
cognitive 13 49 61 91 emotional 14 25 33 36 39
40 45 78 99 divergence 100 diversity 89 e-motion 14 29 51 110ndash112 emotion 1ndash4 6ndash9 12 13 15ndash17
20ndash23 29 32 33 35 38ndash40 42ndash47 49 50 52 53 55ndash57 59 62 63 65 67ndash70 73 76ndash80 82 83 85ndash87 92 93 95ndash99 102 104 113
emotional plague 83 experimentation 103 expression 6 group 89 groupthink 68
The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management First Edition Delphine van Hoorebeke copy ISTE Ltd 2018 Published by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley amp Sons Inc
144 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
H I J
heterogeneity 94 hormones 14 43ndash46 57 imitation 15 impression 3 inhibition 8 13 14 31 43ndash49
96 98 intelligence 100
emotional 71 73ndash75 intensity 5 joy 6
K L M N
knowing 16 limbic 10 management 5
sunflower 68 mimicry 15 84 model 101 mood 3 negative 100 nervous system 7 norms 96
P R S T
perception 6 positive 100 process 3 7ndash9 12ndash16 19 22
31ndash33 35ndash39 42 46 50 52ndash54 56 57 60 61 63 65 66 71 74 75 77 80 81 84 85 89ndash91 94 95 98 101 111
rational 104 sadness 6 satisfaction 30 share 5 social influence 71 task-unrelated thoughts 95 temperament 3
V W
ventromedial regions 57 work
collaborative 96 collaborative remote 74 emotional 20 22 25 32 33
35 36 38 71 110
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WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENTGo to wwwwileycomgoeula to access Wileyrsquos ebook EULA
- Cover
- Half-Title Page
- Title Page
- Copyright Page
- Contents
- Foreword by Martine Brasseur
- Foreword by Claude Berghmans
- Preface
- Introduction
- 1 Emotion
-
- 11 Emotion a complex concept
- 12 Expression
- 13 An adjustment tool
- 14 A neurological system
- 15 A complex system
- 16 Subject to dissonance and inhibition
- 17 Contagion
-
- 2 Managing Individuals
-
- 21 The art of managing customer focus the relations dependent on monitoring and margins to maneuver
-
- 211 Organizational norms
- 212 Dissonances
-
- 22 The art of motivating commitment and satisfaction
-
- 221 Different types of commitment
- 222 Commitmentndashsatisfactionndashe-motion
-
- 23 The art of administering well the process approach a proactive and sustainable method
-
- 231 Emo-management a process that concerns everyone
- 232 A multitude of effects in the workplace
- 233 Levers for managing
-
- 24 The art of ensuring health and safety in the workplace well-being at work
-
- 241 A neurobiological process
- 242 Reasons to become ill
- 243 Real consequences
- 244 A schema like this in business
-
- 25 A factual approach for effective decision-making knowledge of the emotional decision-making process
-
- 251 Decision and emotion
- 252 Decision and emotion at the origin a rejection
- 253 Decision and the neurobiological process
- 254 Decision and emo-management
- 255 Decision emo-management and contagion
-
- 3 Managing a Collective
-
- 31 An evidence-based approach for effective collective
- 32 The art of leading authentic leadership and emotional intelligence
-
- 321 The manager and emotions
- 322 The manager and emotional intelligence
- 323 Is everyone capable of emo-managing
-
- 33 The art of reconciling the present with the future the principle of continuous improvement
-
- 331 Change and emotion
- 332 Change = trust = emotion
- 333 Change a shared emotional acceptance
- 334 Lever for the acceptance of change through
-
- 34 The art of bringing people together mutually beneficial relations with others and the social aspect of managerial responsibility
-
- 341 Collective emotion arsenal of emo-management
- 342 A paradoxical arsenal positive and negative effects
-
- 35 The art of managing diversity learning and creating collectively
-
- 351 Diversity between conflicts and group work
- 352 Managing diversity with emo-management
- 353 Emo-management a factor in diversity
-
- 36 A common point an essential element for collective intelligence emotional contagion
-
- 361 Emo-management dealing with emotional contagion
- 362 Mathematical and economic tools to better manage emotional contagion
-
- Conclusion
- Bibliography
- Index
- Other titles from iSTE in Innovation Entrepreneurship and Management
- EULA
-
The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
Delphine van Hoorebeke
First published 2018 in Great Britain and the United States by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley amp Sons Inc
Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study or criticism or review as permitted under the Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 this publication may only be reproduced stored or transmitted in any form or by any means with the prior permission in writing of the publishers or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licenses issued by the CLA Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the undermentioned address
ISTE Ltd John Wiley amp Sons Inc 27-37 St Georgersquos Road 111 River Street London SW19 4EU Hoboken NJ 07030 UK USA
wwwistecouk wwwwileycom
copy ISTE Ltd 2018 The rights of Delphine van Hoorebeke to be identified as the author of this work have been asserted by her in accordance with the Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988
Library of Congress Control Number 2018943317 British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 978-1-78630-292-2
Contents
Foreword by Martine Brasseur ix
Foreword by Claude Berghmans xiii
Preface xvii
Introduction xxi
Chapter 1 Emotion 1
11 Emotion a complex concept 1 12 Expression 6 13 An adjustment tool 8 14 A neurological system 10 15 A complex system 12 16 Subject to dissonance and inhibition 13 17 Contagion 14
Chapter 2 Managing Individuals 19
21 The art of managing customer focus the relations dependent on monitoring and margins to maneuver 19
211 Organizational norms 21 212 Dissonances 23
22 The art of motivating commitment and satisfaction 27 221 Different types of commitment 27 222 Commitmentndashsatisfactionndashe-motion 29
vi The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
23 The art of administering well the process approach a proactive and sustainable method 31
231 Emo-management a process that concerns everyone 32 232 A multitude of effects in the workplace 35 233 Levers for managing 38
24 The art of ensuring health and safety in the workplace well-being at work 42
241 A neurobiological process 43 242 Reasons to become ill 44 243 Real consequences 45 244 A schema like this in business 48
25 A factual approach for effective decision-making knowledge of the emotional decision-making process 52
251 Decision and emotion 52 252 Decision and emotion at the origin a rejection 53 253 Decision and the neurobiological process 57 254 Decision and emo-management 60 255 Decision emo-management and contagion 62
Chapter 3 Managing a Collective 65
31 An evidence-based approach for effective collective decision-making understanding the process of emo-decisional contagion 65 32 The art of leading authentic leadership and emotional intelligence 69
321 The manager and emotions 70 322 The manager and emotional intelligence 71 323 Is everyone capable of emo-managing 73
33 The art of reconciling the present with the future the principle of continuous improvement 75
331 Change and emotion 76 332 Change = trust = emotion 78 333 Change a shared emotional acceptance 81 334 Lever for the acceptance of change through emo-management 82
Contents vii
34 The art of bringing people together mutually beneficial relations with others and the social aspect of managerial responsibility 84
341 Collective emotion arsenal of emo-management 85 342 A paradoxical arsenal positive and negative effects 86
35 The art of managing diversity learning and creating collectively 89
351 Diversity between conflicts and group work 90 352 Managing diversity with emo-management 93 353 Emo-management a factor in diversity 94
36 A common point an essential element for collective intelligence emotional contagion 99
361 Emo-management dealing with emotional contagion 101 362 Mathematical and economic tools to better manage emotional contagion 101
Conclusion 107
Bibliography 115
Index 143
Foreword by Martine Brasseur
The management of emotions in companies is a necessity It is nevertheless a difficult challenge especially as emotions are associated with an inalienable liberty of the subject At first their spontaneous character appears to be in conflict with any attempts at management Even when addressing the question of emotional control and distinguishing perception from emotional expression at the risk of placing people in cognitive dissonance a second objection to the potential management of emotions seems to reside in the possible intervention of a third party into an intrapsychic process that each individual is already struggling to channel How can we move past the stage of philosophical debates like the ongoing one [DAR 95] opposing in particular the Earl of Shaftesbury1 who like the Stoics
1 ldquoIt may be objected here that these passions unnatural as they are carry still a sort of pleasure with them and that however barbarous a pleasure it be yet still it is a pleasure and satisfaction which is found in pride or tyranny revenge malice cruelty exerted Now if it be possible in nature that anyone can feel a barbarous or malicious joy otherwise than in consequence of mere anguish and torment then we may perhaps allow this kind of satisfaction to be called pleasure or delight But the case is evidently contrary To love and to be kind to have social or natural affection complacency and good-will is to feel immediate satisfaction and genuine content It is in itself original joy depending on no preceding pain or uneasiness and producing nothing beside satisfaction merely On the other side animosity hatred and bitterness are original misery and torment producing no other pleasure or satisfaction than as the unnatural desire is for the instant satisfied by something which appeases itrdquo [ASH 07 p 110]
x The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
called for a self-government outside of all external laws and all sanctions solely through the satisfaction of good deeds and Immanuel Kant for whom self-determination fell under individual will and consisted of imposing the application of moral law on oneself For both emotions are understood as passions that cloud or distort judgment This is not a matter for management because managing emotions would be reduced to personal discipline very far from the challenges of developing professional skills or interacting with others and reinforcing traditional conceptions that place emotions outside of the field of management
Delphine van Hoorebekersquos approach developed based on several scientific disciplines including sociology psychology and neuroscience is very different and allows her to address the complexity of motivations and emotional processes while demonstrating that their integration into management practices is not only possible but also represents an important performance factor Approaching management like a relational exercise requiring the development of human qualities in the people who practice it [CHA 90] she treats emotion as a manifestation resulting in a bias one consisting of ldquotaking something at face valuerdquo [THO 96b] Emotions come to play the roles of indicators or alerts Their capacity to make certain aspects of professional situations intelligible leads to an evocation of the existence of a form of emotional intelligence in line with Sartre [SAR 38] who considered that ldquoemotional consciousness is primarily consciousness of the worldrdquo or Robert Solomon [SOL 98] for whom emotions ldquodo not just happen to usrdquo they help us to face other people In its pedagogical development this book shows us step by step how emotions intervene in each step of management and what mechanisms managers should use
Over the course of these pages a model emerges of a professional practice that by considering the emotions of the subject and the role attributed to feelings toward other people comes to promote the recognition of humanity in the other while giving managers the opportunity to affirm their own existence as human beings It is
Foreword by Martine Brasseur xi
through the management of people this emo-management that is so aptly named that we can humanize management
Martine BRASSEUR Professor at the Universiteacute Paris-Descartes Chief editor of the interdisciplinary journal
Management Homme amp Entreprise
Foreword by Claude Berghmans
The management of organizations has experienced many evolutions and mutations in the last 50 years that are directly related to the multiple evolutions of our society (technological human economic and political) and the major organizational figures who compose it in the context of globalization From the scientific organization of labor in Taylorian structures to different methods of participatory management that we can observe in our current societies the changes have been numerous and varied New research disciplines and rich innovative conceptual contributions have appeared in human resources and management sciences under the necessary pressure of multiple social changes that we have observed in English-speaking countries Subsequently the globalization of these approaches appeared and today we find very similar management methods in different areas around the world moving toward a kind of standardization in the management of human capital The same organizational and managerial dynamics are found in major financial or industrial groups In addition there are also innovative areas similar to small groups or networks that can provide new modifications to the understanding of how our organizations work and outline new managerial development paths that highlight innovation limitless creativity boldness and emotional intelligence Notably we see this in the management models of companies in Silicon Valley that are increasingly discussed and that spotlight the spirit of innovation and risk-taking where imagination stands alongside large-scale industrial and financial projects This is true for both the
xiv The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
success of small start-ups that transform into titanic structures like Elon Muskrsquos SpaceX company that offers private spacecraft launches or the great monsters of GAFA (Google Amazon Facebook Apple) that are headed for world domination in their sectors Sometimes insignificant in their infancy these companies have succeeded in adapting and developing by relying on their human capital To do this many factors were necessary including the consideration of emotional intelligence as a participative process of management The role of emotions in companies is beginning to be felt in many organizations First studied from a psychological angle in the 1980s the consideration of emotions quickly became an essential and necessary element in the management of human capital in companies
In practice many HR managers address this question by trying to implement innovative approaches that allow them to develop and work on what some call ldquoemotional competencerdquo in order to make the most of it in the daily managerial practices of our colleagues All the same the concept is difficult and it is not so easy to integrate the management of emotions into the managerial best practices that an organization needs to optimize its performance French university research in management sciences is only just beginning in this field and there are many ways to approach it Of course there are several methods of working on emotions in managerial practices but what about their long-term effectiveness HR practitioners today need precise methodological and conceptual foundations based on serious experimental research that has been proven in order to benefit from a real expertise on the subject to provide clarity in a field that is still very abstract and to be guided through this type of approach
This is exactly the aim of Delphine van Hoorebekersquos book which based on several years of research about managing emotions brilliantly proposes a meticulous argument showing that emotions are found in most management innovation and decision-making processes in large companies Emotions have long been underestimated in companies Here the author shows how managerial practices are connected to managing emotions whether it is at the level of decision-making conflict management or emotional contagion Her work highlights the important role of emotions in life
Foreword by Claude Berghmans xv
skills and the professional interactions that we observe in the daily life of our organizations Too long studied and perceived as a thinking machine employees are emotional beings who need to thrive and use the emotional potential that they possess in order to optimize their individual and collective performances within their organization Developing our emotional intelligence to optimize our managerial practices is becoming a necessity at the start of the 21st Century where the dynamics of change are numerous and continue to accelerate The future of our companies will need colleagues who can consider a larger facet of our cognitive potential and base themselves on what optimal emotional management can contribute to our daily work Not accounting for emotions within companies is nonsensical From now on we must equip ourselves with solid and precise foundations for comprehension that allow practitioners in organizations to implement the use of this concept and provide pragmatic approaches that are adapted to the needs of organizations
This book offers a new vision of management where emotions play an important role at both the individual and collective levels Using a clear and didactic approach the author offers us the possibility of constructing a precise understanding of emotional management and its implications at the level of individual and collective management processes that are necessary to all successful organizations It is an innovative and indispensable tool for anyone who wishes to reflect on the matter and optimize the management practices of their companies in order to equip themselves with tools and especially specific frameworks that underscore the necessity of developing the emotional aspects of our modes of management that often still respond to the cold logic of past organizational models The consideration of emotions in our managerial practices is now a necessity for responding to todayrsquos growing performance requirements
Claude BERGHMANS HR Manager
Eurofoil Luxembourg SA
Preface
Management is in the process of restructuring In an era of remote collaborative work (where cooperation is both inter-cultural and asynchronous) the social responsibility of companies (where a collaboration is envisioned between the stakeholders in a company) and uberization (where every person becomes their own employer subject to the opinions of clients and harsh market forces) the management of people in the workplace requires some adjustment in order to consider the neurological psychological and psychobiological aspects of human beings in both their ways of managing and of being managed and in the consequences of their management for themselves and others Faced with technologies management must rediscover its humanity to secure its position This expression of the ldquohumanizationrdquo of the human is based on the fact that in companies until now humans have only very rarely and exceptionally been considered as a whole often they were considered to be only robots (bodies) brains (heads) and above all beings without emotions which are often viewed as sentimentality at work (hearts) However the soft skills that are so sought-after in management today are based on a combination of these three pillars
The many behavioral issues and reactions of a group which often explain the failure or success of a given project depend on this consideration and a holistic understanding of the human at work This necessity is all the more fundamental because the current problem is
xviii The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
part of a radical change in our society with no one arguing the need for a new economic paradigm The new order of the economy in the making prompts us to change the reasoning and model of human relations
Driven by social networks and societal economic and environmental evolutions human relations are led to change Here one element takes a position that was unexpected until now disrupting several accepted meanings the heart
ldquoThe increase in hearts in the production process will shake up companies and society1 [hellip] The power of the heart the capacity to work together to establish trust beyond a simple transactionrdquo becomes an essential commodity in the economy that lies ahead in the coming years ldquoWe have reached a time when the rational manager model and its basic premise the rational actor are exhaustedrdquo explained Chanlat [CHA 03] in 2003 in his article ldquoEacutemotions organisation et management une critique sur la notion drsquointelligence eacutemotionnellerdquo in the journal Travailler
Although the term ldquomanagementrdquo was originally used to indicate a way to ride a horse (managere to guide by hand) the emotional aspect has long been removed from it However horse riding is renowned for a specific feature the respect of the animal and of the humanndashanimal relationship This situation is related to the confrontation between emotion and rationality Philosophers have often extolled the virtues of rationality through for example Descartesrsquo famous phrase ldquoI think therefore I amrdquo [DEC 37] Emotion was therefore perceived as a deviance Yet thanks to the developments and advancements of research the place of emotion in management is becoming increasingly clear and verified Its role as a relational decisional tool even as a support for rationality has granted it an important place in the development of decision-making and collaborative work software tools If software makes it possible to follow an entirely ldquorationalrdquo logic managers and their teams need
1 For more details see httpswwwlesechosfridees-debatseditos-analyses0216206 97193-quand-les-entreprises-embaucheront-des-coeurs-1192532phpdOb8GWQrZ m5v90vD99
Preface xix
human contacts to decide collaborate innovatehellip Without privileging the new types of practices of a future increasingly digital management this book seeks to show that emotion is already present at all of these levels In addition the new practices already seem to be driving forces that will accelerate the different processes established and amplify emotional relationships To understand the emerging management it is essential to understand todayrsquos management through this aspect that is too often ignored even rejected despite being an explanatory factor in many problems
To do this by discussing emo-management and the management of people this text seeks to show how management is already predominantly composed of what we call ldquoe-motionsrdquo to emphasize their etymological significance put into motion It is a question of testing describing and illustrating the connections between management practices and psychological sociological and neurological components of e-motion Therefore its objective is to understand how emotion with its three pillars that are already in place can become essential in the future In a context where collaborative work is increasingly happening remotely supported by software tools management becomes a true tool of group coaching mediating instructing and a factor of managerial innovation According to a great deal of research in this type of collaboration of social responsibility a group needs a physical marker to avoid chaos and ensure that it performs well This is the future role of the manager that is emerging Through two elements the management of individuals and the management of a group this book describes the intervention of e-motion at each level from the client relationship to group management passing through the process approach and individual and collective decision-making
The body of this text reveals the presence of two factors playing on paradoxes e-motion and its contagion At the individual level e-motion supports the good relationships but can also be the source of bad relationships especially when it is inauthentic E-motion both encourages well-being and yet can provoke health problems It supports decision-making but it can demonstrate a decisional bias At the collective level it can help with collaborative work and also play
xx The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
a central role in amplifying group idiosyncrasies (jealousy for example) Its contagion is also at the origin of genuine positive competition in the group and genuine collective self-destruction Management cannot escape these dimensions Faced with a future of homo collectivum where the social aspect is central emo-management assumes its full importance
Delphine VAN HOOREBEKE May 2018
Introduction
ldquoAnyone who uses violence knocks over beer or pronounces offensive language will be reprimandedhelliprdquo states the French register of the association of baker apprentices in 1904 In 2012 the baker apprentice handbook1 specifies ldquoProfessional attitudes and behaviors punctuality personal hygiene [hellip] sense of responsibilities industriousness teamwork attention to detailhelliprdquo The management of workplace behavior is not new and it has evolved a great deal If at the start the goal was to avoid intense emotions we now find more moderate terms Have they become independent of all emotion
If in the Middle Ages lower class gatherings were dominated by rowdiness and confusion whilst the behavior of the elite in the European courts was restrained and refined [ELI 94] In the 15th and 16th Centuries emerging associations of merchants and artisans attempted to regulate mutual interactions Among the regulations established by these associations we find the foundations of our current meeting procedures In the 17th Century a Spanish priest [GRA 05a] developed strategic refinement The advice that his book Oraculo manual y arte de prudencia (The Art of Worldly Wisdom) [GRA 05a] offers does not only recommend specific rules of behavior
1 Available online at httpcsmocaorgpdfcarnetapprentissageboulangerjuin 2012pdf
xxii The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
but also outlines the goal of developing a position of power In this book we find an undeniable emotional aspect
ndash ldquoThe passions are the gates of the soul The most practical knowledge consists of disguising themrdquo (p 98)
ndash ldquoDo and be seen doing Things do not pass for what they are but for what they seem To be of use and to know how to show yourself of use is to be twice as usefulrdquo (p 130)
ndash ldquoThe art of getting into a passion [hellip] The first step towards getting into a passion is to announce that you are in a passion By this means you begin the conflict with command over your temper for one has to regulate onersquos passion to the exact point that it is necessary and no further This is the art of arts in falling into and getting out of a ragerdquo (p 155)
ndash ldquoDo not pass for a Hypocrite [hellip] Sincerity should not degenerate into simplicity nor sagacity into cunningrdquo (p 219)
ndash ldquoAnticipate injuries and turn them into Favors [hellip] for he leaves no time for injuries that fills it up with gratituderdquo (p 259)
These different premises form the foundation of contemporary rules of conduct This advice is very indicative of the place of emotions and the management that they require in order not to fall into non-conformity Today at the intersection of production policies business collaborative work and uberization more and more individuals in our society have adopted them
This has not always been the case In the first industrial organizations only the directors of companies and their immediate environment enjoyed this type of consideration The employees were required to follow rules that notably resembled those of the registers of associations in the 15th Century Today the image of the organization as a pyramid of command and control is no longer compatible with the modern design of the company that is increasingly turning toward units in a network Exchange and horizontal coordination are in order Employees must have the ability to cooperate calmly and to adjust their behavior upon request In this
Introduction xxiii
context hierarchical conduct of superiority becomes incompatible Expressing a robust confidence keeping onersquos composure and directing others strategically are no longer the issue Interdependency requires reducing modeled behaviors and increasing more informal mannerisms These informal mannerisms require interlocutors to test themselves and test the other person in the relationship Because of this the individual must only rely on their own judgment and manage their own emotions [ELI 94]
To simplify two types of emotions appear in companies negative and positive Concerning the negative emotions jealousy disappointment anger gossip and power struggles constantly occupy individuals at work According to the website of Thibodeau2 a human resources consultant an emotion is a tool to reach a previously decided goal ldquoYou should not use a screwdriver if you want to drive in some nails you should choose a hammerrdquo According to this author the same thing applies to emotions Certain emotions seek to control others in order to obtain something For example people use anger as a way to get others to obey them Others use hate to get back at someonehellip Does this work Not always and when it does the results are only temporary In the medium- and long-term the use of anger grudges resentment criticism blame intimidation threats shaming and other emotions of the same type to manipulate or control others or to get something from them degenerates into major conflicts and sometimes a distressing failure Other emotions can plague us and prevent us from getting what we want They are presented in the form of fears that can generate various blockages
However there are also emotions like enthusiasm joy love passion and pleasure These emotions facilitate good relationships with others The rationalization of interaction in our modern organizations calls for taking charge managing the ldquoirrationalityrdquo of emotions and notably the so-called ldquonegativerdquo emotions Employees are encouraged to seek to express themselves authentically They learn to be more direct and also more respectful and flexible as evidenced
2 Available online at http wwwpsycho-ressourcesombibliemotions-et-croya nceshtml
xxiv The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
by articles found in the mainstream press In the French newspaper Les Eacutechos an article called ldquoLes eacutemotions dans lrsquoentrepriserdquo [BAT 02] tells us ldquoThe hour no longer belongs to the docile employee who is never responsible or guiltyrdquo The difficulty of managing emotions that are considered negative often leads to greater stress For Arriveacute [ARR 01] not expressing anything aside from the suffering that this conduct induces cuts us off from all real relationships and creates aggressive attitudes related to the frustration The most destructive ways of reducing this stress such as gossip insinuations cynicism paranoia and disagreements can drive the organization to a breaking point The pressure of growing interdependencies and the capacity to manage it are so precarious that a dynamic of increasing friction is very likely to develop For proof an article in the French newspaper Libeacuteration entitled ldquoDeacutemunis face aux tensionsrdquo [DAU 99] features an interview with the sociologist Vincent Dubois [DUB 08] who recounts the case of tellers for family allowance funds in his book La vie au guichet ldquoI have seen agents break down on several occasions they let themselves boil over they are no longer able to separate the personal from the professional [hellip] All this creates tensions and an uncomfortable situationrdquo (p 3) Humans must be able to manage this type of situation that they may encounter to overcome this frustration They must be able to express themselves and liberate their emotions
Faced with this first shift managers are not spared either Now they must decide on a rational and optimal way of managing their emotions and those of others by demonstrating emotional intelligence showing that they are responsible and ensuring well-being This has become so important that in the article ldquoThe happiness machine how Google became such a great place to workrdquo (2013) Farhad Manjoo wrote ldquo[hellip] there was the happiness problem Google monitors its employeesrsquo well-being to a degree that can seem absurd to those who work outside Mountain Viewrdquo [MAN 13] Yet if the concept of emotion evokes something for everyone then we must be able to understand it and pinpoint it even more so when it comes to managers This is what we hope to accomplish with this book understanding this kind of ldquoliving beingrdquo in order to manage more responsibly
Introduction xxv
In fact currently and parallel to an exacerbated collectivism accountability emerges The organization and its management modify their vision of things their way of operating and gain responsibility A change in how they operate or how they view their operations In this context managing in contemporary companies requires specific skills that make it possible to
1) create rapport that is based on a common identity
2) generate a social cohesion between different talents in the company
3) but also make good decisions very quickly
4) establish well-being in the workplace
5) secure the acceptance of changes that are indispensable for the flexibility of the organization faced with a market that is constantly evolving
6) be accountable
In our view future management depends on a collective intelligence a governance a responsible dimension that considers people in the workplace (managers and employees) to be an overall entity one complete and complex being that is both cognitive and intuitive physical and emotional
At this level the complexity of management takes on its full meaning To ensure a thoughtful integration of the new management on the horizon for companies the latter must consider people in the workplace in all their complexity This leads us to move beyond the studies that have already been conducted for more than 20 years to move past divisions and to show that management should be considered holistically In our opinion the current management on the ground has an unfortunate tendency to limit itself by acting on elements that are too specific Far be it from us to say that points of detail should be neglected but they remain restrictive Acting on an ad hoc basis is more conducive to being reactive than proactive Emo-management advocates understanding the quality of life the quality of human relations the quality of work relations and the quality of choices made
xxvi The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
The other particularity of emo-management is that it takes into consideration the stakeholders in the company These stakeholders are not restricted to only contractual parties but constitute a much larger set including ldquoany group or individual that can affect or be affected by the decisions and the realization of an organizationrsquos objectivesrdquo [FRE 84 p 48] and that ldquovoluntarily or involuntarily assumes a risk because of the companyrdquo [CLA 95] In the context of these theories the sought-after rule is cooperative balance [CAP 07] This means that the success of a strategy requires considering the interests of all stakeholders as emphasized by Jones and Wicks [JON 99] in order to be effective [FRE 99] However Vatteville [VAT 03] underscored the difficulty of governing stakeholders because they often have different or even competing objectives As noted by Capron and Quairel-Lanoizeleacutee [CAP 07] the issues at stake require implementing mediation and compromises that satisfy the majority of the parties concerned The new managerial rules based on collectivism (the search for a quantitative and qualitative collective wealth) [ASS 09] once again assign great importance to e-motion
To unlock the mysteries of this new and more complex vision of management which aims to manage a variety of stakeholders and an increase in individual interests using collective intelligence it is indispensable to conduct a study and analysis of human behavior through emotions which are seen as a natural biological psycho-cognitive psycho-sociological and neurological element
Historically after even the idea of the existence of emotions in animals had been rejected by scientific research Charles Darwin the founder of the theory of evolution in 1872 defined emotion as the ability of the living organism to adapt and survive He saw it as innate universal and communicative It is only in the last 20 years that emotions have been studied in social contexts In fact not long ago there was still a concerted effort in psychology to dismiss emotion from research emotions were considered ldquoan unscientific concept characterized by subjectivismrdquo [LAZ 91] an epiphenomenon From a behavioral point of view emotion was ultimately perceived as a
Introduction xxvii
ldquomotivatorrdquo something that influences the choice of an individual in response to an internal or external stimulus It is recognized that an emotion exists in both the personal and individual dimensions of a person It forms this ability to adapt and change a link that establishes our relationships and allows us to interact with the other Recent studies (in particular the many studies by OrsquoRegan in the 2000s) in cognitive research have demonstrated that emotions are a combination of several biochemical sociocultural and neurological factors They are translated by specific reactions motor (muscle tone shaking etc) behavioral (inability to move agitation escape aggression etc) and physiological (pallor flushing pulse acceleration palpitations sense of discomfort etc) These have become integral parts of human beings and their daily life Everyone manages their emotions daily and in doing so as noted by Hochschild [HOC 83] the management of emotions becomes a dominant aspect of social life with a capital ldquoSrdquo Emotions are at present considered to be a central concept and theories have multiplied As proof many disciplines study emotions The life sciences study the role of emotions in mental processes disorders and neural mechanisms such as psychiatry and psychology and also linguistics and education (concerning the role of emotions in learning) The social sciences often examine emotions for the role that they play in human culture and social interactions through anthropology ethology criminology law political science communication philosophy and even history where the discipline examines documents and other sources to interpret and analyze activities in the past and speculate about the emotional state of the authors of historical documents as a tool of interpretation In addition two facets of research that could seem contradictory to the irrational aspect attributed to emotions have been developed In the field of economics micro-economics examines production distribution and the consumption of goods and services in order to evaluate the role of emotions in the perception of decision-making and purchasing risk In the field that this text belongs to management science the intervention of emotions in companies is studied in the decisions of directors the behavior of employees and even customers
xxviii The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
The enthusiasm for emotions in these varied types of research corroborates the interest in their study in all areas of life including at work and in people management Supporting our position McAllister [MCA 95] explained that research in management recognizes that a large part of managerial work is accomplished through interpersonal interaction and that the nature of the relations between managers and their peers can determine their capacity to accomplish their work In this sense in its biological neurological and psychological aspects the contribution of emotion to modern management in daily life seems undeniable However at a time when work is becoming increasingly collaborative when we ask managers to listen to colleagues to show humility to know how to recognize their errors and to demonstrate empathy and when research on the subject is extensive and has been for several years now [ASH 17] can we consider that management can and must contemplate their intervention in a more in-depth way To answer this question after establishing a quick synopsis of the original definitions and concepts of emotion the goal is to show the role of emotions in decision-making change management authority and social relations between and within companies through a theoretical analysis and review of recent literature in management neurology and psychology
Starting from its original definition the term ldquomanagementrdquo comes from the French word ldquomeacutenagementrdquo borrowed by the English and later reintroduced into French in a somewhat modified form It is commonly defined by consensus as a set of techniques aiming to optimize the use of resources in an organization (company administration or even association) in order to realize an objective Based on these origins the management of teams and resources requires a capacity to know how to handle them (as in the adage ldquoslow and steady wins the racerdquo) According to Le Littreacute the term ldquomanagementrdquo describes this discipline as an art ldquothe art of directing steering handling motivatinghellip even the action of regulating effectively administering wellrdquo The history of management shows both the novelty of the discipline and the rapid evolution of mentalities in this area from Taylor with his scientific organization of
Introduction xxix
labor that was attuned to precision and rationality passing through Fayol with his functional approach to a management that was predictive organizing decisive coordinating and controlling to Weber with what some call the ldquotechno-scientific knowledgerdquo in management sciences knowledge resulting from combinations of different areas of research to improve the organization
Management (managing by hand) and ldquoemo-managementrdquo (managing emotions) Guiding by hand and managing emotions are two systems that may seem incompatible However the management of a horse by hand presumes trust from the animal Managing the emotions of a human presumes trust and an art of action and behavior
In its historical context management has undergone several theoretical and practical advancements in every area related to it and notably recently in terms of the social responsibility of companies ethics and governance In this regard Lewin [LEW 51] introduced the individual actor at the center of the organization by showing that a grouprsquos behavior is prompted by the manager According to Mercier [MER 99] managers have social influence and determine the spirit and values of companies a term that is commonly used in management [FRA 10] and their actions serve as a reference for the desired conduct The ethics of managers also have a direct influence on workplace behaviors according to Hiregravech3 Through interpersonal trust created by the perception of the ethical behavior of a manager and procedural justice a concept that encourages the assessment of manager ethics the employee will develop organizational citizenship
We believe that emo-management is inherently connected to the ldquointelligentrdquo understanding integration and regulation of emotions and this is what this text suggests Whether it is at the individual or collective level management cannot simply withdraw and omit emotions since they are an integral part of what humans do in all areas of life After establishing a description of what emotion is to
3 Available online at httpsbasepubdauphinefrbitstreamhandle1234567892883 Hireche_Loreapdfsequence=2
xxx The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
complete our demonstration we will consider Le Littreacutersquos definition of management broken down into two parts the individual level and the collective level
In these parts several management approaches are described based on the intervention of emotions
ndash The first approach concerns ldquocustomer focusrdquo or the art of establishing an authentic relationship with clients it has one principle efficient client relations Companies depend on their clients and count on their managers to lead a team that will take good care of them It is therefore important that its members understand their present and future needs meet their demands and strive to exceed their expectations To reach this goal the customer focus must be experienced and authentic Customer relations can be subject to organizational and occupational standards which can lead to emotional cognitive or conative dissonances The objective is through a literal analysis of a rating scale of these dissonances to attempt to limit them and in doing so minimize their negative effects such as ldquoinappropriaterdquo and inauthentic behavior that should be avoided in customer relations and causes distrust in the relationship This objective can in this context prove to be an invaluable aid for management
ndash The second approach ldquothe art of motivating commitment and satisfactionrdquo indicates that some studies have shown or demonstrated the interrelations between commitment and emotion in the workplace In this sense effective and intentional commitment cannot anchor certain practices within a company if it is imposed inhibited falsified or simulated
ndash The third approach ldquothe art of administering well the process approach a sustainable and proactive methodrdquo describes the process of creating workplace behaviors The description of this process based on a global approach (biological psychological cognitive and emotional) encourages managers to consider how they themselves function internally as well as how their colleagues operate and indicates existing management mechanisms to them
Introduction xxxi
ndash The fourth approach is based on ldquothe art of assessing workplace health and safety well-being at workrdquo It must be considered that responsible management cannot overlook the consideration of health and safety in the workplace This section describes the emotional aspect and its biological effects related to psychosocial risks at work
ndash The fifth approach concerns ldquothe factual approach for effective decision-making understanding the irrational decision processrdquo This approach develops in detail the process of decision-making elaborated by Berthoz [BER 03] and Damasio [DAM 94] This biological process describes the impact of emotions and the limbic system on decision-making in neurological terms In our view knowledge of how this works is more than essential for management to integrate the systems and factors that lead to a good or bad decision in its individual or collective aspects
ndash The sixth approach describes ldquothe art of leading authentic leadership and emotional intelligencerdquo This shows that leadership which can lead to responsible management according to Le Bas [LEB 04] is generated by authentic expression Studies on the subject go so far as to demonstrate that even anger when appropriate and expressed according to certain rules of decorum corresponds to an expectation of employees
ndash The seventh approach ldquothe art of reconciling the present to the future a pure principle of continuous improvementrdquo highlights the acceptance of change necessary for prospective actions and the continuity of the company which is compelled to adapt to market developments and imposed standards In this regard employees play a crucial role with their acceptance of change The latter depends on a connection of established and lasting trust to avoid having to confront conflicts refusals and resistance (voluntary or not) to the process of change implemented
ndash The eighth approach indicates that management is the art of bringing people together based on one principle mutually beneficial relations with others The art of bringing people together cannot happen without a leaderrsquos charisma Nevertheless in addition to this
xxxii The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
important factor this section presents the role of contagion and the contagious aspect of one or more individuals leading the group team or meeting whether it consists of colleagues suppliers clients or any other stakeholder An organization and its suppliers are interdependent and mutually beneficial relations increase joint capacities to create value Contagion cannot be established without a relationship of trust like the effect that a crowd movement can have on social interaction group cohesion cooperative exchanges and social inclusion or isolation
ndash The ninth approach ldquothe art of managing diversity learning and creating collectivelyrdquo highlights the effect of insights and emotions on activities for groups with multiple diversities Diversity is no longer sought in a single logic of equality but also in a logic of learning about difference and performance Managing diversity requires not only managing cognitive conflicts but also and especially more complex affective conflicts In this regard positive emotional contagion can prove to be a mechanism for cohesion and collective learning regardless of the heterogeneity and diversity of individuals and encourage performance
ndash The final approach focuses on a point that recurs in the other approaches emotional contagion a critical point of a group contagion a new collective ldquointelligencerdquo management tool Like the effect that a strike can have on social cohesion and cooperation contagion is present at all levels of the company internally and externally This can foster support as much as defiance conflict and dissolution Contagion resulting from emotion is purely innate to human beings As social beings since our origins we often seek activity in groups imitate our peers through mimicry to affirm our belonging and our real desire and ability to act like others The objective is not to be marginalized or excluded from the group
As specified earlier these different approaches are divided into two large sections managing individuals and managing a collective The future of management is no longer in individualism but in the collective and so particular emphasis is placed on the collective
Introduction xxxiii
Paradoxically on this point this text is in agreement with Descartes famous for his phrase ldquocogito ergo sumrdquo According to him the individual can be considered as a means to assess individual talents to construct a viable collective organization a social intelligence In 1649 in his book The Passions of the Soul he wrote the following in article 156 [DES 49]
ldquoThose who are Generous in this way are naturally inclined to do great things and yet to undertake nothing they do not feel themselves capable of And because they esteem nothing more highly than doing good to other men and for this reason scorning their own interest they are always perfectly courteous affable and of service to everyone And along with this they are entirely masters of their Passions ndash particularly Desires Jealousy and Envy because there is nothing whose acquisition does not depend on them which they think is worth enough to deserve being greatly wished forrdquo4
In fact to ensure efficient lasting and responsible collective management individuals cannot be considered as single entities in a group They are in this book at all times perceived as a distinctive being equipped with reason and emotion In a collective individuals must be able to obtain personal recognition and self-esteem fulfill their own needs and feel satisfied about being committed in a continuous fashion in their company and its projects It is notably this paradox of collectivismindividualism that makes this new vision of management sophisticated especially when we understand that it is based on a non-negligible emotional aspect emo-management
4 Translation taken from the 1989 English edition translated by Stephen Voss and published by Hackett Publishing Company
1
Emotion
11 Emotion a complex concept
Mr Baume just got a telephone call from a dishonest customer He hung up in anger and left to smoke a cigarette A commercial manager must not show his emotions Ms Nathaly is thrilled about her performance She thinks she will get a bonus Can she show her joy Some people will be happy for her but others will be disappointed that they did not do as well These are specific examples of emotions in companies Why are they so complex to manage
First to understand them well a detailed definition of the term ldquoemotionrdquo is necessary This immediately poses a problem however as emotion remains a notion that is vague and difficult to define [ALV 02] because it is idiosyncratic that is specific and unique to each individual creating several definitions and roles Etymologically speaking emotion comes from the Latin ex (exterior) and movere (motion movement) In his book Esquisse drsquoune theacuteorie des eacutemotions (Sketch for a Theory of the Emotions) Sartre [SAR 38 p 62] defines emotion as ldquoan abrupt drop of consciousness into magic We have seen how during an emotion the consciousness abases itself and abruptly transmutes the determinist work in which we live into a magical worldrdquo1 This idea of a magical world shows
1 Translation taken from the 1994 English edition translated by Philip Mairet and published by Routledge
The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management First Edition Delphine van Hoorebeke copy ISTE Ltd 2018 Published by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley amp Sons Inc
2 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
how closely tied emotions are to a spiritual realm that is difficult to discern
Emotions have in fact been categorized by several studies For example Shaver et al [SHA 87] established a hierarchical typology on a sample of 213 students starting from Averillrsquos [AVE 75] A Semantic Atlas of Emotional Concepts which contains 558 words with emotional connotations At the base of this typology they define five or six basic categories of emotions love joy surprise anger sadness and fear
Emotion is also distinguished from other concepts like mood and impression by several differentiating criteria although Ledoux [LED 98] and Damasio [DAM 94] do not agree on the subject One advocates for similarity and the other for differentiation
We will base this section on the writings of Derbaix [DER 87] which are more widely accepted According to him the affective includes emotions impressions humors [DER 87] and motivations [BAT 86] Derbaix and Pham [DER 89] distinguished these seven affective types through the intermediary of
1) the degree of specificity of the intended target or the stimulus provoking the reaction (emotion unlike preference depends more on the person than the stimulus)
2) the somatic and autonomic intensity (emotions are more intense than mood and are associated with a higher level of alertness)
3) the frequency of somatic and autonomic experiences (emotions are always accompanied by such experiences)
4) durability (feelings are more lasting than emotions)
5) the desire to control a facial or bodily expression the possibility of controlling the expression (an emotion is more difficult to control than a judgment)
6) the probability of a fundamental subjective experience (the probability of the awareness of emotions is high)
Emotion 3
7) the importance of cognitive antecedents and cognitive processes afterwards
Derbaix and Pham [DER 89] summarized several conceptions and organized emotion which they prefer to call ldquothe affectiverdquo into seven categories
1) Shock emotion (eg surprise) which is the most affective of reactions it translates into violent but brief psychological reactions such as laughter sobbing rage and neuro-vegetative phenomena palpitations tightness in the throat momentary paralysis even fainting as in fear
2) Impression emotion (eg pride) less anarchical more lasting and also spontaneous such as the aesthetic emotion produced by musical execution moral indignation at the spectacle of a revolting act etc
3) Mood [GAR 85] (eg melancholy) must be distinguished from emotion [FRA 94] because it is considered to be less severe more invasive and more ephemeral than felt emotions [BAT 86] In addition the psychological urgency of emotion its motivational potential and its situational specificity are comparatively greater [WES 91]
4) Temperament more related to the personality of the individual
5) Preference (eg the ranking of brands) also related to the personality of the individual
6) Attitude (eg an opinion)
7) Appreciation (eg evaluation of alternatives) corresponds to the most cognitive reaction
To this typology Vincent [VIN 86] added passion which has the primitive sense of ldquosufferingrdquo indicating a passive character as opposed to the notion of movement in emotions ldquoguided actionsrdquo It is defined as a ldquoviolent state of feelings that bring us toward another person (passionate love) or toward another object that consumes our mind (passion for gambling for example)rdquo (p 19)
4 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
Plutchik [PLU 80] established a circumplex model of emotions2 (Figure 11)
Figure 11 The wheel of emotions (source Plutchik [PLU 80]) For a color version of this figure see wwwistecoukvanhoorebekemanagementzip
Plutchikrsquos wheel of emotions has the advantage of displaying words that are easily comprehensible and distinguish the degree of the perception Although the words make it possible to discern the degree does their experimentation allow it as easily This is where Peter and Olson [PET 96] suggested distinguishing the emotion based on the
2 Available online at httpmassilia-coachingcomwp-contentuploads201310roue-des-eacutemotionspng
Emotion 5
degree of physiological excitation and the intensity of the perception (see Table 11)
Type of affective response
Degree of physiological
excitation
Intensity or strength of perception
Examples
Emotions Strong degree of
excitation and activation
Very strong Joy love fear
guilt anger
Specific perceptions
Appreciation satisfaction
warmth disgust sadness
Mood Alert relaxed
calm indifferent tired
Evaluations Weak degree of excitation and
activation Very weak
Good favorable appreciated bad
unfavorable
Table 11 Differentiation based on the degree of excitation (source Peter and Olson [PET 96 p 50])
These researchers concluded that emotions reflect psychological reactions and experiences They realized that an essential part of experiencing emotions is emotional expression through various forms of interpersonal communication In fact individuals are naturally inclined to share their emotions with others Even when these emotions are not intentionally communicated they are often revealed through spontaneous non-verbal manifestations that are difficult to manage In addition modern society has created a new role for emotional communication According to Stearns [STE 93 p 24] ldquothe importance of managing emotions through talking rather than active expression has become a dominant themerdquo3 When individuals fail to express a traumatic event verbally they fail to come to terms with it
3 Translation taken from the 3rd edition edited by Michael Lewis Jeannette M Haviland-Jones and Lisa Feldman Barret published in 2008 by The Guildford Press
6 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
12 Expression
Above we wondered about the perception of the degree of emotion felt based on the degree of excitation If discernment becomes more complex what about perception by others
These emotions depending on their degree of perception are in fact expressed Perhaps only specialists in psychology are able to identify micro-expressions (expressions so fleeting and tiny that they are difficult to distinguish) but apart from a few specific cases the majority of individuals are capable of identifying an emotion from its expression Ekman and Oster [EKM 79] studied this and noted that they are also universal Figure 12 shows some examples of expressions of ldquobasicrdquo emotions With expressions ranging from anger to joy passing through aggressiveness disapproval sadness regret and disappointment this image shows that some emotions are clearly more perceptible than others further complexifying their precise definition I leave it to you to try the exercise
Figure 12 Examples of facial expressions of emotions (source Ekman and Oster [EKM 79 p 77])
Emotion 7
Emotions can certainly exist outside of interpersonal interactions Looking at the sun can produce joy Hurting yourself can provoke anger Nevertheless these are most often exceptions to the rule More typically emotions result from social interactions [AND 96] According to Ekman and Oster [EKM 79] emotions result from social interactions whether they are real remembered anticipated or imagined Some are particularly socially dependent like jealousy shame guilt embarrassment and pride According to Laborit [LAB 94] the nervous system is used to acting but this action occurs in a space or spaces that contain objects and beings If the same space is occupied by other individuals each person seeks to find the means to please themselves and preserve a nervous balance which creates competition between the parties in question The objective is to dominate the other in order to have the pleasure of freely expressing your emotions
Because it reveals emotion expression can also represent a way of dealing with or ldquofacingrdquo a situation in the interest of adapting to the environment The emotional response is therefore used as a process of adjustment to the environment The adaptation corresponds to the individualrsquos search for balance in relation to his environment This balance is sought through an adjustment process in response to an event [JAM 89] Perception makes it possible to structure individual behaviors in a normal way to fit the circumstances Motivation directs them toward goals that are likely to obtain satisfaction for the individual Learning ensures the acquisition and modification of behavior to improve the personrsquos effectiveness in accomplishing projects and thriving in the environment
Discerning emotions can sometimes prove complex but the objective of the emotional response is not limited to communicating with others as we have seen It is also a tool of adaptation through the signals that it sends
8 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
13 An adjustment tool
According to McCrae [MCC 84] emotional response is an adjustment tool that follows a process
ndash confrontation (holding fast and fighting for what I want trying to find the person responsible to change his mind etc)
ndash detachment (continuing as if nothing happened not letting the problem affect me refusing to think too much about it etc)
ndash self-control (trying to keep my emotions to myself preventing others from learning how bad this problem is etc)
ndash seeking out social support (talking to someone who can do something concrete to solve the problem accepting someonersquos sympathy and understanding etc)
ndash accepting responsibility (self-criticizing or lecturing myself realizing that I created the problem etc)
ndash evasive action (wanting the situation to go away or to be rid of it in some way trying to make myself feel better by eating drinking smoking taking drugs or medication etc)
ndash planning the solution to the problem (knowing what must be done and increasing my efforts so that it works having an action plan and following it etc)
ndash positive re-evaluation (changing for the better or maturing finding a faith etc)
Andersen and Guerrero [AND 96] explained that every social rule of behavior leads to modifying the expression of spontaneous emotions to be socially normal through simulation inhibition intensification de-intensification or substitution
ndash simulation involves feigning an emotion when the individual does not really feel it
ndash inhibition or neutralization entails the inverse process of simulation giving the impression of not feeling any emotion while the individual really does feel an emotion
Emotion 9
ndash intensification or maximization makes it possible to pretend to feel an intense emotion without really experiencing it
ndash de-intensification or minimization follows the same process as intensification but to express a less intense emotion than what is felt
ndash substitution involves expressing a totally different emotion from the one actually experienced
The individual has the power to act on his emotions when they are not of too great an intensity [GOL 97] Based on interactionist theories Drever [DRE 52] described the emotional process followed to adapt in three elements First the strong impulse to act in a certain way such as attacking or expressing affection for someone Then a model of physical change paired with this inclination to act which is generally accompanied by a mobilization in the interest of a final adaptation
Scherer [SCH 94] described four components of the emotional experience as a result of the processes detailed above
ndash the cognitive component that refers to the interpretation of the event that caused the emotion or the stimulus and to all changes that resulted based on individual perceptions and beliefs
ndash the willingness to act that corresponds to the increase or decrease in the desire of the individual to act Frijda [FRI 86] considered that this willingness to act can result in expressing an emotion or controlling it
ndash sensations which correspond to the valence of the emotion that is the pleasurepain dimension caused by the emotion experienced
ndash the physiological change that corresponds to the increase or decrease in the level of excitation and physiological reactions like sweaty palms or blushing
It should be noted that the presence of only one of these components is not sufficient to identify an emotional experience
10 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
Earlier Burgoon [BUR 93] showed for example that physiological change is not synonymous with emotional experience as physiological changes can occur due to physical exercise increased attention or a false movement which are non-emotional stimuli Supporting this interactionist theory this procedural aspect is also perceived in neurology
14 A neurological system
I think therefore I amI tremble therefore I am afraid Emotion is not incompatible with cognition but at the cerebral level it follows a process and activates very specific regions Cultural heritage has long opposed cognition and emotion the brain and the mind Emotions were therefore reserved for the domain of psychology and mental illness [LOS 02]
For more than a century however we have eagerly searched for the cerebral structures that could be responsible for emotions According to Dale [DAL 47] this began with Walter Cannon who studied subjects who suffered from brain lesions incapable of feeling certain emotions He deduced that the hypothalamus was a cerebral center of emotions In 1937 the anatomist James Papez went further He showed that the emotions experienced were related to the action of a circuit relating the hypothalamus to the medial cortex In 1952 Paul MacLean used the expression ldquolimbic systemrdquo for the first time This term was introduced in 1861 by the French anatomist Paul Broca famous for the Brocarsquos area to designate the ring shape of the medial part of the cortex (from the Latin limbus edge) [MON 05] The limbic system designates the affective brain of the rhinencephalon (the most ancient part of the cortex) which is the locus of emotions According to MacLeanrsquos theory this system is integrated It includes the amygdala the septum and the prefrontal cortex
MacLeanrsquos theory may seem basic today The brain and its emotional areas have since been widely examined Several emotions have been studied with precision thanks to new medical technologies like MRIs
Emotion 11
The current idea is that each emotion corresponds to a cerebral network [LED 97] At present neurologists agree on recognizing the absence of a single locus of emotions like reason motor function vision or language There are ldquosystems of interrelationsrdquo between several cerebral units
Some results have made it possible to emphasize the important advancements that are usable and accessible in management In his theory from 1977 Ledoux showed that when information is emotional patients cannot describe the object but can say what they feel His theory indicated that emotion passes through different circuits He is particularly interested in the emotion of anger [GAZ 78] He wrote a book The Emotional Brain which describes how it functions in an accessible way
In the same way in 1994 Damasio [DAM 94] published one of his most famous books Descartesrsquo Error He explains his experience with the case of Phineas Gage deprived of emotions following a stroke The results of his analysis show that decision-making cannot occur without emotions
Far from wanting to detail the function of the brain ndash with its synapses its 100 billion neurons its glial cells4 that are 10ndash50 times more numerous than the neurons its zones its four ventricles its lobes5 its gray6 and white matter its myelin7 ndash one thing is certain emotions occupy a significant place in the system of cerebral interrelations They follow neuronal and then hormonal processes in order to influence the soma (body) From a more psychological point of view emotions are also described from the perspective of a system of adaptation to the environment deepening the process of adjustment described above
4 These cells surround the neurons represent about 50 of the brainrsquos volume and produce myelin 5 Frontal parietal occipital and temporal lobes 6 The most superficial part of the brain 7 Extension of neurons a sheath around the axons of neurons
12 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
15 A complex system
As we have seen emotions follow a process This process is complex on both the neurological and psychological levels and in addition to their utility as an adjustment tool they form a whole system of adaptation to the environment This is where Lazarus [LAZ 91] explained the process based on the emotional reactions that correspond to a process of adapting to the environment
1) Inclination toward action which is non-observable because it refers to impulses that may or not be active
2) Subjective emotional experiences (often considered affective) that are non-observable
3) Personndashenvironment relations a connection between two complex sub-systems the states resulting from these sub-systems are interpretive
4) Adjustment processes which are often experienced by actions or thoughts that probably influence emotions
5) Assessment processes constituting the center of the cognitive-motivational-relational theory of emotions Individuals gauge their emotions based on the goals that they pursue their relation to the environment and what they know to be good or bad for them
6) A frustration which is derived from the inability to follow the goals that the individual set and can lead to a blockage and aggression after various negative affective responses
Weiss and Cropanzano [WEI 96] illustrated this emotional process using the example of the process concerning happiness and sadness without considering this structure for all kinds of emotions (Figure 13)
Emotion 13
Figure 13 Process of assessment for happiness and sadness (source Weiss and Cropanzano [WEI 96 p 35])
The latter process shows the different steps that emotions cover to reach expression Through this process and the descriptions we can see that emotion does not act alone but in interconnection with cognition
16 Subject to dissonance and inhibition
Dissonance in opposition to consonance is a difference that can exist between two elements Festinger [FES 57] discussed cognitive dissonance to define the cognitive difference that can exist between what the individual knows and what they actually experience
14 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
Middleton [MID 89] and Hochschild [HOC 83] referred to emotional dissonance to define the difference that can exist between what is felt by the individual and what he knows he must express These two types of dissonance are seen as psychological states that are difficult to bear by the individual
Biological studies go even further To summarize this research described in more detail in section 24 (ldquoan art of ensuring health and safety in the workplacerdquo) conducted by Friedman and Booth-Kewley [FRI 87] Laborit [LAB 94] and Quirk and Beer [QUI 06] among others it is proven that inhibition corresponds to a resistance to respond to an increase in adrenaline This resistance provokes the secretion of hormones resulting from negative emotions This secretion repeated and accumulated over time can weaken some organs forced to repeat the response to hormonal messages that are being sent incessantly by the brain These hormones resulting from what we call e-motions (a biological process that sets in motion) intervene internally in the human body
17 Contagion
Hatfield et al [HAT 94] defined emotional contagion as an automatic unintentional and generally unrecognized tendency to imitate and synchronize facial expressions body movements and vocalizations during meetings with other individuals In addition when the same characteristics are synchronized with another individual we are capable of feeling them through the emotions of the other person that is feeling the same or complementary emotions This emotional contagion can lead to the crowd effects and mass hysteria described by Le Bon [LEB 63] Emotions can in fact be synchronized or imitated and become contagious The synchronization appears when two individuals express similar behaviors or when one person responds to the behavioral changes of the other by adopting the same behavioral changes [AND 96]
Emotion 15
Emotional contagion is a phenomenon that is both behavioral [HAT 94] and neurological [IAC 05] This contagion is influenced by three cognitive emotional and neurological processes (mirror neurons insular cortex of the brain and the cortex) Sometimes these three processes coincide but sometimes the central nervous system directly controls mimicking emotional contagion and empathy through mirror neurons [IAC 05] According to some researchers the transmission mechanism is cognitive and related to conscious reasoning analysis and imagination justified by this transmission close to empathy Individuals imagine what they would feel in the otherrsquos place (empathy) and thereby share their emotions Another theory involves imitation and feedback According to this mechanism
1) Individuals tend to imitate and synchronize their movements automatically and unconsciously to the facial expressions voices postures muscles rhythm and behavior of others
2) This imitation is dependent on all reactions from the other In this order the individual tends to seize upon the emotion of others in order to reach several objectives not being marginalized identifying with the other through contemplation attempting to feel what the other feels in a situation and detaching from the other Some people consider that mirror neurons play a role in human evolution They allow humans to reproduce consciously (imitation) or not (mimicry) and adapt to both the other emotions and the situation
It can also be perceived as negative Le Bonrsquos theory [LEB 63] described a mental contagion among individuals leading them to find a mental unity a single mode of thinking for a group of individuals Sometimes this mental contagion leads to collective hallucination In this context Le Bon cites the example of the Belle Poule frigate8 This boat was searching in daylight for a cruiser9 from which it had been separated by a storm When a ship
8 Small escort boat 9 High-seas escort ship
16 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
in distress was signaled the entire crew alarmed described a raft loaded with waving castaways In the end the raft was nothing but a mass of tree branches
In conclusion this chapter has made it possible to highlight the fact that emotion follows a complex process is distinguished from other concepts such as sentiment affect and mood varies depending on degrees is essentially expressed in a bodily way and is endowed with contagion However emotion has several factors that remain complex or even indiscernible This does not help its deep understanding and management Nevertheless although emotion in the workplace is not always considered favorably its presence is undeniable The individual cannot let go at work even if they can feign it At the collective level it is all the more significant especially since it acts as an adjustment tool within the construction or deconstruction of interindividual relations The next two chapters describe how emotion intervenes first in management at the individual level and then at the collective level Management viewed at the individual level cannot be totally separated from the relation to the other because the managerial world almost never allows for being alone or totally cutting oneself off from the other regardless of the profession accountant computer engineer etc Individuals must often regulate their emotions alone especially when they are in contact with clients as explained by Hochschild [HOC 83] It is at this time that the individuals must be able to self-regulate their emotions know how to understand them know what is expected of them and how they can harmful or on the contrary beneficial The role of management is in this case to set the frameworks while leaving a wide margin to maneuver to establish an authentic relationship all while striving to follow and enforce the established standards This is shown by the different descriptions of emotions in psychology research an emotionndashcognition balance Quite the paradox
Emotion 17
On the Website of the ManpowerGroup10 a temporary employment agency
we can read ldquoIn 1994 the neuropsychologist Antonio Damasio showed that
lsquohuman beings need emotions to make decisions when their futures are at stake
and particularly when they are uncertainhellip It is irrational to think that these
decisions are made rationallyrsquordquo11
An interview with Franccediloise Gri (President of ManpowerGroup for southern
Europe and Manpower France) is also presented on the site ldquoUsing emotions
effectively allows the company and its key players to succeed [They] can become
formidable performance drivers when they are personally assumed by the
manager and shared constructively with his colleaguesrdquo
Emotion to unite teams
Franccediloise Gri believes that regardless of their hierarchical level the key
players in a company ldquoknow how to use their emotions as performance drivers
with a desire to succeed and sharerdquo They know how to celebrate ldquoa teamrsquos
victory a complex project to convince a client with shared joy tears and shoutsrdquo
But accepting emotion ldquoalso means bearing the difficult momentsrdquo in front of
their teams
Listening and daring to confront
Within reason practically this consists of ldquoprompting an emotional state []
by questioning an interlocutor with tact and pertinence and listening to oneself
and the otherrdquo Listening to the other person does not only mean paying attention
to his words ndash because the body also expresses emotions It also means venturing
to confront the other person when necessary However it is important to know
how to use emotion with discretion ldquoThere is no need for emotion everywhere
Find a balance Everything in moderationrdquo
Sharing emotions a ldquotipping pointrdquo
The article underscores that ldquosharing emotions can become a tipping point a
pertinent driving force uniting simplicity and emotionrdquo
Case Study 11 Specific example of considering emotion in companies
10 Available online at httpwwwmanpowergroupfrlemotion-au-service-du-management 11 Translation from the French
2
Managing Individuals
Managing individuals well involves not only knowing how to listen to them but also being able to understand them Lacking expertise in psychology managers must demonstrate empathy be sincere establish trust identify any seeds of discontent in the workplace and decide wisely There is a solution to mitigate the lack of psychological expertise understanding onersquos own functioning in order to be better able to understand the other person Chapter 1 showed how many studies notably in psychology have had difficulty in completely identifying emotions and the number of roles they can have especially in the many processes of adjusting and adapting to the environment These elements are assets for managers and their teams but it is still necessary to use the right tools and implement the right mechanisms With this in mind this chapter sets out to address individual management under the aegis of Le Littreacute and the different arts that make up management The art of managing customer focus motivating administering well ensuring health and safety and decision-making is depicted based on the role played by e-motions For a deeper understanding the three pillars (psychological sociological and neurological) are considered
21 The art of managing customer focus the relations dependent on monitoring and margins to maneuver
Organizations depend on their clients and so it is important that they understand their present and future needs satisfy their
The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management First Edition Delphine van Hoorebeke copy ISTE Ltd 2018 Published by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley amp Sons Inc
20 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
requirements and endeavor to go above and beyond their expectations Today in order to ensure that good quality service is provided to the customer base organizations train new employees after a period of socialization that teaches the rules and customs The existence of implicit or explicit behavioral norms caused Sutton and Rafaeli [SUT 90] to argue that employees are compelled by the hierarchy to express ldquonormative emotionsrdquo that help employees to gain control over others in a way that promotes the objectives of the organization [SUT 91]
In this respect the measure of the effectiveness of organizational behavioral norms cannot be limited to the strict adherence of the employees to formal rules of workplace behavior In fact employees must not only follow these rules but also other informal norms like the organizationrsquos values In addition the demands of the company and its management regarding contact with the customer go further than simply following the norms It requires authenticity in the behaviors expressed to the customer However this authenticity cannot exist without adhering to the norms and emotional perception [VAN 08b] Human behavior inevitably derives from experiencing emotions When employees do not feel this emotion but know that they should feel it to respond to the norms they simulate it like an actor wearing a mask or modify their emotion Research in the domain of emotions in the workplace calls this ldquosurface acting and deep actingrdquo [HOC 83] According to this author surface acting consists of feigning and wearing a mask while deep acting corresponds to expressing what the individual feels In the second case the individual conducts a ldquodeeprdquo work to try to perceive what he must express according to the norm According to Hochschild the first emotion felt really can be modified
The next problem posed for management concerns the effectiveness of the norms taught Are they accepted by the employees meaning will they be respected Could they be the cause of an ldquoabnormalrdquo or ldquoinappropriaterdquo behavior for the situation of a real inauthenticity (perceived by the customer) and of various negative consequences The act of imposing organizational norms can lead to an undeniable and unavoidable robotization when the
Managing Individuals 21
employee is forced to repeat this ldquoemotional laborrdquo in a redundant and incessant way [HOC 83] The employee rendered inauthentic experiences a dissonance which is intolerable over the long term
To manage this problem the first step is to take stock of the norms imposed at work and then list their probable negative consequences for the organization Then a tool can be used to manage them measuring the effectiveness of the norms in the context of a quest for authenticity and sincerity According to the philosopher Sartre [SAR 38] authenticity surpasses sincerity and is morally superior to it For Taylor the ideal of an individualrsquos authenticity supposes that he expresses beyond all social conformity his ldquointerior truthrdquo to which he must be faithful
211 Organizational norms
Rafaeli and Sutton [RAF 89] outline the existence of two types of behavioral norms that employees must follow at work These are in addition to societal norms that all individuals follow in private life occupational norms related to the role held by the individual and organizational norms unique to each company
ndash The first type corresponds logically to the expectations of the customer Rafaeli and Sutton [RAF 89] cite the example of bailiffs and bouncers who are paid to express hostility while undertakers must express sadness In contrast the expression of kindness and a positive attitude is expected for service jobs such as servers and salespeople They add that other roles call for suppressing emotion for example the Budget Minister must express neutrality especially when announcing the annual budget
ndash Organizational norms specify the companyrsquos expectations in matters of conduct based on the culture of the company They are sometimes disseminated through the book (the bible) in which they make reference to moral values
ndash Occupational norms are directly related to the position occupied and the behaviors that this position requires According to Rafaeli and Sutton [RAF 89] occupational and organizational norms are the primary influences on the expression of emotions at work The authors
22 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
do not separate them in their article claiming their difficult distinction They provide the example of doctors who must learn professional maintenance during their studies in medicine and must express this maintenance in the different hospitals where they practice In our view this example typically describes an occupational norm because it does not differ depending on the hospitals and instead depends on the role held
A study [VAN 08c] analyzes the impact of three levers (two preventative and one curative) that could make it possible to facilitate emotional labor (uniforms scripts and emotionalized areas) The results establish a significant relationship between the item ldquostarting to feel joy if we pretend to be happy when we help clientsrdquo and the variable ldquopresence of a formal normrdquo (script) This link indicates not only that the fact of imposing behavioral norms can lead to feeling them as Hochschild [HOC 83] indicates but also offers a crucial element to ensure the leverage effect described above the fact of conducting emotional labor leads to emotional experience The quantitative results of the analysis also indicate that uniforms have a greater impact on surface acting than on deep acting They also show that if norms do not have a significant impact on the emotional labor of surface acting they do have a direct and significant connection with deep acting
A second study was conducted by analyzing the content of a dress code at an international bank operating in Switzerland This dress code stirred up multiple controversies due to certain things that it demanded of employees it went so far as to specify the undergarments that the staff must wear
Combined with the qualitative data these results support normalizing emotions in the workplace to allow employees to feel the emotion expressed This result supports Hochschildrsquos text [HOC 83] about the internal regulation of emotions experienced based on the emotions expressed Despite this as our results show the process of passing from appearance to feeling which can reinforce the feeling of ldquowell-beingrdquo hoped for by the company regarding the authenticity of the behaviors expressed is not systematic if normalization is too implicit Here are a few examples verbatim ldquoyou will feel better and improve your performance at workrdquo ldquothere are established connections between following this guide and lsquowell-beingrsquo at workrdquo ldquo[following this guide is] essential for pleasing others and yourself and also contributes decisively to your well-beingrdquo ldquofor aesthetic and hygienic reasons as well as for questions of general well-beingrdquo and ldquoan impeccable appearance can prompt inner peace and a feeling of securityrdquo
This is prescribed emotion as described by Ashforth and Humphrey [ASH 95] and critiqued by Watzlawick [WAT 80] for paradoxical injunctions like ldquobe spontaneousrdquo
Managing Individuals 23
The results obtained by these two interrelated analyses indicate that the managerial
levers put in place are not sufficient to ensure the expected emotional labor
influencing customer satisfaction nor even to guarantee the positive image of the
company The case studied is typical It shows that the company benefitted from a
great deal of publicity and articles about its approach to dress codes Nevertheless
international articles were very critical of the gesture made by the company even if
it was conducted totally legally What created the buzz was one detail of the dress
code requiring cream-colored undergarments This detail is a distinctive element of
the very directive aspect of the dress code described by this Swiss bank as a factor
in better performance Despite the efforts of the latter to indicate the recommended
or suggested nature of the guide it is significant that this variable seems far from
being sufficient to ensure authentic customer contact as a result of commitment and
a factor in customer satisfaction1
Case Study 21 Analysis of an internal dress code document
212 Dissonances
This type of managerial practice can cause a dissonance to appear between the inhibitory normalization of emotions and feeling
The perception of various somatic hormonal reactions is allowed through bodily expression This is how our research led us to evoke the notions of conative and behavioral dissonances downstream These two dissonances indicate the difference between the attitude and the behavior expressed by the individual and the attitude and the behavior that he knows is expected The company may hope for specific behaviors but the individual may want to express his emotion in spite of everything or may not be able to prevent himself from doing so depending on the case Goleman [GOL 97] discusses emotional takeovers
The objective is to avoid the likely effects of these dissonances (cognitive emotional and conative or behavioral) that are difficult to bear The latter are experienced and induced by imposed norms 1 Available online at httparchiveslesechosfrarchivescercle20120419cercle_45946html
24 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
[FES 57 HOC 83] and will inevitably lead to inauthentic or even ldquoabnormalrdquo conduct by the individual It seems necessary that the manager be able to recognize the origin of these problems to fix them For the manager to clearly perceive the type of action to implement it is helpful to unpack the three types of dissonances that can occur (emotional conative behavioral) The following diagrams present summaries of these dissonances and suggest a way to measure them (see Figures 21 and 22)
Figure 21 Measure of the difference between organizational behavioral norms and the expressions actually expressed in the workplace by the mediation of emotions No-Ex mediating variable of normative effectiveness No-Em cognitive dissonance Em-Ex emotional dissonance No-Ex conative dissonance
Figure 22 Measure of the conative dissonance (difference between the expected behaviors and the
actual employee behaviors) (source [VAN 08b])
Emotional dissonance conflict between what is felt andwhat is expected by the organization
Norms (No)
Emoon (Em) Expression (Ex)
DifferenceCognitive dissonanceconflict betweenpersonal norms andorganizational norms
Conative dissonanceconflict between the behavior ofemployees and the behaviorexpected by the company
Expected expression Emotion felt Expression emitted
Cognitive dissonance Emotional dissonance
Organizationaloccupational norms
Dissonance of normsexpressions really emitted (conative)
Managing Individuals 25
According to these diagrams the conative dissonance axis (in this case inauthentic or abnormal behavior) corresponds to the addition of two dissonances emotional dissonance and cognitive dissonance
Managers cannot act directly on the conative difference because on the one hand it seems impossible to predict what individuals will express and on the other hand they are unable to impose a feeling [WAT 80] That is why in order to reduce the difference between the expression expected by the organizational behavioral norms and the expression manifested by the employee management will have to attempt to correct one of the following three options
1) the difference between the organizational behavioral norms and societal and personal norms by bringing them closer together or by selecting individuals whose personal norms are in line with the companyrsquos norms
2) the difference between what is felt by the individual and what he expresses through different levers like uniforms or emotionalized areas [VAN 03a] These levers make it possible to limit the difference by acting on the accumulation of emotional dissonance
In their study Nelson and Bowen [NEL 00] show that the first lever uniforms affects not only the attitudes of employees (attitudes about work performance work satisfaction etc) but also their capacity to serve guests In addition they reveal that wearing a uniform has a significant positive impact on all employees and not just employees in contact with customers Uniforms not only have psychological and behavioral implications for the wearer but also positive effects that extend beyond contact with customers During contact even in frustrating interactions with the customer the uniform can help the employees to feel good about their work This can be explained by what Goffman [GOF 59] calls ldquoactingrdquo At work the individual becomes an actor playing a role According to Hochschildrsquos theory [HOC 83] by playing this role deeply by regulating their emotions individuals can experience the emotions that they express
According to Fineman [FIN 00] the second lever the emotionalized area facilitates deep emotional labor To do this the
26 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
company must create a variety of places where employees can express their negative emotions or take a break This makes it possible to avoid negative effects thanks to the availability of a place to release emotions that are inhibited during work
3) both differences at the same time We have all seen the behavior of cashiers who sigh or proceed mechanically in their way of saying hello asking for your loyalty card and saying goodbye This type of behavior if it is defined and corresponds to norms reveals the dissonances experienced by the cashier The expressions of the employee are in this example the result of a mechanization a Taylorization of emotions This conduct which corresponds to the norms expected by the company does not respond to the customerrsquos expectations The measure of the conative dissonance makes it possible to gain a comprehensive understanding of the feeling compared by the individual to what he knows about the imposed norm and not just of the employeersquos expression which is just the tip of the iceberg
During a study of managerial practices at McDonaldrsquos and Walt Disney Bilts [BIL 95] shows that we teach new employees through a handbook what expressions are required toward the customer ldquoFirst we practice a friendly smile at all times with our guests and ourselves Second we use friendly and courteous phrases lsquoCan I help yoursquo lsquoThank yoursquo and lsquoHave a good dayrsquo [hellip] or any other similar expressions throughout [our] work dayrdquo This script taught to employees calls for authenticity that the latter will not be able to experience at all times
Another example is the company Favi a company that has no hierarchy which specifies in one of its publications about its management style that employees must demonstrate sincerity toward the client2
Case Study 22 Examples of expected authenticity in a company
Sincerity is therefore what the company and its management seek To be able to respond to this expectation the employee must feel committed to the company To ensure full and complete commitment management must provide satisfaction
2 Available online at httpwwwfavicommanagement
Managing Individuals 27
22 The art of motivating commitment and satisfaction
Commitment and satisfaction at work are anchoring points for the engagement of members of the company
221 Different types of commitment
Currently according to Autissier and Wacheux [AUT 06] work affected by a crisis of pessimism calls for a return to meaning to foster commitment Could lack of commitment be due to a crisis of pessimism and negative emotions According to Allen and Meyer [ALL 97] commitment is a psychological state resulting from the employeersquos desires will obligations and interests and the organizationrsquos intended action Commitment is based on three dimensions an affective category that corresponds to the individualrsquos identification of the organizationrsquos goals and values a calculated category that can be defined as the intention to leave an organization or not and a normative category that corresponds to the individualrsquos engagement because he thinks that it is his obligation to do so Calculated commitment is associated with avoiding costs normative commitment is characterized by moral obligation and affective commitment is marked by desire
Theacutevenet [THEacute 92] argues that there are three dimensions of commitment attitudinal or behavioral moral or calculating and active or passive
ndash Attitudinal or behavioral Attitudinal commitment concerns the identification and engagement of the individual with the organization that employs him while behavioral commitment consists of a permanent cycle of behaviors (or actions) that reinforce attitudinal commitment in return
ndash Moral or calculating Commitment is moral because it refers to deep mechanisms of identification and it presupposes a strong similarity of goals and values between the individual and the organization The ldquocalculatingrdquo approach describes commitment as an attachment resulting from a calculation of costs associated with
28 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
leaving In this situation the desire to invest effort must be legitimately compensated by a gain
ndash Active or passive Commitment sometimes evokes passive adherence to the goals and values of the organization or even their complacent acceptance However authors generally address active commitment which is to say the desire to act to ldquomake an effortrdquo to take it upon ourselves to move in the direction of these goals and values
To support the interest of this active commitment an exploratory study of employees in companies in various industries argues that employee engagement in certain company practices in this case sustainable development is based on a certain number of commitment factors (Figure 23)
Case Study 23 Exploratory study of commitment
Figure 23 Employee commitment factors and consequences (source Leroux and van Hoorebeke [LER 11]) For a color version of this figure see wwwistecoukvanhoorebekemanagementzip
Emo-management must therefore consider employee satisfaction commitment (namely the desire to continue to be a part of the organization as indicated by the research) as well as beliefs and a
Managing Individuals 29
certain positive attitude toward the companyrsquos managerial practices and notably according to the results an affective attitude
222 Commitmentndashsatisfactionndashe-motion
The management of emotions can influence an employeersquos commitment to work and an individualrsquos satisfaction According to Herrbach and Leacuterat-Pytlak [HER 04] individualsrsquo emotions at work and the different kinds of commitment can be considered to be the consequences of their experiences at work In addition emotions are regulators of commitment to work [THEacute 00]
Since modes of management can allow expression or on the contrary forbid it through the restrictions of the job and the choices of the company these modes of functioning remain at the base of positive and negative emotions experienced in the workplace They provide the possibility of doing what we love on a daily basis a major factor of internal motivation In this sense it has been shown that affective or emotional commitment is negatively related to uncertain relations [KRY 08] weighing on the management and expressions of the leader Emotions require more appropriate management especially given that besides commitment emotions influence individual satisfaction The valence of emotion (positivenegative) is seen by many psychologists to be related to the satisfaction of individual interest According to Lazarus [LAZ 91] emotion depends on a combination of motivationndashinterestndashenvironment Everyone has his or her own interests and personal values This authorrsquos analysis supports one of the complex aspects of personnel satisfaction given the multiplication of individual interests provided
Just as many marketing studies have largely demonstrated the impact of emotions on customer satisfaction [LAD 07] human resources are no exception Satisfaction at work can be defined as the agreeable or positive affective response of the person regarding their work environment In this respect the data collected by Adelmann [ADE 95] reveals that employees in positions that require a great deal of emotional management have less satisfaction at work lower self-esteem more symptoms of depression and weaker health
30 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
Weiss and Cropanzano [WEI 96] and Morris and Feldman [MOR 97] support these results revealing that emotions are preliminary even predictive of satisfaction at work More recently Fisher [FIS 00] has noted connections between the moods and emotions measured in real time and the standard measures of commitment and satisfaction at work Although certain authors have shown that emotion and satisfaction constitute two perfectly related theoretical constructs Westbrook and Oliver [WES 91] report that certain categories of emotional responses can be preliminary and coexist with the judgment of satisfaction In addition studies conducted by Russell [RUS 79] and Plutchik [PLU 80] reveal that the state of strong satisfaction is accompanied by unequivocal emotional connotations like ldquohappyrdquo and ldquocontentrdquo that are only models of satisfaction [WES 91] Since interactions between individuals become more predictive emotional management favors avoiding intense conflicts and preserving each personrsquos emotional balance [ASH 93] fostering satisfaction at work Several authors have developed the subject Colle et al [COL 05] Herrbach and Leacuterat-Pytlak [HER 04] and Theacutevenet [THEacute 00]
In addition to these two criteria ndash commitment and satisfaction ndash Theacutevenet [THEacute 00] argues that in addition to having a certain effect on efficiency at work on the condition of a precise definition of the term emotions also affect happiness at work Lazarus [LAZ 91] highlights the impact of positive emotions on facilitating performance and social functioning He cites the example of research that experimentally created good moods in various individuals by triggering positive emotions by listening to soothing music reading emotionally positive scenarios watching happy movies experiencing joy having successful experiences etc
The consequences of this experimentation are pro-social behavior such as helping others and quality performance (better performance much less tense cognitive activity) When individuals have positive experiences they feel more confident assured expressive satisfied committed and simply better at work [ZAP 02]
A study conducted by Maes et al [MAE 10] about the implementation of a tool to
continuously evaluate the quality of nurse care shows that satisfaction at work and
affective commitment are crucial for nurses The results indicate that
Managing Individuals 31
responsibilities recognition and the feeling of belonging to a group are positive
incentives and allow organizational objectives to be realized
Although the affective commitment of staff who care for patients may appear to be
a cause for concern in the sense that it does not allow for the detachment necessary
for this type of profession in certain circumstances affective commitment to the
institution fosters not only a good environment but also good results
Case Study 24 Study of commitment in nurses
Feeling good at work due to positive emotions is a process that can seem complex and naive However according to the studies in the fields of neuropsychology and management which will be described later this is less true than it may seem Remember that emotions are a basic function for many living beings Management cannot and does not seem to hide it but generally this consideration of emotions at work remains unconscious and too often unexpressed However the quality of life at work is part of the three pillars of responsible management under its social dimension
23 The art of administering well the process approach a proactive and sustainable method
The inhibition that we mentioned earlier in section 212 about dissonances can have negative consequences The art of administering well which is to say organizing well and preparing to ensure responsible management follows a process Most often the process approach in a company is part of the context of a quality approach It consists of making the major company processes more apt to satisfy the end customers at the best cost by making the different actors in the process participate in this objective Considering ldquoprocessrdquo in management comes down to being proactive because it consists of seeking to act upstream as much as downstream In our view the process approach to management can be based on the fact that since the 1960s many researchers (described in Chapter 1) have shown that emotions follow a process that makes it possible to manage their positive and negative effects at work In fact many theories have
32 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
attempted to describe it in everyday life (Darwin [DAR 72] Jamesrsquo peripheral theory [JAM 84] Freudrsquos discourse of psychoanalysis [FRE 02] Izardrsquos theory of differential emotions [IZA 77] Ekman and Osterrsquos neuro-cultural theory [EKM 79] Goffmanrsquos schematic theories including social constructivism and acting theory [GOF 59] resulting from the variability of emotions)
231 Emo-management a process that concerns everyone
Whatever it may be this process starts with a stimulus and ends with consequences When this process is negative the consequences that can result from it have a strong probability of being negative [LAZ 91] This process is similar to labor although Hochschild [HOC 83 p 7] determines what she calls emotional labor in the public sphere by distinguishing it from emotion work or management which she uses to refer to the same acts in the private sphere The latter could also be termed ldquoemotional taskrdquo What she calls ldquoemotional laborrdquo is the management of emotions in order to create a publicly observable facial or bodily expression [HOC 83] Before detailing this process it is important to specify that it consists of a process that only occurs when emotions or affective experiences [WEI 96] do not have an extreme intensity According to Goleman [GOL 97] the intensity of the emotion felt directly influences the behavior During an intense emotion the left neocortex the thinking brain does not have time to choose the best-suited reaction and only the amygdala of the right brain which commands emotions acts It is because of this process that emotions sometimes ldquotake overrdquo become uncontrollable and cause so-called automatic behaviors which is to say involuntary without effort and cognitively inert
A study was conducted over a period of nine months with three months of
participatory observation in a subordinate role followed by six months of weekly visits
and then regular visits for the next two years The site observed was a unit of
office workers a mathematics research laboratory in the CNRS composed of 72
researchers and seven administrators This study examined a situation that showcased
Managing Individuals 33
emotions in the workplace because it required managing intense emotions an open
relational conflict3 [HOC 83] This observation of nine cases of the most revealing
emotional situations was conducted using an ethnogram during a situation that was deemed
problematic or stressful [LAZ 91] The nine cases included a case of insults in the
workplace a case of insults in an anonymous email several cases of disputes between
colleagues related to misunderstandings or diverging interests and a case of collective
laughter in the breakroom This study observed the behaviors of individual actors to
identify the emotions felt whether they were expressed or not which were confirmed
with in-depth interviews carried out in real time or just after the problematic event [VAN
03a VAN 03b] This study made it possible to reveal an emotional process (see Figure
24) summarized in the case study below
Case Study 25 Study of the emotional process at work context
In summary when an event occurs (stimulus) it can create emotional dissonance
(discussed in the first approach) in employees if what they feel about the event is
incompatible with the organizationrsquos behavioral norms a rationalndashemotional
discordance [MID 89] If aware of this dissonance the individual will after
reflecting carry out emotional labor to reduce the tension caused by the unbearable
dissonance [FES 57] There are two solutions deep acting which means recalling an
experience with a normal expression or surface acting and gesturally simulating the
expected expression [HOC 83] If deep acting fails employees reveal an abnormal
expression or use surface acting to feign a normal expression In the first case they
continue to experience a dissonance resulting from the choice they made expressing
what they feel because this feeling is incompatible with the organizational norms In
the second case the dissonance remains because they only feigned an expression on
the surface In order for the dissonance to disappear the individual must be able to
modify one of the two dimensions [FES 57] As stated by Hochschild [HOC 83]
because norms are fixed and imposed in the workplace individuals generally modify
their emotions This process described by participatory observation shows that not
only does a dissonance precede emotional labor but it also results in a ldquoresidualrdquo
emotional dissonance due to the failure of deep acting or surface acting The
accumulation of the residual dissonance can be at the origin of many issues from
demotivation and intent to leave to psychological and physical issues [VAN 04]
Case Study 26 Emotional process observed at work
3 This open relational conflict was particularly revealing because the emotions were extremely intense to the point of clearly showing inappropriate behavior (anonymous insult letters) detrimental consequences for service isolated and rejected people and a constant deep-rooted preoccupation for the actors
34 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
Figu
re 2
4 P
roce
ss e
xper
ien
ced
at w
ork
and
its m
ana
ge
men
t m
echa
nism
s
Managing Individuals 35
On the site petite-entreprisenet it says ldquoWhen managers feel anger bubbling up 4
inside of them at their place of work or if they have not managed to do away with the feeling before it boils over they must avoid at all costs offloading on the first person to cross their paths or on all of their colleagues Acting impulsively is never recommended because the harm caused by unfair or hurtful comments is often difficult to repair and can lead to poor relations between managers and colleagues which will inevitably have repercussions on the teamrsquos performance On the contrary the right attitude consists of isolating oneself in onersquos office in silence for a few minutes and trying to calm downrdquo Managers must be able to take the time necessary to manage and regulate their emotions But what about employees How can they proceed in the workplace A study conducted by van Hoorebeke [VAN 03b] in the field shows that employees who do not have a personal space to collect themselves use washrooms stairwells and walking outside of the company to regulate their strong emotions Any type of emotion can be disruptive depending on the situation Even joy despite being a positive emotion is not necessarily simple to demonstrate Managers may be afraid to show their appreciation at the risk of receiving requests for raises or be afraid to get excited about their promotions as they are worried about jealousy etc The emotional process makes it possible to better understand emotions to better manage them and avoid unexpected setbacks
Case Study 27 A process with surprising consequences
232 A multitude of effects in the workplace
The emotional process has many effects in the organization (Figure 24) Research shows that the consequences of this emotional labor extend from inauthenticity to emotional exhaustion and physical symptoms [MOR 97 SCH 00]
ndash Concerning authenticity deep acting can destroy the emotional reactions that help all individuals to sense the situation and make connections with others [DAR 72] and in this respect can hinder someonersquos authenticity [ASH 00a] In addition according to Grandey et al [GRA 05b] authenticity has a direct impact on customer satisfaction and customer relations as detailed in the first approach
4 Available online at httpswwwpetite-entreprisenetP-2857-81-G1-comment-mettre-a-profit-ses-emotions-au-travailhtml
36 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
ndash Emotional exhaustion corresponds to a reaction related to stress considered to be a key component in the process of burnout or physical exhaustion Maslach [MAS 82] reports that staff whose positions require a great deal of emotional labor are more likely to experience emotional exhaustion The results obtained by Morris and Feldman [MOR 97] demonstrate that the probability of experiencing this mental exhaustion increases based on the frequency and duration of the emotional labor required and the dissonance felt and experienced Totterdell and Holman [TOT 03] show that it is surface acting that causes emotional exhaustion through a sense of numbness and fatigue felt by the people interviewed
ndash Contrary to the frequency of the interactions that require emotional labor the duration of the emotional labor increases the internalization of the role This variable refers to the way in which the individual integrates his personal identity with organizational demands [MOR 97]
van Hoorebeke [VAN 03a VAN 03b] lists the likely effects of the different steps in the emotional process or emotional management in the workplace including the concepts of emotional labor emotional dissonance and the expression of emotions at work In view of the results obtained the negative consequences of managing emotions in the workplace affect three levels of the unit the individual (health performance enhancement task execution) the group (cohesion collaboration) and the organization (strategic management of human resources image absenteeism) The positive consequences also affect the levels of the individual the group and the organization (normal expression well-being satisfaction at work and relief after liberating oneself from an abnormal expression)
Three categories of variables that influence these effects appear in the literature
1) disposition variables related to the individualrsquos characteristics (the individualrsquos gender with women doing more emotional labor than men ndash Grandey [GRA 03] Hochschild [HOC 83] Kruml and Geddes [KRU 00]) emotional adaptability the positivenegative affective feature that is a character trait of individuals related to their
Managing Individuals 37
capacity to be enthusiastic anxious or guilty [SCH 00] situation variables (the type of event) the gender of the interlocutor (less emotional effort is made toward women ndash Sutton and Rafaeli [SUT 90]) hierarchical respect and organizational characteristics
2) characteristics of the position (face-to-face contact ndash Diefendorff and Gosserand [DIE 03a] Hochschild [HOC 83] Morris and Feldman [MOR 96] Schaubroeck and Jones [SCH 00]) the frequency of interactions [LEE 15 MOR 97 TOT 03] the duration of interactions [DIE 03b GRA 03 MOR 97] and the demands of the supervisor
3) the norms imposed by the organization as well as by the manager or the supervisor according to various degrees of requirements [DIE 03b] behavioral rules that are formally imposed and often written [MOR 96] positivenegative rules meaning rules regarding the suppression of negative emotions or rules requesting positive emotions [DIE 03a] autonomy at work [MOR 96 MOR 97] routine tasks [MOR 96 MOR 97] social support the presence of the individual often an attentive colleague [TOT 03] guides and training about the expressions expected at work [DIE 03a]
To summarize the effects of this emotional process in the workplace can be negative or positive Previous studies and the field study show that a negative process can produce individual and collective effects ranging from demotivation and a desire to leave the company to the performance of individuals and their colleagues These effects do not depend solely on management Certain personal characteristics can foster a negative process as can the type of normalization and the position occupied depending on management Administering well requires management to consider these characteristics to limit the harmful effects of the negative process upstream and support the positive ones Fortunately when the process is set in motion these characteristics must be supported by the management levers of this process The field study made it possible to identify several management levers of the negative process Here are the details
38 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
233 Levers for managing
Most of these variables can prove to be organizational or managerial levers or in other words a tool to facilitate the emotional management and emotional labor of employees (subordinates and managers) in the workplace According to the perception of employees in twenty different kinds of professions from nurses and secretaries to business managers and undertakers management can intervene in the ldquosometimes negativerdquo emotional process in the workplace using preventative or curative levers [VAN 03a VAN 03b]
1) Preventative levers upstream the variables integral to work (interest autonomy responsibility trust sufficient staff good material etc) and to its environment (setting atmosphere etc) limit the existence of daily conflicts and tensions that influence emotions The variables that influence the cognitive aspects (norms) knowing what we must do to do it well influence normal expression Most preventative levers correspond to the influence variables of several concepts such as satisfaction at work well-being etc Coaching autonomy motivation and career management and fairness are some of the most-studied levers in these areas Other levers can intervene in the process [VAN 03b] For example some companies play on the setting with research about decor colors or wearing a uniform These levers directly influence the emotions in a climate that is conducive to normal expression The demands of training notably in psychology and personal development allow the employees to get to know themselves better and understand others better in ldquorole-playing gamesrdquo It encourages training with appropriate behaviors Le Scanff [LES 98] discusses intensive training with tasks to complete in conditions that are similar to those encountered in a real environment to acquire an automatic response and consequently an increased sense of control Unfortunately this lever could lead to a kind of robotization of the human stripped of emotion and reproduce the bad through the desire to do good
Managing Individuals 39
2) Curative levers downstream places to express emotions physical and mental activities and discussion groups are needed and would limit the accumulation of emotional dissonance by liberating tension The need for social support would facilitate deep acting and help individuals to assess their emotion (listening leader psychologist) These would influence abnormal expression
When they exist these levers are often too under-used or poorly used in companies to have a real and effective impact
In a qualitative study conducted with 22 people in different professions including office employee undertaker naval firefighter independent artisan plumber university lecturer administrative executive business executive employment agent high-school teacher nursery-school assistant accountant executive secretary manager store salesperson pharmacist and home-care nurse van Hoorebeke [VAN 03a] lists managerial practices for managing emotions
Thanks to these different levers to counteract the negative process the consideration of the basic conditions necessary for administering well positive processes should be encouraged through well-being in the workplace The example of PepsiCo shows that the company is capable of going further engaging the manager in the search for well-being which is seen as the main driving force for growth
As indicated by the process illustrated earlier (see Figure 24) one category of effects is negative and can totally disrupt this search for well-being These negative effects create health problems sometimes serious in individuals who inhibit their emotions In order to better capture the operation the next section focuses on exploring it in more depth through different areas of study
40 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
Method Neutralizing
emotions Isolating emotions
Prescribing emotions
Reducing emotional dissonance
Standardization procedure
Control logic
Norms of rationality
Control logicControl logic
Rules of conduct
No control logic
Support logic
Action on the organizational
climate setting fairness training
Actions on the perception of injustice and
obligation better self-knowledge
emotional expression
Diffusion
Rigorous structuring of
roles relations and
language
Internal regulation
Implicit norms
Diffusion through scripts
Teaching through training
Joint regulation
Control Punishment Punishment Punishment and
autonomy Between control and
autonomy
Objectives
No expression of
emotions
Good performance
of role
Prevention against the expressions
of inappropriate
emotions
Masking inappropriate expressions
Good performance
of role
Showing appropriate
expressions in all situations
Regulation of norms and emotions
Reducing the difference between the emotion felt and
the expression revealed
Decreasing inappropriate expressions
Avoiding consequences on
health performance and relations with others (conflicts)
Table 21 Managerial practices in the management of emotions (source van Hoorebeke [VAN 03a])
Managing Individuals 41
Steacutephane Saba (PepsiCo) stated that ldquoWell-being in the workplace is the primary driving force of our growthrdquo
Florence Davy with the journal Personnel5 explained
ldquoWhat is well-being in the workplace at PepsiCo and what are its main components
ldquoWell-being in the workplace at PepsiCo is a commitment of HR but also and especially of management This commitment is at the core of our managerial strategy around three major pillars
1) the relationship of trust that managers must establish with their colleagues the quality of this relationship is one of the key levers of well-being at work If our colleagues are happy to go to work it is because they have managers that listen to them and nurture them These elements are measured in our surveys on social climate and by Great Place To Work When we leave a company we are often leaving a manager because the relationship is complicated We make a point to ensure that managerial quality is experienced by our colleagues every day as a factor in motivation and development
2) the personal and professional fulfillment of every person notably through the search for balance between private and professional life For example we do everything we can to be able to offer our colleagues the possibility of remote working regardless of their position
3) conviviality At PepsiCo we have a tradition of conviviality in both our products and our managerial operations We celebrate successes and incorporate conviviality into professional relations with all our colleagues
ldquoHow are these principles represented in your practices and operating procedures
ldquoTo help managers develop relationships based on trust we invest heavily in training Independently of the classic tools we have implemented a section about the management of emotions that provides an infusion of soul that is very appreciated by everyone Besides that to help us to continuously move this relationship forward each year we conduct a survey on managerial quality that allows colleagues to assess their manager on a certain number of criteria sending a strong message about the way they are managed throughout the year
ldquoRegarding the worklife balance beyond remote working we have implemented
many initiatives related to well-being including access to gyms to a company
nutritionist and to care or specific concierge services The conviviality
component is explored through a certain number of ways of doing things
notably by recognition through awards but also and especially through 5 Available online at httpsbusinesslesechosfrdirections-ressources-humaines ressources-humainesbien-etre-au-travailstephane-saba-pepsico-le-bien-etre-au-travail-est-le-levier-principal-de-notre-croissance-60773php
42 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
fun events to celebrate the successes of our colleagues This year PepsiCo France
celebrated its 20th anniversary From a conviviality point of view we did
something fairly exceptional for this occasion We organized a music contest
involving all the companyrsquos teams It was a rather spectacular event and very good
for team-buildingrdquo
Case Study 28 Example of managing the process toward well-being at work
24 The art of ensuring health and safety in the workplace well-being at work
One question remains how can emotions disrupt psychological and physical health Since the start of the 1900s a theory was established on an organic model that defined emotion as a biological process For Freud [FRE 02] emotion was a libidinal release which is to say a liberation of instinctual psychic energy For Darwin [DAR 72] it corresponds to an instinct and for James [JAM 84] it corresponds to the perception of a psychological process From these premises neuroscience has been developing the concept for a few years now Neuroscience has a two-fold approach psychobiological which researches the biological bases of behaviors and psychological which studies mental function (the psyche) Among them many current research projects in behavioral neuroscience focus on emotions and explain their biological operation [DAM 94 LAB 94 VIN 86] This part describes the foundations in a succinct and accessible way without denying the extreme complexity of this organ that has yet to reveal all of its secrets and from a specific point of view that of the famous surgeon Professor Laborit
According to Laborit [LAB 94] the brain a regulated system is composed of three systems (1) a reward system (2) a punishment system and (3) an inhibition of action system (balancing system) Hormonal bundles join these different brains [OLD 54] and intervene in the accumulation of experiences and the choice of behavior
1) One of these bundles called the Medial Forebrain Bundle (MFB) which is the reward bundle is involved when an action gratifies us when what we do keeps us in a state of pleasure
Managing Individuals 43
biological equilibrium We know the chemical mediators or hormones the catecholamines
2) Another bundle the Periventricular System (PVS) corresponds to the punishment bundle [LAB 94] These two bundles trigger action or expression When we are kicked we have two options fight or flight If the behavior chosen during the first experience is effective we will repeat this behavior because we avoided punishment and gave ourselves pleasure
3) Then there is a system that inhibits action studied by Laborit [LAB 94] among others This system functions when we cannot choose between fight or flight it consists of not acting of restraining ourselves
Based on the situation the brain makes the hormonal decision to convey a given expression in order to avoid punishment According to Vincent in nerve mechanisms ldquoit is almost always a question of two centres (one inhibiting the other exciting) to manage the same functionrdquo [VIN 86 p 160] The reward bundle activated by pleasure and the intuitive punishment bundle both trigger action Inversely the third bundle corresponds to a system that inhibits action Because the first two trigger action (gratification fight or flight) they are liberating Because it hinders action the third does not allow us to feel pleasure fight or flee This inhibition is the most problematic state
First of all we must summarize the interconnections of the different systems of reward punishment and inhibition
241 A neurobiological process
Following an event an emotion is felt When it is a positive emotion the system of gratification is set in motion ndash this action triggers pleasure ndash and catecholamine hormones are secreted When this happens the action-inhibiting system is inactive because it is unnecessary without the signal of an alarm
When a negative emotion is felt the punishment (fight or flight) system is initiated Hormones (peptides analgesics) are secreted by
44 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
the hypothalamus At the same time the action-inhibiting system activates because an alarm system is initiated by the pituitary gland and its hormone corticotrophin (ACTH) The activation of the inhibitory system acts as a safeguard or precautionary principle because the pituitary gland allows for faster and more effective action
If fight or flight is successful then there is no more reason for the pituitary gland to intervene The system is re-established and returns to the gratification system once the alarm or danger has passed Inversely if the action is ineffective and the danger remains the brain inhibits the action and the pituitary gland commands the adrenal glands to secrete glucocorticoids anti-inflammatory hormones similar to cortisone Unfortunately at this time it is impossible to get out of the inhibition system to return to the reward system Over time the glucocorticoid hormones (asymp cortisol7) secreted by the adrenal glands can destroy the thymus (immune protection) and thereby allow some microbial cells even cancerous ones hosted by the individual to multiply This hormone often attacks the stomachrsquos protective lining (mucus) which can lead to stomach ulcers and perforated ulcers Secreted by the adrenal glands they also alter REM sleep (hypertension) given that protein synthesis in the brain also controls restorative sleep
242 Reasons to become ill
If the inhibition of action can be harmful to us why do we restrain our actions Individuals inhibit their emotions for several reasons
ndash according to Freud [FRE 02] inhibition reveals an impulse that is impossible to satisfy Inhibition can reveal an informational deficit or an imaginary impetus of anxiety
ndash according to Laborit [LAB 94] it is the dominant-dominated relationship that compels one of the individuals present to inhibit his or behaviors in order to avoid punishment
ndash according to Traue and Michael [TRA 93] the expression of emotion leads to an act of controlling the environment In doing so inhibition is part of the set of emotional conduct
Managing Individuals 45
ndash according to MacLean [MAC 75] this inhibition or ldquoschizophysiologyrdquo of the limbic system and the neocortex originates from the conflict between what our neo-mammalian (cognitive) brain knows and what our paleo-mammalian (affective) brain feels
Some [HOC 83 MID 89 VAN 03a VAN 03b] call this ldquoemotional dissonancerdquo
Norms are not everything in a company Companies are like hives or anthills and human interactions are not always simple and to conform to the majority individuals will hold back their emotions
243 Real consequences
The following studies explain and demonstrate the impact of this inhibition According to Laborit [LAB 94] the inhibitory system is triggered by glucocorticoid hormones when the individual is compelled to restrain his behavior or action This conclusion is the result of various experiments conducted on rats In one study he compares the results obtained with two dominant rats enclosed for eight days in a cage with an electrified floor and one single rat in the same situation for the same period In the end despite receiving multiple electrical shocks the first two rats were eating well and had a smooth coat of fur The single rat however had persistent hypertension For a month after the experience his stomach was ulcerated to the point of causing death The difference between these two experiments is action On the one hand the two rats acted and always continued to fight despite the electrical shocks while on the other hand the single rat remained inactive curled up fur dishevelled inhibited It had no behavior According to Traue and Michael [TRA 93] inhibition is the self-control of behavior related to restraint or repression of an emotion Their study demonstrated that holding back anger tested on migraine sufferers resulted in short-term headaches related to high muscular tension and muscle hyperactivity due to an inhibition of emotion
This inhibition of behavior or the underlying emotion is the source of several pathological issues Bischoff and Traue [BIS 83] state that
46 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
ldquoan individual develops myogenic pain [headaches] in a particular muscular system when the muscles have an increased activity [related to inhibition] up to a critical point during a certain timerdquo Several researchers have discovered that the degree of inhibition is associated with compromised immune function and cancer [MOR 81]
The suppression of anger is usually correlated with a high rate of immunoglobulin A in the blood Immunoglobulin A is also associated with the propagation of metastases in breast cancers The inhibition of anger is not the only example Friedman and Booth-Kewley [FRI 87] indicate that other negative emotions measured are also connected with health problems including asthma ulcers headaches immune disorders etc In addition to physical pathologies many researchers in psychobiology and medicine have demonstrated the link between emotions and mental health or ldquobrain healthrdquo whether it is in chronic pathologies (schizophrenia autism etc) or not The biological descriptions of depression (a mental disorder if ever there was one because it can lead to suicide nine times out of ten suicide is related to a form of mental disorder generally severe depression) stress and anxiety indicate that emotions (affective part of the brain) intervene and weaken the different regions of the cortex (rational part of the brain) During the process of the mental disorder emotions ldquotake overrdquo through neurotransmitters and hormones They biologically disrupt the cortex that can no longer remember to act to inhibit the negative emotions and to lead the individual to think about something else (the individuals focus on the problem that was marked by a longer-term emotional process [QUI 06]) As emphasized by Kishi and Elmquist [KIS 05] the bodyrsquos whole process of homeostasis (equilibrium) is affected for a large number of patients with mental disorders
ldquoNo matter what emotion we feel there are consequences for the bodyrdquo explains
Henrique Sequeira professor in affective neuroscience at the University of Lille (I
and II) ldquoEmotions are a true interface between the brain and the body They cause
muscular hormonal neurological and immune reactions These are the links
explored by psychosomatic medicine according to which repeated emotions can
in certain predisposed individuals have effects that are positive (faster recovery
from cancer) or negative (cardiovascular vulnerability asthma) on health by
Managing Individuals 47
repeatedly and unnecessarily striking the same organrdquo he adds Now for each
ldquoemotional maprdquo it remains to define the precise physiological indicators that can
be measured objectively and be used to identify potential emotional dysfunction
The first body map of emotions is illustrated in Figure 25 Finnish researchers
detailed the physical effects of happiness fear sadness and other sentiments
Case Study 29 Effects of emotions at the soma level
Figure 25 The first body map of emotions by Pauline Freacuteour published 01062014 (source lefigarofr) For a color version of this figure see wwwistecoukvanhoorebekemanagementzip
In light of this clinical research any doubts about the bodyemotion relationship and especially the emotion inhibitionhealth relationship can no longer be challenged but confirmed and specified Nevertheless given the various reasons for the inhibition of action (containing onersquos behavior or emotion) it seems likely that inhibition will be increased in an organizational context
48 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
244 A schema like this in business
A variety of research in management describes the phenomenon in the workplace Ashforth and Humphrey [ASH 93] report that the inhibition of emotions in the workplace can provoke emotional exhaustion psychological discontent frustration and stress [SCH 00]
The organizational context seems at first glance to present notable differences from private life ndash complexity repetitive professional relations tasks to accomplish with performance etc ndash yet the organization is a real standardized and regulated emotional arena where several reasons listed as action-inhibiting are perfectly normal Different elements support this perspective
First Rafaeli and Sutton [RAF 89] argue for the addition of two types of behavioral norms that employees must follow at work in comparison to an individualrsquos private life regulated by societal norms occupational norms related to the role held by the individual and organizational norms unique to each company described in section 21
Second the company seeks through its practices what can be called ldquoemotional rationalityrdquo broken down into types depending on the companyrsquos profile and operation
1) The neutralization or total inhibition of emotions prevents the emergence of intense negative emotions with the very strict structuring of roles and interpersonal relations [ASH 95]
2) The system of isolating emotions requires the non-expression of inappropriate emotions without forcing the employee to use particular behaviors [ASH 95] In this context although the individuals are not compelled to express specific dictated emotions the prevention and inhibition of abnormal expressions are no less imposed and sanctioned
3) The prescription of emotions [ASH 95] which tries to control both normal and abnormal expressions of employees is based on the employeersquos adherence to good conduct Individuals must not only follow behavior scripts learn to manage their stress and inhibit certain emotions but most importantly they are asked to thrive
Managing Individuals 49
4) The normalization of emotion has the goal of rationalizing emotions that occur inappropriately It takes the form of making excuses using humor or expressing regret on the part of the employee who said it
Third the organization is the site of diverse social interactions between employees and each other employees and clients employees and managers etc The duration and frequency of these interactions can vary greatly depending on their nature
According to Hochschild [HOC 83] workplace situations that require the regulation of emotions (emotional demands) have three characteristics
1) they require vocal or facial contact with the public
2) they ask the employee to produce an emotional state or reaction from the consumer
3) they provide the employer with the opportunity to control the employeersquos emotional activities
In a company the inhibition of action thus demanded of employees corresponds to a request to hold back their emotions when they do not correspond to the behavioral norms expected by managers among others As we specified in the first approach this request creates the so-called emotional dissonance [HOC 83] in the individual that as with cognitive dissonance [FES 57] generates an unbearable psychological and physical tension related to this restraint inhibition of the emotion that if it is accumulated can have consequences on the mental or biological health of the individual
It has been proven that burnout is just as connected to psychological and affective variables [CHE 92 LEE 93] as to organizational consequences such as turnover the intent to leave negative attitudes in the workplace and decreased performance [LEE 96] especially because these issues have proven to be contagious [BAK 05] In this respect the manager can intervene to limit the effects considering the procedural aspect of emotions in the workplace described earlier and their management levers
50 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
This process is of great interest to management in order to mitigate absenteeism and the direct and indirect costs that absenteeism generates but it cannot negate emotional contagion The risk of the contagion of stress and anxiety has been demonstrated by psychologists and sociologists [BEH 94 GUM 97 PFE 98] To our knowledge only a few studies [BAK 01 BAK 05 GRO 92] have demonstrated the existence of the contagion of burnout and physical exhaustion resulting from emotional exhaustion [SHI 03] However these few studies are specialized in clinical psychology in the professions of a specific domain medical care and in this instance doctors and nurses While Bakker et al [BAK 01] demonstrates that burnout like other mental disorders is not automatically connected to a process of contagion research about depression does demonstrate the existence of a connection [HOW 85]
An important point should be noted Like the role played by pain emotion remains a somatic and psychological signal that reveals several factors including managerial failures From a positive point of view emotions have the ability to foster well-being at work The emotional intelligence and competence of a leader are particularly important
The company Google measures well-being at work This evaluation is part of an
annual evaluation of every employee According to directors Eric Schmidt and
Jonathan Rosenberg in their book How Google Works the Google culture does not
think it is acceptable for employees to feel bad in their place of work Google is also
perceived as a company where people have a good time ldquohave funrdquo The directors
specify that it is not about having fun for funrsquos sake but indeed to intensify
creativity and increase the irresistible desire to work find solutions advance create
and work together [SCH 14]
The online journal Innovation Manageacuteriale6 features an article with the title
ldquolsquoChoose a job you love and you will never have to work a day in your lifersquo
(Confucius)rdquo Although 64 of French people consider themselves satisfied with
their work the percentage drops to 20 when asked if they ldquoget pleasure from
workingrdquo according to a 2014 Ipsos study
The 2016 barometer of well-being in the workplace relies on 10 items grouped into 6 Available online at httpwwwinnovationmanagerialecomconceptsde-la-gestion-du-savoir-faire-au-management-de-laimer-faire
Managing Individuals 51
three essential pillars (see Figure 24) work environment emotion and attention
The work environment corresponds to equipment and the balance between private
and professional life Attention corresponds to the consideration on the part of the
hierarchy and the management of skills Well-being also depends on the consideration
that the manager gives to employees Emotion corresponds to the pleasure of coming
to work in the morning the interest in onersquos work or its stimulating aspect What the
employee feels on a daily basis is also considered7
One particular example is this in England a company had the idea to implement an
uncommon and extremely practical type of leave for employees If they drink too
much on a night out employees at the British online ticket agency DICE can now
ask for ldquohangoverrdquo leave According to the founder of the London-based company
Phil Hutcherson this measure allows colleagues to ldquoembracerdquo the company culture
Employees are expected to attend concerts and festivals regularly and this type of
leave allows them to take advantage of the events without feeling worried about a
difficult day after To set up their day employees only need to follow one extremely
simple step They must send a WhatsApp message to their boss containing the
ldquomusicrdquo ldquobeerrdquo and ldquosickrdquo emojis Regarding this new kind of leave Phil
Hutcherson said ldquoOur whole team lives for music and some of the best
opportunities in the industry happen after a concert We trust each other and we
want people to be open if they are going to see live music No need to pretend to be
sickrdquo On average employees have each asked for four ldquohangoverrdquo leaves since the
measure was implemented Phil Hutcherson says he is delighted with the trust and
transparency that this has created within DICE8
Case Study 210 Emotion and well-being at work an indisputable link
These examples are clearly indicative of the fact that modern management cannot not react faced with the consequences of the poor management of e-motions In addition emo-management can have consequences on health and penalize a company through the costs that it represents something that was unthinkable until about ten years ago Emo-management plays a role in rational decision-making
7 Available online at httpmipsosfrengager-ses-equipes-et-conduire-changement 2016-05-26-barometre-edenred-ipsos-2016-quels-sont-piliers-pour-comprendre-et-agir-sur-bien-etre-au-travail 8 Available online at httpwwwohmymagcominsolitecette-entreprise-propose-des-conges-gueule-de-bois-a-ses-employes_art112460html
52 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
25 A factual approach for effective decision-making knowledge of the emotional decision-making process
Apart from the impact on work emotion has influences that have long been unimaginable Decision-making has been demonstrated to be dependent on emotion a stunning breakthrough
251 Decision and emotion
In fact it is only in the past few years that emotions have been a subject of interest for research about decision-making although some authors anticipated it According to Simon [SIM 59] organizations do not automatically follow the maximization of profits but rather a result deemed satisfactory relative to a level of aspiration Until recently the decision-maker was addressed as a being someone who acted according to rational and distinctly formulated principles Since Plato Kant and Descartes it has been considered that proper logic purely rational and mathematical stripped of all affective considerations can lead to a solution regardless of the problem According to these theories a decision is inspired by sensory data events facts and documents or principles based on which it is enough to correctly deduce only truth from truth [DES 37 KAN 98] If the premises of an emotional intervention in decision-making are already discernable in Darwinrsquos principle of anti-thesis9 [DAR 72] or the research of Lazarus [LAZ 91] it was only in 1994 that Damasio clearly affirmed that emotions are necessary for decision-making According to his theory about somatic indicators or the perception of the secondary emotions of foreseeable consequences ([DAM 94 p 240]) this neurologist explains not only the process of making decisions but especially the time that it takes our brains to decide from a few fractions of a second to a few minutes depending on the case According to him pure or mathematical reasoning requires a memory with an unlimited capacity to retain the multitude of probable
9 Principle of expressions of opposite emotions highlighting the mechanisms implemented during opposite choices A hostile and aggressive dog will walk stiffly head held high tail up ears directed to the front A dog greeting his master will hold its body low tail and ears directed backward The two expressions and postures are opposite and ldquoantitheticalrdquo
Managing Individuals 53
combinations to predict the consequences of any given decision ndash a capacity that humans do not have This is why memory is supported by various emotional indicators A decision that is perceived by emotion as negative and automatically associated with an unpleasant sensation in the body (soma) is then immediately rejected in order to restrict the choice to fewer foreseeable alternatives to better decide When the emotion experienced is positive the alternative is ldquomarkedrdquo and preserved This theory was partially demonstrated by Bechara et al [BEC 98]
Neurologically speaking making a decision is very fast much less than a second when it consists of reacting to an immediate danger and emotion is therefore predominant When the decision is established as a cognitive process with time for reflection where the consequence is a choice between various solutions emotion intervenes without predominating Do we not say ldquoI lsquofeelrsquo that I did not make the right decisionrdquo At that point emotion presents itself as an unconscious signal of the effectiveness of our choice [LAZ 91] In addition at first glance as a process of adjustment and evaluation it plays a moderating role in the control of rational decisions [GRA 00] Emotion is an integral part of decisional complexity
252 Decision and emotion at the origin a rejection
To understand this complexity let us examine how emotions were rejected from the domain of research in decision-making then how they came to be included in it From the start Plato (427 BCE) rejected the world of the senses because it posed too many various obstacles to understanding Instead he dedicated himself to reason and pure understanding In the same sense Kant [KAN 98 p 36] in his Critique of Pure Reason says ldquoEncouraged by such a proof of the power of reason the drive for expansion sees no boundsrdquo10 Similarly Descartes in his Discourse on Method [DES 37] considers that it is reason that makes us human and so we should cultivate our own intelligence According to Berthoz [BER 03] regarding these theories
10 Translation taken from the 1998 English edition translated and edited by Paul Guyer and Allen W Wood and published by Cambridge University Press
54 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
and various other original normative descriptive and prescriptive theories of decision-making it remains ideally rational and essentially cognitive In this context normative currents with numerous variations indicate the way in which to proceed to make a decision descriptive theories detail the process prescriptive theories seek to improve the relevance of the choices made Each field of research has its own perspective and method of measuring cerebral function during decision-making Nevertheless one point remains common to all of them calculation or evaluation It is also this evaluation that is at the heart of the discourse on research about decision-making through emotions
In fact evaluation speculation and even betting are recurrent themes in cognitive research about decision-making The distinctions that are allocated to it in cognitivist research have more to do with its function than with its foundation No matter what the choice to be made is the individual considers predicts and bets on the possible consequences or on the preference that he gives it Based on these currents this estimate depends on three major paradigms
1) The utility function (mathematical formula) [BER 13 VON 44] where decision-making is based on the beliefs and values of the individual and the expected results The ldquosure thing principlerdquo an approach suggested by Savage [SAV 54] revising the utility function considers the choice as dependent on the preferences and beliefs of the individual despite the consequences Finally the theory of the prospect is a mathematical prediction function combining a function of the values and a function of the subjective probabilities [KAH 73]
2) Limited rationality showing that the human limits and deviations of prediction cannot be reproduced by theoretical models An economical person can in fact content themselves with a solution that is satisfying in their eyes without it being proven to be the optimal solution [SIM 59]
3) The algebraic process in the form of equations and weighted means is the aggregate calculation of the judgment
Far from being able to be considered as divergent cognitive processes the differentiation of these three currents summarized by
Managing Individuals 55
Berthoz [BER 03] mainly concerns the role of this evaluation and the strategies undertaken to determine it Evaluation remains an iterative term to such a point that cognitivist approaches and emotional approaches are compatible
As noted earlier already in 1872 in his observations Darwin remarked that decision-making was accompanied by a furrowing of the brow indicating a difficulty in the mind and an emotion expressed before the action Then several theories suggested the predictive aspect of emotions These theories were established by Ribot [RIB 30] for whom an idea that is not felt is nothing and then Sartre [SAR 38] according to whom the emotional conscience is the conscience of the world and finally Schachter [SCH 71] who said that the existence of a cognition associated with physiological activation is indicative of the very nature of emotion It was over the course of the development of these various foundational approaches that emotion was considered to be a real tool of evaluation because of its predictive character Scherer [SCH 89] examined emotion as constituting an affective mechanism of evaluation that intervened between the cognitive evaluation of a situation and human action In his view emotions cause a decoupling of the behavior and the stimuli rendering the individual capable of substituting more flexible kinds of behaviors for reflexive instinctive or usual responses in a given situation Next came the perspective of Lazarus [LAZ 91] according to whom emotions have several functions such as informing people about the quality of what they are experiencing here and now helping them to evaluate situations in which they find themselves and the effectiveness of their conduct (satisfaction or dissatisfaction) giving meaning and value to their experience facilitating the communication of intentions stimulating reflection and the development of thought etc Finally in the 1990s the neurologist Damasio [DAM 94] posed and tested the clearly defined hypothesis that emotion plays a biological role in reasoning and decision-making First he noted that over the course of several experiments using the measurement of certain biological parameters11 there was a strange connection 11 Modification of the resistance of the skin to the electrical current and positron emission tomographer in order to film the brainrsquos reactions
56 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
between the absence of emotions and the disruption of reasoning In short emotions are 100 indispensable for reasoning It was through his questioning of the case of Phineas Gage who was stripped of emotions and unable to make decisions following a brain injury that Damasio suggested in his book Descartesrsquo Error that ldquomechanisms making it possible to express and feel emotions [hellip] all play a role in the faculty of reasoningrdquo12 ([DAM 94 p 10]) In fact while Gage had preserved all of his aptitudes for reasoning he had lost his ability to reason To solve this mystery Damasio studied a patient (Elliot) whom had had a tumor on his meninges removed Although Elliot could reflect talk count and remember he was unable to make good decisions manage his time or execute tasks in several steps An experiment showed that he felt no emotion when presented with shocking photos Because it consisted uniquely of sang-froid Damasiorsquos conclusion was that the faculty of reasoning was affected by the emotional deficit the loss of the ability to experience emotions could be the source of irrational behavior According to him the brain would therefore be a series of loops and infinite cross-referencing between the intellect and the affect
His next studies conducted in collaboration with other researchers [BEC 98 BEC 99] demonstrate that decision-making is a process that is dependent on emotion Some of his studies prove that damage to the ventromedial prefrontal cortex prevents the ability to use the emotions necessary to guide decisions in an advantageous direction In the anatomical analysis of 10 subjects with damaged brains and 16 normal subjects the results demonstrate that damage to the amygdala of the brain the locus of emotions disrupts decision-making
To support this perspective according to Berthoz [BER 03] throughout human
history there seem to be several examples that demonstrate the influence of
emotions on decision-making For example between 1978 and 1980 Stansfield
Turner director of the CIA decided not to order the destruction of a foreign
plane declared to be transporting nuclear missiles on American territory
Despite the imminent danger he did not make the decision to act The events that
followed would prove he was right as the information that had been
communicated to him was false and related to a simple technical error in
12 Translation from French
Managing Individuals 57
transmission Why did he react this way faced with a crucial danger putting in
danger his life and the lives of millions of people Had he considered that it could
be an error Did he evaluate his decision based on his values his representations
No one knows not even him
Case Study 211 Example of an ldquoirrationalrdquo decision
253 Decision and the neurobiological process
In order to better understand and visualize it below is a short overview of the anatomy of the nervous system based on descriptions by Vincent [VIN 86] Damasio [DAM 94] Laborit [LAB 94] and Berthoz [BER 03]
The brain has central parts and peripheral parts
ndash the central system is composed of a right hemisphere and a left hemisphere united
by the corpus callosum ventromedial regions (a set of connective fibers
convergence zone and white matter)
ndash the central nervous system including the diencephalon contains the thalamus and
the hypothalamus placed respectively at the center and under the hemispheres as
well as the midbrain brainstem cerebellum spinal cord and others
In the central nervous system the arrangement of the gray matter provides
information about its role
ndash in layers this corresponds to the cortex which forms the outer layer covering the
hemispheres the most recently evolved part of the cortex is called the neocortex
generally associated with cognition
ndash arranged like nuts gray matter corresponds to different nodes buried in each
hemisphere such as the amygdala (almond-shaped) it is the least recent part in
terms of evolution the limbic cortex associated with emotion
These two systems are interrelated by electrical currents diffusing from neurons (cell
bodies) to the points of contact (synapses) by conductors (axons) The synapses can
then release the neurotransmitters chemical messengers that will carry the message
through the spinal cord and the peripheral nervous system (corporeal) to the next
neuron and to different organs or glands in order to trigger action (or not) and
transmit information about the result back to the brain To put it simply depending
on the situation some parts of the brain (an electrical factory) send through
neurons messages (neurotransmitters) to a point of contact (synapse) that will in
turn send the message to another point of contact and so on until the message
arrives at its destination the body (a chemical factory) At the time of the
58 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
last point of contact the message is decoded (the electrical message becomes a
chemical message) so that it can be read by the receptor
In the context of decision-making both systems (central and peripheral) play a role
[BEC 98 BEC 99 BEC 00 BER 03] More precisely it is the ventromedial regions
notably the prefrontal cortex and the amygdala that come into play The
ventromedial zone located in the prefrontal cortex is where representations that the
individual constructs of a situation are stored This is where the information is
classified based on the experience of the individual and where scenarios describing
the likely consequences of a decision can be found This zone is also directly related
to the so-called primary regions of the cortex such as the motor region certain
ganglions or the amygdala As a central receptor for information the latter is
according to the metaphor used by Damasio ldquothe Bureau of Standards and
Measuresrdquo [DAM 94 p 250] In this sense experiencing an emotion activates the
amygdala of the brain which triggers among other things the ventromedial cortex
The latter sends signals to the motor system so that the muscles create the
expression of emotions on the face and specific postures in the body and activate
endocrine and nervous system hormone secretors (chemical neurotransmitters)
inducing changes in the state of the body and the brain Each of these actions allows the
individual to perceive a corporeal and mental state This is what provides him or her
with information about the choice to make
In a decision-making situation the cognitive brain and the limbic system (emotions)
send messages concurrently The cognitive brain makes an inventory of the
consequences of each probable choice It sends each scenario to the limbic brain
which acts like a customs checkpoint The latter selects the best scenarios or the most
relevant messages For each message received it sends a message directly to the part
of the brain that triggers bodily movements starting from the feeling of the individual
in a given scenario This allows the individual to quickly and distinctly perceive the
message Finally it stores the best scenarios which are the ones that correspond best to
the values interests and experiences of the individual a work that is always carried out
together by the parts of the brain The process continues in this way until there is only
one choice left the best one according to the individualrsquos perception
Case Study 212 Description of the neurological functioning of a decision
The studies by Bechara et al [BEC 98 BEC 99 BEC 00] and Damasio [DAM 94] demonstrate that when making a decision the so-called secondary emotions because they result from representations and images related to scenarios with probable
Managing Individuals 59
consequences for the decision to be made intervene and activate the amygdala and the ventromedial systems One of the results of their latest study [BEC 99 BEC 00] showed that more bad decisions were made by patients with damage to the ventromedial cortex and the amygdala compared to patients with damage to the hypothalamus or who are totally normal These individuals reiterated their poor decisions despite the repetition of experience because the emotion emulating the action could not be inhibited by the prefrontal cortex according to Berthozrsquos theory [BER 03]
Lazarus [LAZ 91] argues that the emotionndashdecision relation is clear Decisions depend on values that revolve around our humanity religion politics loyalty righteousness justice compassion or even trust and personal interest In that respect the maximization of utility by a purely cognitive decision presupposes that each person knows and is aware of his or her own interest Yet according to the economists we only know it when we are wrong
Berthoz [BER 03] indicates that concerning the cognitionndashemotion debate [IZA 84 LAZ 91] emotion has a role that is essential but not consciously perceived in the pre-categorization of stimuli that guide cognitive assessment As confirmation according to the computational approach emotion ldquoalerts the consciousness to evaluate the situation identify what triggered this activity and reorganize the action plansrdquo [BER 03 p 67] Gratch [GRA 00] provides us with an example by establishing a computer program to monitor decision-making in the context of military aviation plans Starting from the observation that the current programs are limited by their incapacity to model different moderators influencing the performance of troops on the ground such as stress emotions and individual differences he mathematically models the way in which individuals evaluate events emotionally and the influence of this evaluation on decision-making Another case supports this argument decisions made under the influence of anger Lerner and Tiedens [LER 06] present the fact that this emotion disrupts the objectivity and rationality that is useful for decision-making When angry individuals experience excessive confidence and optimism which encourages rash risk-taking
60 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
The objective of these descriptions is to show that the intervention of emotions in decision-making is not only effective but also shared by all human beings regardless of the context (private or professional life) status or hierarchical level of the individual confronted with making a decision Probable distinctions are located in the essential and crucial aspect of the consequences of this or in other words in the type of decision to make Research shows that emotions guide us throughout our daily life Whether they are negative or positive they are meaningful for our decisions
254 Decision and emo-management
In a context like the one in an organization decision-making is especially perceived as a rational process because it is anchored in an essentially economic domain However the decisional rationality of managers is also subject to emotions just like each member of the organization Faced with fierce competition the company and its decision-makers must make fast and effective strategic decisions In order to make the best decisions conventional theories which assume that the decision-makers maximize their expected utility through a complete rational analysis of the information are opposed to neo-classical theories that argue that decision-makers have limited capacities to dissect and assess this information The difficulty that these conventional theories encounter in their study of the behavior of economic and rational individuals is that each partially or totally irrational behavior must be randomized and excluded because it is deviant [AKE 82] Since then some studies have considered intuition and irrationality in decision-making [FRA 03 HEI 88 SIM 87] This intuition or irrationality is considered to be a predictor in the context of decision-making with a lack of information or partial information In 2003 in the section of his article entitled ldquoLa dimension strateacutegique du recours agrave lrsquoexternalisation les contributions anteacuterieuresrdquo (p 27) Fimbel [FIM 03] explained ldquoIn the decision-making phase the issues are the subject of an assessment in which the degree of rationality is limited these concerns can be understood as a set of gains or losses that the operation in question will produce Finally in the duration the
Managing Individuals 61
operational phase will reveal the qualitative and quantitative intensity of the real strategic effects which is to say the intensity of the gains andor losses observedrdquo
In addition the concept of cognitive dissonance [FES 57] notably used in organizational strategy indicates that individuals have a tendency to persist in their convictions when faced with contradictory evidence Whatrsquos more this contradiction is perceived as a confirmation of their first conviction This approach leads to considering that companies react in the same way and show themselves to be resistant to change due to their certainty when faced with an opposite or divergent approach Individuals place more importance on the state of their situation compared to a level of reference rather than on ldquoabsoluterdquo characteristics [HEL 64] This established fact suggests that companies do not imitate simply to copy but out of interest In addition to this definition the cognitive dissonance described by Festinger [FES 57] has another aspect that is as much cognitive as it is emotional One of the reasons for this imitation is not to be marginalized and to ensure positive relationships with different actors surrounding the company The contagion that companies can demonstrate as shown in studies about in-progress bankruptcies and the influence of negotiation [ALE 01] is a considerable driving force for the implementation of a new paradigm of practices and managerial perspectives According to these studies contagion can occur extremely quickly (avalanche theory [ALE 01]) However it can be managed if the decision-maker is aware of the many decisional biases that affect decisions and the psychological neurological and sociological processes that the decision follows
The European Helicopter Safety Analysis Team (EHSAT) in its analysis of
helicopter accidents between 2000 and 2005 indicated in its final 2010 report that
ldquoWe observed that most of the fatal crashes were due to errors in judgment rather
than errors in perception or execution Many incidents were also connected to errors
in decision-making These could translate into accidents if the situation was not
rectified in time Although we cannot eliminate human error an in-depth
understanding of the principles of human factors can lead to appropriate strategies
62 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
methods and practical tools in order to prevent most errors better detect and
manage them and limit their negative impact on air safetyrdquo13
Case Study 213 Example of decisional bias
Therefore managing an individual requires an emo-management that
ndash views the individual as a being gifted in the strategy of adjustment and adaptation capable of limiting dissonances and responding to the companyrsquos needs
ndash considers emotions as a limiting factor of discontent in the workplace
ndash considers the impact of emotions on well-being in the workplace which is very meaningful in an era when some companies are leading by example and reaping substantial benefits
ndash considers the rational to which the manager has been subject for several years under its emotional aspect Damasio [DAM 94] specifies that emotion precedes cognition The decision cannot be made without emotion
In this regard emo-management gives the individual the opportunity to be successful
255 Decision emo-management and contagion
Loewenstein and Lerner [LOE 03] outline a theory of the contagion of decisions through emotions They use the example of an investor confronted with the choice of a risky investment To make his decision the individual attempts to predict the probabilities of different consequences earning or losing money The immediate emotion when he makes his decision anxiety can either discourage him or cause him to dismiss his regrets if it proves to be a bad choice To limit the risk the choice of the investor can also be to imitate
13 Translation from French Available online at httpswwwecologique-solidairegouvfrsitesdefaultfilesSymposium2012_HE4pdf
Managing Individuals 63
others and make similar decisions The image of the stock market crash can be used to illustrate this situation If human decision-making depends on an emotional process then a decision can be dependent on its contagion an emo-decisional contagion Because in an organization getting all actors to accept a decision is vital the emotional aspect of the decision can prove to be a powerful tool [VAN 08a] According to Lazarus [LAZ 91] emotion induces the individualization of the decision Every person has his or her own interests and personal values which lead notably in the context of an organization to a multiplication of decisions and individual choices that complexify effective successful management We find ourselves once again in an issue of decisional individualism versus collectivism This raises several questions
Since it has been shown that decision-making is dependent on emotion and contagion what about collective decisions It has also been proven that human relations depend on emotions that have allowed the human species to survive since its very beginning through the social instinct that resulted from it Does this precious combination favor more rational judgment
3
Managing a Collective
31 An evidence-based approach for effective collective decision-making understanding the process of emo-decisional contagion
The decisional processes described for many years in the research seem to have similar foundations at first glance regardless of whether they are individual or collective decisions aside from the negotiation or discussion aspect that is involved However some of the studies that focus on game theory and decision-making analyze different types of imitation dynamics based on which agents are more inclined to adopt popular andor winning strategies [FUD 05] ndash decisions that were a success or that the majority can appreciate In a group and especially in a crowd individuals more easily become fierce imitators (such as via herd mentality mimicry) They tend to lose their own reference frame to share common beliefs and to communicate their collective emotion between themselves acting in the same way even to the point of engaging in excesses Greed fear admiration enthusiasm contempt hatred and many other emotions influence the action of investors This causes the stock market to fluctuate rapidly It has often been suggested in the literature that competitors in an oligopolistic market can be guided more by imitation than by calculations of profitability Following a suggestion by Todt [TOD 70 TOD 71 TOD 81 TOD 96] in the analysis of an experimental study of investment decisions and price fixing Goyal and Vega-Redondo [GOY 07] Rhode and Stegeman [RHO 01] Schlag [SCH 98] and Vega-Redondo [VEG 97] describe the process of imitation as a
The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management First Edition Delphine van Hoorebeke copy ISTE Ltd 2018 Published by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley amp Sons Inc
66 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
factor in decision-making faced with competition in the context of game theory
In the same way however in the context of the theories of natural selection and evolution there is a presumption that competition excludes irrational entities Although according to these models group behavior seems more rational than individual behavior it can be supposed that a company viewed as a decision-making group occasionally feigns its rationality It seems reasonable to assume the opposite far from being the exception these models assume these irrational behaviors (and supposed anomalies) are the norm in decision-making Based on comparative studies of individual and collective decisions there does not appear to be a real consensus on the predominance of one or the other regardless of the domain of study (see Table 31) However there is a consensus within organizations the decision-making process cannot be understood in terms of one single actor in an individual way The decision-making process is collective and sequential in organizations [ALL 71] Decision-making processes in organizations generally involve several actors interacting with one another [SMO 02]
Decision-making
Risk-taking Participants take significantly fewer risks when they are in a group [MAS 09]
Trust According to Kugler et al [KUG 12] the group has a similar level of trust as the individuals have between themselves
Information Information has more influence on a decision when it is shared than when it is not [STA 89]
Framing effect
ndash Is reduced when making decisions in a group [NEA 86] ndash Is greater for decisions in homogenous groups [PAE 93] ndash Is not significantly increased or decreased when making decisions in a group [WEB 09] ndash Is amplified by the group [YAN 11]
Rationality The group members mutually correct their errors and pool complementary resources [STA 01]
Similar choices Advantages
Collaborative decision-making makes it possible to better discern and better understand problems [TUR 01]
Table 31 Comparative studies of collectiveindividual decision-making
Managing a Collective 67
Although there is not a complete consensus on the concepts in Table 31 it is still undeniable and taken for granted that there are a multitude of individual and collective biases involved in decision-making
If the individual biases are extremely numerous a review of collective biases interacting with decisional rationality also supports the involvement of emotion in individual and collective biases From an individual perspective according to the results of the neurological study by De Martino et al [DEM 06] the decisional bias of the framing effect or the effect of manipulating the formulation of choices is limited when emotion is managed Their study reveals specific activation in areas of the brain that are not active during decision-making without manipulation The activation of the emotional zone ndash the brainrsquos amygdala in this case ndash is significantly more intense when individuals choose the positive formulation ldquochance of winningrdquo The authors conclude ldquoOur data raise an intriguing possibility that more lsquorationalrsquo individuals have a better and more refined representation of their own emotional biases that enables them to modify their behavior in appropriate circumstancesrdquo [DEM 06 p 686]
The framing effect was revealed [TVE 80] through an experiment that revolved around a hypothetical epidemic threatening the USA The number of victims was estimated at 600 people Two programs were proposed to fight it If program A was adopted 200 people would be saved if program B was chosen there was one chance in three that the 600 people would be saved and a probability of two out of three that no one would be saved The choice 72 of participants chose program A and 28 chose program B
The researchers then reproduced the same experiment with other participants This time they presented not the number of people that would be saved but the number of people who would not survive It was explained to the subjects that if program A was chosen 400 people would die and if program B was chosen there was a probability of 1 out of 3 that no one would die and a probability of 2 out of 3 that 600 people would die These program results are exactly equivalent to the previous ones but the presentation is different a positive aspect as opposed to a negative aspect They are framed differently In the second experiment 78 of participants chose program B and only 22 chose program A
The two authors concluded that human beings have a tendency to refuse to take risks when they think of the potential gains (as in the first phase of the experiment) and accept to take them when they think of the potential losses (as in the second phase of the experiment) The framing effect reveals that opinions may differ when messages about the same subject are presented in different lights causing individuals to evaluate them based on different considerations
Case Study 31 The framing effect
68 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
There is no consensus to privilege the collective over the individual in decision-making but there is a consensus about the fact that the collective like the individual has its own biases An analysis of the literature points out that emotional bias is significant in collective decision-making (see Table 32)
Collective bias Definition Terms related to the emotion
Groupthink [JAN 82] Conformism effort to establish a consensus at the expense of a realistic evaluation of alternatives
Conformism
Halo effect [THO 20 ASC 55]
Effect of contamination Selective interpretation and perception of information in line with a first impression that we try to confirm
Contamination
Sunflower management [BOO 05]
Tendency to align with the leaderrsquos vision
Social influence by the vision of the leadership
Champion bias [LEF 06]
Evaluation based on the experience of a person rather than on facts
Social influence
Emo-decisional contagion [VAN 08a]
Effect of contagion of emotions experienced and expressed
Contagion unconscious mimicry
Table 32 Biases related to emotion
The surveys conducted by Alvesson and Spicer [ALV 15] regarding the paradox of stupidity revealed several examples of situations where reasonable decisions were ignored ldquoTop executives who rely on consultantsrsquo PowerPoint shows rather than careful analysis [hellip] IT analysts who prefer to ignore problems so as not to undermine the upbeat tone of their workplace [hellip] Marketing managers who are obsessed with their brand strategy while the only thing that should have mattered was the price Companies capable of spending millions on lsquorebranding exercisesrsquo and that in case of failure start again and again Senior figures in the armed forces who prefer to run rebranding exercises rather than military exercisesrdquo The positive impact of these different decisions favoring group cohesion and limiting disruptive questions which the authors call the paradox of stupidity
Case Study 32 Examples of stupid or biased decision-making
Managing a Collective 69
Table 32 highlights the emotional aspects perceptible in each of the collective biases listed It indicates that if the group is connected to emotion in order to create interpersonal relationships then unfortunately through a boomerang effect the same is true for biases
Faced with the observation that emotion is disruptive for decision-making in the form of a bias we should not neglect the fact that it can also prove to be a tool for rationalization In fact in his theory of somatic indicators Damasio [DAM 94] considers it to be an antecedent and a necessity for rational decision-making Another point that recurs in Table 32 can remedy this problem Collective decision-making is not only subject to group biases but also to the managerrsquos influence Managers must be aware that their attitudes and behaviors influence the group and collective judgment In this respect the emo-manager by ethical principle does not wield this power inappropriately Emotion can prove to be a harmful tool Nevertheless it is important not to forget the authenticity described in section 11 Emotion cannot be based on calculating and manipulative strategies at the risk of destroying its advantages for the group and the company If emo-managers must know how to be charismatic leaders who can consciously and unconsciously influence a group they must also know how to lead by example avoid excessively emotion-driven decisions as shown in the previous example and have the honesty to alert the group to biases that it may confront
32 The art of leading authentic leadership and emotional intelligence
To influence human behavior in the workplace the leadership of a manager is qualified as ldquotransformationalrdquo by Burns [BUR 78] or as charismatic leadership [BAS 99] Koestenbaum [KOE 87] dedicates his first reflections on leadership by trying to relate it to the ethical dimension considering that management and leadership are catalysts for commitment [PET 83] According to Le Bas [LEB 04] current thinking revolves around reflections about leadership and ethics in companies as a state of mind Leadership comes from the Anglo-Saxon verb ldquoto leadrdquo Here again we find the concepts of leading and guiding close to the term of managing What is the difference It is assumed that
70 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
a manager is not necessarily a leader A leader is seen as a personality and has political psychological and social influence over an individual or a group Leaders have personal skills that make them different and allow them to be listened to and followed by a group of people Managers manage things Leaders manage people [KOT 90]
Leaders work with people and must try in spite of this to ensure decisional autonomy Unfortunately according to Koestenbaum [KOE 87] the traditional scheme hopes for and relies on absolute control which does not ensure the subjectrsquos emancipation A companyrsquos staff do not often have any other option than to submit to authority It is with this in mind that this section attempts to understand how what some people call ldquofreely consenting to submitrdquo can be a totally legitimate and natural reaction
To understand this let us return to the details of how emotions work In everyonersquos daily lives including in organizations emotions are integral to the phenomenon of expression which is to say to behavior [AND 96] Nevertheless the natural condition of emotion is to be expressed interpersonally Emotive expression includes actions that occur in private (such as grimacing and swearing if we hit our hand with a hammer) spontaneous emotive expressions (such as smiling automatically in response to someone elsersquos smile) and strategic communication (such as telling someone that we love them before critiquing them) Humans can also express (or not) emotion using rules of expression that involve their emotive expression in a logical and strategic manner based on their personal objectives or the rules of social norms [GUE 98]
321 The manager and emotions
To re-establish the link with the managerrsquos and leaderrsquos behavior Fitness [FIT 00] indicates that several people interviewed in his study said that they had feigned anger in order to intimidate their subordinates In this context the emotion of anger is used as an intimidation tactic [OAK 96] Angry individuals are more often perceived as ldquodominantrdquo [CLA 97 VAN 07b] In addition this study indicates that anger from a hierarchical superior far from being
Managing a Collective 71
shocking is expected by employees Another study analyzes the place of emotional work and emotional power in the workplace for care staff It shows that emotional labor is an integral part of the task of nurses and considers that we should understand emotion as a source of power [TRE 96] On this topic Lazarus [LAZ 91] like Hochschild [HOC 83] discusses social influence and compares the power and status of hierarchical superiors to those of parents According to this point of view several or even all types of emotions play a role in the superiorndashsubordinate relationship [KEM 78] Kemper [KEM 78] defines power as an individual possessing the capacity to command others Some feel safe holding power over other people while others feel awkward The first group can feel anxious or sad when they do not benefit from this power sufficiently or at all while the second group considers it unfair that they benefit from it and feel guilty
The study by Dasborough and Ashkanasy [DAS 02] shows that leadership is an inherently emotional process in which leaders express emotions and tend to cause emotions to be felt in others Humphrey [HUM 02] supports this view specifying that in certain circumstances the expression of emotions has more impact on the perception of the leader than on the content of the leaderrsquos message and that one of the keys to leadership is to manage the emotions of the group In this context studies have demonstrated that the ability of managers to manage their own emotions and influence those of others has an impact on results and performance Although in this case leaders play an important role (namely bringing out the best in others) the results of another study [BON 07] demonstrate that leaders influence employees in different ways Employees whose supervisors express more positive emotions demonstrate that they experience positive emotions in their interactions with their leader The employees experience these positive emotions throughout their workday including in their interactions with colleagues and clients and feel more satisfaction at work and less stress
322 The manager and emotional intelligence
According to Goleman [GOL 97] leaders require a certain emotional intelligence and certain skills in the art of managing other
72 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
peoplersquos emotions but also in managing their own emotions as well as the ability to reward themselves and others to understand control and redirect emotions and to feel personal and social emotions With this in mind Goleman created a typology in four categories based on personal competence social competence recognition of emotions and regulation of emotions self-awareness social awareness self-management and relationship-management Self-awareness combines personal competence and recognition of emotions while social awareness includes social competence and the recognition of emotions
George [GEO 90] specifies that dynamic enthusiastic and energetic managers are likely to stimulate their subordinates and similarly managers who feel anxious and aggressive will probably have a negative effect on their subordinates For example given that managers who display sadness seem less effective [LEW 00] their subordinates will seem less enthusiastic and motivated through contact with them The importance of emotions is used as a directive tool in leadership styles that encourage the charismatic aspect of the manager Consequently managers are charismatic [HOU 77] primal [GOL 02] and transformational to the extent that the charismatic style is a part of the transformational leadership style [BAS 85] using emotions to motivate employees communicate ideas and prompt interest from employees to attain strategic long-term ideals and objectives [BER 01] Transformational managers must not only be receptive to the needs of their subordinates and pay attention to each one of them or at least give the impression of doing so (a task that requires getting involved on an emotional level) but must also feel and display optimism [ASH 00b]
There is no doubt that these leadership styles can have a great deal of success However recommending the use of emotions as a management tool does have a certain number of risks [ZER 08] First managers who strategically use their emotions risk having to regularly ldquocreaterdquo the emotions necessary to reach a particular objective In addition the success of transformational or charismatic leadership lies on the impression of authenticity that emerges from the managerrsquos emotions More precisely emotional behaviors used simply as management tools can prove to be ineffective or even produce unexpected harmful effects Employees react negatively to managers
Managing a Collective 73
whose tone betrays their words ndash a typical clash over simulated interest and sympathy [NEW 02] In addition managers who try in vain to hide negative emotions can be perceived to be manipulative and calculating [DAS 02] It is therefore important that transformational and charismatic leaders be masters of regulating emotions which is truly a considerable challenge Although emotions are universal [EKM 79] expressions depend on culture personality gender and other factors For these reasons people do not express emotions in the same way a fact that is increasingly important in multicultural company environments In fact the same emotion transmitted by a man a woman or a member of a different ethnic group is not perceived in the same way which has been demonstrated in the case of women occupying management positions [LEW 00 MOR 96 ROB 97]
323 Is everyone capable of emo-managing
Although some specific examples suggest that all hierarchical superiors have the ability to hold the position of manager nothing proves that they have the personality of a leader which is just as requested by most companies Is it essential
An example of so-called ldquoliberatedrdquo companies where every employee is seen as responsible shows that everyone can become a manager The company Favi is one of the companies that share its management method The title of a book about this company called The Company that Believes that Man is Good [FAV 06] advocates for the art of managing by leaving all autonomy to the operators This case is a counter-example In most companies it is expected that managers be leaders gifted with emotional intelligence to better manage the emotions of colleagues
In his article about what makes a leader in the Harvard Business Review in 2004 Daniel Goleman gives a specific example of emotional intelligence ldquoImagine an executive who has just watched a team of his employees present a botched analysis to the companyrsquos board of directors In the gloom that follows the executive might find himself tempted to pound on the table in anger or kick over a chair He could leap up and scream at the group Or he might maintain a grim silence glaring at everyone before stalking off But if he had a gift for self-regulation he would choose a different approach He would pick his words carefully acknowledging the teamrsquos poor performance without rushing to any hasty judgment He would then step back to consider the reasons for the failure Are they personal ndash a lack of effort Are there any mitigating factors What was his role in the debaclerdquo [GOL 04]
Case Study 33 Are we all leaders
74 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
Golemanrsquos text indicates that individual emotional intelligence is seen as a true performance According to Goleman et al [GOL 02] the most effective managers according to employees are those who listen are attentive to what goes on in the workplace and are capable of regulating their emotions
Although some articles note that emotional intelligence can be used for nefarious purposes the majority of studies about emotional intelligence praise it extensively and consider it to be an indispensable skill for todayrsquos managers When the terms ldquoemotional intelligencerdquo are searched on the Internet a plethora of training courses tools guides and tests comes up This is because in todayrsquos competitive commercial climate organizations need leaders with technical skills and with people skills to maintain a competitive advantage
To return to the somewhat contradictory example of the liberated company note that a new form of emotional intelligence is now taking precedence group emotional intelligence It is a movement that is based on the involvement of a set of intelligences to construct a collective intelligence ldquoGroup intelligence [hellip] depends on emotional intelligencerdquo [GOL 14 p 234]
An exploratory quantitative study analyzes the invention of group emotional intelligence on collaborative remote work [DEB 16] Although it has not been studied extensively collaborative remote working is an effective concept for work now and in the future In the goal of better understanding the inner workings to improve management this study focuses on managementrsquos direct impact on group creativity and performance The concept of mediated collaborative work is described as another type of group work These so-called virtual teams are groups of people who collaborate to execute a specific project They are dispersed in time and space without this distance being an obstacle for their collaboration They communicate thanks to modern technologies managed by computer [LEE 03] Virtual teams offer several advantages over traditional teams However their flexibility also faces challenges due to their own integral characteristics Given the separation in time and space some factors can negatively affect communication between members by creating a conflict The concept of group emotional intelligence is seen as a dimension of collective intelligence It is assessed for its role as a moderator of connections between the collaborative work performance and creativity of the group Since Tannenbaum et al [TAN 92] show that group performance is influenced by the characteristics process and structure of the group emotional intelligence is seen as a characteristic of the group as in Jordan and Lawrence [JOR 09] where the area studied is a professional and amateur collaborative discussion site about botany with the goal of completing
Managing a Collective 75
international projects The first results obtained were drawn from 40 usable questionnaires Thanks to these results it is possible to assume that collective work by mediation is indeed marked by creativity and group performance seen through its ldquoproblem-solvingrdquo aspect Group emotional intelligence takes on its full meaning there demonstrating a very significant relation between emotional intelligence and collaborative remote working
Case Study 34 Study of the influence of emotional intelligence on the performance and creativity of a remote group
Has group leadership become the new key to a collective emotional intelligence In any case in companies it is unfortunately not enough for the manager and the team to demonstrate charisma and emotional intelligence it is also necessary to anticipate the future and focus on maintaining quality even improving over time with continuous improvement This improvement can prompt regular changes and modifications and these changes must be accepted by each member of the company
33 The art of reconciling the present with the future the principle of continuous improvement
Continuous improvement in a company can effectively lead to constant regulatory and economic changes Resulting from updating the standards or a prospective strategy this improvement considers the employeesrsquo acceptance of change This factor is essential for implementing any process Because of this there is a lot of research investigating the concepts of resistance to change change management and the adoption of organizational change According to Guilhon [GUI 98] organizational change is generally defined as ldquoa process of radical or marginal transformation of the structures and skills that punctuate an organizationrsquos evolutionary processrdquo A change is a passage from state 1 to state 2 This change can meet with success or failure One of the criteria of success is the acceptance and then appropriation of the project by the relevant actors
76 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
331 Change and emotion
Most research highlights the cognitive aspect of the adoption of change It proposes tools such as various forms of information training or influence by leaders or champions [GRI 03] capable of leading the majority to adhere to the change through rational persuasion tactics (raising awareness about the targets with oral communication articulating the alignment of a project with the target priorities directly convincing the targets through speech) However according to some researchers including Le Bon [LEB 63] Durkheim [DUR 67] and Hatfield et al [HAT 94] this ignores an important human factor the emotional aspect which can be contagious One research current in particular about the intervention of emotion in organizational change has been gradually growing for a few years Liu and Perreweacute [LIU 05] suggest a procedural model describing the role of emotions in organizational change According to the authors during the period of change ambiguity and uncertainty gradually appear and evaluation of gains andor losses for the individual or the organization also surfaces Until the period of change comes to an end emotions of varying intensity and content are experienced prompting various attitudes and behaviors Howard [HOW 06] argues that in the context of organizational change positive emotion facilitates the individual intention to change A study by Zid [ZID 06] complements these findings and demonstrates that organizational change has an effect on emotions during changes employees feel emotions that are both positive (50) and negative (50) and the explanation and comprehension of changes has positive effects on certain emotions In his case study Huy [HUY 02] analyzes the effect of emotional engagement in middle managers on the adaptation to change through learning an engagement that has been shown to be key Regardless emotion cannot be absent from a period of change because it serves at all times as a safeguard as it is described by research in psychology and psychobiology Changes in the organizational values of the collective in the workplace that we notice during strategy changes company takeovers reorganizations privatizations etc are often experienced by the people concerned as serious breaches of the psychological contract with the company these breaches cause strong negative and painful emotions which can even be similar to a grieving
Managing a Collective 77
process and can translate into de-motivation and rejecting or resisting the change [ROU 03]
A paper written by Zouhaoui Boisard-Castelluccia and van Hoorebeke [ZOU 16] studies this resistance It has been the subject of a lot of research notably in its cognitive aspect Nevertheless one element remains little-studied the role of emotions That was the objective of this study Through participant observation over about two years at an international service company facing a change in computer software the role of the balance necessary between emotions and cognitions was revealed The results obtained included
ndash a series of resignations including by people involved in the change project
ndash staff reluctance or blocking faced with the gradual but imposed change
ndash categorical rejection of the tool by 13 of users
ndash the change provoked by this project not only concerned the work methods of the actors but also the content of their missions
ndash constant pressure from the manager on the team to finish training and tests related to the new software despite the teamrsquos work load
ndash the attitude of the manager forced the team not to share real impressions but to use simulated behaviors that were appropriate to expectations
Faced with this failure management decided to entrust this process to a team of external experts
In this context the emotions experienced are negative and lead to emotional exhaustion They remain hidden and inhibited but behaviors allow them to be perceived (demotivation lack of enthusiasm etc) revealing a real cognitionndashemotion conflict The team does not get involved and suffers in silence forcing the manager who is compelled to follow the change process to the result expected by management to request external intervention
Case Study 35 Analysis of an organizational change and the emotioncognition influence
This example shows not only to what point the change is connected to emotional impressions ndash inhibited in this case ndash but also to what point the psychological contract established between managers and employees is fragile In fact regarding the acceptance of change one factor is key in this psychological contract (perceived to be breached in this case) and it is a factor that organizations attempt to preserve trust [MOR 02] Although the reputation of partners and the perception of honesty and integrity are evaluated by each actor freely the emergence of implicit and explicit rules obliges them to follow the
78 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
choice enforced by the organization Paradoxically the employee is forced to have spontaneous trust
How can we invite an actor to adopt and even appreciate a change if the trust that they feel is forced Is it necessary for each actor to have immediate trust in order to commit
332 Change = trust = emotion
In fact actors can commit without trust through simulation [CAS 98] leaving the door open to power relations There are many examples that illustrate this idea Thus some employees who do not trust their hierarchical superior still execute their tasks and follow instructions but in a routine fashion Nevertheless the degree of cooperation that management can expect from these employees remains limited [BAB 99] The concept of emotional dissonance [MID 89] also takes on its full meaning here Imposing instructions forces the individual to behave in a certain way which also reveals the existence of a dissonance between feeling and expression identified by the individual given the imposed norms
No research seems to deny that emotions are an element that influences behavior when facing a change In addition although Baumard and Benvenuti [BAU 98] identify four types of trust the literature resulting from research in sociopsychology supports a distinction between only two forms of trust Johnson-George and Swap [JOH 82] distinguish and test two dimensions of trust reliability and emotional trust Similarly Rempel et al [REM 85] makes a distinction between security and faith as unique forms of trust Finally McAllister [MCA 95] reveals one dimension based on the cognitive and another dimension based on the affective which are interconnected
Cognitive trust is positioned from a rational point of view and considers competence responsibility integrity credibility and consistency [SCO 80] It is said to be based on the cognitive because the individual chooses who to trust according to what criteria and in what circumstances This choice is based on ldquogood reasonsrdquo that serve
Managing a Collective 79
as foundations for trust decisions It is especially necessary for affective trust in fact a certain level of cognitive trust is necessary for its development [MCA 95]
Like emotion is distinguished from rationality so affective trust is distinguished from cognitive trust [DAM 94] Affective trust has an emotional connotation It is based on care altruism involvement commitment mutual respect the ability to listen and understand and a belief in reciprocity of feelings [SCO 80] The affective foundations of trust correspond to the emotional ties that exist between individuals Individuals make emotional investments in trust relationships express care feel concerned about others and believe in the virtue of these relationships and that their feelings are mutual [MCA 95] The results of McAllisterrsquos study [MCA 95] demonstrate the importance of relationships built on affective trust and the expressive qualities of interpersonal behavior In particular he specifies that research in management recognizes that a large part of managerial work is accomplished through interpersonal action and that the nature of the relationships between managers and their peers can determine their capacity to accomplish their work and accept change
Definitively affective trust is a prerequisite for accepting change It is also intangible and difficult to control given its emotional character and thus remains a preoccupying problem for organizations The intangibility and the difficulty of controlling affective trust stems from the fact that it is the result of an emotional evaluation of the situation carried out by all actors concerned by a change As highlighted by Baba [BAB 99] its complexity comes from its existence at all levels of the organization ndash micro- meso- and macroscopic ndash and in relationships with international suppliers or with stakeholders closer to home colleagues
In order to promote affective trust between two or more parties managers must understand how individuals feel trust toward another person group or organization and how this trust evolves over time It is necessary to study it psychologically before identifying the essential
80 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
issue of the company leading an internal actor to feel real trust to accept and adopt the change and be flexible
Trust is a complex multidimensional mechanism whose affective dimension interacts with emotions In specific and general ways emotions act on several levels of trust which is to say upstream and downstream
First of all individuals often decide to trust someone after examining the emotions that they feel toward this person [JON 98] The step preceding the decision to trust corresponds to an evaluation of the emotion felt A positive emotion leads to trust while a negative emotion causes distrust
Second the emotional process that follows the traditional schema (emotion evaluation adaptation [LAZ 91]) is primarily based on experience This means that the way in which individuals will judge the interlocutor worthy of trust also depends on their affective experience with them Having experienced positive emotions causes individuals to perceive the situation of a solicitation of trust more positively More generally we talk about faith in human nature [GOU 71] As a concrete example we say things like ldquoI donrsquot feel connected to himrdquo
Third emotion is an expectation of human beings regarding trust If these expectations are not satisfied the emotions we feel warn us about a violation of trust [FRI 88] Emotions are a warning signal for a trust relationship In this sense they evolve over time in order to signal changes perceived in the experience of trust At each point of exchange emotions affect the experience and significance of the relationship
Finally it is the expression of the emotions experienced in the context of an experience of trust that will be consistent or not with the behavior expected by the organization and more specifically managers In fact it increases the probability that the parties will develop shared schemas entering into a collaborative relationship more quickly by adjusting to the other person and learning about one another
Managing a Collective 81
333 Change a shared emotional acceptance
Therefore a companyrsquos problem is partly due to affective trust because this causes publicly visible behaviors [FRI 00] and because it is the result of emotions that in the context of implementing change can go as far as to cause a project to fail [JEN 00] In fact a contagion-like effect gives emotions the ability to propagate rapidly between individuals in a social group [HAT 94] ldquoNegativerdquo emotions felt by certain actors can through this process spread to all levels and in doing so hinder all cooperation
A positive emotional contagion can lead to mass acceptance of an organizational change through the phenomenon of imitation The simplest case of contagion between individuals includes a minimum of two people one individual who has not yet adopted a change called ldquoegordquo by Burt [BUR 87] in contact with another individual called ldquoalterrdquo who has already adopted it The more similar the relations of ldquoegordquo and ldquoalterrdquo with other people are the more the alter that can be substituted for ego in relations with others If alter adopts before ego there is a good chance that they will become a source of more attractive relations than ego which pushes ego to adopt the change quickly and contributes to creating a feeling of competition between alter and ego Despite this vision of the adoption of change only the minority of research tends to demonstrate the impact of the affective in the context of adopting change notably with new technologies [GAG 03] Rogers [ROG 95] is one of the pillars in this domain with his description of the adoption of new products by consumers ndash he does not hide in any way the intervention of irrationality in a decision to purchase supporting the concept of imitation in behavior models This model of adoption that Bass [BAS 69] drew up and his mathematical formulation have been taken up by Vas [VAS 05] concerning the adoption of organizational change
Finally one question remains given the possible existence of an emotional contagion how can an internal andor an external actor be convinced that the strategic approach followed by the organization is
82 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
beneficial so that the actor feels and spreads the emotions perceived and authentically experienced as ldquopositiverdquo
334 Lever for the acceptance of change through emo-management
One proposed solution in addition to other more cognitive ones is based on research in sociology and more recently in information and communication sciences through the perceived critical mass effect [LOU 00] The authors argue that it is essential to create a critical mass of users or to reach a certain number of supporters in the first steps of implementing an internal network for it to be accepted by the majority This highlights the influence of the group on individuals The critical mass effect is based on the principle of adoption by imitation where innovators or early adopters adopt new technologies and influence late adopters who imitate them Of course it is important to underscore that this solution is not perfect because in the case of information technologies the interdependence between the two types of adopters is mutual [LOU 00] Thus an early adopter can also be influenced by a late adopter For instance if the late adopter is not inclined to accept a technology after a certain period the innovator may decide to reject it However Lou et alrsquos study [LOU 00] demonstrates the positive effect of perceived critical mass on the intention to use the perception of ease of use and the perceived utility
Given the influence of the critical mass on the group previously revealed by Maffesoli [MAF 96] among others the emotion that is then spread between individuals would be positive This would make it possible to promote affective trust and simultaneously promote the adoption of change [MOR 02] This is why companies must encourage emotional communication by individuals who have a specific aptitude in the matter [HAT 94] a relevant decisional message emotionally speaking With their emotions individuals imitate one another through emotional contagion in order to avoid any marginalization The message transmitted must then convince the majority of the group such that it adheres to the decision presented [BER 03] The use of these tools may appear simple at first glance
Managing a Collective 83
but their opportune use cannot be realized without the existence of organizational ethics and evidence of the existence of real trust between managers and employees
Continuous improvement is the hallmark of quality management Some companies have noticed that it is not only found at the level of customer relations or logistics It is also based on managerial innovation and good interpersonal relations In their book The Heart of Change Kotter and Cohen [KOT 02] indicate several steps to successfully implement a change based on an analysis of 100 company cases The first two are
1) to create a sense of urgency the example given is a company that played a video showing customers who were dissatisfied with the services provided by the company in order to prompt the employees to feel that it was high time to act
2) to consider that it is a story of heart members of the project team must become a source of inspiration through their optimism devotion credibility ability and networking
The Sciences Humaines website provides an evidentiary and constructed example of the role of emotion in change ldquoMichel is on a winter sports vacation with his friends This morning he let himself be dragged to the top of the ski hill As a beginner skier he is not comfortable on the black diamond slope Snowplowing is not ideal His friend Bertrand advises him to turn on the moguls by sliding his skis parallel like he did yesterday on the blue slopes But Michel clings to the technique that he knows the best For the moment taking the risk of falling on this steep slope is out of the question Michel adopts the behaviors that is most reassuring in the immediate even though he knows that this is not the best method to proceedrdquo1
Case Study 36 Change and emotion
This concern for control over emotion in the short term is a frequent obstacle for the progression of learning and change in companies Companies must try to find out the emotional level that the change elicits from their employees
In the same vein it should not be forgotten that the adherence of all members is essential to avoid the ldquoemotional plaguerdquo [REI 45] of a defiant majority or a possible outbreak of panic In this respect mutually beneficial relations and the climate of established trust detailed earlier become major assets
1 Available online at httpwwwscienceshumainescomle-role-des-emotions_fr_ 12036html
84 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
34 The art of bringing people together mutually beneficial relations with others and the social aspect of managerial responsibility
In a context subject to irrationality and imitation one of the other roles of managers is to ensure mutually beneficial relations internally in their teams Studies show that the closer the individuals are the faster the contagion and diffusion that occurs [ROG 95] In effect understanding social processes in work groups becomes an essential managerial focus given the organizational tendency to move toward high-performing and dynamic work team relationships
This focus shared between a company and an employee still faces existing conflicts between the economic and the social Owing to the struggle between the rational and emotional within an organization relations cannot be established there and even less in the sincere and authentic way that the company is looking for
Along the same lines research in management has put particular emphasis on the cognitive aspect of interpersonal relations exploring the cognitive method and process of sharing ideas memories and constructs While understanding the sharing of cognition contributes to discerning the group dynamic it does not represent the complete picture Only the affective and especially the emotional aspect make it possible to distinguish the quality of intragroup and intergroup interactions According to Barsade [BAR 02] one of the reasons for a company to consider group emotions would be to encourage the social cohesion of its employees
On the one hand according to Oketch [OKE 04] companies require social cohesion of their employees as a strategy to increase their profits and face periods of economic and budgetary restrictions On the other hand in some new technology and information organizations the concept of a community at work plays an important role
In the context of the concept of social capital or the management of company talent the existence of social cohesion is essential to the very function of the organization In this regard it consists of
Managing a Collective 85
fostering the group dynamic and establishing relationships between individuals Yet the diffusion of emotions in a group is a characteristic that is integral to the existence of the group [SAN 93 p 445] In fact as described in Chapter 1 emotions can be synchronized or imitated and become contagious Imitation corresponds to a step in the learning and socialization processes One of the explanations of these processes is emotional contagion even if it remains unexplained by research More than a process of synchronization and unintentional imitation when the same characteristics are synchronized with another individual we are capable of feeling them through the emotions of the other person which is to say feeling the same emotions or complementary emotions
341 Collective emotion arsenal of emo-management
This is why managers must pay particular attention to collective emotion a concept studied notably in the analysis of organizational behaviors such as the social cohesion of a group sharing of values and organizational culture [TIC 87] Emotionrsquos capacity for contagion can prove to be a considerable driving force for communication and emulation Through the cohesion that it can amplify it encourages performance through emulation and cooperation of teams spontaneity and trust [GEO 89 GEO 07b JON 98 WEI 93] Texts by George [GEO 89 GEO 90] demonstrate the influence of the grouprsquos mood on pro-social behavior in relation to colleagues and customers as well as performance and absenteeism Finally Barsade [BAR 02] demonstrates that group emotion dependent on emotional contagion influences the group dynamic and performance results corroborated by van Hoorebeke [VAN 07a] From another perspective an observational study ndash a case of participatory observation during a six-month strike in Canada ndash outlined the development of interprofessional relationships the creation of social interactions cohesion or even disconnections caused by negative emotional contagion [VAN 06]
86 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
During the six-month strike including three months where there were daily protests in the street group connections were solidified The objective of the study after observing the links created between individuals was to analyze the strength of the relations established The observation indicated that following the strike strong connections proved to be rarer than relations of work or courtesy According to the analysis of the observations gathered the social cohesion established during the strike appeared fragile There are several explanations for this First these people were brought together by a negative situation This situation highlighted a social interaction that appeared by definition between individuals in a relationship or not and referring to an event Second the negative and positive emotions felt remained fleeting and highly variable reinforcing their transient nature Third the ephemeral aspect of this one-off situation could lead to a social rapprochement whose importance tended to fade way over time Nevertheless research in psychology proves that an emotion that is felt and experienced remains etched on the affective memory consciously or unconsciously This fact contributes to extending the social rapprochement
Observed in the field ldquosolidrdquo connections were indeed created from this situation leading some individuals to discover common work interests for example After the strike the organizational climate was perceived as healthier and more relaxed by the majority of members Only one group of individuals was isolated indicating that the disconnections resulting from the negative emotions experienced at a certain time can continue but in their own terms in a situation that they voluntarily sought out In the six months following the strike a new confrontation arose between this group and the union regarding an increase in union dues The objective of this increase was to replenish the union coffers in two years while the group argued that the union had enough money coming from its investments However this observation shows that the members of the respective groups continued to communicate for professional reasons and that these confrontations did not negatively affect working relationships
Case Study 37 Emotion a factor in social connections and disconnections
342 A paradoxical arsenal positive and negative effects
The results obtained in the study described above clearly demonstrate the paradoxical effect of emotional contagion on interpersonal relations creating both cohesion and disconnection because the collective spirit is subject to individual differences [WEI 93]
This example points out that in spite of this emotions are factors of authenticity in relationships [GRA 05b VAN 08b] and promote lasting relationships when they are experienced and not feigned In a company managers seek out authenticity in their subordinates notably those in contact with customers or in work teams and aim to
Managing a Collective 87
inspire it ndash which seems to be a waste of time since emotions are not manipulable and normalizing them can only be paradoxical as in ldquobe spontaneousrdquo [WAT 80] Real social cohesion requires a synchronicity euphony and eurhythmy2 between actors [LEacuteP 05] According to The Standing Committee on Social Affairs3 social cohesion refers to a situation where everyone has the opportunity to establish basic social relations in society in the context of work family and social or political activities The affective contagion on which this is based is not moral We do not consider the value and the quality of othersrsquo feelings Form prevails over content Therefore the idea of the social contract presented by Rousseau (ldquoThere are a thousand ways of assembling men and only one of uniting themrdquo) shows that the establishment of a fundamental social pact is essential [MAL 96] This pact formed by the community of interests and the awareness of these interests is based on the absence of control restrictions and obligations ldquoEvery man submits his will to the general will and in doing so becomes free These operating conditions sanctify the contract and sustain itrdquo
To understand the concept of social cohesion it is necessary to distinguish the social connections that result from it individual interactions According to Reis [REI 01] cohesion refers to a lasting association between individuals Its existence implies that these people established connections with one another and that this link had specific properties such as a story or an awareness of the nature of this relationship that influenced the thoughts feelings and behaviors of each protagonist In contrast interaction appears between individuals whether or not they are in a relationship and refers to an event The common factor in these two types of human relations is emotions In interaction emotion is expressed ndash or rather simulated ndash whether it is felt or not and in cohesion emotion is experienced and then expressed hence the perception of authenticity [ASH 00a] Emotional reactions help all individuals to be aware of the situation and make connections with others [DAR 72] Simulation can destroy these
2 Euphony and eurhythmy harmony of sound and rhythms without wrong notes or breaks 3 Available online at httpslopparlcacontentlopresearchPublicationsprb0756-ehtml
88 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
reactions and impede someonersquos authenticity [ASH 00a] and the foundation of a sincere and engaged relationship established on effective trust In this respect only social linkage can help to form social cohesion
The Journal du Net gives us three examples of companies that innovated to emphasize the trust and dynamics required for interpersonal relations within the company
In France at Mars Chocolat CEO Thierry Gaillard organizes one 30-minute meeting every six weeks called ldquoCcedila se discuterdquo (ldquoThatrsquos debatablerdquo) where he answers any questions from his colleagues This practice is all the more intriguing since we know that employees have much less trust in their directors than in their direct managers
In India at HCL Technologies employees can express their doubts and questions on an internal forum called UampI (ldquoyou and Irdquo) to members of management (CEO included) who commit to answering them even if it is just to say that they do not know To establish trust management must take a step that is essential but not always pleasant for them authorizing the expression of doubts concerns and criticism It is better to channel these expressions than to let them spread through the halls around the coffee machine or with clients
In California the software publisher Intuit organizes what it calls ldquocelebrating failurerdquo to recognize failures in such a way as to ldquocollectively turn the pagerdquo and learn from mistakes To err is human so why deny it It is better to accept failures and make good use of them than to deny them and allow them to darken the mood and affect trust4
Case Study 38 Establishing trust examples
Consequently to achieve a true social cohesion formed from constructive links between all of the participants emotions must be synchronized or imitated and also felt by the parties as part of an established trust In this context it is the fact of feeling emotions that introduces a depth to the exchanges The individual is not faking they are authentic and sincere This solidifies the connection
According to Weick and Roberts [WEI 93] managers can only encourage the homogeneity of teams that facilitate the depth of connection However the time has come for managing cultural
4 Available online at httpwwwjournaldunetcommanagementexpert58679les-pratiques-manageriales-les-plus-innovantes-du-mondeshtml
Managing a Collective 89
diversity and group heterogeneity This requires not only regulating group emotions and building a climate of trust but also managing the diversity of individuals in order to create and learn together
35 The art of managing diversity learning and creating collectively
There has been an increasing interest in diversity management over the past 15 years related to the consideration of the ldquolearningrdquo dimension Diversity management no longer only consists of increasing the representation of different minorities in the workplace It is now built on a new paradigm of learning and efficiency [THO 96a] that no longer only considers individuals based on their appearance or background but according to the different knowledge and perspectives they can provide In other words diversity is no longer sought only in terms of equality but also in terms of learning about difference [BOI 10]
The literature in management sciences retraces 50 years of research on the effects of demographic diversity on a work team and its performance Although it does support the argument that the demographic diversity of a group has a certain influence on its processes and performance it does not clearly establish whether diversity is a source of performance Demographic diversity (or heterogeneity) corresponds to the degree to which a unit (a managing team work team or organization) is heterogeneous in terms of demographic characteristics age sex nationality seniority and the functional area in which individuals apply their training and finally family status [EIS 99]
Field studies over the past 50 years have shown that variations in group composition can have significant effects on performance [WIL 98] Demographic heterogeneity in terms of seniority sex and nationality could have negative effects on behavior in the workplace and on performance [CHA 98 SMI 94] Inversely increased demographic homogeneity could have positive effects on appreciation satisfaction commitment seniority and performance and reduce turnover [ELF 07] Authors like Earley and Mosakowski [EAR 00]
90 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
and Murray [MUR 89] have highlighted an intermediary approach based on which homogeneity and heterogeneity could both be sources of performance Heterogenous groups would be more effective in a changing environment while homogenous groups would be more effective in stable and competitive environments [MUR 89] For a team to benefit from its diversity and be effective it must manage to collectively learn ndash that is to create a common mental model or even a consensus characterized by the values beliefs and representations shared its members among other things [FIO 94] The creation of this common representation becomes a necessary condition for the teamrsquos performance
However the demographic diversity of a team creates situations where members have mental representations that are not totally compatible A mental representation is ldquothe product and process of a mental activity through which an individual or a group reconstructs the reality that it confronts and attributes a specific signification to itrdquo [ABR 89] The representation is then an organized set of opinions attitudes beliefs and information that refers to an object or a situation Conflict between the mental representations of different team members can stir up intragroup conflicts that are cognitive which can be a source of creativity Yet cognitive conflicts cannot emerge without the parallel appearance of another type of intragroup conflict affective conflicts which leech off the benefits of the cognitive conflict and affect the teamrsquos capacity to create a common mental model and thereby affect its performance
How then can we guarantee benefits from demographic diversity Could emotional contagion reduce the harmful effects of affective conflicts while preserving the compelling properties of cognitive conflicts
351 Diversity between conflicts and group work
Traditionally organization theorists assumed that conflict was harmful for the organization In the past few years hypotheses about organizational conflict have radically changed It is now considered inevitable and even a positive indicator of an organizationrsquos good
Managing a Collective 91
management It is generally accepted that conflict is both functional and dysfunctional for an organization It is functional when it provides better solutions to problems or when it makes it possible to reach the objectives of the individual the group and the organization It is essential to study the conflicts that take place within groups given that today individuals interact daily more and more often Conflict management is an important part of a teamrsquos efficiency To be effective teams must be able to manage the conflicts that are naturally part of their environment
The literature distinguishes two types of intragroup conflicts cognitive conflict and affective conflict Cognitive conflict involves opposing ideas within a group or a disagreement over content or task completion It is born out of differences in judgment or confrontations between different individual representations This type of disagreement is a natural part of a teamrsquos proper functioning It is natural in the sense that when members get together to make important decisions they all bring ideas opinions and perspectives that are different and representative of each personrsquos environment
Taken in isolation cognitive conflict appears when members examine compare and reconcile their differences This process is very important because it makes it possible to reach high-quality decisions that are understood and accepted by all This conflict is beneficial because it requires the engagement of the team in activities that are essential to its efficiency By facilitating open communication and making good use of the membersrsquo diversity (meaning their different gifts and skills) this type of conflict produces understanding and engagement in objectives and decisions The result is not only a better decision but a decision that can be applied more effectively To the extent that cognitive conflict is the result of confrontation between individual representations we can deduce that it elicits an internal conflict in the individual that is expressed in the form of cognitive dissonance [FES 57] By eliciting cognitive dissonance cognitive conflict will trigger individual learning within the person The learning individual modifies or radically changes their mental representations thereby creating something new We can then talk about creativity which is itself a source of performance Neurologists have described the process
92 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
of creativity This process is according to their analyses the result of several concurrent cognitive processes that include unfocused attention cognitive flexibility cognitive control and several cognitive constructs [DIE 04] Thanks to the cognitive dissonance that it creates group diversity allows for the reconstruction of mental representations This internal conflict makes it possible to break with inhibitions and open up to different perspectives
Within a diversified group cognitive and affective conflicts are necessarily born together as we cannot appear without the other When members have different perspectives there is often cognitive disagreement As this disagreement is frequently misinterpreted and perceived as a personal criticism affective conflict necessarily emerges in parallel It seems that an affective conflict situation is very harmful
To explain this consider that even if conceptually the affective is distinguished from emotion their link is such that they are often seen as more than indissociable since emotion is considered by some to be a dimension of the affective However emotions not only have specific characteristics that can harm human relations but they also have the particularity of not always being manageable
Consider these two conflictual configurations [BOI 10]
ndash The level of the cognitive conflict (CC) exceeds that of the affective conflict
(CA) CC gt CA In this case the team benefits fully from its diversity and the debate
of opinions that it elicits The negative effect of the affective conflict is neutralized
The emotions of the group are manageable
ndash Inversely the level of the affective conflict is greater than or equal to that of
the cognitive conflict CA ge CC The team is then overwhelmed by its affective
conflicts and cannot benefit fully from the wealth of its diversity Debates over
opinions become sterile and can be likened to settling accounts The emotions of group
members have taken over
Case Study 39 Analysis to limit an affective conflict that is problematic for the group
Managing a Collective 93
However only statistical studies examine this issue deeply which involve considering the group at only one moment t These studies have shown that affective conflict is detrimental to the performance of individuals and whole groups to the satisfaction of its members and to the probability that individuals involved in this group will work again in the future [JEH 95] The anxiety created by interpersonal animosity is likely to inhibit cognitive work and distract members from their tasks Owing to this they work less efficiently and produce sub-optimal results Inversely moderate levels of cognitive conflict are beneficial to group performance for certain types of tasks [JEH 95 JEH 97]
In our view effectively managing the demographic diversity of a team comes down to guaranteeing a type 1 conflict configuration which is a situation in which cognitive conflict exceeds affective conflict
352 Managing diversity with emo-management
In the specific work context striving for diversity management there is a solution to foster positive emotions and affect in a group positive emotional contagion as a catalyst and cohesive force for conflicts Barsade [BAR 02] demonstrates with experiments that not only is group emotion influenced by the dynamic and performance of the group it is also dependent on a contagion
An experimental study on 223 individuals broken down in to 29 teams demonstrated that positive contagion influenced group performance through the action of an actor who was involved in the experiment [VAN 07a] This accomplice selected for his contagion based on the scale presented in Hatfield et al [HAT 94] propagated a negative or positive emotion through acting The accomplice played the role of an evaluator who was satisfied or disappointed by the grouprsquos work According to the groups and during the execution of their work the actor spread a positive or negative contagion The results obtained confirm those obtained by Barsade [BAR 02] and show that teams performed better when group emotional contagion was provoked and judged positive
Case Study 310 Emotional contagion a factor in group performance
94 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
Annual reports for publicly traded companies indicate that cultural diversity is an asset in the context of globalization and in terms of image a point that is essential for the good operation of a new management system in both the context of NorthndashSouth relations and from a socio-global angle In this respect studies show that when well-managed diversity is a real competitive advantage in favor of performance and creativity Unfortunately the existence of affective conflicts can lead to demotivation resulting in the counter-performance of a team if it is poorly managed
Recruitment firms propose candidates based on a diversity that corresponds perfectly to the profile requested by the company which makes the ultimate decision However ldquothis does not fix everythingrdquo says Mariam Khattab a recruiter and adviser at the firm Mozaiumlk Nevertheless diversity has several advantages for companies opening up the diversity of customers and backers accentuating creativity and creating a dialogue between stakeholders with different backgrounds5
Case Study 311 Diversity several advantages
353 Emo-management a factor in diversity
Despite the cognitive and affective differences that can create conflicts heterogenous groups encourage not only high-quality group work and synergy but most of all creativity [CHA 01 TOL 02] Heterogeneity limits the effect of conformism which is reduced because differences within the group are affirmed Nevertheless as is the case early in the life of a group heterogeneity can give way to individual affinities that can favor conformism in the long term In fact when a group is created the group composition is an important initial factor that can have permanent effects on its affective and cognitive processes When a work group meets for the first time the social identity [TAJ 04] and self-categorization theory [TUR 87] require that members define their social categories within the group When individuals are familiar with the differences that exist between members they can favor those who they consider similar to themselves and isolate themselves from those who they perceive to be
5 Available online at httpswwwzamanfrancefrarticlemanagement-diversit-atout-entreprises
Managing a Collective 95
different Heterogeneity can then only be temporary If emotion fosters inter-individual connections does it encourage heterogeneity a factor in creativity
Creativity is defined as the use of knowledge to form new ideas [DRU 93] Social relations and the emotions connected to them play a significant role in this process [KOG 92] From a neurological point of view researchers describe a biological process arguing that creativity is not the result of one cognitive process but several cognitive processes including unfocused attention cognitive flexibility cognitive control and other cognitive constructions [DIE 04] The production of something new seems to depend in part on the neuronal processes of disinhibition within a central network of neurons Creative cognition is similar to other types of cognition but is more specialized in its direction [MAC 00] Creative cognition can be simulated in a network of regions in the brain dedicated to thoughts unrelated to the task (experimental thoughts and futures that are unrelated to the project)
Creativity as an individual construction is defined as the creation of ideas products processes or solutions [AMA 83] This construction can include creative solutions to problems the company faces The study of creativity is traditionally related to psychology and typically includes research geared toward understanding why some individuals are more creative than others Owing to this researchers know little about the social context and how it affects individuals when producing ideas or solutions According to Dietrich [DIE 04] there are four types of creativity based on their emotional or cognitive aspects emotional or deliberate cognitive creativity and emotional or spontaneous cognitive creativity These four types indicate different neurocognitive processes of creativity The author tends to show by these processes that creativity is accessible to all It is also known that stress is detrimental to creativity The first studies showed a decrease in the creative process associated with an increase in stress-induced stimulation [KRO 69] especially social stress [LIN 65] The production of something new depends on in part an uninhibited process According to Chrysikou [CHR 14] performance in creativity requires the perception of filters at low levels This filtration is related
96 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
to the prefrontal cortex that regulates perceptual data However group creativity involves a collection of individuals [PIR 04] Like group performance it appears when a group of individuals work interdependently toward the common goal [HAC 92] of developing ideas that are both new and useful [AMA 83] Unfortunately this community can inhibit creativity in order to correspond to imposed norms The famous concept of conformity can intervene to incite individuals to conform not only to the norms described in approach 1 (societal organizational and occupational norms) but also implicit group norms Here critical thinking is in favor of creativity [HOW 15] According to certain conclusions the so-called creative personalities assign a particular role to intuition and have rightly an aversion to norms which makes it difficult for them to face others (inhibition stress) However other studies show that collaborative work reinforces individual learning and creativity [PAU 03] Previous studies have shown a connection between social network parameters and individual creativity [FLE 07 PER 06] As suggested by Hansen [HAN 02] this research was established on a study of knowledge networks and the complex networks that workers confront
We can then question whether groups encourage creativity and because an essential function of emotion is the coordination of social interactions [LAZ 91] whether emotional contagion can be a lever for creativity or a multiplying factor of conformism within a group
Two studies were conducted on the contagion of mood and emotion in work groups As we saw earlier the first study [GEO 90] shows that a perfect emotional agreement can exist within a group of salespeople The second study [TOT 98] reveals that the average mood of one member can predict the mood of a group at a given moment t In this sense the effect of contagion is often associated with a convergence of moods and attitudes in the workplace [MAS 02] However according to Barsade [BAR 02] a single member of the group can have a negative effect and lead the entire group to reject creative ideas Inversely Isen [ISE 02] shows that positive emotions are associated with individual and collective creativity
To our knowledge there are few studies about the impact of emotional contagion on group creativity [FLE 06] so one was
Managing a Collective 97
conducted to test the effect of emotional contagion on group creativity [VAN 16]
A quantitative study conducted with young professionals in training sought to examine the link between social cohesion emotional contagion and creativity According to the literature emotional contagion remains fleeting and only produces a temporary mental unity If this contagion leads to a social interaction it does not necessarily lead to the social cohesion of a group which requires simultaneity euphony (harmony) and eurythmy between actors [LEacuteP 05] Group cohesion is strong when members appreciate one another make the most of group objectives adopt group values and are convinced that adherence is crucial to obtain their personal interests Emotion and its contagion are seen as moderating factors because they are the basis for positive and negative human relations In this respect this study tests whether emotional contagion can improve the relation of group cohesion and influence group performance and creativity
The study experiment conducted three times focused on a general sample of 223 young managers in training within a ldquocommunity of practicerdquo in the context of a management simulation The sample was arranged into 29 different teams by way of three groups of around 70 people Positive or negative emotional contagion was measured in a binary way its presenceabsence based on observations made through the management simulation Group cohesion was measured by a team evaluation based on the scale from Beal et al [BEA 03] according to five elements (group efficiency fairness in task sharing similarity of objectives pursued collective decision-making team member involvement) on a five-point semantic scale Group performance was measured based on the results gathered in each team report and their efficiency that is the teamrsquos results in terms of sales in the last period of the game on a ranking function based on the market and the net profit of all of the teams over four periods The ranking was binary based on an evaluation on a five-point semantic scale with 2 = good profits (mark 5 and 4) and 1 = poor profits (3 2 1) Creativity was measured based on the degree of effort provided by the team for creative exercises (according to observations) and the final result of the creativity in the game The coding of creative thought was based on Weisburgrsquos description [WEI 88] of creativity as the act of solving new problems or generating ideas and real solutions The coding schema defined creative thinking as
1) a discovery or an idea 2) the action of searching for an idea or solution to create or solve a problem The evaluation was made on a five-point scale that was part of the overall
grade on the final report The results indicated that if group cohesion positively affects performance it does not directly affect creativity These results contradict the results reported in some earlier studies Nevertheless the results provide additional clarification that the moderating effect of emotional contagion improves the relation between group cohesion and performance but it does not have any significant impact on the relation between group cohesion and creativity These results highlight the paradox revealed in the literature about creativity
Case Study 312 Effect of emotional contagion on group performance
98 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
Emotion and its contagion must be considered in a group during an exercise in creativity However the idea that it can encourage group conformity or creative enthusiasm has not yet been demonstrated Emotional contagion definitely has a role to play but other more specific studies need to be conducted to better understand how this contagion is involved and how it can provide levers to promote group creativity and encourage innovation whether it is ordinary or not in management However the results [VAN 16] also show that the key to understanding the neuroscience of creativity and the ldquoconstruction of dynamic mental simulationsrdquo is based on different modes of neural activation and deactivation at different steps in the creative process Since emotional contagion is related to synchronization it can both hinder creativity and support it According to Brand [BRA 98] creative organizations have a tendency to be flexible and grant a great deal of independence Our analysis agrees with this revealing that it is sometimes useful for neurological networks to work together and that sometimes this cooperation can impede the creative process due to the behaviors that are subject to the norms of the group Creativity requires specific conditions
To better understand the above we will turn to neurology Creativity is predicated on a lack of inhibition Norms create neural inhibitions related to a dissonance between the emotions experienced and the expressions expected by a group or an organization [FES 57] Fortunately the psychological distress associated with dissonance can be quickly resolved thanks to a change in attitude [JAR 04] The change in attitude resolves this internal conflict but can also lead to a re-evaluation of the process and such a re-evaluation is often associated with a stimulation of the neurological zone of inhibition [TAB 08] Unfortunately these processes of inhibition can in turn impede creativity To solve this conflict it is essential to limit the dissonance from the start Amabile [AMA 96] advocates for good relationships between group members that make it possible to act freely and spontaneously All the same when members are not free to act as they wish and in a creative climate ensured by positive emotions and creative cohesion a lever is necessary an area to liberate instinct to connect these cognitive behaviors [PEC 03] free of inhibitions and open to creativity
Managing a Collective 99
Ubisoft like other high-technology companies is a good example At Ubisoft the offices have large panels to allow for the flow of traffic within the company which also act as expression spaces where collaborators can present their creations There are also spaces dedicated to relaxation In these spaces there are game consoles foosball tables newspapers comics etc The human resources manager and Yann Beauvinon who is responsible for buildings and arrangements at Ubisoft go further and affirm wanting some offices because creators must have their own universe tools and space to be able to isolate themselves and be creative6
Case Study 313 Freedom and creativity
36 A common point an essential element for collective intelligence emotional contagion
Two recurring elements must be managed in emo-management Emotional dissonance intervenes in management repeatedly at the individual level and emotional contagion intervenes repeatedly at the collective level Emotional dissonance can appear within a group and harm the whole group dynamic because it is subject to contagion like emotion It is impossible not to consider this contagion in collective and collaborative management
It is because of these effects that in their book Emotional Contagion [HAT 94] Hatfield et al suggest that ldquothe power of contagion gives us a realistic perception as to how much we can expect to influence social situationsrdquo [HAT 94 p 193] One question remains are emotions the friends or enemies of collective intelligence in companies
Emotions make it possible to synchronize with others and share decisions as well as attitudes and behaviors They are gifted with contagion When a manager makes a good decision they feel that they are headed for success The emotions experienced are positive when the decision appears favorable to them They comforted The decision maker then only needs to communicate consciously or unconsciously their feeling to others to better convince them of the good choice So how can a manager convince others to follow
6 2015 Ubisoft annual report
100 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
Through the contagion conferred by their emotions a manager can inspire enthusiasm Not everyone knows how to transmit these emotions however According to Hatfield et al [HAT 94] some people have a greater ability to contaminate others and ldquoseducerdquo others more easily Through the margin of maneuver and the freedom that a manager imparts to their colleagues they can unleash creativity On this topic the directors at Google [SCH 14] advocate for the right to express objections and divergences In this respect contagion must avoid replacing normative restrictions and conformity
Since emotions are an integral part of the mechanism of collective sharing their contagion helps to convince to share decisions behaviors and attitudes and to integrate and involve the team in managerial practices Managers and directors of a large or small company can no longer ignore emotions and argue that pure rationality and pragmatism are necessary to lead a company and team projects Emotions are a pillar of this rationality and its diffusion and acceptance in ldquocollective intelligencerdquo by the team or partners
Nevertheless contagion must be a characteristic that makes it possible to ldquolive and play togetherrdquo Unconscious it must not conform but group in a temporary and fleeting way It must be corroborated by a group cohesion that authorizes divergence in an intelligent way
Studies have shown that some emotions are more collective than others Cardon et al [CAR 17] and Fehr et al [FEH 17] studied collective emotions shared between members of a group Collective emotions do not only reflect a homogenous group at the emotional level Some emotions are shared more easily For example 70 of the group members reported feeling negative emotions whereas only 30 reported positive ones
Unfortunately these results highlight that contagion is more prevalent when negative emotions occur This is all the more problematic since contagion is a phenomenon that remains little understood and can be hard to manage as shown by stock market crashes crowd movements or waves of insults and ridicule on the Internet One of the objectives for research in areas
Managing a Collective 101
such as psychology finance economy sociology epidemiology and neuro-economics is therefore to model the contagion to better understand it endeavoring to rationalize it and find ways to deal with it With this in mind several studies have sought to measure contagion
361 Emo-management dealing with emotional contagion
The first model of social contagion was proposed by Mansfield [MAN 61] His mathematical model makes reference to models of contagion originating in epidemiology Different determinist or stochastic models of social contagion are used to describe decisions made by individuals about adopting an innovation [BAN 92 BAS 69 BIK 92 BRO 01 GRA 78 SCH 73 WAT 02]
Aleksiejuk and Holyst [ALE 01] discuss avalanche theory to describe a contagion of bank failures Like network theory their model shows that networks between banks can lead to a contagion of bankruptcies Later Adamatzky [ADA 02] models emotional interactions based on the paradigm of artificial chemistry This author considers four emotional states as molecules that make up an affective liquid Dodds and Watts [DOD 05] use different existing models and combine them Their model considers an individualrsquos memory of exposure to a contagious entity (mood or illness) the magnitude of the exposure (doses size) the degree of susceptibility of the individual to be contaminated and an individual emerging from a contagion becoming susceptible to being contaminated again immediately
362 Mathematical and economic tools to better manage emotional contagion
Through a digital interpretation of an observation in vivo Samet and van Hoorebeke [SAM 06] measure how contagion works between individuals This text establishes a measurement scale deduced from the observed process and the scale presented by Hatfield et al [HAT 94]
102 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
This study was conducted over a period of four months and more specifically given the fleeting nature of emotions and especially emotional contagion two three-hour observations The site observed was a class of 193 students in two groups (101 in group A and 92 students in group B) at an American university The contagion observed during a course resulted from the accumulation of several negative events (a teachersrsquo strike the risk of losing a semester if the strike continued a class exercise that had technical issues an exam where the majority of grades were not the results expected) According to the observation the emotional contagion appeared over a period of only 20 min A model of the observation conducted is presented in Figure 31 Like Dodds and Watts [DOD 05] it was attributed measurements that qualify the different degrees of the transmission of emotion in the group observed
Case Study 314 Measuring emotional contagion a study in vivo
Figure 31 Graphical representation of emotional contagion (EC) For a color version of this figure see wwwistecoukvanhoorebekemanagementzip
According to the results emotional contagion characterized by its fleeting and temporary nature is not at the origin of a social contagion but is rather a sudden crowd effect It is at a given moment t that emotional contagion takes on its full meaning According to the observation at this precise moment contagious individuals have the highest degree of emotional feeling and other individuals as described in Hatfield et al [HAT 94] follow them unconsciously through what we could call irrational imitation or mimicry Based on the observation to create emotional contagion a measure of group emotional feeling is necessary This dose according to the dose scale can only be attained by an accumulation of high doses of emotional feelings ndash in this case four consecutive events and a minimum of one individual to contaminate ten people
Case Study 315 Measuring emotional contagion results
Managing a Collective 103
Another way of modeling contagion is experimentation in a laboratory by reconstructing a situation of managerial decision-making under control by isolating the elements of individual decision-making to the maximum7 Repeating the experiment makes it possible to draw meaningful conclusions
Below a description of the study reveals its inner workings
In this experiment conducted with 70 players divided into five groups each member of the group (14 members who do not know each other) must choose between 14 similar managerial choices8 After reading a document that provides some information (partial and complex) about each choice the individuals must adjudicate based on their strategy belief analysis and choice perceived by the other players (unconscious perception communication prohibited) Only one choice is the winner and is awarded a prize a decision that is drawn beforehand at random by the experimenter
The initial analyses of the results of this study indicate that 41 of players recognize having copied the decisions of other players when they noted that these other players always selected the same decision Watching video tapes of the experiment indicates that the majority of winners displaying expressions of satisfaction and contentment (discreet for some but perceptible) caused players who had lost up to that point to make a greater effort to win While some recognized having discreetly scanned the decisions written by other players others confessed to having quickly understood the rules of the game and coping knowingly Several participants denied having copied the results of others totally omitting this explanation of their correct choice (random trial-and-error) although the videos and the results noted on their decision sheet indicated the opposite Their results indicate that they followed the results of their neighbor when the neighbor changed his behavior (grinning indication of assurance relaxing in his seat and speed of responding nonchalantly) Although in the end there was a tie between conscious imitation and unconscious mimicry the results indicate that only the mimicry (emotional contagion) made it possible to accelerate making the right decision More advanced results indicate that emo-decisional contagion can prove to be a bias that causes individuals who lack information and time to ldquoimitaterdquo decisions made by other individuals simply by seeing the emotions they express
Case Study 316 Emo-decisional contagion a study in vitro
These two studies clearly show that emotional contagion can be grasped because it is perceptible and measurable In this respect it 7 Unpublished study realized in 2008 8 Based on our statistical and probabilistic calculations
104 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
could prove to be a management lever that is indispensable for decision-making and group management Group emotion can also prove to be positive and encourage the establishment of this new vision of management through emotional involvement Of course collective intelligence cannot always rely on emotion to guide or decide Information and the rational are important The new manager must strike a balance between the rational and the emotional
NEGATIVE EXAMPLEndash ldquoLe burnout un syndrome contagieuxrdquo (ldquoBurnout Is it contagiousrdquo) is the title of an article from May 25 2005 on the site activrsquo assistante9 ldquoWhen a symptom gradually contaminates the professional areas in a society including assistant positions observing it is no longer enough We must fight the evil at the source With Pascale Venara president of the Institut de preacutevention du burn out discover how to recognize it and act before the curtain falls on burnt out colleaguesrdquo POSITIVE EXAMPLEndash The focus was on happiness at the regional council reception of the Ordre des Experts-Comptables on Friday January 30 For the occasion the president Jacques Maureau invited Rodolphe Carle to debate about the happiness of entrepreneurship along with Bernard Jacquand The CEO of Babilou discussed accepting the social dimension of onersquos company today in that it takes on a ldquouseful dimension for the companyrdquo and contributes to ldquoliving well togetherrdquo ldquoThis usefulness is part of our DNA and our values Values that are shared by all of our employees Because we must never forget that a company is not built alone A company is first and foremost the men and women who come together around a project with meaning united around common values driven by the same energy and the same desire to work together The sense of entrepreneurship must be contagious shared communicated within a grouprdquo [ROU 15]
Case Study 317 Examples of contagion in the workplace
The underlying question we faced at the start of our reflection was how can we envision a new style of management that would foster complete responsibility marked by authentic commitment that is favorable for individuals and the collective in a company Our work suggests that the first step is for the company to consider humans in a holistic way (cognitively rationally biologically emotionally) to better draw a common benefit if the relationship is balanced marked by trust and in particular deep understanding To put it simply and metaphorically how can we make a machine work if we do not 9 Available online at httpwwwactivassistantecomvie-pro-persomissions-proefficacite-prole-burn-out-un-syndrome-contagieux
Managing a Collective 105
understand the basic inner mechanisms How can we consider human behavior if we only think of a person as a simple android the main responsibility of the company How can we make people stick with changes or projects without affecting their deep emotions and galvanizing feelings To get them involved it is essential to ensure an individual well-being that is unique to them and an economic efficiency The company is confronted by the same issues to respond to the requirements and challenges that the future holds with emo-management changing a short-term perspective or perception for a long-term challenge
Conclusion
To summarize the contribution of this text and address our goal of describing and demonstrating the role of emotions in management the progression of our text made it possible to situate the intervention of emotions at all levels of management at both the individual and collective levels Supported by research analyses and concrete examples this text shows that management and emotions are one and the same Management must manage humans in their relations in person or at a distance Currently humans are recognized as psychological biological and emotional Future management of these beings must adapt to this
Emo-management completes the traditional exogenous approach to management based on people by proposing an endogenous approach to management for and by people It considers humans in a holistic way as beings gifted with rationality and irrationality psychobiological and emotional beings Traditional management where the objective is to make profit for profitrsquos sake is evolving toward searching out advances for the collective interest The fundamental distinction compared to classic management is how we view people in the workplace whether they are managers or employees Managers must understand how they themselves work (biologically rationally and emotionally) and how their colleagues work Managers must advocate for and respect values leading in all probability to sharing them
The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management First Edition Delphine van Hoorebeke copy ISTE Ltd 2018 Published by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley amp Sons Inc
108 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
This leads to a ldquocollective intelligencerdquo in favor of these values Some historical authors (Fayol Mayo etc) would be surprised to find that their theories are still current and that despite our extremely rapid developments no new vision has yet really gained ground in companies where hierarchy remains necessary
Emo-management the new vision of management must not only perceive individuals as single entities but also as a chain in a real collective ldquointelligencerdquo ndash the quotation marks underscore that this type of intelligence can only occur with a balance between cognition and emotion [DAM 00] Some talk about returning to the source Companies see that humans as social beings need to return to their intuitions and emotions and re-learn how to understand and experience them
To summarize this approach to management originating in fields as varied as psychology sociology management and even neurobiology allows us to propose a new idea of management a more global vision that considers the different realities and resources of human beings To the basic definition of management proposed in Le Littreacute (that is the art of the possible ldquothe art of directing steering handling motivatinghellip even the action of regulating effectively administering wellrdquo) we can add the definition of a modern management that is capable of reconciling the present to the future solving daily problems while predicting future problems and that has the primary role of knowing managing onersquos own emotions and those of others which we call a savoir faire-faire (or the skill of directing) It is an economic performance that is individual and also collective composed of different pieces of knowledge described by Picard [PIC 95] that notably includes e-motions through the knowledge and skills necessary to ensure them and ensure management
The basic elements are similar including a set of capacities
ndash the capacity to do at least what is necessary this individual economic performance considers measurable and tangible results
Conclusion 109
through a temporary vision Some call this type of performance ldquoproductivity at workrdquo ensured by the individualrsquos cognitive aspect
ndash the capacity to do what is necessary in a responsible way this socio-economic performance combines a concern for short-term cost-effectiveness with long-term flexibility It consists of the managersrsquo capacity to take on their part of the responsibilities and adapt their actions The ability of managers to engage in economic objectives factors of organizational flexibility is determined by their ability to manage skills knowing the needs and expectations of each person
ndash a capacity to do things well this consists of addressing situations better or differently with knowledge and learning Picard [PIC 95 p 5] called this type of individual economic performance ldquoefficiencyrdquo This corresponds to a mastery of ldquothe good methods of progressive people management [and] holding positions of power appropriatelyrdquo This capacity can be applied to the collective level as well Doing things better consists then of doing things in complementarity and with good understanding
ndash and finally a capacity for collective sharing
Relying on several studies in psychology Rimeacute [RIM 05] indicated in his book about the social sharing of emotions that the expression of emotions is not a source of emotional recovery notably in the case of post-traumatic stress Nevertheless social sharing and debriefing are according to the participants in a multitude of experiments on the topic a tool for satisfaction in that they provide a feeling of having been helped Without needing to become experts in psychology in our view each actor (manager and group members) involved in collective sharing helps to initiate the bringing together of the individual and the collective
For this the capacities of the manager include several other kinds of knowledge aside from savoir-faire (technical skills)
ndash Savoir-ecirctre (social or interpersonal skills) the management of behaviors Managers must have an emotional adaptability and a capacity to make an effort to manage their emotions and do emotional
110 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
labor [HOC 83] They must also develop the capacity to be aware of their behavior and to acquire ldquobody techniquesrdquo [TYL 01] Faced with new market conditions more and more companies want to evaluate the performances of their managers in terms of soft skills to close the gap between actual and expected behaviors This faculty requires acting whether it is a performance of theatrically simulating expressions or intensively working on managing behaviors [GOF 59] Levers help to foster this emotional work without triggering harmful inhibitions
ndash Savoir-vivre (life management skills) having the capacity to master the right processes improve coordination optimize customer relations and in all cases detect difficulties as soon as they arise It is added to social skills as an indispensable element for a manager and staff in contact with the public Life management skills literally correspond to ldquothe art of conducting onersquos life well civilityrdquo It is considered here as the art of managing relations with others through the management of onersquos own e-motions and those of others Amherdt [AMH 05] suggested five recommendations to ensure optimal operations for team members According to this author this type of manager has very clear expectations displays real interest for his team is a good decision maker inspires confidence knows how to overcome challenges and present them to his team and knows how to show a leaderrsquos charisma In its ideal form this management of self and others is sincere and authentic In the 2005 seminar called ldquoLrsquoadoption drsquoune attitude socialement responsable et ses fondements psychologiques Un point de vue Aristiteacutelicienrdquo (ldquoThe adoption of a socially responsible attitude and its psychological foundations an Aristotelian perspectiverdquo) Pellissier-Tanon [PEL 05] stated ldquoThe famous definition of power as the capacity of making someone do something that they would not have done themselves suggests that management to the extent that it consists in the exercise of a power of adherence borders on manipulation We may also be tempted to extend to management the suspicion that weighs on manipulation donrsquot managers risk abusing their power of adherencerdquo
Sincerity and authenticity are two keywords that can mark the difference of a modern manager considering the knowledge and recognition of the intervention of several factors in his behavior
Conclusion 111
decisions managerial processes team cohesion the well-being of his subordinates and colleagues and his tolerance of diverging opinions
ndash The final savoir the skill of deciphering and internalizing emotions knowing how to empathize through experiencing emotions similar to those of the interlocutor so that emotions are felt on both sides and knowing how to encourage a positive emotional contagion coming out of a debriefing Far from standing apart from emotional intelligence this type of knowledge goes deeper and prompts the notion of integration Although individuals are particularly contagious according to Hatfield et al [HAT 94] and emotionally intelligent [GOL 97] our various experiments have shown that everyone can become contagious just as everyone can be susceptible to contamination With this skill the manager can integrate the power and function of emotions The key to collective sharing the manager subscribes not only to developing the aforementioned skills personally but also developing them in the members of his team The emo-manager seeks mutual integration1 accommodation2 [PIA 37] and the expression of critical thinking
This vision of management advocates a management in movement (like the original definition of e-motion) an emo-management that is appropriate for the current context of flexibility speed and collectivity
Thus future management involves a referential change in time and space The strategies must be designed for the long term and for a global space Emo-management totally fits because the common point of all managerial tasks is contagion which does not only account for the quantitative dimension (such as growth) but also introduces reflection at a qualitative and even emotional level of analysis that undeniably exists in management especially collaborative management This concept renounces the accumulation of wealth by
1 Process by which each scheme becomes capable of integrating the domain of the other (coordination between vision and prehension) 2 Mechanism that modifies schemes to adjust them to new data
112 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
ldquoindividual egoismrdquo [SMI 76] which even if there is no need to renounce individual interests seems not to be unique in the very origins of humanity in favor of the search for mutual survival that is collectively intelligent because it is aware of human behavior The ultimate objective of implementing a new vision of management which must know how to combine the adherence of every person with knowledge (understanding and integration) is to encourage a deep change in mentality As Calvez [CAL 10] states in his article ldquoEacutethique morale deacuteontologie proches et diffeacuterentes lrsquoeacutethique en peacuteriode de criserdquo (ldquoEthics Morality Deontology Similar and Different Ethics in Times of Crisisrdquo) from 2010 ldquoJust like in the ideas of a Charles Maurras of yore politics being lsquophysicalrsquo there was no place for a debate about politics and ethics [hellip] In most economic realities and the measures taken to enact them we are indeed obliged [hellip] to consider the thoughts desires and needs of people as well as their intolerances and their prejudices And we must also consider their specific history family choices health demographic with these realities being certainly likely to be understood to some extent in a statistical wayrdquo Thus the future of management requires a ldquocollective intelligencerdquo that is not fleeting based on a simple passing fad and this collective intelligence is a panacea of current and future society as well as the developing economy Because of this emo-management which is not only an evolutive vision but also fundamental to current management essentially advocates for knowing and understanding human foundations for a ldquoreasonedrdquo management and as far as possible basic human reactions to ensure movement
Knowledge of human ldquoemotionsrdquo and ldquothe heuristics of fearrdquo as specified by Jonas can also unfortunately encourage acceptance by submission and resignation in the face of certain events In this respect these e-motions can also paralyze and restrict some types of management ldquoTo ldquoreform thoughtrdquo If the obligation cannot be deduced from knowledge the obligation needs knowledge The moral conscience cannot be deduced from the intellectual conscience But it needs the intellectual conscience that is thought and reflection Good intention risks leading to bad actions and moral will can have immoral consequencesrdquo Like Edgar Morin in Eacutethique [MOR 06] we believe
Conclusion 113
that it is indeed through the knowledge of the various modes of operation evoked in this book that human beings can evolve while responding to the social economic and environmental needs to which the future economy will subject us This economy will be based on the ldquoheart and the collectiverdquo but despite the speed of its development knowledge sharing and globalization it must not neglect the search for balance between cognition and emotion to conserve its homeostasis and ethics
According to the writings of Ashkanasy et al [ASH 17] the manager must acquire an ldquoemotional sophisticationrdquo to win in opposition to the robots Emo-management buoyed by the skills to engage motivate and create emulation in a sustainable group inimitable by any robot to date must understand the strengths and weaknesses of emotion Emo-management is not content to ldquosimulaterdquo emotional enthusiasm nor to provoke it This management must know how to tame it moderate it or guide it in full awareness
Bibliography
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[ADA 02] ADAMATZKY A ldquoOn dynamics of affective liquidsrdquo Dynamical Psychology available at httpwwwgoertzelorgdynapsyc2002 emot2708html 2002
[ADE 95] ADELMANN PK ldquoEmotional labor as a potential source of job stressrdquo in SAUTER SL MURPHY LR (eds) Organizational Risk Factors for Job Stress American Psychological Association Washington DC 1995
[AKE 82] AKERLOF G DICKENS W ldquoThe economic consequence of cognitive dissonancerdquo American Economic Review vol 72 no 3 pp 307ndash319 1982
[ALE 01] ALEKSIEJUK A HOŁYST JA ldquoA simple model of bank bankruptciesrdquo Physica A vol 299 nos 1ndash2 pp 198ndash204 2001
[ALL 71] ALLISON GT Essence of Decision Explaining the Cuban Missile Crisis Little Brown Boston 1971
[ALL 97] ALLEN NJ MEYER JP Commitment in the Workplace Theory Research and Application Sage Publications Thousand Oaks 1997
[ALV 02] ALVARADO N ADAMS S BURBECK S The role of emotion in an architecture of mind IBM available at httpspdfssemanticscholarorg c9f698270d71811742cf7f17a36d9a11f1735b35pdf 2002
[ALV 15] ALVESSON M SPICER A The Stupidity Paradox The Power and Pitfalls of Functional Stupidity at Work Profile Books London 2015
The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management First Edition Delphine van Hoorebeke copy ISTE Ltd 2018 Published by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley amp Sons Inc
116 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
[AMA 83] AMABILE TM ldquoThe social psychology of creativity a componential conceptualizationrdquo Journal of Personality and Social Psychology vol 45 pp 357ndash377 1983
[AMA 96] AMABILE TM CONTI R COON H et al ldquoAssessing the work environment for creativityrdquo Academy of Management Journal vol 39 no 5 pp 1154ndash1184 1996
[AMH 05] AMHERDT C-H La santeacute eacutemotionnelle au travail Demos Eacuteditions Paris 2005
[AND 96] ANDERSEN P-A GUERRERO LK ldquoPrinciples of communication and emotion in social interactionrdquo in ANDERSEN P-A GUERRERO LK (eds) Handbook of Communication and Emotion Research Theory Applications and Contents Academic Press San Diego CA 1996
[ARR 01] ARRIVE JY Savoir vivre ses eacutemotions Retz Paris 2001
[ASC 55] ASCH SE ldquoOpinions and social pressurerdquo Scientific American vol 193 no 5 pp 31ndash35 1955
[ASH 93] ASHFORTH BE HUMPHREY RH ldquoEmotional labor in service roles the influence of identityrdquo Academy of Management Review vol 18 no 1 pp 88ndash115 1993
[ASH 95] ASHFORTH BE HUMPHREY RH ldquoEmotion in the workplace a reappraisalrdquo Human Relations vol 48 no 2 pp 97ndash125 1995
[ASH 00a] ASHFORTH BE TOMIUK MA ldquoEmotional labour and authenticity views from the service agentsrdquo in FINEMAN S (ed) Emotion in Organizations Sage Publications London 2000
[ASH 00b] ASHKANASY NM TSE B ldquoTransformational leadership as management of emotion a conceptual reviewrdquo in ASHKANASY N HARTEL C ZERBE W (eds) Emotions in the Workplace Developments in the Study of the Managed Heart Quorum Books Westport CT 2000
[ASH 07] ASHLEY COOPER A (EARL OF SHAFTESBURY) An Inquiry Concerning Virtue or Merit The Internet Archive available at httpsarchiveorgstreaminquiryconcernin00shafuoftpagen0 mode2up 2007
[ASH 17] ASHKANASY NM HUMPHREY RH HUY QN ldquoIntegrating emotions and affect in theories of managementrdquo Academy of Management Review vol 42 no 2 pp 175ndash189 2017
Bibliography 117
[ASS 09] ASSELINEAU A PIRE-LECHALARD P ldquoLe deacuteveloppement durable un paradigme geacuteneacuterateur drsquoune rupture drsquoinnovationrdquo Management et Avenir Lrsquoorganisation revisiteacutee au travers du deacuteveloppement durable une approche multidisciplinaire Special edition no 26 2009
[AUT 06] AUTISSIER D WACHEUX F Manager par le sens les cleacutes de lrsquoimplication au travail Eyrolles Paris 2006
[AVE 75] AVERILL JR ldquoA semantic atlas of emotional conceptsrdquo JSAS Catalogue of Selected Documents in Psychology vol 5 p 330 1975
[BAB 99] BABA ML ldquoDangerous liaisons trust distrust and information technology in American work organizationsrdquo Human Organization vol 58 no 3 pp 331ndash346 1999
[BAK 01] BAKKER AB SIXMA HJ BOSVELD W ldquoBurnout contagion among general practionersrdquo Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology vol 20 no 1 p 82698 2001
[BAK 05] BAKKER AB LEBLANC PM SCHAUFELI WB ldquoBurnout contagion among intensive care nursesrdquo Nursing Theory and Concept Development or Analysis vol 51 no 3 pp 276ndash287 2005
[BAN 92] BANERJEE AV ldquoA simple model of herd behaviorrdquo The Quarterly Journal of Economics vol CVII no 3 pp 797ndash817 1992
[BAR 02] BARSADE SG ldquoThe Ripple effect emotional contagion and its influence on group behaviourrdquo Administrative Science Quarterly vol 47 pp 647ndash675 2002
[BAS 69] BASS F ldquoA new product growth model for consumer durablesrdquo Management Science vol 15 pp 215ndash227 1969
[BAS 85] BASS BM Leadership and Performance Beyond Expectation Free Press New York NY 1985
[BAS 99] BASS BM ldquoEthics character and authentic transformational leadership behaviourrdquo Leadership Quarterly vol 10 no 2 p 81 1999
[BAT 86] BATRA R RAY ML ldquoAffective responses mediating acceptance of advertisingrdquo Journal of Consumer Research vol 13 no 2 pp 234ndash249 1986
[BAT 02] BATLLE A ldquoLrsquoeacutemotion dans lrsquoentrepriserdquo Les Eacutechos February 2002 Available at httpswwwlesechosfr26022002LesEchos 18602-118-ECH_l-emotion-dans-l-entreprisehtm
118 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
[BAU 98] BAUMARD P BENVENUTI J-A Compeacutetitiviteacute et systegravemes drsquoinformation De lrsquooutil drsquoanalyse au management strateacutegique InterEditions Paris 1998
[BEA 03] BEAL DJ COHEN RR BURKE MJ et al ldquoCohesion and performance in groups a meta-analytic clarification of construct relationsrdquo Journal of Applied Psychology vol 88 no 6 pp 989ndash1004 2003
[BEC 98] BECHARA A DAMASIO H TRANEL D et al ldquoDissociation of working memory from decision making within the human prefrontal cortexrdquo Journal of Neurosciences vol 18 pp 428ndash437 1998
[BEC 99] BECHARA A DAMASIO H DAMASIO AR et al ldquoDifferent contributions of the human amygdala and ventromedial prefrontal cortex to decision-makingrdquo The Journal of Neuroscience vol 19 no 13 pp 5473ndash5481 1999
[BEC 00] BECHARA A DAMASIO H DAMASIO AR ldquoEmotion decision-making and orbitofrontal cortexrdquo Cerebral Cortex vol 10 no 3 pp 295ndash307 2000
[BEH 94] BEHNKE PR SAWYER CR KING P-E ldquoContagion theory and the communication of public speaking state anxietyrdquo Communication Education vol 43 pp 246ndash251 1994
[BER 13] BERNOULLI J Ars conjectandi opus posthumum Accedit Tractatus de seriebus infinitis et epistola galliceacute scripta de ludo pilae reticularis Thurneysen Brothers Basel 1713
[BER 01] BERSON Y ldquoThe relationship between vision strength leadership style and contextrdquo Leadership Quarterly vol 12 no 1 pp 53ndash74 2001
[BER 03] BERTHOZ A La deacutecision Odile Jacob Paris 2003
[BIK 92] BIKHCHANDANI S HIRSHLEIFER D WELCH I ldquoA theory of fads fashion custom and cultural change as informational cascadesrdquo Journal of Politics and Economics vol 100 pp 992ndash1026 1992
[BIL 95] BILTS R Walt Disney The Dreamer the Realist and the Critic Dynamic Learning Publications Library of Congress Catalog in Publications Data Washington 1995
[BIS 83] BISCHOFF C TRAUE HC ldquoMyogenic headacherdquo in HOLROYD KA SCHLOTE B ZENZ H (eds) Perspectives in Research on Headache Levinston New York NY Hogrefe and Huber Publishers Toronto 1983
Bibliography 119
[BOI 10] BOISARD-CASTELLUCCIA S VAN HOOREBEKE D ldquoLe management de la diversiteacute des eacutequipes par la contagion eacutemotionnelle au cœur de la performance de grouperdquo Revue Management et Avenir vol 8 no 38 pp 240ndash256 2010
[BON 07] BONO J JACKSON-FOLDES H VINSON G et al ldquoWorkplace emotional regulation the role of supervision and leadershiprdquo Journal of Applied Psychology vol 9 no 5 p 1357 2007
[BOO 05] BOOT AWA THAKOR V MILBOURN TT ldquoSunflower management and capital budgetingrdquo The Journal of Business vol 78 no 2 pp 501ndash527 2005
[BRA 98] BRAND A ldquoKnowledge management and innovation at 3Mrdquo Journal of Knowledge Management vol 2 no 1 pp 17ndash22 1998
[BRO 61] BROCA P Bulletin de la socieacuteteacute franccedilaise drsquoanthropologie no 1 April 1861
[BRO 01] BROCK WA DURLAUF SN ldquoDiscrete choice with social interactionsrdquo Revue of Economics Studies vol 68 pp 235ndash260 2001
[BUR 78] BURNS JM Leadership Harper and Row New York NY 1978
[BUR 87] BURT RS ldquoSocial contagion and innovation cohesion versus structural equivalencerdquo American Journal of Sociology vol 92 pp 1287ndash1335 1987
[BUR 93] BURGOON JK ldquoInterpersonal expectations expectancy violations and emotional communicationrdquo Journal of Language and Social Psychology vol 12 pp 30ndash48 1993
[CAL 10] CALVEZ JY ldquoEacutethique morale deacuteontologie proches et diffeacuterentes lrsquoeacutethique en peacuteriode de criserdquo Revue franccedilaise du marketing vol 226 pp 1ndash5 2010
[CAP 07] CAPRON M QUAIREL F La responsabiliteacute sociale drsquoentreprise La Deacutecouverte Paris 2007
[CAR 17] CARDON MS POST C FORSTER WR ldquoTeam entrepreneurial passion its emergence and influence in new venture teamsrdquo Academy of Management Review vol 42 pp 283ndash305 2017
[CAS 98] CASTRO JL GUERIN F LAURIOL J ldquoLe modegravele des 3C en questionrdquo Revue Franccedilaise de Gestion vol 118 pp 75ndash89 1998
[CHA 90] CHANLAT J-F (ed) Lrsquoindividu dans lrsquoorganisation les dimensions oublieacutees Eska Paris 1990
120 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
[CHA 98] CHATMAN JA POLZER JT BARSADE SG et al ldquoBeing different yet feeling similar the influence of demographic composition and organizational culture on work processes and outcomesrdquo Administrative Science Quarterly vol 43 no 4 pp 749ndash780 1998
[CHA 01] CHATMAN JA FLYNN FJ ldquoThe influence of demographic heterogeneity on the emergence and consequences of cooperative norms in work teamsrdquo Academy of Management Journal vol 44 no 5 pp 956ndash974 2001
[CHA 03] CHANLAT J-F ldquoEacutemotions organisation et management une reacuteflexion sur la notion drsquointelligence eacutemotionnellerdquo Travailler vol 1 no 9 pp 113ndash132 2003
[CHE 92] CHERNISS C ldquoLong term consequences of burn out an exploratory studyrdquo Journal of Organic Behavior vol 13 pp 1ndash11 1992
[CHR 14] CHRYSIKOU EG WEBER MJ THOMPSON-SCHILL SL ldquoA matched filter hypothesis for cognitive controlrdquo Neuropsychologia vol 62 pp 341ndash365 2014
[CLA 95] CLARKSON MBE ldquoA stakeholder framework for analysing and evaluating corporate social performancerdquo Academy of Management Review vol 20 no 1 pp 92ndash117 1995
[CLA 97] CLARK CE CAVANAUGH NC BROWN CV et al ldquoBuilding change-readiness capabilities in the IS organization insights from the bell Atlantic experiencerdquo MIS Quarterly vol 21 no 4 pp 425ndash455 1997
[COL 05] COLLE R PERETTI J-M CERDIN J-L ldquoLa fideacutelisation des salarieacutes par lrsquoentreprise agrave la carterdquo Revue de Gestion des Ressources Humaines vol 55 pp 2ndash21 2005
[DAL 47] DALE HH ldquoWalter Bradford Cannon 1871ndash1945rdquo Obituary Notices of Fellows of the Royal Society vol 5 no 15 pp 407ndash426 1947
[DAM 94] DAMASIO AR Lrsquoerreur de Descartes la raison des eacutemotions Odile Jacob Paris 1994
[DAM 00] DAMASIO AR ldquoA second chance for emotionrdquo in RICHARD DR LANE L NADEL GL et al (eds) Cognitive Neuroscience of Emotion Oxford University Press Oxford 2000
[DAR 72] DARWIN C The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animal John Murray London 1872
Bibliography 121
[DAR 95] DARWALL S The British Moralists and the Internal ldquoOughtrdquo Cambridge University Press Cambridge 1995
[DAS 02] DASBOROUGH MT ASHKANASY NM ldquoEmotion and attribution of intentionality in leader-member relationshipsrdquo The Leadership Quarterly vol 13 no 5 pp 615ndash634 2002
[DAU 99] DAUMAS C ldquoDeacutemunis face aux tensionsrdquo Libeacuteration available at httpwwwliberationfrcahier-special19991018vincent-dubois-sociologue-a-passe-six-mois-aux-guichets-des-allocations-familiales-demunis-face-aux-_286563 October 1999
[DEB 16] DEBBAH S VAN HOOREBEKE D ldquoTravail collaboratif agrave distance lrsquoinfluence de lrsquointelligence eacutemotionnelle une eacutetude exploratoirerdquo XXIe Congregraves de lrsquoAssociation Information et Management Lille May 2016
[DEM 06] DE MARTINO B KUMARAN D SEYMOUR B et al ldquoFrames biases and rational decision-makingrdquo Human Brain Science vol 313 no 5787 pp 684ndash687 2006
[DER 87] DERBAIX C ldquoLe comportement de lrsquoacheteur voies drsquoeacutetudes pour les anneacutees agrave venirrdquo Recherche et Applications Marketing vol 2 no 2 pp 81ndash92 1987
[DER 89] DERBAIX C PHAM M ldquoPour un deacuteveloppement des mesures de lrsquoaffectif en marketing synthegravese des preacute-requisrdquo Recherche et Applications Marketing vol 4 no 4 pp 71ndash87 1989
[DES 37] DESCARTES R Discours de la meacutethode Flammarion Paris 1637
[DES 49] DESCARTES R Les Passions de lrsquoacircme Henry le Gras Paris 1649
[DIE 03a] DIEFENDORFF JM GOSSERAND RH ldquoUnderstanding the emotional labor process a control theory perspectiverdquo Journal of Organizational Behavior vol 24 no 8 pp 945ndash959 2003
[DIE 03b] DIEFENDORFF JM RICHARD EM ldquoAntecedents and consequences of emotional display rule perceptionsrdquo Journal of Applied Psychology vol 88 pp 284ndash294 2003
[DIE 04] DIETRICH A ldquoNeurocognitive mechanisms underlying the experience of flowrdquo Consciousness and Cognition vol 13 no 4 pp 746ndash761 2004
[DOD 05] DODDS PS WATTS DJ ldquoA generalized model of social and biological contagionrdquo Journal of Theoritical Biology vol 232 no 4 pp 587ndash604 2005
122 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
[DRE 52] DREVER J A Dictionary of Psychology Penguin London 1952
[DRU 93] DRUCKER PF Post-capitalist Society HarperCollins New York NY 1993
[DUB 08] DUBOIS V La vie au guichet Relation administrative et traitement de la misegravere Economica Paris 2008
[DUR 67] DURKHEIM E Le suicide Eacutetude de sociologie 2nd edition PUF Paris 1967
[EAR 00] EARLEY PC MOSAKOWSKI E ldquoCreating hybrid teams culture an empirical test of transnational team functioningrdquo Academy of Management Journal vol 43 no 1 pp 26ndash49 2000
[EIS 99] EISENHARDT KM HOPE PELLED L XIN KR ldquoExploring the black box an analysis of work group diversity conflict and performancerdquo Administrative Science Quarterly vol 44 pp 1ndash28 1999
[EKM 79] EKMAN P OSTER H ldquoFacial expressions of emotionrdquo Annual Review of Psychology vol 30 pp 527ndash554 1979
[ELF 07] ELFENBEIN HA OrsquoREILLY CA ldquoFitting in the effects of relational demography and person-organization fit on group process and performancerdquo Group and Organization Management vol 32 no 1 pp 109ndash142 2007
[ELI 94] ELIAS N The Civilizing Processes 1 and 2 Blackwell Oxford 1994
[FAV 06] FAVI The story of FAVI The company that believes that man is good Paper available at httpukukwoneuFile20Storage 5160692_7_The-story-of-favipdf 2006
[FEH 17] FEHR R FULMER A AWTREY E et al ldquoThe grateful workplace a multilevel model of gratitude in organizationsrdquo Academy of Management Review vol 42 pp 361ndash381 2017
[FES 57] FESTINGER L A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance Stanford University Press Stanford CA 1957
[FIM 03] FIMBEL E ldquoNature et enjeux strateacutegiques de lrsquoexternalisationrdquo Revue franccedilaise de gestion vol 143 no 2 pp 27ndash42 2003
[FIN 00] FINEMAN S ldquoEmotional arenas revisitedrdquo in FINEMAN S (ed) Emotions in Organisations Sage Publications London 2000
Bibliography 123
[FIO 94] FIOL CM ldquoConsensus diversity and learning in organizationsrdquo Organization Science vol 5 no 3 pp 403ndash420 1994
[FIS 00] FISHER CD ldquoMood and emotions while working missing pieces of job satisfactionrdquo Journal of Organizational Behavior vol 21 pp 185ndash202 2000
[FIT 00] FITNESS J ldquoAnger in the workplace an emotion script approach to anger episodes between workers and their superiors co-workers and subordinatesrdquo Journal of Organizational Behavior vol 21 pp 147ndash162 2000
[FLE 06] FLEMING L MARX M ldquoManaging creativity in small worldsrdquo California Management Review vol 48 no 4 pp 6ndash27 2006
[FLE 07] FLEMING L MINGO S CHEN D ldquoCollaborative brokerage generative creativity and creative successrdquo Administrative Science Quarterly vol 52 pp 443ndash475 2007
[FRA 94] FRANCE KR SHAH RH PARK CW ldquoThe impact of emotional valence and intensity on Ad evaluation and memoryrdquo in ALLEN C ROEDDER-JOHN D (eds) Advances in Consumer Research 21 Association for Consumer Research Duluth MN 1994
[FRA 03] FRANK J ldquoNatural selection rational economic behavior and alternative outcomes of the evolutionary processrdquo Journal of Socio-Economics vol 32 pp 601ndash622 2003
[FRA 10] FRAY AM SOPARNOT R ldquoLe manager responsablerdquo in DE BRY F IGALENS J PERETTI J-M (eds) Eacutethique et Responsabiliteacute Sociale EMS Eacuteditions Paris 2010
[FRE 84] FREEMAN RE (ed) ldquoStrategic management framework and philosophyrdquo Strategic Management A Stakeholder Approach Pittman Marshfield WI 1984
[FRE 99] FREEMAN RE ldquoDivergent stakeholder theoryrdquo The Academy of Management Review vol 24 no 2 pp 233ndash236 1999
[FRE 02] FREUD E Œuvres complegravetes vol 15 PUF Paris 2002
[FRI 86] FRIJDA NH The Emotions Cambridge University Press Cambridge MA 1986
[FRI 87] FRIEDMAN HS BOOTH-KEWLEY S ldquoThe disease-prone personality a meta-analytic view of the constructrdquo American Psychologist vol 42 pp 539ndash555 1987
124 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
[FRI 88] FRIJDA NH ldquoThe laws of emotionrdquo American Psychologist vol 43 no 5 pp 349ndash358 1988
[FRI 00] FRISOU J ldquoConfiance interpersonnelle et engagement une reacuteorientation beacutehavioristerdquo Recherche et Applications en Marketing vol 15 pp 63ndash80 2000
[FUD 05] FUDENBERG LA IMHOF D NOWAK MA ldquoEvolutionary cycles of cooperation and defectionrdquo Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences vol 102 pp 10797ndash10800 2005
[GAG 03] GAGNON MP GODIN G GAGNEacute C et al ldquoEvolutionary cycles of cooperation an adaptation of the theory of interpersonal behaviour to the study of telemedicine adoption by physiciansrdquo International Journal of Medical Informatics vol 71 no 3 pp 103ndash115 2003
[GAR 85] GARDNER MP ldquoMood states and consumer behavior a critical reviewrdquo Journal of Consumer Research vol 12 no 3 pp 281ndash300 1985
[GAZ 78] GAZZANIGA MS LEDOUX JE The Integrated Mind Plenum New York NY 1978
[GEO 89] GEORGE JM ldquoConflict and performance in mood and absencerdquo Journal of Applied Psychology vol 74 pp 317ndash324 1989
[GEO 90] GEORGE JM ldquoPersonality affect and behavior in groupsrdquo Journal of Applied Psychology vol 75 pp 107ndash116 1990
[GEO 07a] GEORGE JM ldquoEmotions and leadership the role of emotional intelligencerdquo in MANSTEAD A (ed) Psychology of Emotions vol 2 Sage Publications London 2007
[GEO 07b] GEORGE JM BRIEF AP ldquoFeeling good-doing good a conceptual analysis of the mood at work ndash organizational spontaneity relationshiprdquo in ANDERSON N (ed) Fundamentals of HRM vol 3 Sage Publications London 2007
[GOF 59] GOFFMAN E The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life Doubleday Anchor New York NY 1959
[GOL 97] GOLEMAN D Lrsquointelligence eacutemotionnelle Robert Laffont Paris 1997
[GOL 02] GOLEMAN D BOYATZIS R MACKEE A Primal Leadership Harvard Business School Press New York NY 2002
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[GOL 04] GOLEMAN D ldquoWhat Makes a Leaderrdquo Harvard Business Review available at httpswwwthebraudisgroupcomwp-content uploads201605What-Makes-A-Leader-_-1pdf 2004
[GOL 14] GOLEMAN D Lrsquointelligence eacutemotionnelle analyser et controcircler ses sentiments et ceux des autres Jrsquoai lu Paris 2014
[GOU 71] GOUAUX C ldquoInduced affective states and interpersonal attractionrdquo Journal of Personality and Social Psychology vol 20 pp 37ndash43 1971
[GOY 07] GOYAL S VEGA-REDONDO F ldquoStructural holes in social networksrdquo Journal of Economic Theory vol 137 pp 460ndash492 2007
[GRA 78] GRANOVETTER M ldquoThreshold models of collective behaviourrdquo American Journal of Sociology vol 83 pp 1420ndash1443 1978
[GRA 00] GRATCH J ldquoModelling the interplay between emotion and decision-makingrdquo 9th Conference on Computer Generated Forces and Behavioral Representation Orlando FL 2000
[GRA 03] GRANDEY A ldquoWhen lsquothe show must go onrsquo surface and deep acting as predictors of emotional exhaustion and service deliveryrdquo Academy of Management Journal vol 46 no 1 pp 86ndash96 2003
[GRA 05a] GRACIAacuteN B Oraculo manual y arte de prudencia Translated from Spanish by Joseph Jacobs Andrew Burke 2005
[GRA 05b] GRANDEY AA FISKA GM MATTILAB AS et al ldquoIs lsquoservice with a smilersquo enough Authenticity of positive displays during service encountersrdquo Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes vol 96 pp 38ndash55 2005
[GRI 03] GRIMA F TREPO G ldquoInitier une innovation organisationnelle tactiques drsquoinfluence et processus de persuasion mis en œuvre par les championsrdquo Revue de gestion des ressources humaines vol 50 p 23 2003
[GRO 92] GROENESTIJN E BUUNK BP SCHAUFELI WB ldquoThe danger of burnout contagion the role of social comparison processesrdquo in BUUNK M VAN LANGE V (eds) Sociale Psychologie De Boek The Hague 1992
126 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
[GUE 98] GUERRERO LK ANDERSEN PA TROST MR ldquoCommunication and emotion basic concepts and approachesrdquo in ANDERSEN PA GUERRERO LK (eds) Handbook of Communication and Emotion Research Theory Applications and Contents Academic Press San Diego CA 1998
[GUI 98] GUILHON A ldquoLe changement est un apprentissagerdquo Revue Franccedilaise de Gestion vol 120 pp 98ndash107 1998
[GUM 97] GUMP BB KULIK JA ldquoStress affiliation and emotional contagionrdquo Journal of Personality and Social Psychology vol 722 pp 305ndash319 1997
[HAC 92] HACKMAN JR ldquoGroup influences on individuals in organizationsrdquo in DUNNETTE MD HOUGH LM (eds) Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology Consulting Psychologists Press Palo Alto CA 1992
[HAN 02] HANSEN MT ldquoKnowledge networks explaining effective knowledge sharing in multiunit companiesrdquo Organization Science vol 13 pp 232ndash248 2002
[HAT 94] HATFIELD E CACIOPPO JT RAPSON RL Emotional Contagion Cambridge University Press Paris 1994
[HEI 88] HEINER R ldquoImperfected decisions and routinized production implication for evolutionary modelling and inertial technical changerdquo in DOSI G (ed) Technical Change and Economic Theory Pinter Publishers London 1988
[HEL 64] HELSON H Adaptation-level Theory Harper and Row New York NY 1964
[HER 04] HERRBACH O LERAT-PYTLAK J ldquoImplication et eacutemotions au travail une eacutetude empiriquerdquo 15e congregraves de lrsquoAssociation francophone de gestion des ressources humaines ESG UQAM Montreal 2004
[HOC 83] HOCHSCHILD AR The Managed Heart Commercialization of Human Feeling University of California Press Los Angeles CA 1983
[HOU 77] HOUSE RJ ldquoA 1976 theory of charismatic leadershiprdquo in HUNT JG LARSON LL (eds) Leadership The Cutting Edge SIUP Carbondale IL 1977
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[HOW 85] HOWES MJ HOKANSON JE LOWENSTEIN DA ldquoIntroduction of depressive affect after prolonged exposure to a mildly depressed individualrdquo Journal of Personality and Social Psychology vol 49 pp 1110ndash1113 1985
[HOW 06] HOWARD A ldquoPositive and negative emotional attractors and intentional changerdquo Journal of Management Development vol 25 no 7 pp 657ndash670 2006
[HOW 15] HOWARD LW LI-PING TANG T AUSTIN MJ ldquoTeaching critical thinking skills ability motivation intervention and the Pygmalion effectrdquo Journal of Business Ethics vol 128 no 1 pp 133ndash147 2015
[HUM 02] HUMPHREY H ldquoThe many faces of emotional leadershiprdquo The Leadership Quarterly vol 13 no 5 pp 493ndash504 2002
[HUY 02] HUY QN ldquoEmotional balancing of organizational continuity and radical change the contribution of middle managersrdquo Administrative Science Quarterly vol 47 pp 31ndash69 2002
[IAC 05] IACOBINI M ldquoNeural mechanisms of imitationrdquo Current Opinion in Neurobiology vol 15 no 6 pp 632ndash637 2005
[ISE 02] ISEN AM ldquoMissing in action in the AIM positive affectrsquos facilitation of cognitive flexibility innovation and problem solvingrdquo Psychological Inquiry vol 13 no 1 pp 57ndash65 2002
[IZA 77] IZARD CE Human Emotions Plenum Press New York NY 1977
[IZA 84] IZARD CE KAGAN J ZAJONC R (eds) Emotions Cognition and Behaviour Cambridge University Press Cambridge MA 1984
[JAM 84] JAMES W ldquoWhat is an emotionrdquo Mind vol 9 pp 188ndash205 1884
[JAM 89] JAMES N ldquoEmotional labour skill and work in the social regulation of feelingsrdquo Sociological Review vol 37 pp 15ndash32 1989
[JAN 82] JANIS IL Victims of Groupthink Houghton Mifflin Boston MA 1982
[JAR 04] JARCHO JM BERKMAN ET LIEBERMAN MD ldquoThe neural basis of rationalization cognitive dissonance reduction during decision-makingrdquo Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience vol 6 no 4 pp 460ndash467 2004
128 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
[JEH 95] JEHN KA ldquoA multimethod examination of the benefits and detriments of intragroup conflictrdquo Administrative Science Quarterly vol 42 pp 530ndash557 1995
[JEH 97] JEHN KA SHAH P ldquoInterpersonal relationship and task performance an examination of mediating processes in friendship and acquaintance groupsrdquo Journal of Personality and Social Psychology vol 72 pp 775ndash790 1997
[JEN 00] JENNINGS DF ARTZ K GILLIN LM et al ldquoDeterminants of trust in global strategic alliances Amrad and the Australian biomedical industryrdquo Competitiveness Review vol 10 no 1 pp 25ndash44 2000
[JOH 82] JOHNSON-GEORGE CE SWAP WC ldquoMeasurement of specific interpersonal trust construction and validation of scale to assess trust in specific otherrdquo Journal of Personality and Social Psychology vol 43 pp 1306ndash1317 1982
[JON 98] JONES GR GEORGE JM ldquoThe experience and evolution of trust implications for cooperation and teamworkrdquo Academy of Management Review vol 23 no 3 pp 531ndash546 1998
[JON 99] JONES TM WICKS AC ldquoConvergent stakeholder theoryrdquo Academy of Management Review vol 24 pp 206ndash221 1999
[JOR 09] JORDAN PJ LAWRENCE SA ldquoEmotional intelligence in teams development and initial validation of the short version of the workgroup emotional intelligence profile (WEIP-S)rdquo Journal of Management and Organization vol 15 pp 452ndash469 2009
[KAH 73] KAHNEMAN D TVERSKY A ldquoOn the psychology of predictionrdquo Psychological Review vol 80 no 4 pp 237ndash251 1973
[KAN 98] KANT I Critique of Pure Reason Cambridge University Press New York NY 1998
[KEM 78] KEMPER TD A Social Interactional Theory of Emotions Wiley New York NY 1978
[KIS 05] KISHI T ELMQUIST JK ldquoBody weight is regulated by the brain a link between feeding and emotionrdquo Molecular Psychiatry vol 10 pp 132ndash146 2005
[KOE 87] KOESTENBAUM P The Heart of Business Ethics Power and Philosophy Saybrook Publishing San Francisco CA 1987
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[KOG 92] KOGUT B ZANDER U ldquoKnowledge of the firm combinative capabilities and the replication of technologyrdquo Organization Science vol 3 no 3 pp 383ndash397 1992
[KOT 90] KOTTER JP A Force for Change How Leadership Differs from Management The Free Press New York NY 1990
[KOT 02] KOTTER JP COHEN DS The Heart of Change Harvard Business School Press Boston MA 2002
[KRO 69] KROP HD ALEGRE CE WILLIAMS CD ldquoEffect of induced stress on convergent and divergent thinkingrdquo Psychological Reports vol 24 pp 895ndash898 1969
[KRU 00] KRUML JR GEDDES D ldquoExploring the dimensions of emotional labourrdquo Management Communication Quarterly vol 14 no 1 pp 8ndash49 2000
[KRY 08] KRYSTYNA G ldquoThe role of affect in developing communicative and cultural competence in ESPrdquo English Education and English for Specific Purposes Crane Publishing Co Taipei 2008
[KUG 12] KUGLER T KAUSER EE MARTIN G et al Are groups more rational than individuals A review of interactive decision making in groups Document no 3701 CESifo January 2012
[LAB 94] LABORIT H Les bases biologiques des comportements sociaux Fides Montreal 1994
[LAD 07] LADHARI R ldquoThe movie experience a revised approach to determinants of satisfactionrdquo Journal of Business Research vol 60 no 5 pp 454ndash462 2007
[LAZ 91] LAZARUS RS Emotion and Adaptation Oxford University Press Oxford 1991
[LEB 63] LE BON G Psychologie des foules PUF Paris 1963
[LEB 04] LE BAS C ldquoManagement responsable et neacutecessaire reacutegulation globalerdquo Eacuteconomie et Humanisme no 370 pp 58ndash59 2004
[LED 97] LEDOUX JE MULLER J ldquoEmotional memory and psychopathologyrdquo Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society vol 352 pp 1719ndash1726 1997
[LED 98] LEDOUX JE The Emotional Brain Weidenfeld and Nicolson London 1998
130 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
[LEE 93] LEE RT ASHFORTH BE ldquoA longitudinal study of burnout among supervisors and managers comparisons between the Leiter and Maslach (1988) and Golembiewski et al (1986) modelsrdquo Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes vol 54 pp 369ndash398 1993
[LEE 96] LEE RT ASHFORTH BE ldquoA meta-analystic examination of the correlates of the three dimensions of job burnoutrdquo Journal of Applied Psychology vol 81 pp 123ndash133 1996
[LEE 03] LEENDERS RTAJ VAN ENGELEN JML KRATZER J ldquoVirtuality communication and new product team creativity a social network perspectiverdquo Journal of Engineering and Technology Management vol 20 no 1 pp 69ndash92 2003
[LEE 15] LEE C AN M NOH Y ldquoThe effects of emotional display rules on flight attendantsrsquo emotional labor strategy job burnout and performancerdquo Service Business vol 9 no 3 pp 409ndash425 2015
[LEF 06] LEFLEY F ldquoCan a project champion bias project selection and if so how can we avoid itrdquo Management Research News vol 29 no 4 pp 174ndash183 2006
[LEacuteP 05] LEacutePINEUX F ldquoStakeholder theory society and social cohesionrdquo Corporate Governance vol 5 no 2 pp 99ndash110 2005
[LER 06] LERNER JS TIEDENS LZ ldquoPortrait of the angry decision maker how appraisal tendencies shape angerrsquos influence on cognitionrdquo Journal of Behavioral Decision Making vol 19 pp 115ndash137 2006
[LER 11] LEROUX E VAN HOOREBEKE D ldquoSI eacuteco-responsables et innovation les pratiques des salarieacutes dans les PMErdquo Gestion 2000 vol 28 no 4 pp 119ndash135 2011
[LES 98] LE SCANFF C ldquoLa preacuteparation-entraicircnement psychologique pour des situations extrecircmes application au sport de haut niveaurdquo Bulletin de Psychologie vol 51 no 6 pp 765ndash781 1998
[LEW 51] LEWIN K Field Theory in Social Science Selected Theoretical Papers Harper and Row New York NY 1951
[LEW 00] LEWIS KM ldquoWhen leaders display emotion how followers respond to negative emotional expression of male and female leadersrdquo Journal of Organizational Behavior vol 21 pp 221ndash234 2000
[LIN 65] LINDGREN HC LINDGREN F ldquoCreativity brainstorming and orneriness a cross-cultural studyrdquo Journal of Sociology and Psychology vol 67 pp 23ndash30 1965
Bibliography 131
[LIU 05] LIU Y PERREWEacute PL ldquoAnother look at the role of emotion in the organizational change a process modelrdquo Human Resource Management Review vol 15 pp 263ndash280 2005
[LOE 03] LOEWENSTEIN G LERNER JS ldquoThe role of affect in decision makingrdquo in DAVIDSON RJ et al (eds) Handbook of Affective Science Oxford University Press Oxford 2003
[LOS 02] LOSTRA F ldquoLe cerveau eacutemotionnel ou la neuroanatomie des eacutemotionsrdquo Cahiers critiques de theacuterapie familiale et de pratiques de reacuteseaux vol 29 no 2 pp 73ndash86 2002
[LOU 00] LOU H LUO W STRONG D ldquoPerceived critical mass effect on groupware acceptancerdquo European Journal of Information Systems vol 9 pp 91ndash103 2000
[MAC 75] MACLEAN PD ldquoSensory and perspective factors in emotional functions of the trinue brainrdquo in LEVI L (ed) Emotions Their Parameters and Measurement Raven New York NY pp 71ndash92 1975
[MAC 00] MACDONALD AW COHEN JD STENGER VA et al ldquoDissociating the role of the dorsolateral prefrontal and anterior cingulate cortex in cognitive controlrdquo Science vol 288 pp 1835ndash1838 2000
[MAE 10] MAES B FONTANAUD N PRONOST A-M ldquoEffet de la mise en place drsquoun instrument drsquoeacutevaluation continue de la qualiteacute des soins infirmiers sur la satisfaction au travail des soignants et sur leur implication affectiverdquo Recherche en soins infirmiers vol 102 no 3 pp 42ndash49 2010
[MAF 96] MAFFESOLI M Eacuteloge de la raison sensible Grasset Paris 1996
[MAL 96] MALVILLE P Leccedilons litteacuteraires sur les lsquoConfessionsrsquo de Jean-Jacques Rousseau PUF Paris 1996
[MAN 61] MANSFIELD E ldquoTechnical change and the rate of imitationrdquo Econometrica vol 29 no 4 pp 741ndash766 1961
[MAN 13] MANJOO F ldquoThe happiness machine how Google became such a great place to workrdquo Slate Magazine available at httpwwwslatecom articlestechnologytechnology201301google_people_operations_the_secrets_of_the_world_s_most_scientific_humanhtml January 2013
[MAS 82] MASLACH C Burnout The Cost of Caring Englewood Cliffs New York NY 1982
132 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
[MAS 02] MASON CM GRIFFIN MA ldquoGroup task satisfaction applying the construct of job satisfaction to groupsrdquo Small Group Research vol 33 no 3 pp 271ndash312 2002
[MAS 09] MASCLET D COLOMBIER N DENANT-BOEMONT L et al ldquoGroup and individual risk preferences a lottery-choice experiment with self-employed and salaried workersrdquo Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization vol 70 no 3 pp 470ndash484 2009
[MCA 95] MCALLISTER DJ ldquoAffect- and cognition-based trust as foundations for interpersonal cooperation in organizationsrdquo Academy of Management Journal vol 38 no 1 pp 24ndash60 1995
[MCC 84] MCCRAE RR ldquoSituational determinants of coping responses loss threat and challengerdquo Journal of Personality and Social Psychology vol 46 no 4 pp 919ndash928 1984
[MER 99] MERCIER S Lrsquoeacutethique dans les entreprises La Deacutecouverte Paris 1999
[MID 89] MIDDLETON DR ldquoEmotional style the cultural ordering of emotionsrdquo Ethos vol 17 pp 187ndash201 1989
[MON 05] MONOD-BROCA P Paul Broca un geacuteant du XIXe siegravecle Vuibert Paris 2005
[MOR 81] MORRIS T GREER S PETTINGALE KW et al ldquoPattern of expression of anger and their psychological correlates in women with breast cancerrdquo Journal of Psychosomatic Research vol 25 pp 111ndash117 1981
[MOR 96] MORRIS JA FELDMAN DC ldquoThe dimensions antecedents and consequences of emotion laborrdquo The Academy of Management Review vol 21 no 4 pp 986ndash1010 1996
[MOR 97] MORRIS JA FELDMAN DC ldquoManaging emotions in the workplacerdquo Journal of Managerial Issues vol 9 no 3 pp 257ndash274 1997
[MOR 02] MORANA J VAN HOOREBEKE D ldquoLe facteur humain au cœur du supply chain managementrdquo Gestion 2000 vol 6 pp 131ndash141 2002
[MOR 06] MORIN E Eacutethique vol 6 Le Seuil Paris 2006
[MUR 89] MURRAY AI ldquoTop management group heterogeneity and firm performancerdquo Strategic Management Journal vol 10 pp 125ndash141 1989
Bibliography 133
[NEA 86] NEALE MA BAZERMAN MH NORTHCRAFT GB et al ldquoChoice shift effects in group decisions a decision bias perspectiverdquo International Journal of Small Group Research vol 23 pp 33ndash42 1986
[NEL 00] NELSON K BOWEN J ldquoThe effect of employee uniforms on employee satisfaction the Cornell Hotel and Restaurantrdquo Administration Quarterly vol 41 no 2 pp 86ndash95 2000
[NEW 02] NEWCOMBE MJ ASHKANASY NM ldquoThe role of affect and affective congruence in perceptions of leaders an experimental studyrdquo Leadership Quarterly vol 13 pp 601ndash614 2002
[OAK 96] OAKLAND S OSTELL A ldquoMeasuring coping a review and critiquerdquo Human Relations vol 49 no 2 p 133 1996
[OKE 04] OKETCH M ldquoThe corporate stake in social cohesionrdquo Corporate Governance vol 4 no 3 pp 5ndash19 2004
[OLD 54] OLDS J MILNER PM ldquoPositive reinforcement produced by electrical stimulation of the septal area and the other regions of the rat brainrdquo Journal of Comparative and Psychological Psychology vol 47 pp 419ndash427 1954
[PAE 93] PAESE PW BIESER M TUBBS ME ldquoFraming effects and choice shifts in group decision makingrdquo Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes vol 56 pp 149ndash165 1993
[PAP 37] PAPEZ JP ldquoA proposed mechanism of emotionrdquo Archives of Neurology amp Psychiatry vol 38 pp 725ndash743 1937
[PAU 03] PAULUS P NIJSTAD B Group Creativity Innovation through Collaboration Oxford University Press New York NY 2003
[PEC 03] PECH RJ ldquoMemes and cognitive hardwiring why are some memes more successful than othersrdquo European Journal of Innovation Management vol 6 no 3 pp 173ndash181 2003
[PEL 05] PELLISSIER-TANNON A ldquoLrsquoadoption drsquoune attitude socialement responsable et ses fondements psychologiques un point de vue aristoteacutelicienrdquo Congregraves International de lrsquoADERSE Lyon October 2005
[PER 06] PERRY-SMITH JE ldquoSocial yet creative the role of social relationships in facilitating individual creativityrdquo Academy of Management Journal vol 49 pp 85ndash101 2006
[PET 83] PETERS T WATERMAN R Le prix de lrsquoexcellence InterEacuteditions Paris 1983
134 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
[PET 96] PETER JP OLSON JC Consumer Behavior and Marketing Strategy Irwin Chicago IL 1996
[PFE 98] PFEFFERBAUM B PFEFFERBAUM RL ldquoContagion in stress ndash an infectious disease model for post-traumatic stress in childrenrdquo Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America vol 7 p 183 1998
[PIA 37] PIAGET J La construction du reacuteel chez lrsquoenfant Delachaux et Niestleacute Paris 1937
[PIC 95] PICARD D ldquoRecherche performance humaine deacutesespeacutereacutement la contribution de cabinets de conseilrdquo Cahier de recherche du Gregor no 10 1995
[PIR 04] PIROLA-MERLO A MANN L ldquoThe relationship between individual creativity and team creativity aggregating across people and timerdquo Journal of Organizational Behavior vol 25 pp 235ndash257 2004
[PLU 80] PLUTCHIK R Emotion A Psychoevolutionary Synthesis Harper and Row New York NY 1980
[QUI 06] QUIRK J BEER JS ldquoPrefrontal involvement in the regulation of emotion convergence of rat and human studiesrdquo Current Opinion in Neurobiology vol 16 pp 723ndash727 2006
[RAF 89] RAFAELI A SUTTON RI ldquoThe expression of emotion in organizational liferdquo Research in Organizational Behavior vol 11 pp 1ndash42 1989
[REI 45] REICH W ldquoLa peste eacutemotionnellerdquo in REICH W (ed) Lrsquoanalyse caracteacuterielle Petite Bibliothegraveque Payot Paris 1945
[REI 01] REIS HT ldquoRelationship experiences and emotional well-beingrdquo in RYFF CD SINGER BH (eds) Emotion Social Relationship and Health Oxford University Press Oxford 2001
[REM 85] REMPEL JK HOLMES JG ZANNA MD ldquoTrust in close relationshipsrdquo Journal of Personality and Social Psychology vol 49 pp 95ndash112 1985
[RHO 01] RHODE P STEGEMAN M ldquoNon-Nash equilibria of Darwinian dynamics with applications to duopolyrdquo International Journal of Industrial Organization vol 19 pp 415ndash453 2001
[RIB 30] RIBOT T La psychologie des sentiments Alcan Paris 1930
[RIM 05] RIME B Le partage social des eacutemotions PUF Paris 2005
Bibliography 135
[ROB 97] ROBINSON MD JOHNSON JT ldquoIs it emotion or is it stress Gender stereotypes and the perception of subjective experiencerdquo Sex Roles vol 36 pp 235ndash258 1997
[ROG 95] ROGERS E The Diffusion of Innovations The Free Press New York NY 1995
[ROU 03] ROUSSILLON S Les eacutemotions dans le travail Research paper no 200312 EMLYON Business School December 2003
[ROU 15] ROUSSEAU N ldquoEn entreprise le bonheur est contagieuxrdquo La Tribune available at httpacteursdeleconomielatribunefrdebats conferences2015-02-04en-entreprise-le-bonheur-est-contagieuxhtml February 2015
[RUS 79] RUSSELL JA ldquoAffective space is bipolarrdquo Journal of Personality and Social Psychology vol 37 no 3 pp 345ndash356 1979
[SAM 06] SAMET R VAN HOOREBEKE D ldquoLa contagion eacutemotionnelle de groupe interpreacutetation numeacuterique du processus observeacute au travailrdquo Confeacuterence ACFAS Montreal 2006
[SAN 93] SANDELANDS L ST CLAIR L ldquoToward an empirical concept of grouprdquo Journal for the Theory of Social Behavior vol 23 pp 423ndash458 1993
[SAR 38] SARTRE J-P Esquisse drsquoune theacuteorie des eacutemotions Hermann Paris 1938
[SAV 54] SAVAGE L The Foundations of Statistics Dover Publications New York NY 1954
[SCH 71] SCHACHTER S Emotion Obesity and Crime Academic Press New York NY 1971
[SCH 73] SCHELLING TC ldquoHockey helmets concealed weapons and daylight saving a study of binary choices with externalitiesrdquo Journal of Conflict Resolution vol 17 pp 381ndash428 1973
[SCH 89] SCHERER KR ldquoVocal correlates of emotional arousal and affective disturbancerdquo in WAGNER H MANSTEAD A (eds) Handbook of Social Psychophysiology John Wiley amp Sons New York NY 1989
[SCH 94] SCHERER KR ldquoAffect burstsrdquo in VAN GOOZEN HM VAN DE POLL NE SERGEANT JA (eds) Emotions Essays on Emotion Theory Lawrence Erlbaum Hillsdale 1994
136 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
[SCH 98] SCHLAG K ldquoWhy imitate and if so how A boundedly rational approach to multi-armed banditsrdquo Journal of Economic Theory vol 78 no 1 pp 130ndash156 1998
[SCH 00] SCHAUBROECK J JONES JR ldquoAntecedents of workplace emotional labor dimensions and moderators of their effects on physical symptomsrdquo Journal of Organizational Behavior vol 21 pp 163ndash183 2000
[SCH 14] SCHMIDT E ROSENBERG J How Google Works John Murray London 2014
[SCO 80] SCOTT CLldquoInterpersonnel trust a comparison of attitudinal and situational factorsrdquo Human Relations vol 33 pp 805ndash812 1980
[SHA 87] SHAVER P SCHWARTZ J KIRSON D et al ldquoEmotion knowledge further exploration of a prototype approachrdquo Journal of Personality and Social Psychology vol 52 pp 1061ndash1086 1987
[SHI 03] SHIROM A ldquoJob related burnout a reviewrdquo in QUICK JC TETRICK LE (eds) Handbook of Occupational Health Psychology American Psychological Association Washington DC 2003
[SIM 59] SIMON HA ldquoTheories of decision-making in economics and behavioral sciencerdquo The American Economic Review vol 49 no 3 pp 253ndash283 1959
[SIM 87] SIMON HA ldquoMaking management decisions the role of intuition and emotionrdquo Academy of Management Executive vol 1 no 1 pp 57ndash64 1987
[SMI 76] SMITH VL ldquoExperimental economics induced value theoryrdquo American Economic Review Papers and Proceedings vol 66 no 2 pp 274ndash279 1976
[SMI 94] SMITH KG SMITH KA OLIAN JD et al ldquoTop management team demography and process the role of social integration and communicationrdquo Administrative Science Quarterly vol 39 pp 412ndash438 1994
[SMO 02] SMOLIAR SW SPRAGUE R ldquoCommunication and understanding for decision supportrdquo Proceedings of International Conference IFIP TC8WG83 Cork pp 107ndash119 2002
[SOL 98] SOLOMON RC ldquoThe politics of emotionrdquo Midwest Studies in Philosophy vol 22 no 1 pp 1ndash20 1998
Bibliography 137
[STA 89] STASSER G TAYLOR LA HANNA C ldquoInformation sampling in structured discussions of three- and six-person groupsrdquo Journal of Personality and Social Psychology vol 57 pp 57ndash67 1989
[STA 01] STASSER G DIETZ-UHLER B ldquoCollective choice judgment and problem solvingrdquo in HOGG MA TINDALE RS (eds) Handbook of Social Psychology Group Processes Blackwell Publishers Hoboken NJ 2001
[STE 93] STEARNS PN ldquoHistory of emotions the issue of changerdquo in
LEWIS M HAVILAND JM (eds) Handbook of Emotions Guilford New York NY 1993
[SUT 90] SUTTON RJ RAFAELI A ldquoBusy stores and demanding customers how do they affect the display of positive emotionrdquo Academy of Management Journal vol 33 no 3 pp 623ndash637 1990
[SUT 91] SUTTON RI ldquoMaintaining norms about expressed emotions the case of bill collectorsrdquo Administrative Science Quarterly vol 36 pp 245ndash268 1991
[TAB 08] TABIBNIA G SATPUTE AB LIEBERMAN MD ldquoThe sunny side of fairness preference for fairness activates reward circuitry (and disregarding unfairness activates self-control circuitry)rdquo Psychological Science vol 19 pp 339ndash347 2008
[TAJ 04] TAJFEL H TURNER JC ldquoThe social identity theory of intergroup behaviorrdquo in JOST TJ SIDANIUS J (eds) Political Psychology Psychology Press New York NY 2004
[TAN 92] TANNENBAUM SI BEARD RL SALAS E ldquoTeam building and its influence on team effectiveness an examination of conceptual and empirical developmentsrdquo in KELLEY K (ed) Issues Theory and Research in IndustrialOrganizational Psychology North Holland New York NY 1992
[THEacute 00] THEacuteVENET M Le plaisir de travailler favoriser lrsquoimplication des personnes Eacuteditions drsquoOrganisation Paris 2000
[THEacute 92] THEacuteVENET M Impliquer les personnes dans lrsquoentreprise Eacuteditions Liaisons Paris 1992
[THO 20] THORNDIKE EL ldquoA constant error in psychological ratingrdquo Journal of Applied Psychology vol 4 pp 25ndash29 1920
138 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
[THO 96a] THOMAS D ELY R ldquoMaking differences matter a new paradigm for managing diversityrdquo Harvard Business Review vol 74 no 5 pp 79ndash92 1996
[THO 96b] THOMASSET A Paul Ricœur une poeacutetique de la morale University Press Leuven 1996
[TIC 87] TICKLE-DEGNEN L ROSENTHAL R ldquoGroup rapport and nonverbal behaviourrdquo in HENDRICK C et al (eds) Group Processes and Intergroup Relations Review of Personality and Social Psychology vol 9 Sage Publications Beverly Hills CA 1987
[TOD 70] TODT D ldquoZur ordnung im gesang der nachtigall (Luscinia megarhynchos)rdquo Verhandlungen der Deutschen Zoologischen Gesellschaft vol 64 pp 249ndash252 1970
[TOD 71] TODT D ldquoAumlquivalente und konvalente gesangliche Reaktionen einer extrem regelmaumlssig singenden Nachtigall (Luscinia megarhynchos B)rdquo Zeitschrift fuumlr vergeichende Physiologie vol 71 pp 262ndash285 1971
[TOD 81] TODT D ldquoOn functions of vocal matching effect of counter-replies on song-post choice and singingrdquo Zeitschrift fuumlr Tierpsychologie vol 57 pp 73ndash93 1981
[TOD 96] TODT D HULTSCH H ldquoAcquisition and performance of repertoires ways of coping with diversity and versatilityrdquo in KROODSMA DE MILLER EH (eds) Ecology and Evolution of Communication Cornell University Press Ithaca 1996
[TOL 02] TOLBERT AS MCLEAN GN MYERS RC ldquoCreating the global learning organization (GLO)rdquo International Journal of Intercultural Relations vol 26 pp 462ndash472 2002
[TOT 98] TOTTERDELL P KELLETT S TEUCHMANN K et al ldquoEvidence of mood linkage in work groupsrdquo Journal of Personality and Social Psychology vol 74 pp 1504ndash1515 1998
[TOT 03] TOTTERDELL P HOLMAN D ldquoEmotion regulation in customer service roles testing a model of emotional laborrdquo Journal of Occupational Health Psychology vol 8 no 1 pp 55ndash73 2003
[TRA 93] TRAUE HC MICHAEL AM ldquoBehavioral and emotional inhibition in head painrdquo in TRAUE HC PENNEBAKER JW (eds) Emotion Inhibition and Health Hogrefe and Huber Publishers Seattle DC 1993
Bibliography 139
[TRE 96] TREWEEK P ldquoComparing interfaces should we assume that ease of use influences users preferencerdquo OzChirsquo96 Conference Proceedings IEEE Computer Society Press Hamilton 1996
[TUR 87] TURNER JC HOGG MA OAKES PJ et al Rediscovering the Social Group A Self-Categorization Theory Blackwell Oxford 1987
[TUR 01] TURBAN E ARONSON JE LIANG T-P Decision Support Systems and Intelligent Systems Prentice-Hall International Upper Saddle River NJ 2001
[TVE 80] TVERSKY A KAHNEMAN D ldquoCausal schemas in judgments under uncertaintyrdquo in FISHBEIN M (ed) Progress in Social Psychology Erlbaum Hillsdale MI 1980
[TYL 01] TYLER M HANCOCK P ldquoFlight attendants and the management of gendered lsquoOrganizational Bodiesrsquordquo in BACKETT-MILBURN K MCKIE L (eds) Constructing Gendered Bodies Explorations in Sociology Palgrave Macmillan London 2001
[VAN 03a] VAN HOOREBEKE D ldquoLe management des eacutemotions au travail une reconsideacuteration des pratiques organisationnellesrdquo Revue de Gestion des Ressources Humaines vol 49 2003
[VAN 03b] VAN HOOREBEKE D Les eacutemotions au travail processus conseacutequences et leviers de gestion PhD Thesis Universiteacute Aix-Marseille III 2003
[VAN 04] VAN HOOREBEKE D ldquoLa dissonance eacutemotionnelle au travail une approche ethnomeacutethodologiquerdquo Management et Avenir vol 3 pp 62ndash81 2004
[VAN 06] VAN HOOREBEKE D ldquoLa contagion eacutemotionnelle problegraveme ou ressource pour les relations interpersonnelles dans lrsquoorganisation rdquo Humanisme et Entreprise vol 279 pp 23ndash42 2006
[VAN 07a] VAN HOOREBEKE D ldquoContagion eacutemotionnelle facteur modeacuterateur de creacuteativiteacute et de performance de groupe au travail rdquo 9e Universiteacute de printemps de lrsquoIAS Moscow May 2007
[VAN 07b] VAN KLEEF GA COcircTEacute S ldquoExpressing anger in conflict when it helps and when it hurtsrdquo Journal of Applied Psychology vol 92 pp 1557ndash1569 2007
[VAN 08a] VAN HOOREBEKE D ldquoLrsquoeacutemotion et la prise de deacutecisionrdquo Revue Franccedilaise de Gestion vol 2 no 182 pp 33ndash44 2008
140 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
[VAN 08b] VAN HOOREBEKE D ldquoProposition de mesure de la performance des normes de comportements organisationnelles agrave lrsquoatteinte drsquoun service agrave la clientegravele authentiquerdquo Revue des Sciences de Gestion vol 1 no 229 pp 11ndash27 2008
[VAN 08c] VAN HOOREBEKE D BRASSEUR M ldquoEntre tradition et innovation la gestion des eacutemotions au travail eacutetude des leviers de gestionrdquo 15e congregraves de psychologie du travail et des organisations entre tradition et innovation comment transformons-nous lrsquounivers du travail Laval Quebec August 2008
[VAN 16] VAN HOOREBEKE D ldquoThe process of sharing ideas within a group while maintaining individual creativity a management leverrdquo International Review of Social Sciences vol 3 pp 34ndash45 2016
[VAS 05] VAS A ldquoLa vitesse de lrsquoadoption du changement au sein des grandes organisationsrdquo Revue Franccedilaise de Gestion no 155 pp 135ndash151 2005
[VAT 03] VATTEVILLE E Management strateacutegique de lrsquoemploi EMS Eacuteditions Paris 2003
[VEG 97] VEGA-REDONDO F ldquoThe evolution of Walrasian behaviorrdquo Econometrica vol 65 no 3 pp 375ndash384 1997
[VIN 86] VINCENT JD Biologie des passions Odile Jacob Paris 1986
[VON 44] VON NEUMANN J MORGENSTERN O Theory of Games and Economic Behavior Princeton University Press Princeton NJ 1944
[WAT 80] WATZLAWICK P Le langage du changement eacuteleacutements de communication theacuterapeutique Le Seuil Paris 1980
[WAT 02] WATTS DJ DODDS PS NEWMAN MEJ ldquoIdentity and search in social networksrdquo Science vol 296 pp 1302ndash1305 2002
[WEB 09] WEBER EU JOHNSON EJ ldquoMindful judgment and decision makingrdquo Annual Review of Psychology vol 60 pp 53ndash85 2009
[WEI 88] WEISBERG RW ldquoProblem solving and creativityrdquo in STERNBERG RJ (ed) The Nature of Creativity Contemporary Psychological Perspectives Cambridge University Press Cambridge 1988
[WEI 93] WEICK KE ROBERTS KH ldquoCollective mind in organizations heedful interrelating on flight decksrdquo Administrative Science Quarterly vol 38 pp 357ndash381 1993
Bibliography 141
[WEI 96] WEISS HM CROPANZANO R ldquoAffective events theory a theoretical discussion of the structure causes and consequences of affective experiences at workrdquo Research in Organizational Behavior vol 18 pp 1ndash74 1996
[WES 91] WESTBROOK RA OLIVER RL ldquoThe dimensionality of consumption emotion patterns and consumer satisfactionrdquo Journal of Consumer Research vol 18 no 1 pp 84ndash91 1991
[WIL 98] WILLIAMS KW OrsquoREILLY CA ldquoDemography and diversity in organizations a review of 40 years of researchrdquo Research in Organizational Behavior vol 20 pp 77ndash140 1998
[YAN 11] YANIV I ldquoGroup diversity and decision quality amplification and attenuation of the framing effectrdquo International Journal of Forecasting vol 27 pp 41ndash49 2011
[ZAP 02] ZAPF D ldquoEmotion work and psychological well-being a review of the literature and some conceptual considerationsrdquo Human Resource Management Review vol 12 pp 237ndash268 2002
[ZER 08] ZERBE WJ HAumlRTEL CEJ ASHKANASY NM (eds) Research on Emotion in Organizations vol 4 Emerald Group Publications Bingley 2008
[ZID 06] ZID R Comprendre le changement organisationnel agrave travers les eacutemotions Working paper University of Quebec Montreal 2006
[ZOU 16] ZOUHAOUI F BOISARD-CASTELLUCCIA S VAN HOOREBEKE D ldquoLa reacutesistance au changement expliqueacutee par le respect de lrsquoeacutequilibre cognition-eacutemotion le cas de lrsquoimplantation drsquoun nouveau logiciel dans une entreprise internationale de servicerdquo 6e colloque de lrsquoIseor avec divisions lsquoDeacuteveloppement Organisationnel et Changementrsquo et lsquoManagement Consultingrsquo de lrsquoAcademy of Management Lyon June 2016
Index
A B C
acting deep 20 33 35 39 surface 20 33 36
adjustment 8 adoption 82 affective 2 anger 6 authentic 84 balance 108 behavior 15 bias
champion 68 decisional 67
capacity 108 categories of emotions 2 change 98 cognition 13 16 55 62 77 95
108 113 cognitive 12 13 15 38 45 53
57 59 76ndash78 84 90ndash93 95 104 109
cohesion 85 collective 16 complex 96 conflict 90
contagion 15 50 61 68 81 82 85 87 90 93 96ndash99 101ndash103 111 emo-decisional 63 65 emotional 14
creativity 95
D E G
decision 11 dissonance
cognitive 13 49 61 91 emotional 14 25 33 36 39
40 45 78 99 divergence 100 diversity 89 e-motion 14 29 51 110ndash112 emotion 1ndash4 6ndash9 12 13 15ndash17
20ndash23 29 32 33 35 38ndash40 42ndash47 49 50 52 53 55ndash57 59 62 63 65 67ndash70 73 76ndash80 82 83 85ndash87 92 93 95ndash99 102 104 113
emotional plague 83 experimentation 103 expression 6 group 89 groupthink 68
The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management First Edition Delphine van Hoorebeke copy ISTE Ltd 2018 Published by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley amp Sons Inc
144 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
H I J
heterogeneity 94 hormones 14 43ndash46 57 imitation 15 impression 3 inhibition 8 13 14 31 43ndash49
96 98 intelligence 100
emotional 71 73ndash75 intensity 5 joy 6
K L M N
knowing 16 limbic 10 management 5
sunflower 68 mimicry 15 84 model 101 mood 3 negative 100 nervous system 7 norms 96
P R S T
perception 6 positive 100 process 3 7ndash9 12ndash16 19 22
31ndash33 35ndash39 42 46 50 52ndash54 56 57 60 61 63 65 66 71 74 75 77 80 81 84 85 89ndash91 94 95 98 101 111
rational 104 sadness 6 satisfaction 30 share 5 social influence 71 task-unrelated thoughts 95 temperament 3
V W
ventromedial regions 57 work
collaborative 96 collaborative remote 74 emotional 20 22 25 32 33
35 36 38 71 110
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WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENTGo to wwwwileycomgoeula to access Wileyrsquos ebook EULA
- Cover
- Half-Title Page
- Title Page
- Copyright Page
- Contents
- Foreword by Martine Brasseur
- Foreword by Claude Berghmans
- Preface
- Introduction
- 1 Emotion
-
- 11 Emotion a complex concept
- 12 Expression
- 13 An adjustment tool
- 14 A neurological system
- 15 A complex system
- 16 Subject to dissonance and inhibition
- 17 Contagion
-
- 2 Managing Individuals
-
- 21 The art of managing customer focus the relations dependent on monitoring and margins to maneuver
-
- 211 Organizational norms
- 212 Dissonances
-
- 22 The art of motivating commitment and satisfaction
-
- 221 Different types of commitment
- 222 Commitmentndashsatisfactionndashe-motion
-
- 23 The art of administering well the process approach a proactive and sustainable method
-
- 231 Emo-management a process that concerns everyone
- 232 A multitude of effects in the workplace
- 233 Levers for managing
-
- 24 The art of ensuring health and safety in the workplace well-being at work
-
- 241 A neurobiological process
- 242 Reasons to become ill
- 243 Real consequences
- 244 A schema like this in business
-
- 25 A factual approach for effective decision-making knowledge of the emotional decision-making process
-
- 251 Decision and emotion
- 252 Decision and emotion at the origin a rejection
- 253 Decision and the neurobiological process
- 254 Decision and emo-management
- 255 Decision emo-management and contagion
-
- 3 Managing a Collective
-
- 31 An evidence-based approach for effective collective
- 32 The art of leading authentic leadership and emotional intelligence
-
- 321 The manager and emotions
- 322 The manager and emotional intelligence
- 323 Is everyone capable of emo-managing
-
- 33 The art of reconciling the present with the future the principle of continuous improvement
-
- 331 Change and emotion
- 332 Change = trust = emotion
- 333 Change a shared emotional acceptance
- 334 Lever for the acceptance of change through
-
- 34 The art of bringing people together mutually beneficial relations with others and the social aspect of managerial responsibility
-
- 341 Collective emotion arsenal of emo-management
- 342 A paradoxical arsenal positive and negative effects
-
- 35 The art of managing diversity learning and creating collectively
-
- 351 Diversity between conflicts and group work
- 352 Managing diversity with emo-management
- 353 Emo-management a factor in diversity
-
- 36 A common point an essential element for collective intelligence emotional contagion
-
- 361 Emo-management dealing with emotional contagion
- 362 Mathematical and economic tools to better manage emotional contagion
-
- Conclusion
- Bibliography
- Index
- Other titles from iSTE in Innovation Entrepreneurship and Management
- EULA
-
First published 2018 in Great Britain and the United States by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley amp Sons Inc
Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study or criticism or review as permitted under the Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 this publication may only be reproduced stored or transmitted in any form or by any means with the prior permission in writing of the publishers or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licenses issued by the CLA Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the undermentioned address
ISTE Ltd John Wiley amp Sons Inc 27-37 St Georgersquos Road 111 River Street London SW19 4EU Hoboken NJ 07030 UK USA
wwwistecouk wwwwileycom
copy ISTE Ltd 2018 The rights of Delphine van Hoorebeke to be identified as the author of this work have been asserted by her in accordance with the Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988
Library of Congress Control Number 2018943317 British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 978-1-78630-292-2
Contents
Foreword by Martine Brasseur ix
Foreword by Claude Berghmans xiii
Preface xvii
Introduction xxi
Chapter 1 Emotion 1
11 Emotion a complex concept 1 12 Expression 6 13 An adjustment tool 8 14 A neurological system 10 15 A complex system 12 16 Subject to dissonance and inhibition 13 17 Contagion 14
Chapter 2 Managing Individuals 19
21 The art of managing customer focus the relations dependent on monitoring and margins to maneuver 19
211 Organizational norms 21 212 Dissonances 23
22 The art of motivating commitment and satisfaction 27 221 Different types of commitment 27 222 Commitmentndashsatisfactionndashe-motion 29
vi The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
23 The art of administering well the process approach a proactive and sustainable method 31
231 Emo-management a process that concerns everyone 32 232 A multitude of effects in the workplace 35 233 Levers for managing 38
24 The art of ensuring health and safety in the workplace well-being at work 42
241 A neurobiological process 43 242 Reasons to become ill 44 243 Real consequences 45 244 A schema like this in business 48
25 A factual approach for effective decision-making knowledge of the emotional decision-making process 52
251 Decision and emotion 52 252 Decision and emotion at the origin a rejection 53 253 Decision and the neurobiological process 57 254 Decision and emo-management 60 255 Decision emo-management and contagion 62
Chapter 3 Managing a Collective 65
31 An evidence-based approach for effective collective decision-making understanding the process of emo-decisional contagion 65 32 The art of leading authentic leadership and emotional intelligence 69
321 The manager and emotions 70 322 The manager and emotional intelligence 71 323 Is everyone capable of emo-managing 73
33 The art of reconciling the present with the future the principle of continuous improvement 75
331 Change and emotion 76 332 Change = trust = emotion 78 333 Change a shared emotional acceptance 81 334 Lever for the acceptance of change through emo-management 82
Contents vii
34 The art of bringing people together mutually beneficial relations with others and the social aspect of managerial responsibility 84
341 Collective emotion arsenal of emo-management 85 342 A paradoxical arsenal positive and negative effects 86
35 The art of managing diversity learning and creating collectively 89
351 Diversity between conflicts and group work 90 352 Managing diversity with emo-management 93 353 Emo-management a factor in diversity 94
36 A common point an essential element for collective intelligence emotional contagion 99
361 Emo-management dealing with emotional contagion 101 362 Mathematical and economic tools to better manage emotional contagion 101
Conclusion 107
Bibliography 115
Index 143
Foreword by Martine Brasseur
The management of emotions in companies is a necessity It is nevertheless a difficult challenge especially as emotions are associated with an inalienable liberty of the subject At first their spontaneous character appears to be in conflict with any attempts at management Even when addressing the question of emotional control and distinguishing perception from emotional expression at the risk of placing people in cognitive dissonance a second objection to the potential management of emotions seems to reside in the possible intervention of a third party into an intrapsychic process that each individual is already struggling to channel How can we move past the stage of philosophical debates like the ongoing one [DAR 95] opposing in particular the Earl of Shaftesbury1 who like the Stoics
1 ldquoIt may be objected here that these passions unnatural as they are carry still a sort of pleasure with them and that however barbarous a pleasure it be yet still it is a pleasure and satisfaction which is found in pride or tyranny revenge malice cruelty exerted Now if it be possible in nature that anyone can feel a barbarous or malicious joy otherwise than in consequence of mere anguish and torment then we may perhaps allow this kind of satisfaction to be called pleasure or delight But the case is evidently contrary To love and to be kind to have social or natural affection complacency and good-will is to feel immediate satisfaction and genuine content It is in itself original joy depending on no preceding pain or uneasiness and producing nothing beside satisfaction merely On the other side animosity hatred and bitterness are original misery and torment producing no other pleasure or satisfaction than as the unnatural desire is for the instant satisfied by something which appeases itrdquo [ASH 07 p 110]
x The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
called for a self-government outside of all external laws and all sanctions solely through the satisfaction of good deeds and Immanuel Kant for whom self-determination fell under individual will and consisted of imposing the application of moral law on oneself For both emotions are understood as passions that cloud or distort judgment This is not a matter for management because managing emotions would be reduced to personal discipline very far from the challenges of developing professional skills or interacting with others and reinforcing traditional conceptions that place emotions outside of the field of management
Delphine van Hoorebekersquos approach developed based on several scientific disciplines including sociology psychology and neuroscience is very different and allows her to address the complexity of motivations and emotional processes while demonstrating that their integration into management practices is not only possible but also represents an important performance factor Approaching management like a relational exercise requiring the development of human qualities in the people who practice it [CHA 90] she treats emotion as a manifestation resulting in a bias one consisting of ldquotaking something at face valuerdquo [THO 96b] Emotions come to play the roles of indicators or alerts Their capacity to make certain aspects of professional situations intelligible leads to an evocation of the existence of a form of emotional intelligence in line with Sartre [SAR 38] who considered that ldquoemotional consciousness is primarily consciousness of the worldrdquo or Robert Solomon [SOL 98] for whom emotions ldquodo not just happen to usrdquo they help us to face other people In its pedagogical development this book shows us step by step how emotions intervene in each step of management and what mechanisms managers should use
Over the course of these pages a model emerges of a professional practice that by considering the emotions of the subject and the role attributed to feelings toward other people comes to promote the recognition of humanity in the other while giving managers the opportunity to affirm their own existence as human beings It is
Foreword by Martine Brasseur xi
through the management of people this emo-management that is so aptly named that we can humanize management
Martine BRASSEUR Professor at the Universiteacute Paris-Descartes Chief editor of the interdisciplinary journal
Management Homme amp Entreprise
Foreword by Claude Berghmans
The management of organizations has experienced many evolutions and mutations in the last 50 years that are directly related to the multiple evolutions of our society (technological human economic and political) and the major organizational figures who compose it in the context of globalization From the scientific organization of labor in Taylorian structures to different methods of participatory management that we can observe in our current societies the changes have been numerous and varied New research disciplines and rich innovative conceptual contributions have appeared in human resources and management sciences under the necessary pressure of multiple social changes that we have observed in English-speaking countries Subsequently the globalization of these approaches appeared and today we find very similar management methods in different areas around the world moving toward a kind of standardization in the management of human capital The same organizational and managerial dynamics are found in major financial or industrial groups In addition there are also innovative areas similar to small groups or networks that can provide new modifications to the understanding of how our organizations work and outline new managerial development paths that highlight innovation limitless creativity boldness and emotional intelligence Notably we see this in the management models of companies in Silicon Valley that are increasingly discussed and that spotlight the spirit of innovation and risk-taking where imagination stands alongside large-scale industrial and financial projects This is true for both the
xiv The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
success of small start-ups that transform into titanic structures like Elon Muskrsquos SpaceX company that offers private spacecraft launches or the great monsters of GAFA (Google Amazon Facebook Apple) that are headed for world domination in their sectors Sometimes insignificant in their infancy these companies have succeeded in adapting and developing by relying on their human capital To do this many factors were necessary including the consideration of emotional intelligence as a participative process of management The role of emotions in companies is beginning to be felt in many organizations First studied from a psychological angle in the 1980s the consideration of emotions quickly became an essential and necessary element in the management of human capital in companies
In practice many HR managers address this question by trying to implement innovative approaches that allow them to develop and work on what some call ldquoemotional competencerdquo in order to make the most of it in the daily managerial practices of our colleagues All the same the concept is difficult and it is not so easy to integrate the management of emotions into the managerial best practices that an organization needs to optimize its performance French university research in management sciences is only just beginning in this field and there are many ways to approach it Of course there are several methods of working on emotions in managerial practices but what about their long-term effectiveness HR practitioners today need precise methodological and conceptual foundations based on serious experimental research that has been proven in order to benefit from a real expertise on the subject to provide clarity in a field that is still very abstract and to be guided through this type of approach
This is exactly the aim of Delphine van Hoorebekersquos book which based on several years of research about managing emotions brilliantly proposes a meticulous argument showing that emotions are found in most management innovation and decision-making processes in large companies Emotions have long been underestimated in companies Here the author shows how managerial practices are connected to managing emotions whether it is at the level of decision-making conflict management or emotional contagion Her work highlights the important role of emotions in life
Foreword by Claude Berghmans xv
skills and the professional interactions that we observe in the daily life of our organizations Too long studied and perceived as a thinking machine employees are emotional beings who need to thrive and use the emotional potential that they possess in order to optimize their individual and collective performances within their organization Developing our emotional intelligence to optimize our managerial practices is becoming a necessity at the start of the 21st Century where the dynamics of change are numerous and continue to accelerate The future of our companies will need colleagues who can consider a larger facet of our cognitive potential and base themselves on what optimal emotional management can contribute to our daily work Not accounting for emotions within companies is nonsensical From now on we must equip ourselves with solid and precise foundations for comprehension that allow practitioners in organizations to implement the use of this concept and provide pragmatic approaches that are adapted to the needs of organizations
This book offers a new vision of management where emotions play an important role at both the individual and collective levels Using a clear and didactic approach the author offers us the possibility of constructing a precise understanding of emotional management and its implications at the level of individual and collective management processes that are necessary to all successful organizations It is an innovative and indispensable tool for anyone who wishes to reflect on the matter and optimize the management practices of their companies in order to equip themselves with tools and especially specific frameworks that underscore the necessity of developing the emotional aspects of our modes of management that often still respond to the cold logic of past organizational models The consideration of emotions in our managerial practices is now a necessity for responding to todayrsquos growing performance requirements
Claude BERGHMANS HR Manager
Eurofoil Luxembourg SA
Preface
Management is in the process of restructuring In an era of remote collaborative work (where cooperation is both inter-cultural and asynchronous) the social responsibility of companies (where a collaboration is envisioned between the stakeholders in a company) and uberization (where every person becomes their own employer subject to the opinions of clients and harsh market forces) the management of people in the workplace requires some adjustment in order to consider the neurological psychological and psychobiological aspects of human beings in both their ways of managing and of being managed and in the consequences of their management for themselves and others Faced with technologies management must rediscover its humanity to secure its position This expression of the ldquohumanizationrdquo of the human is based on the fact that in companies until now humans have only very rarely and exceptionally been considered as a whole often they were considered to be only robots (bodies) brains (heads) and above all beings without emotions which are often viewed as sentimentality at work (hearts) However the soft skills that are so sought-after in management today are based on a combination of these three pillars
The many behavioral issues and reactions of a group which often explain the failure or success of a given project depend on this consideration and a holistic understanding of the human at work This necessity is all the more fundamental because the current problem is
xviii The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
part of a radical change in our society with no one arguing the need for a new economic paradigm The new order of the economy in the making prompts us to change the reasoning and model of human relations
Driven by social networks and societal economic and environmental evolutions human relations are led to change Here one element takes a position that was unexpected until now disrupting several accepted meanings the heart
ldquoThe increase in hearts in the production process will shake up companies and society1 [hellip] The power of the heart the capacity to work together to establish trust beyond a simple transactionrdquo becomes an essential commodity in the economy that lies ahead in the coming years ldquoWe have reached a time when the rational manager model and its basic premise the rational actor are exhaustedrdquo explained Chanlat [CHA 03] in 2003 in his article ldquoEacutemotions organisation et management une critique sur la notion drsquointelligence eacutemotionnellerdquo in the journal Travailler
Although the term ldquomanagementrdquo was originally used to indicate a way to ride a horse (managere to guide by hand) the emotional aspect has long been removed from it However horse riding is renowned for a specific feature the respect of the animal and of the humanndashanimal relationship This situation is related to the confrontation between emotion and rationality Philosophers have often extolled the virtues of rationality through for example Descartesrsquo famous phrase ldquoI think therefore I amrdquo [DEC 37] Emotion was therefore perceived as a deviance Yet thanks to the developments and advancements of research the place of emotion in management is becoming increasingly clear and verified Its role as a relational decisional tool even as a support for rationality has granted it an important place in the development of decision-making and collaborative work software tools If software makes it possible to follow an entirely ldquorationalrdquo logic managers and their teams need
1 For more details see httpswwwlesechosfridees-debatseditos-analyses0216206 97193-quand-les-entreprises-embaucheront-des-coeurs-1192532phpdOb8GWQrZ m5v90vD99
Preface xix
human contacts to decide collaborate innovatehellip Without privileging the new types of practices of a future increasingly digital management this book seeks to show that emotion is already present at all of these levels In addition the new practices already seem to be driving forces that will accelerate the different processes established and amplify emotional relationships To understand the emerging management it is essential to understand todayrsquos management through this aspect that is too often ignored even rejected despite being an explanatory factor in many problems
To do this by discussing emo-management and the management of people this text seeks to show how management is already predominantly composed of what we call ldquoe-motionsrdquo to emphasize their etymological significance put into motion It is a question of testing describing and illustrating the connections between management practices and psychological sociological and neurological components of e-motion Therefore its objective is to understand how emotion with its three pillars that are already in place can become essential in the future In a context where collaborative work is increasingly happening remotely supported by software tools management becomes a true tool of group coaching mediating instructing and a factor of managerial innovation According to a great deal of research in this type of collaboration of social responsibility a group needs a physical marker to avoid chaos and ensure that it performs well This is the future role of the manager that is emerging Through two elements the management of individuals and the management of a group this book describes the intervention of e-motion at each level from the client relationship to group management passing through the process approach and individual and collective decision-making
The body of this text reveals the presence of two factors playing on paradoxes e-motion and its contagion At the individual level e-motion supports the good relationships but can also be the source of bad relationships especially when it is inauthentic E-motion both encourages well-being and yet can provoke health problems It supports decision-making but it can demonstrate a decisional bias At the collective level it can help with collaborative work and also play
xx The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
a central role in amplifying group idiosyncrasies (jealousy for example) Its contagion is also at the origin of genuine positive competition in the group and genuine collective self-destruction Management cannot escape these dimensions Faced with a future of homo collectivum where the social aspect is central emo-management assumes its full importance
Delphine VAN HOOREBEKE May 2018
Introduction
ldquoAnyone who uses violence knocks over beer or pronounces offensive language will be reprimandedhelliprdquo states the French register of the association of baker apprentices in 1904 In 2012 the baker apprentice handbook1 specifies ldquoProfessional attitudes and behaviors punctuality personal hygiene [hellip] sense of responsibilities industriousness teamwork attention to detailhelliprdquo The management of workplace behavior is not new and it has evolved a great deal If at the start the goal was to avoid intense emotions we now find more moderate terms Have they become independent of all emotion
If in the Middle Ages lower class gatherings were dominated by rowdiness and confusion whilst the behavior of the elite in the European courts was restrained and refined [ELI 94] In the 15th and 16th Centuries emerging associations of merchants and artisans attempted to regulate mutual interactions Among the regulations established by these associations we find the foundations of our current meeting procedures In the 17th Century a Spanish priest [GRA 05a] developed strategic refinement The advice that his book Oraculo manual y arte de prudencia (The Art of Worldly Wisdom) [GRA 05a] offers does not only recommend specific rules of behavior
1 Available online at httpcsmocaorgpdfcarnetapprentissageboulangerjuin 2012pdf
xxii The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
but also outlines the goal of developing a position of power In this book we find an undeniable emotional aspect
ndash ldquoThe passions are the gates of the soul The most practical knowledge consists of disguising themrdquo (p 98)
ndash ldquoDo and be seen doing Things do not pass for what they are but for what they seem To be of use and to know how to show yourself of use is to be twice as usefulrdquo (p 130)
ndash ldquoThe art of getting into a passion [hellip] The first step towards getting into a passion is to announce that you are in a passion By this means you begin the conflict with command over your temper for one has to regulate onersquos passion to the exact point that it is necessary and no further This is the art of arts in falling into and getting out of a ragerdquo (p 155)
ndash ldquoDo not pass for a Hypocrite [hellip] Sincerity should not degenerate into simplicity nor sagacity into cunningrdquo (p 219)
ndash ldquoAnticipate injuries and turn them into Favors [hellip] for he leaves no time for injuries that fills it up with gratituderdquo (p 259)
These different premises form the foundation of contemporary rules of conduct This advice is very indicative of the place of emotions and the management that they require in order not to fall into non-conformity Today at the intersection of production policies business collaborative work and uberization more and more individuals in our society have adopted them
This has not always been the case In the first industrial organizations only the directors of companies and their immediate environment enjoyed this type of consideration The employees were required to follow rules that notably resembled those of the registers of associations in the 15th Century Today the image of the organization as a pyramid of command and control is no longer compatible with the modern design of the company that is increasingly turning toward units in a network Exchange and horizontal coordination are in order Employees must have the ability to cooperate calmly and to adjust their behavior upon request In this
Introduction xxiii
context hierarchical conduct of superiority becomes incompatible Expressing a robust confidence keeping onersquos composure and directing others strategically are no longer the issue Interdependency requires reducing modeled behaviors and increasing more informal mannerisms These informal mannerisms require interlocutors to test themselves and test the other person in the relationship Because of this the individual must only rely on their own judgment and manage their own emotions [ELI 94]
To simplify two types of emotions appear in companies negative and positive Concerning the negative emotions jealousy disappointment anger gossip and power struggles constantly occupy individuals at work According to the website of Thibodeau2 a human resources consultant an emotion is a tool to reach a previously decided goal ldquoYou should not use a screwdriver if you want to drive in some nails you should choose a hammerrdquo According to this author the same thing applies to emotions Certain emotions seek to control others in order to obtain something For example people use anger as a way to get others to obey them Others use hate to get back at someonehellip Does this work Not always and when it does the results are only temporary In the medium- and long-term the use of anger grudges resentment criticism blame intimidation threats shaming and other emotions of the same type to manipulate or control others or to get something from them degenerates into major conflicts and sometimes a distressing failure Other emotions can plague us and prevent us from getting what we want They are presented in the form of fears that can generate various blockages
However there are also emotions like enthusiasm joy love passion and pleasure These emotions facilitate good relationships with others The rationalization of interaction in our modern organizations calls for taking charge managing the ldquoirrationalityrdquo of emotions and notably the so-called ldquonegativerdquo emotions Employees are encouraged to seek to express themselves authentically They learn to be more direct and also more respectful and flexible as evidenced
2 Available online at http wwwpsycho-ressourcesombibliemotions-et-croya nceshtml
xxiv The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
by articles found in the mainstream press In the French newspaper Les Eacutechos an article called ldquoLes eacutemotions dans lrsquoentrepriserdquo [BAT 02] tells us ldquoThe hour no longer belongs to the docile employee who is never responsible or guiltyrdquo The difficulty of managing emotions that are considered negative often leads to greater stress For Arriveacute [ARR 01] not expressing anything aside from the suffering that this conduct induces cuts us off from all real relationships and creates aggressive attitudes related to the frustration The most destructive ways of reducing this stress such as gossip insinuations cynicism paranoia and disagreements can drive the organization to a breaking point The pressure of growing interdependencies and the capacity to manage it are so precarious that a dynamic of increasing friction is very likely to develop For proof an article in the French newspaper Libeacuteration entitled ldquoDeacutemunis face aux tensionsrdquo [DAU 99] features an interview with the sociologist Vincent Dubois [DUB 08] who recounts the case of tellers for family allowance funds in his book La vie au guichet ldquoI have seen agents break down on several occasions they let themselves boil over they are no longer able to separate the personal from the professional [hellip] All this creates tensions and an uncomfortable situationrdquo (p 3) Humans must be able to manage this type of situation that they may encounter to overcome this frustration They must be able to express themselves and liberate their emotions
Faced with this first shift managers are not spared either Now they must decide on a rational and optimal way of managing their emotions and those of others by demonstrating emotional intelligence showing that they are responsible and ensuring well-being This has become so important that in the article ldquoThe happiness machine how Google became such a great place to workrdquo (2013) Farhad Manjoo wrote ldquo[hellip] there was the happiness problem Google monitors its employeesrsquo well-being to a degree that can seem absurd to those who work outside Mountain Viewrdquo [MAN 13] Yet if the concept of emotion evokes something for everyone then we must be able to understand it and pinpoint it even more so when it comes to managers This is what we hope to accomplish with this book understanding this kind of ldquoliving beingrdquo in order to manage more responsibly
Introduction xxv
In fact currently and parallel to an exacerbated collectivism accountability emerges The organization and its management modify their vision of things their way of operating and gain responsibility A change in how they operate or how they view their operations In this context managing in contemporary companies requires specific skills that make it possible to
1) create rapport that is based on a common identity
2) generate a social cohesion between different talents in the company
3) but also make good decisions very quickly
4) establish well-being in the workplace
5) secure the acceptance of changes that are indispensable for the flexibility of the organization faced with a market that is constantly evolving
6) be accountable
In our view future management depends on a collective intelligence a governance a responsible dimension that considers people in the workplace (managers and employees) to be an overall entity one complete and complex being that is both cognitive and intuitive physical and emotional
At this level the complexity of management takes on its full meaning To ensure a thoughtful integration of the new management on the horizon for companies the latter must consider people in the workplace in all their complexity This leads us to move beyond the studies that have already been conducted for more than 20 years to move past divisions and to show that management should be considered holistically In our opinion the current management on the ground has an unfortunate tendency to limit itself by acting on elements that are too specific Far be it from us to say that points of detail should be neglected but they remain restrictive Acting on an ad hoc basis is more conducive to being reactive than proactive Emo-management advocates understanding the quality of life the quality of human relations the quality of work relations and the quality of choices made
xxvi The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
The other particularity of emo-management is that it takes into consideration the stakeholders in the company These stakeholders are not restricted to only contractual parties but constitute a much larger set including ldquoany group or individual that can affect or be affected by the decisions and the realization of an organizationrsquos objectivesrdquo [FRE 84 p 48] and that ldquovoluntarily or involuntarily assumes a risk because of the companyrdquo [CLA 95] In the context of these theories the sought-after rule is cooperative balance [CAP 07] This means that the success of a strategy requires considering the interests of all stakeholders as emphasized by Jones and Wicks [JON 99] in order to be effective [FRE 99] However Vatteville [VAT 03] underscored the difficulty of governing stakeholders because they often have different or even competing objectives As noted by Capron and Quairel-Lanoizeleacutee [CAP 07] the issues at stake require implementing mediation and compromises that satisfy the majority of the parties concerned The new managerial rules based on collectivism (the search for a quantitative and qualitative collective wealth) [ASS 09] once again assign great importance to e-motion
To unlock the mysteries of this new and more complex vision of management which aims to manage a variety of stakeholders and an increase in individual interests using collective intelligence it is indispensable to conduct a study and analysis of human behavior through emotions which are seen as a natural biological psycho-cognitive psycho-sociological and neurological element
Historically after even the idea of the existence of emotions in animals had been rejected by scientific research Charles Darwin the founder of the theory of evolution in 1872 defined emotion as the ability of the living organism to adapt and survive He saw it as innate universal and communicative It is only in the last 20 years that emotions have been studied in social contexts In fact not long ago there was still a concerted effort in psychology to dismiss emotion from research emotions were considered ldquoan unscientific concept characterized by subjectivismrdquo [LAZ 91] an epiphenomenon From a behavioral point of view emotion was ultimately perceived as a
Introduction xxvii
ldquomotivatorrdquo something that influences the choice of an individual in response to an internal or external stimulus It is recognized that an emotion exists in both the personal and individual dimensions of a person It forms this ability to adapt and change a link that establishes our relationships and allows us to interact with the other Recent studies (in particular the many studies by OrsquoRegan in the 2000s) in cognitive research have demonstrated that emotions are a combination of several biochemical sociocultural and neurological factors They are translated by specific reactions motor (muscle tone shaking etc) behavioral (inability to move agitation escape aggression etc) and physiological (pallor flushing pulse acceleration palpitations sense of discomfort etc) These have become integral parts of human beings and their daily life Everyone manages their emotions daily and in doing so as noted by Hochschild [HOC 83] the management of emotions becomes a dominant aspect of social life with a capital ldquoSrdquo Emotions are at present considered to be a central concept and theories have multiplied As proof many disciplines study emotions The life sciences study the role of emotions in mental processes disorders and neural mechanisms such as psychiatry and psychology and also linguistics and education (concerning the role of emotions in learning) The social sciences often examine emotions for the role that they play in human culture and social interactions through anthropology ethology criminology law political science communication philosophy and even history where the discipline examines documents and other sources to interpret and analyze activities in the past and speculate about the emotional state of the authors of historical documents as a tool of interpretation In addition two facets of research that could seem contradictory to the irrational aspect attributed to emotions have been developed In the field of economics micro-economics examines production distribution and the consumption of goods and services in order to evaluate the role of emotions in the perception of decision-making and purchasing risk In the field that this text belongs to management science the intervention of emotions in companies is studied in the decisions of directors the behavior of employees and even customers
xxviii The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
The enthusiasm for emotions in these varied types of research corroborates the interest in their study in all areas of life including at work and in people management Supporting our position McAllister [MCA 95] explained that research in management recognizes that a large part of managerial work is accomplished through interpersonal interaction and that the nature of the relations between managers and their peers can determine their capacity to accomplish their work In this sense in its biological neurological and psychological aspects the contribution of emotion to modern management in daily life seems undeniable However at a time when work is becoming increasingly collaborative when we ask managers to listen to colleagues to show humility to know how to recognize their errors and to demonstrate empathy and when research on the subject is extensive and has been for several years now [ASH 17] can we consider that management can and must contemplate their intervention in a more in-depth way To answer this question after establishing a quick synopsis of the original definitions and concepts of emotion the goal is to show the role of emotions in decision-making change management authority and social relations between and within companies through a theoretical analysis and review of recent literature in management neurology and psychology
Starting from its original definition the term ldquomanagementrdquo comes from the French word ldquomeacutenagementrdquo borrowed by the English and later reintroduced into French in a somewhat modified form It is commonly defined by consensus as a set of techniques aiming to optimize the use of resources in an organization (company administration or even association) in order to realize an objective Based on these origins the management of teams and resources requires a capacity to know how to handle them (as in the adage ldquoslow and steady wins the racerdquo) According to Le Littreacute the term ldquomanagementrdquo describes this discipline as an art ldquothe art of directing steering handling motivatinghellip even the action of regulating effectively administering wellrdquo The history of management shows both the novelty of the discipline and the rapid evolution of mentalities in this area from Taylor with his scientific organization of
Introduction xxix
labor that was attuned to precision and rationality passing through Fayol with his functional approach to a management that was predictive organizing decisive coordinating and controlling to Weber with what some call the ldquotechno-scientific knowledgerdquo in management sciences knowledge resulting from combinations of different areas of research to improve the organization
Management (managing by hand) and ldquoemo-managementrdquo (managing emotions) Guiding by hand and managing emotions are two systems that may seem incompatible However the management of a horse by hand presumes trust from the animal Managing the emotions of a human presumes trust and an art of action and behavior
In its historical context management has undergone several theoretical and practical advancements in every area related to it and notably recently in terms of the social responsibility of companies ethics and governance In this regard Lewin [LEW 51] introduced the individual actor at the center of the organization by showing that a grouprsquos behavior is prompted by the manager According to Mercier [MER 99] managers have social influence and determine the spirit and values of companies a term that is commonly used in management [FRA 10] and their actions serve as a reference for the desired conduct The ethics of managers also have a direct influence on workplace behaviors according to Hiregravech3 Through interpersonal trust created by the perception of the ethical behavior of a manager and procedural justice a concept that encourages the assessment of manager ethics the employee will develop organizational citizenship
We believe that emo-management is inherently connected to the ldquointelligentrdquo understanding integration and regulation of emotions and this is what this text suggests Whether it is at the individual or collective level management cannot simply withdraw and omit emotions since they are an integral part of what humans do in all areas of life After establishing a description of what emotion is to
3 Available online at httpsbasepubdauphinefrbitstreamhandle1234567892883 Hireche_Loreapdfsequence=2
xxx The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
complete our demonstration we will consider Le Littreacutersquos definition of management broken down into two parts the individual level and the collective level
In these parts several management approaches are described based on the intervention of emotions
ndash The first approach concerns ldquocustomer focusrdquo or the art of establishing an authentic relationship with clients it has one principle efficient client relations Companies depend on their clients and count on their managers to lead a team that will take good care of them It is therefore important that its members understand their present and future needs meet their demands and strive to exceed their expectations To reach this goal the customer focus must be experienced and authentic Customer relations can be subject to organizational and occupational standards which can lead to emotional cognitive or conative dissonances The objective is through a literal analysis of a rating scale of these dissonances to attempt to limit them and in doing so minimize their negative effects such as ldquoinappropriaterdquo and inauthentic behavior that should be avoided in customer relations and causes distrust in the relationship This objective can in this context prove to be an invaluable aid for management
ndash The second approach ldquothe art of motivating commitment and satisfactionrdquo indicates that some studies have shown or demonstrated the interrelations between commitment and emotion in the workplace In this sense effective and intentional commitment cannot anchor certain practices within a company if it is imposed inhibited falsified or simulated
ndash The third approach ldquothe art of administering well the process approach a sustainable and proactive methodrdquo describes the process of creating workplace behaviors The description of this process based on a global approach (biological psychological cognitive and emotional) encourages managers to consider how they themselves function internally as well as how their colleagues operate and indicates existing management mechanisms to them
Introduction xxxi
ndash The fourth approach is based on ldquothe art of assessing workplace health and safety well-being at workrdquo It must be considered that responsible management cannot overlook the consideration of health and safety in the workplace This section describes the emotional aspect and its biological effects related to psychosocial risks at work
ndash The fifth approach concerns ldquothe factual approach for effective decision-making understanding the irrational decision processrdquo This approach develops in detail the process of decision-making elaborated by Berthoz [BER 03] and Damasio [DAM 94] This biological process describes the impact of emotions and the limbic system on decision-making in neurological terms In our view knowledge of how this works is more than essential for management to integrate the systems and factors that lead to a good or bad decision in its individual or collective aspects
ndash The sixth approach describes ldquothe art of leading authentic leadership and emotional intelligencerdquo This shows that leadership which can lead to responsible management according to Le Bas [LEB 04] is generated by authentic expression Studies on the subject go so far as to demonstrate that even anger when appropriate and expressed according to certain rules of decorum corresponds to an expectation of employees
ndash The seventh approach ldquothe art of reconciling the present to the future a pure principle of continuous improvementrdquo highlights the acceptance of change necessary for prospective actions and the continuity of the company which is compelled to adapt to market developments and imposed standards In this regard employees play a crucial role with their acceptance of change The latter depends on a connection of established and lasting trust to avoid having to confront conflicts refusals and resistance (voluntary or not) to the process of change implemented
ndash The eighth approach indicates that management is the art of bringing people together based on one principle mutually beneficial relations with others The art of bringing people together cannot happen without a leaderrsquos charisma Nevertheless in addition to this
xxxii The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
important factor this section presents the role of contagion and the contagious aspect of one or more individuals leading the group team or meeting whether it consists of colleagues suppliers clients or any other stakeholder An organization and its suppliers are interdependent and mutually beneficial relations increase joint capacities to create value Contagion cannot be established without a relationship of trust like the effect that a crowd movement can have on social interaction group cohesion cooperative exchanges and social inclusion or isolation
ndash The ninth approach ldquothe art of managing diversity learning and creating collectivelyrdquo highlights the effect of insights and emotions on activities for groups with multiple diversities Diversity is no longer sought in a single logic of equality but also in a logic of learning about difference and performance Managing diversity requires not only managing cognitive conflicts but also and especially more complex affective conflicts In this regard positive emotional contagion can prove to be a mechanism for cohesion and collective learning regardless of the heterogeneity and diversity of individuals and encourage performance
ndash The final approach focuses on a point that recurs in the other approaches emotional contagion a critical point of a group contagion a new collective ldquointelligencerdquo management tool Like the effect that a strike can have on social cohesion and cooperation contagion is present at all levels of the company internally and externally This can foster support as much as defiance conflict and dissolution Contagion resulting from emotion is purely innate to human beings As social beings since our origins we often seek activity in groups imitate our peers through mimicry to affirm our belonging and our real desire and ability to act like others The objective is not to be marginalized or excluded from the group
As specified earlier these different approaches are divided into two large sections managing individuals and managing a collective The future of management is no longer in individualism but in the collective and so particular emphasis is placed on the collective
Introduction xxxiii
Paradoxically on this point this text is in agreement with Descartes famous for his phrase ldquocogito ergo sumrdquo According to him the individual can be considered as a means to assess individual talents to construct a viable collective organization a social intelligence In 1649 in his book The Passions of the Soul he wrote the following in article 156 [DES 49]
ldquoThose who are Generous in this way are naturally inclined to do great things and yet to undertake nothing they do not feel themselves capable of And because they esteem nothing more highly than doing good to other men and for this reason scorning their own interest they are always perfectly courteous affable and of service to everyone And along with this they are entirely masters of their Passions ndash particularly Desires Jealousy and Envy because there is nothing whose acquisition does not depend on them which they think is worth enough to deserve being greatly wished forrdquo4
In fact to ensure efficient lasting and responsible collective management individuals cannot be considered as single entities in a group They are in this book at all times perceived as a distinctive being equipped with reason and emotion In a collective individuals must be able to obtain personal recognition and self-esteem fulfill their own needs and feel satisfied about being committed in a continuous fashion in their company and its projects It is notably this paradox of collectivismindividualism that makes this new vision of management sophisticated especially when we understand that it is based on a non-negligible emotional aspect emo-management
4 Translation taken from the 1989 English edition translated by Stephen Voss and published by Hackett Publishing Company
1
Emotion
11 Emotion a complex concept
Mr Baume just got a telephone call from a dishonest customer He hung up in anger and left to smoke a cigarette A commercial manager must not show his emotions Ms Nathaly is thrilled about her performance She thinks she will get a bonus Can she show her joy Some people will be happy for her but others will be disappointed that they did not do as well These are specific examples of emotions in companies Why are they so complex to manage
First to understand them well a detailed definition of the term ldquoemotionrdquo is necessary This immediately poses a problem however as emotion remains a notion that is vague and difficult to define [ALV 02] because it is idiosyncratic that is specific and unique to each individual creating several definitions and roles Etymologically speaking emotion comes from the Latin ex (exterior) and movere (motion movement) In his book Esquisse drsquoune theacuteorie des eacutemotions (Sketch for a Theory of the Emotions) Sartre [SAR 38 p 62] defines emotion as ldquoan abrupt drop of consciousness into magic We have seen how during an emotion the consciousness abases itself and abruptly transmutes the determinist work in which we live into a magical worldrdquo1 This idea of a magical world shows
1 Translation taken from the 1994 English edition translated by Philip Mairet and published by Routledge
The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management First Edition Delphine van Hoorebeke copy ISTE Ltd 2018 Published by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley amp Sons Inc
2 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
how closely tied emotions are to a spiritual realm that is difficult to discern
Emotions have in fact been categorized by several studies For example Shaver et al [SHA 87] established a hierarchical typology on a sample of 213 students starting from Averillrsquos [AVE 75] A Semantic Atlas of Emotional Concepts which contains 558 words with emotional connotations At the base of this typology they define five or six basic categories of emotions love joy surprise anger sadness and fear
Emotion is also distinguished from other concepts like mood and impression by several differentiating criteria although Ledoux [LED 98] and Damasio [DAM 94] do not agree on the subject One advocates for similarity and the other for differentiation
We will base this section on the writings of Derbaix [DER 87] which are more widely accepted According to him the affective includes emotions impressions humors [DER 87] and motivations [BAT 86] Derbaix and Pham [DER 89] distinguished these seven affective types through the intermediary of
1) the degree of specificity of the intended target or the stimulus provoking the reaction (emotion unlike preference depends more on the person than the stimulus)
2) the somatic and autonomic intensity (emotions are more intense than mood and are associated with a higher level of alertness)
3) the frequency of somatic and autonomic experiences (emotions are always accompanied by such experiences)
4) durability (feelings are more lasting than emotions)
5) the desire to control a facial or bodily expression the possibility of controlling the expression (an emotion is more difficult to control than a judgment)
6) the probability of a fundamental subjective experience (the probability of the awareness of emotions is high)
Emotion 3
7) the importance of cognitive antecedents and cognitive processes afterwards
Derbaix and Pham [DER 89] summarized several conceptions and organized emotion which they prefer to call ldquothe affectiverdquo into seven categories
1) Shock emotion (eg surprise) which is the most affective of reactions it translates into violent but brief psychological reactions such as laughter sobbing rage and neuro-vegetative phenomena palpitations tightness in the throat momentary paralysis even fainting as in fear
2) Impression emotion (eg pride) less anarchical more lasting and also spontaneous such as the aesthetic emotion produced by musical execution moral indignation at the spectacle of a revolting act etc
3) Mood [GAR 85] (eg melancholy) must be distinguished from emotion [FRA 94] because it is considered to be less severe more invasive and more ephemeral than felt emotions [BAT 86] In addition the psychological urgency of emotion its motivational potential and its situational specificity are comparatively greater [WES 91]
4) Temperament more related to the personality of the individual
5) Preference (eg the ranking of brands) also related to the personality of the individual
6) Attitude (eg an opinion)
7) Appreciation (eg evaluation of alternatives) corresponds to the most cognitive reaction
To this typology Vincent [VIN 86] added passion which has the primitive sense of ldquosufferingrdquo indicating a passive character as opposed to the notion of movement in emotions ldquoguided actionsrdquo It is defined as a ldquoviolent state of feelings that bring us toward another person (passionate love) or toward another object that consumes our mind (passion for gambling for example)rdquo (p 19)
4 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
Plutchik [PLU 80] established a circumplex model of emotions2 (Figure 11)
Figure 11 The wheel of emotions (source Plutchik [PLU 80]) For a color version of this figure see wwwistecoukvanhoorebekemanagementzip
Plutchikrsquos wheel of emotions has the advantage of displaying words that are easily comprehensible and distinguish the degree of the perception Although the words make it possible to discern the degree does their experimentation allow it as easily This is where Peter and Olson [PET 96] suggested distinguishing the emotion based on the
2 Available online at httpmassilia-coachingcomwp-contentuploads201310roue-des-eacutemotionspng
Emotion 5
degree of physiological excitation and the intensity of the perception (see Table 11)
Type of affective response
Degree of physiological
excitation
Intensity or strength of perception
Examples
Emotions Strong degree of
excitation and activation
Very strong Joy love fear
guilt anger
Specific perceptions
Appreciation satisfaction
warmth disgust sadness
Mood Alert relaxed
calm indifferent tired
Evaluations Weak degree of excitation and
activation Very weak
Good favorable appreciated bad
unfavorable
Table 11 Differentiation based on the degree of excitation (source Peter and Olson [PET 96 p 50])
These researchers concluded that emotions reflect psychological reactions and experiences They realized that an essential part of experiencing emotions is emotional expression through various forms of interpersonal communication In fact individuals are naturally inclined to share their emotions with others Even when these emotions are not intentionally communicated they are often revealed through spontaneous non-verbal manifestations that are difficult to manage In addition modern society has created a new role for emotional communication According to Stearns [STE 93 p 24] ldquothe importance of managing emotions through talking rather than active expression has become a dominant themerdquo3 When individuals fail to express a traumatic event verbally they fail to come to terms with it
3 Translation taken from the 3rd edition edited by Michael Lewis Jeannette M Haviland-Jones and Lisa Feldman Barret published in 2008 by The Guildford Press
6 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
12 Expression
Above we wondered about the perception of the degree of emotion felt based on the degree of excitation If discernment becomes more complex what about perception by others
These emotions depending on their degree of perception are in fact expressed Perhaps only specialists in psychology are able to identify micro-expressions (expressions so fleeting and tiny that they are difficult to distinguish) but apart from a few specific cases the majority of individuals are capable of identifying an emotion from its expression Ekman and Oster [EKM 79] studied this and noted that they are also universal Figure 12 shows some examples of expressions of ldquobasicrdquo emotions With expressions ranging from anger to joy passing through aggressiveness disapproval sadness regret and disappointment this image shows that some emotions are clearly more perceptible than others further complexifying their precise definition I leave it to you to try the exercise
Figure 12 Examples of facial expressions of emotions (source Ekman and Oster [EKM 79 p 77])
Emotion 7
Emotions can certainly exist outside of interpersonal interactions Looking at the sun can produce joy Hurting yourself can provoke anger Nevertheless these are most often exceptions to the rule More typically emotions result from social interactions [AND 96] According to Ekman and Oster [EKM 79] emotions result from social interactions whether they are real remembered anticipated or imagined Some are particularly socially dependent like jealousy shame guilt embarrassment and pride According to Laborit [LAB 94] the nervous system is used to acting but this action occurs in a space or spaces that contain objects and beings If the same space is occupied by other individuals each person seeks to find the means to please themselves and preserve a nervous balance which creates competition between the parties in question The objective is to dominate the other in order to have the pleasure of freely expressing your emotions
Because it reveals emotion expression can also represent a way of dealing with or ldquofacingrdquo a situation in the interest of adapting to the environment The emotional response is therefore used as a process of adjustment to the environment The adaptation corresponds to the individualrsquos search for balance in relation to his environment This balance is sought through an adjustment process in response to an event [JAM 89] Perception makes it possible to structure individual behaviors in a normal way to fit the circumstances Motivation directs them toward goals that are likely to obtain satisfaction for the individual Learning ensures the acquisition and modification of behavior to improve the personrsquos effectiveness in accomplishing projects and thriving in the environment
Discerning emotions can sometimes prove complex but the objective of the emotional response is not limited to communicating with others as we have seen It is also a tool of adaptation through the signals that it sends
8 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
13 An adjustment tool
According to McCrae [MCC 84] emotional response is an adjustment tool that follows a process
ndash confrontation (holding fast and fighting for what I want trying to find the person responsible to change his mind etc)
ndash detachment (continuing as if nothing happened not letting the problem affect me refusing to think too much about it etc)
ndash self-control (trying to keep my emotions to myself preventing others from learning how bad this problem is etc)
ndash seeking out social support (talking to someone who can do something concrete to solve the problem accepting someonersquos sympathy and understanding etc)
ndash accepting responsibility (self-criticizing or lecturing myself realizing that I created the problem etc)
ndash evasive action (wanting the situation to go away or to be rid of it in some way trying to make myself feel better by eating drinking smoking taking drugs or medication etc)
ndash planning the solution to the problem (knowing what must be done and increasing my efforts so that it works having an action plan and following it etc)
ndash positive re-evaluation (changing for the better or maturing finding a faith etc)
Andersen and Guerrero [AND 96] explained that every social rule of behavior leads to modifying the expression of spontaneous emotions to be socially normal through simulation inhibition intensification de-intensification or substitution
ndash simulation involves feigning an emotion when the individual does not really feel it
ndash inhibition or neutralization entails the inverse process of simulation giving the impression of not feeling any emotion while the individual really does feel an emotion
Emotion 9
ndash intensification or maximization makes it possible to pretend to feel an intense emotion without really experiencing it
ndash de-intensification or minimization follows the same process as intensification but to express a less intense emotion than what is felt
ndash substitution involves expressing a totally different emotion from the one actually experienced
The individual has the power to act on his emotions when they are not of too great an intensity [GOL 97] Based on interactionist theories Drever [DRE 52] described the emotional process followed to adapt in three elements First the strong impulse to act in a certain way such as attacking or expressing affection for someone Then a model of physical change paired with this inclination to act which is generally accompanied by a mobilization in the interest of a final adaptation
Scherer [SCH 94] described four components of the emotional experience as a result of the processes detailed above
ndash the cognitive component that refers to the interpretation of the event that caused the emotion or the stimulus and to all changes that resulted based on individual perceptions and beliefs
ndash the willingness to act that corresponds to the increase or decrease in the desire of the individual to act Frijda [FRI 86] considered that this willingness to act can result in expressing an emotion or controlling it
ndash sensations which correspond to the valence of the emotion that is the pleasurepain dimension caused by the emotion experienced
ndash the physiological change that corresponds to the increase or decrease in the level of excitation and physiological reactions like sweaty palms or blushing
It should be noted that the presence of only one of these components is not sufficient to identify an emotional experience
10 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
Earlier Burgoon [BUR 93] showed for example that physiological change is not synonymous with emotional experience as physiological changes can occur due to physical exercise increased attention or a false movement which are non-emotional stimuli Supporting this interactionist theory this procedural aspect is also perceived in neurology
14 A neurological system
I think therefore I amI tremble therefore I am afraid Emotion is not incompatible with cognition but at the cerebral level it follows a process and activates very specific regions Cultural heritage has long opposed cognition and emotion the brain and the mind Emotions were therefore reserved for the domain of psychology and mental illness [LOS 02]
For more than a century however we have eagerly searched for the cerebral structures that could be responsible for emotions According to Dale [DAL 47] this began with Walter Cannon who studied subjects who suffered from brain lesions incapable of feeling certain emotions He deduced that the hypothalamus was a cerebral center of emotions In 1937 the anatomist James Papez went further He showed that the emotions experienced were related to the action of a circuit relating the hypothalamus to the medial cortex In 1952 Paul MacLean used the expression ldquolimbic systemrdquo for the first time This term was introduced in 1861 by the French anatomist Paul Broca famous for the Brocarsquos area to designate the ring shape of the medial part of the cortex (from the Latin limbus edge) [MON 05] The limbic system designates the affective brain of the rhinencephalon (the most ancient part of the cortex) which is the locus of emotions According to MacLeanrsquos theory this system is integrated It includes the amygdala the septum and the prefrontal cortex
MacLeanrsquos theory may seem basic today The brain and its emotional areas have since been widely examined Several emotions have been studied with precision thanks to new medical technologies like MRIs
Emotion 11
The current idea is that each emotion corresponds to a cerebral network [LED 97] At present neurologists agree on recognizing the absence of a single locus of emotions like reason motor function vision or language There are ldquosystems of interrelationsrdquo between several cerebral units
Some results have made it possible to emphasize the important advancements that are usable and accessible in management In his theory from 1977 Ledoux showed that when information is emotional patients cannot describe the object but can say what they feel His theory indicated that emotion passes through different circuits He is particularly interested in the emotion of anger [GAZ 78] He wrote a book The Emotional Brain which describes how it functions in an accessible way
In the same way in 1994 Damasio [DAM 94] published one of his most famous books Descartesrsquo Error He explains his experience with the case of Phineas Gage deprived of emotions following a stroke The results of his analysis show that decision-making cannot occur without emotions
Far from wanting to detail the function of the brain ndash with its synapses its 100 billion neurons its glial cells4 that are 10ndash50 times more numerous than the neurons its zones its four ventricles its lobes5 its gray6 and white matter its myelin7 ndash one thing is certain emotions occupy a significant place in the system of cerebral interrelations They follow neuronal and then hormonal processes in order to influence the soma (body) From a more psychological point of view emotions are also described from the perspective of a system of adaptation to the environment deepening the process of adjustment described above
4 These cells surround the neurons represent about 50 of the brainrsquos volume and produce myelin 5 Frontal parietal occipital and temporal lobes 6 The most superficial part of the brain 7 Extension of neurons a sheath around the axons of neurons
12 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
15 A complex system
As we have seen emotions follow a process This process is complex on both the neurological and psychological levels and in addition to their utility as an adjustment tool they form a whole system of adaptation to the environment This is where Lazarus [LAZ 91] explained the process based on the emotional reactions that correspond to a process of adapting to the environment
1) Inclination toward action which is non-observable because it refers to impulses that may or not be active
2) Subjective emotional experiences (often considered affective) that are non-observable
3) Personndashenvironment relations a connection between two complex sub-systems the states resulting from these sub-systems are interpretive
4) Adjustment processes which are often experienced by actions or thoughts that probably influence emotions
5) Assessment processes constituting the center of the cognitive-motivational-relational theory of emotions Individuals gauge their emotions based on the goals that they pursue their relation to the environment and what they know to be good or bad for them
6) A frustration which is derived from the inability to follow the goals that the individual set and can lead to a blockage and aggression after various negative affective responses
Weiss and Cropanzano [WEI 96] illustrated this emotional process using the example of the process concerning happiness and sadness without considering this structure for all kinds of emotions (Figure 13)
Emotion 13
Figure 13 Process of assessment for happiness and sadness (source Weiss and Cropanzano [WEI 96 p 35])
The latter process shows the different steps that emotions cover to reach expression Through this process and the descriptions we can see that emotion does not act alone but in interconnection with cognition
16 Subject to dissonance and inhibition
Dissonance in opposition to consonance is a difference that can exist between two elements Festinger [FES 57] discussed cognitive dissonance to define the cognitive difference that can exist between what the individual knows and what they actually experience
14 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
Middleton [MID 89] and Hochschild [HOC 83] referred to emotional dissonance to define the difference that can exist between what is felt by the individual and what he knows he must express These two types of dissonance are seen as psychological states that are difficult to bear by the individual
Biological studies go even further To summarize this research described in more detail in section 24 (ldquoan art of ensuring health and safety in the workplacerdquo) conducted by Friedman and Booth-Kewley [FRI 87] Laborit [LAB 94] and Quirk and Beer [QUI 06] among others it is proven that inhibition corresponds to a resistance to respond to an increase in adrenaline This resistance provokes the secretion of hormones resulting from negative emotions This secretion repeated and accumulated over time can weaken some organs forced to repeat the response to hormonal messages that are being sent incessantly by the brain These hormones resulting from what we call e-motions (a biological process that sets in motion) intervene internally in the human body
17 Contagion
Hatfield et al [HAT 94] defined emotional contagion as an automatic unintentional and generally unrecognized tendency to imitate and synchronize facial expressions body movements and vocalizations during meetings with other individuals In addition when the same characteristics are synchronized with another individual we are capable of feeling them through the emotions of the other person that is feeling the same or complementary emotions This emotional contagion can lead to the crowd effects and mass hysteria described by Le Bon [LEB 63] Emotions can in fact be synchronized or imitated and become contagious The synchronization appears when two individuals express similar behaviors or when one person responds to the behavioral changes of the other by adopting the same behavioral changes [AND 96]
Emotion 15
Emotional contagion is a phenomenon that is both behavioral [HAT 94] and neurological [IAC 05] This contagion is influenced by three cognitive emotional and neurological processes (mirror neurons insular cortex of the brain and the cortex) Sometimes these three processes coincide but sometimes the central nervous system directly controls mimicking emotional contagion and empathy through mirror neurons [IAC 05] According to some researchers the transmission mechanism is cognitive and related to conscious reasoning analysis and imagination justified by this transmission close to empathy Individuals imagine what they would feel in the otherrsquos place (empathy) and thereby share their emotions Another theory involves imitation and feedback According to this mechanism
1) Individuals tend to imitate and synchronize their movements automatically and unconsciously to the facial expressions voices postures muscles rhythm and behavior of others
2) This imitation is dependent on all reactions from the other In this order the individual tends to seize upon the emotion of others in order to reach several objectives not being marginalized identifying with the other through contemplation attempting to feel what the other feels in a situation and detaching from the other Some people consider that mirror neurons play a role in human evolution They allow humans to reproduce consciously (imitation) or not (mimicry) and adapt to both the other emotions and the situation
It can also be perceived as negative Le Bonrsquos theory [LEB 63] described a mental contagion among individuals leading them to find a mental unity a single mode of thinking for a group of individuals Sometimes this mental contagion leads to collective hallucination In this context Le Bon cites the example of the Belle Poule frigate8 This boat was searching in daylight for a cruiser9 from which it had been separated by a storm When a ship
8 Small escort boat 9 High-seas escort ship
16 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
in distress was signaled the entire crew alarmed described a raft loaded with waving castaways In the end the raft was nothing but a mass of tree branches
In conclusion this chapter has made it possible to highlight the fact that emotion follows a complex process is distinguished from other concepts such as sentiment affect and mood varies depending on degrees is essentially expressed in a bodily way and is endowed with contagion However emotion has several factors that remain complex or even indiscernible This does not help its deep understanding and management Nevertheless although emotion in the workplace is not always considered favorably its presence is undeniable The individual cannot let go at work even if they can feign it At the collective level it is all the more significant especially since it acts as an adjustment tool within the construction or deconstruction of interindividual relations The next two chapters describe how emotion intervenes first in management at the individual level and then at the collective level Management viewed at the individual level cannot be totally separated from the relation to the other because the managerial world almost never allows for being alone or totally cutting oneself off from the other regardless of the profession accountant computer engineer etc Individuals must often regulate their emotions alone especially when they are in contact with clients as explained by Hochschild [HOC 83] It is at this time that the individuals must be able to self-regulate their emotions know how to understand them know what is expected of them and how they can harmful or on the contrary beneficial The role of management is in this case to set the frameworks while leaving a wide margin to maneuver to establish an authentic relationship all while striving to follow and enforce the established standards This is shown by the different descriptions of emotions in psychology research an emotionndashcognition balance Quite the paradox
Emotion 17
On the Website of the ManpowerGroup10 a temporary employment agency
we can read ldquoIn 1994 the neuropsychologist Antonio Damasio showed that
lsquohuman beings need emotions to make decisions when their futures are at stake
and particularly when they are uncertainhellip It is irrational to think that these
decisions are made rationallyrsquordquo11
An interview with Franccediloise Gri (President of ManpowerGroup for southern
Europe and Manpower France) is also presented on the site ldquoUsing emotions
effectively allows the company and its key players to succeed [They] can become
formidable performance drivers when they are personally assumed by the
manager and shared constructively with his colleaguesrdquo
Emotion to unite teams
Franccediloise Gri believes that regardless of their hierarchical level the key
players in a company ldquoknow how to use their emotions as performance drivers
with a desire to succeed and sharerdquo They know how to celebrate ldquoa teamrsquos
victory a complex project to convince a client with shared joy tears and shoutsrdquo
But accepting emotion ldquoalso means bearing the difficult momentsrdquo in front of
their teams
Listening and daring to confront
Within reason practically this consists of ldquoprompting an emotional state []
by questioning an interlocutor with tact and pertinence and listening to oneself
and the otherrdquo Listening to the other person does not only mean paying attention
to his words ndash because the body also expresses emotions It also means venturing
to confront the other person when necessary However it is important to know
how to use emotion with discretion ldquoThere is no need for emotion everywhere
Find a balance Everything in moderationrdquo
Sharing emotions a ldquotipping pointrdquo
The article underscores that ldquosharing emotions can become a tipping point a
pertinent driving force uniting simplicity and emotionrdquo
Case Study 11 Specific example of considering emotion in companies
10 Available online at httpwwwmanpowergroupfrlemotion-au-service-du-management 11 Translation from the French
2
Managing Individuals
Managing individuals well involves not only knowing how to listen to them but also being able to understand them Lacking expertise in psychology managers must demonstrate empathy be sincere establish trust identify any seeds of discontent in the workplace and decide wisely There is a solution to mitigate the lack of psychological expertise understanding onersquos own functioning in order to be better able to understand the other person Chapter 1 showed how many studies notably in psychology have had difficulty in completely identifying emotions and the number of roles they can have especially in the many processes of adjusting and adapting to the environment These elements are assets for managers and their teams but it is still necessary to use the right tools and implement the right mechanisms With this in mind this chapter sets out to address individual management under the aegis of Le Littreacute and the different arts that make up management The art of managing customer focus motivating administering well ensuring health and safety and decision-making is depicted based on the role played by e-motions For a deeper understanding the three pillars (psychological sociological and neurological) are considered
21 The art of managing customer focus the relations dependent on monitoring and margins to maneuver
Organizations depend on their clients and so it is important that they understand their present and future needs satisfy their
The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management First Edition Delphine van Hoorebeke copy ISTE Ltd 2018 Published by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley amp Sons Inc
20 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
requirements and endeavor to go above and beyond their expectations Today in order to ensure that good quality service is provided to the customer base organizations train new employees after a period of socialization that teaches the rules and customs The existence of implicit or explicit behavioral norms caused Sutton and Rafaeli [SUT 90] to argue that employees are compelled by the hierarchy to express ldquonormative emotionsrdquo that help employees to gain control over others in a way that promotes the objectives of the organization [SUT 91]
In this respect the measure of the effectiveness of organizational behavioral norms cannot be limited to the strict adherence of the employees to formal rules of workplace behavior In fact employees must not only follow these rules but also other informal norms like the organizationrsquos values In addition the demands of the company and its management regarding contact with the customer go further than simply following the norms It requires authenticity in the behaviors expressed to the customer However this authenticity cannot exist without adhering to the norms and emotional perception [VAN 08b] Human behavior inevitably derives from experiencing emotions When employees do not feel this emotion but know that they should feel it to respond to the norms they simulate it like an actor wearing a mask or modify their emotion Research in the domain of emotions in the workplace calls this ldquosurface acting and deep actingrdquo [HOC 83] According to this author surface acting consists of feigning and wearing a mask while deep acting corresponds to expressing what the individual feels In the second case the individual conducts a ldquodeeprdquo work to try to perceive what he must express according to the norm According to Hochschild the first emotion felt really can be modified
The next problem posed for management concerns the effectiveness of the norms taught Are they accepted by the employees meaning will they be respected Could they be the cause of an ldquoabnormalrdquo or ldquoinappropriaterdquo behavior for the situation of a real inauthenticity (perceived by the customer) and of various negative consequences The act of imposing organizational norms can lead to an undeniable and unavoidable robotization when the
Managing Individuals 21
employee is forced to repeat this ldquoemotional laborrdquo in a redundant and incessant way [HOC 83] The employee rendered inauthentic experiences a dissonance which is intolerable over the long term
To manage this problem the first step is to take stock of the norms imposed at work and then list their probable negative consequences for the organization Then a tool can be used to manage them measuring the effectiveness of the norms in the context of a quest for authenticity and sincerity According to the philosopher Sartre [SAR 38] authenticity surpasses sincerity and is morally superior to it For Taylor the ideal of an individualrsquos authenticity supposes that he expresses beyond all social conformity his ldquointerior truthrdquo to which he must be faithful
211 Organizational norms
Rafaeli and Sutton [RAF 89] outline the existence of two types of behavioral norms that employees must follow at work These are in addition to societal norms that all individuals follow in private life occupational norms related to the role held by the individual and organizational norms unique to each company
ndash The first type corresponds logically to the expectations of the customer Rafaeli and Sutton [RAF 89] cite the example of bailiffs and bouncers who are paid to express hostility while undertakers must express sadness In contrast the expression of kindness and a positive attitude is expected for service jobs such as servers and salespeople They add that other roles call for suppressing emotion for example the Budget Minister must express neutrality especially when announcing the annual budget
ndash Organizational norms specify the companyrsquos expectations in matters of conduct based on the culture of the company They are sometimes disseminated through the book (the bible) in which they make reference to moral values
ndash Occupational norms are directly related to the position occupied and the behaviors that this position requires According to Rafaeli and Sutton [RAF 89] occupational and organizational norms are the primary influences on the expression of emotions at work The authors
22 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
do not separate them in their article claiming their difficult distinction They provide the example of doctors who must learn professional maintenance during their studies in medicine and must express this maintenance in the different hospitals where they practice In our view this example typically describes an occupational norm because it does not differ depending on the hospitals and instead depends on the role held
A study [VAN 08c] analyzes the impact of three levers (two preventative and one curative) that could make it possible to facilitate emotional labor (uniforms scripts and emotionalized areas) The results establish a significant relationship between the item ldquostarting to feel joy if we pretend to be happy when we help clientsrdquo and the variable ldquopresence of a formal normrdquo (script) This link indicates not only that the fact of imposing behavioral norms can lead to feeling them as Hochschild [HOC 83] indicates but also offers a crucial element to ensure the leverage effect described above the fact of conducting emotional labor leads to emotional experience The quantitative results of the analysis also indicate that uniforms have a greater impact on surface acting than on deep acting They also show that if norms do not have a significant impact on the emotional labor of surface acting they do have a direct and significant connection with deep acting
A second study was conducted by analyzing the content of a dress code at an international bank operating in Switzerland This dress code stirred up multiple controversies due to certain things that it demanded of employees it went so far as to specify the undergarments that the staff must wear
Combined with the qualitative data these results support normalizing emotions in the workplace to allow employees to feel the emotion expressed This result supports Hochschildrsquos text [HOC 83] about the internal regulation of emotions experienced based on the emotions expressed Despite this as our results show the process of passing from appearance to feeling which can reinforce the feeling of ldquowell-beingrdquo hoped for by the company regarding the authenticity of the behaviors expressed is not systematic if normalization is too implicit Here are a few examples verbatim ldquoyou will feel better and improve your performance at workrdquo ldquothere are established connections between following this guide and lsquowell-beingrsquo at workrdquo ldquo[following this guide is] essential for pleasing others and yourself and also contributes decisively to your well-beingrdquo ldquofor aesthetic and hygienic reasons as well as for questions of general well-beingrdquo and ldquoan impeccable appearance can prompt inner peace and a feeling of securityrdquo
This is prescribed emotion as described by Ashforth and Humphrey [ASH 95] and critiqued by Watzlawick [WAT 80] for paradoxical injunctions like ldquobe spontaneousrdquo
Managing Individuals 23
The results obtained by these two interrelated analyses indicate that the managerial
levers put in place are not sufficient to ensure the expected emotional labor
influencing customer satisfaction nor even to guarantee the positive image of the
company The case studied is typical It shows that the company benefitted from a
great deal of publicity and articles about its approach to dress codes Nevertheless
international articles were very critical of the gesture made by the company even if
it was conducted totally legally What created the buzz was one detail of the dress
code requiring cream-colored undergarments This detail is a distinctive element of
the very directive aspect of the dress code described by this Swiss bank as a factor
in better performance Despite the efforts of the latter to indicate the recommended
or suggested nature of the guide it is significant that this variable seems far from
being sufficient to ensure authentic customer contact as a result of commitment and
a factor in customer satisfaction1
Case Study 21 Analysis of an internal dress code document
212 Dissonances
This type of managerial practice can cause a dissonance to appear between the inhibitory normalization of emotions and feeling
The perception of various somatic hormonal reactions is allowed through bodily expression This is how our research led us to evoke the notions of conative and behavioral dissonances downstream These two dissonances indicate the difference between the attitude and the behavior expressed by the individual and the attitude and the behavior that he knows is expected The company may hope for specific behaviors but the individual may want to express his emotion in spite of everything or may not be able to prevent himself from doing so depending on the case Goleman [GOL 97] discusses emotional takeovers
The objective is to avoid the likely effects of these dissonances (cognitive emotional and conative or behavioral) that are difficult to bear The latter are experienced and induced by imposed norms 1 Available online at httparchiveslesechosfrarchivescercle20120419cercle_45946html
24 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
[FES 57 HOC 83] and will inevitably lead to inauthentic or even ldquoabnormalrdquo conduct by the individual It seems necessary that the manager be able to recognize the origin of these problems to fix them For the manager to clearly perceive the type of action to implement it is helpful to unpack the three types of dissonances that can occur (emotional conative behavioral) The following diagrams present summaries of these dissonances and suggest a way to measure them (see Figures 21 and 22)
Figure 21 Measure of the difference between organizational behavioral norms and the expressions actually expressed in the workplace by the mediation of emotions No-Ex mediating variable of normative effectiveness No-Em cognitive dissonance Em-Ex emotional dissonance No-Ex conative dissonance
Figure 22 Measure of the conative dissonance (difference between the expected behaviors and the
actual employee behaviors) (source [VAN 08b])
Emotional dissonance conflict between what is felt andwhat is expected by the organization
Norms (No)
Emoon (Em) Expression (Ex)
DifferenceCognitive dissonanceconflict betweenpersonal norms andorganizational norms
Conative dissonanceconflict between the behavior ofemployees and the behaviorexpected by the company
Expected expression Emotion felt Expression emitted
Cognitive dissonance Emotional dissonance
Organizationaloccupational norms
Dissonance of normsexpressions really emitted (conative)
Managing Individuals 25
According to these diagrams the conative dissonance axis (in this case inauthentic or abnormal behavior) corresponds to the addition of two dissonances emotional dissonance and cognitive dissonance
Managers cannot act directly on the conative difference because on the one hand it seems impossible to predict what individuals will express and on the other hand they are unable to impose a feeling [WAT 80] That is why in order to reduce the difference between the expression expected by the organizational behavioral norms and the expression manifested by the employee management will have to attempt to correct one of the following three options
1) the difference between the organizational behavioral norms and societal and personal norms by bringing them closer together or by selecting individuals whose personal norms are in line with the companyrsquos norms
2) the difference between what is felt by the individual and what he expresses through different levers like uniforms or emotionalized areas [VAN 03a] These levers make it possible to limit the difference by acting on the accumulation of emotional dissonance
In their study Nelson and Bowen [NEL 00] show that the first lever uniforms affects not only the attitudes of employees (attitudes about work performance work satisfaction etc) but also their capacity to serve guests In addition they reveal that wearing a uniform has a significant positive impact on all employees and not just employees in contact with customers Uniforms not only have psychological and behavioral implications for the wearer but also positive effects that extend beyond contact with customers During contact even in frustrating interactions with the customer the uniform can help the employees to feel good about their work This can be explained by what Goffman [GOF 59] calls ldquoactingrdquo At work the individual becomes an actor playing a role According to Hochschildrsquos theory [HOC 83] by playing this role deeply by regulating their emotions individuals can experience the emotions that they express
According to Fineman [FIN 00] the second lever the emotionalized area facilitates deep emotional labor To do this the
26 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
company must create a variety of places where employees can express their negative emotions or take a break This makes it possible to avoid negative effects thanks to the availability of a place to release emotions that are inhibited during work
3) both differences at the same time We have all seen the behavior of cashiers who sigh or proceed mechanically in their way of saying hello asking for your loyalty card and saying goodbye This type of behavior if it is defined and corresponds to norms reveals the dissonances experienced by the cashier The expressions of the employee are in this example the result of a mechanization a Taylorization of emotions This conduct which corresponds to the norms expected by the company does not respond to the customerrsquos expectations The measure of the conative dissonance makes it possible to gain a comprehensive understanding of the feeling compared by the individual to what he knows about the imposed norm and not just of the employeersquos expression which is just the tip of the iceberg
During a study of managerial practices at McDonaldrsquos and Walt Disney Bilts [BIL 95] shows that we teach new employees through a handbook what expressions are required toward the customer ldquoFirst we practice a friendly smile at all times with our guests and ourselves Second we use friendly and courteous phrases lsquoCan I help yoursquo lsquoThank yoursquo and lsquoHave a good dayrsquo [hellip] or any other similar expressions throughout [our] work dayrdquo This script taught to employees calls for authenticity that the latter will not be able to experience at all times
Another example is the company Favi a company that has no hierarchy which specifies in one of its publications about its management style that employees must demonstrate sincerity toward the client2
Case Study 22 Examples of expected authenticity in a company
Sincerity is therefore what the company and its management seek To be able to respond to this expectation the employee must feel committed to the company To ensure full and complete commitment management must provide satisfaction
2 Available online at httpwwwfavicommanagement
Managing Individuals 27
22 The art of motivating commitment and satisfaction
Commitment and satisfaction at work are anchoring points for the engagement of members of the company
221 Different types of commitment
Currently according to Autissier and Wacheux [AUT 06] work affected by a crisis of pessimism calls for a return to meaning to foster commitment Could lack of commitment be due to a crisis of pessimism and negative emotions According to Allen and Meyer [ALL 97] commitment is a psychological state resulting from the employeersquos desires will obligations and interests and the organizationrsquos intended action Commitment is based on three dimensions an affective category that corresponds to the individualrsquos identification of the organizationrsquos goals and values a calculated category that can be defined as the intention to leave an organization or not and a normative category that corresponds to the individualrsquos engagement because he thinks that it is his obligation to do so Calculated commitment is associated with avoiding costs normative commitment is characterized by moral obligation and affective commitment is marked by desire
Theacutevenet [THEacute 92] argues that there are three dimensions of commitment attitudinal or behavioral moral or calculating and active or passive
ndash Attitudinal or behavioral Attitudinal commitment concerns the identification and engagement of the individual with the organization that employs him while behavioral commitment consists of a permanent cycle of behaviors (or actions) that reinforce attitudinal commitment in return
ndash Moral or calculating Commitment is moral because it refers to deep mechanisms of identification and it presupposes a strong similarity of goals and values between the individual and the organization The ldquocalculatingrdquo approach describes commitment as an attachment resulting from a calculation of costs associated with
28 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
leaving In this situation the desire to invest effort must be legitimately compensated by a gain
ndash Active or passive Commitment sometimes evokes passive adherence to the goals and values of the organization or even their complacent acceptance However authors generally address active commitment which is to say the desire to act to ldquomake an effortrdquo to take it upon ourselves to move in the direction of these goals and values
To support the interest of this active commitment an exploratory study of employees in companies in various industries argues that employee engagement in certain company practices in this case sustainable development is based on a certain number of commitment factors (Figure 23)
Case Study 23 Exploratory study of commitment
Figure 23 Employee commitment factors and consequences (source Leroux and van Hoorebeke [LER 11]) For a color version of this figure see wwwistecoukvanhoorebekemanagementzip
Emo-management must therefore consider employee satisfaction commitment (namely the desire to continue to be a part of the organization as indicated by the research) as well as beliefs and a
Managing Individuals 29
certain positive attitude toward the companyrsquos managerial practices and notably according to the results an affective attitude
222 Commitmentndashsatisfactionndashe-motion
The management of emotions can influence an employeersquos commitment to work and an individualrsquos satisfaction According to Herrbach and Leacuterat-Pytlak [HER 04] individualsrsquo emotions at work and the different kinds of commitment can be considered to be the consequences of their experiences at work In addition emotions are regulators of commitment to work [THEacute 00]
Since modes of management can allow expression or on the contrary forbid it through the restrictions of the job and the choices of the company these modes of functioning remain at the base of positive and negative emotions experienced in the workplace They provide the possibility of doing what we love on a daily basis a major factor of internal motivation In this sense it has been shown that affective or emotional commitment is negatively related to uncertain relations [KRY 08] weighing on the management and expressions of the leader Emotions require more appropriate management especially given that besides commitment emotions influence individual satisfaction The valence of emotion (positivenegative) is seen by many psychologists to be related to the satisfaction of individual interest According to Lazarus [LAZ 91] emotion depends on a combination of motivationndashinterestndashenvironment Everyone has his or her own interests and personal values This authorrsquos analysis supports one of the complex aspects of personnel satisfaction given the multiplication of individual interests provided
Just as many marketing studies have largely demonstrated the impact of emotions on customer satisfaction [LAD 07] human resources are no exception Satisfaction at work can be defined as the agreeable or positive affective response of the person regarding their work environment In this respect the data collected by Adelmann [ADE 95] reveals that employees in positions that require a great deal of emotional management have less satisfaction at work lower self-esteem more symptoms of depression and weaker health
30 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
Weiss and Cropanzano [WEI 96] and Morris and Feldman [MOR 97] support these results revealing that emotions are preliminary even predictive of satisfaction at work More recently Fisher [FIS 00] has noted connections between the moods and emotions measured in real time and the standard measures of commitment and satisfaction at work Although certain authors have shown that emotion and satisfaction constitute two perfectly related theoretical constructs Westbrook and Oliver [WES 91] report that certain categories of emotional responses can be preliminary and coexist with the judgment of satisfaction In addition studies conducted by Russell [RUS 79] and Plutchik [PLU 80] reveal that the state of strong satisfaction is accompanied by unequivocal emotional connotations like ldquohappyrdquo and ldquocontentrdquo that are only models of satisfaction [WES 91] Since interactions between individuals become more predictive emotional management favors avoiding intense conflicts and preserving each personrsquos emotional balance [ASH 93] fostering satisfaction at work Several authors have developed the subject Colle et al [COL 05] Herrbach and Leacuterat-Pytlak [HER 04] and Theacutevenet [THEacute 00]
In addition to these two criteria ndash commitment and satisfaction ndash Theacutevenet [THEacute 00] argues that in addition to having a certain effect on efficiency at work on the condition of a precise definition of the term emotions also affect happiness at work Lazarus [LAZ 91] highlights the impact of positive emotions on facilitating performance and social functioning He cites the example of research that experimentally created good moods in various individuals by triggering positive emotions by listening to soothing music reading emotionally positive scenarios watching happy movies experiencing joy having successful experiences etc
The consequences of this experimentation are pro-social behavior such as helping others and quality performance (better performance much less tense cognitive activity) When individuals have positive experiences they feel more confident assured expressive satisfied committed and simply better at work [ZAP 02]
A study conducted by Maes et al [MAE 10] about the implementation of a tool to
continuously evaluate the quality of nurse care shows that satisfaction at work and
affective commitment are crucial for nurses The results indicate that
Managing Individuals 31
responsibilities recognition and the feeling of belonging to a group are positive
incentives and allow organizational objectives to be realized
Although the affective commitment of staff who care for patients may appear to be
a cause for concern in the sense that it does not allow for the detachment necessary
for this type of profession in certain circumstances affective commitment to the
institution fosters not only a good environment but also good results
Case Study 24 Study of commitment in nurses
Feeling good at work due to positive emotions is a process that can seem complex and naive However according to the studies in the fields of neuropsychology and management which will be described later this is less true than it may seem Remember that emotions are a basic function for many living beings Management cannot and does not seem to hide it but generally this consideration of emotions at work remains unconscious and too often unexpressed However the quality of life at work is part of the three pillars of responsible management under its social dimension
23 The art of administering well the process approach a proactive and sustainable method
The inhibition that we mentioned earlier in section 212 about dissonances can have negative consequences The art of administering well which is to say organizing well and preparing to ensure responsible management follows a process Most often the process approach in a company is part of the context of a quality approach It consists of making the major company processes more apt to satisfy the end customers at the best cost by making the different actors in the process participate in this objective Considering ldquoprocessrdquo in management comes down to being proactive because it consists of seeking to act upstream as much as downstream In our view the process approach to management can be based on the fact that since the 1960s many researchers (described in Chapter 1) have shown that emotions follow a process that makes it possible to manage their positive and negative effects at work In fact many theories have
32 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
attempted to describe it in everyday life (Darwin [DAR 72] Jamesrsquo peripheral theory [JAM 84] Freudrsquos discourse of psychoanalysis [FRE 02] Izardrsquos theory of differential emotions [IZA 77] Ekman and Osterrsquos neuro-cultural theory [EKM 79] Goffmanrsquos schematic theories including social constructivism and acting theory [GOF 59] resulting from the variability of emotions)
231 Emo-management a process that concerns everyone
Whatever it may be this process starts with a stimulus and ends with consequences When this process is negative the consequences that can result from it have a strong probability of being negative [LAZ 91] This process is similar to labor although Hochschild [HOC 83 p 7] determines what she calls emotional labor in the public sphere by distinguishing it from emotion work or management which she uses to refer to the same acts in the private sphere The latter could also be termed ldquoemotional taskrdquo What she calls ldquoemotional laborrdquo is the management of emotions in order to create a publicly observable facial or bodily expression [HOC 83] Before detailing this process it is important to specify that it consists of a process that only occurs when emotions or affective experiences [WEI 96] do not have an extreme intensity According to Goleman [GOL 97] the intensity of the emotion felt directly influences the behavior During an intense emotion the left neocortex the thinking brain does not have time to choose the best-suited reaction and only the amygdala of the right brain which commands emotions acts It is because of this process that emotions sometimes ldquotake overrdquo become uncontrollable and cause so-called automatic behaviors which is to say involuntary without effort and cognitively inert
A study was conducted over a period of nine months with three months of
participatory observation in a subordinate role followed by six months of weekly visits
and then regular visits for the next two years The site observed was a unit of
office workers a mathematics research laboratory in the CNRS composed of 72
researchers and seven administrators This study examined a situation that showcased
Managing Individuals 33
emotions in the workplace because it required managing intense emotions an open
relational conflict3 [HOC 83] This observation of nine cases of the most revealing
emotional situations was conducted using an ethnogram during a situation that was deemed
problematic or stressful [LAZ 91] The nine cases included a case of insults in the
workplace a case of insults in an anonymous email several cases of disputes between
colleagues related to misunderstandings or diverging interests and a case of collective
laughter in the breakroom This study observed the behaviors of individual actors to
identify the emotions felt whether they were expressed or not which were confirmed
with in-depth interviews carried out in real time or just after the problematic event [VAN
03a VAN 03b] This study made it possible to reveal an emotional process (see Figure
24) summarized in the case study below
Case Study 25 Study of the emotional process at work context
In summary when an event occurs (stimulus) it can create emotional dissonance
(discussed in the first approach) in employees if what they feel about the event is
incompatible with the organizationrsquos behavioral norms a rationalndashemotional
discordance [MID 89] If aware of this dissonance the individual will after
reflecting carry out emotional labor to reduce the tension caused by the unbearable
dissonance [FES 57] There are two solutions deep acting which means recalling an
experience with a normal expression or surface acting and gesturally simulating the
expected expression [HOC 83] If deep acting fails employees reveal an abnormal
expression or use surface acting to feign a normal expression In the first case they
continue to experience a dissonance resulting from the choice they made expressing
what they feel because this feeling is incompatible with the organizational norms In
the second case the dissonance remains because they only feigned an expression on
the surface In order for the dissonance to disappear the individual must be able to
modify one of the two dimensions [FES 57] As stated by Hochschild [HOC 83]
because norms are fixed and imposed in the workplace individuals generally modify
their emotions This process described by participatory observation shows that not
only does a dissonance precede emotional labor but it also results in a ldquoresidualrdquo
emotional dissonance due to the failure of deep acting or surface acting The
accumulation of the residual dissonance can be at the origin of many issues from
demotivation and intent to leave to psychological and physical issues [VAN 04]
Case Study 26 Emotional process observed at work
3 This open relational conflict was particularly revealing because the emotions were extremely intense to the point of clearly showing inappropriate behavior (anonymous insult letters) detrimental consequences for service isolated and rejected people and a constant deep-rooted preoccupation for the actors
34 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
Figu
re 2
4 P
roce
ss e
xper
ien
ced
at w
ork
and
its m
ana
ge
men
t m
echa
nism
s
Managing Individuals 35
On the site petite-entreprisenet it says ldquoWhen managers feel anger bubbling up 4
inside of them at their place of work or if they have not managed to do away with the feeling before it boils over they must avoid at all costs offloading on the first person to cross their paths or on all of their colleagues Acting impulsively is never recommended because the harm caused by unfair or hurtful comments is often difficult to repair and can lead to poor relations between managers and colleagues which will inevitably have repercussions on the teamrsquos performance On the contrary the right attitude consists of isolating oneself in onersquos office in silence for a few minutes and trying to calm downrdquo Managers must be able to take the time necessary to manage and regulate their emotions But what about employees How can they proceed in the workplace A study conducted by van Hoorebeke [VAN 03b] in the field shows that employees who do not have a personal space to collect themselves use washrooms stairwells and walking outside of the company to regulate their strong emotions Any type of emotion can be disruptive depending on the situation Even joy despite being a positive emotion is not necessarily simple to demonstrate Managers may be afraid to show their appreciation at the risk of receiving requests for raises or be afraid to get excited about their promotions as they are worried about jealousy etc The emotional process makes it possible to better understand emotions to better manage them and avoid unexpected setbacks
Case Study 27 A process with surprising consequences
232 A multitude of effects in the workplace
The emotional process has many effects in the organization (Figure 24) Research shows that the consequences of this emotional labor extend from inauthenticity to emotional exhaustion and physical symptoms [MOR 97 SCH 00]
ndash Concerning authenticity deep acting can destroy the emotional reactions that help all individuals to sense the situation and make connections with others [DAR 72] and in this respect can hinder someonersquos authenticity [ASH 00a] In addition according to Grandey et al [GRA 05b] authenticity has a direct impact on customer satisfaction and customer relations as detailed in the first approach
4 Available online at httpswwwpetite-entreprisenetP-2857-81-G1-comment-mettre-a-profit-ses-emotions-au-travailhtml
36 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
ndash Emotional exhaustion corresponds to a reaction related to stress considered to be a key component in the process of burnout or physical exhaustion Maslach [MAS 82] reports that staff whose positions require a great deal of emotional labor are more likely to experience emotional exhaustion The results obtained by Morris and Feldman [MOR 97] demonstrate that the probability of experiencing this mental exhaustion increases based on the frequency and duration of the emotional labor required and the dissonance felt and experienced Totterdell and Holman [TOT 03] show that it is surface acting that causes emotional exhaustion through a sense of numbness and fatigue felt by the people interviewed
ndash Contrary to the frequency of the interactions that require emotional labor the duration of the emotional labor increases the internalization of the role This variable refers to the way in which the individual integrates his personal identity with organizational demands [MOR 97]
van Hoorebeke [VAN 03a VAN 03b] lists the likely effects of the different steps in the emotional process or emotional management in the workplace including the concepts of emotional labor emotional dissonance and the expression of emotions at work In view of the results obtained the negative consequences of managing emotions in the workplace affect three levels of the unit the individual (health performance enhancement task execution) the group (cohesion collaboration) and the organization (strategic management of human resources image absenteeism) The positive consequences also affect the levels of the individual the group and the organization (normal expression well-being satisfaction at work and relief after liberating oneself from an abnormal expression)
Three categories of variables that influence these effects appear in the literature
1) disposition variables related to the individualrsquos characteristics (the individualrsquos gender with women doing more emotional labor than men ndash Grandey [GRA 03] Hochschild [HOC 83] Kruml and Geddes [KRU 00]) emotional adaptability the positivenegative affective feature that is a character trait of individuals related to their
Managing Individuals 37
capacity to be enthusiastic anxious or guilty [SCH 00] situation variables (the type of event) the gender of the interlocutor (less emotional effort is made toward women ndash Sutton and Rafaeli [SUT 90]) hierarchical respect and organizational characteristics
2) characteristics of the position (face-to-face contact ndash Diefendorff and Gosserand [DIE 03a] Hochschild [HOC 83] Morris and Feldman [MOR 96] Schaubroeck and Jones [SCH 00]) the frequency of interactions [LEE 15 MOR 97 TOT 03] the duration of interactions [DIE 03b GRA 03 MOR 97] and the demands of the supervisor
3) the norms imposed by the organization as well as by the manager or the supervisor according to various degrees of requirements [DIE 03b] behavioral rules that are formally imposed and often written [MOR 96] positivenegative rules meaning rules regarding the suppression of negative emotions or rules requesting positive emotions [DIE 03a] autonomy at work [MOR 96 MOR 97] routine tasks [MOR 96 MOR 97] social support the presence of the individual often an attentive colleague [TOT 03] guides and training about the expressions expected at work [DIE 03a]
To summarize the effects of this emotional process in the workplace can be negative or positive Previous studies and the field study show that a negative process can produce individual and collective effects ranging from demotivation and a desire to leave the company to the performance of individuals and their colleagues These effects do not depend solely on management Certain personal characteristics can foster a negative process as can the type of normalization and the position occupied depending on management Administering well requires management to consider these characteristics to limit the harmful effects of the negative process upstream and support the positive ones Fortunately when the process is set in motion these characteristics must be supported by the management levers of this process The field study made it possible to identify several management levers of the negative process Here are the details
38 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
233 Levers for managing
Most of these variables can prove to be organizational or managerial levers or in other words a tool to facilitate the emotional management and emotional labor of employees (subordinates and managers) in the workplace According to the perception of employees in twenty different kinds of professions from nurses and secretaries to business managers and undertakers management can intervene in the ldquosometimes negativerdquo emotional process in the workplace using preventative or curative levers [VAN 03a VAN 03b]
1) Preventative levers upstream the variables integral to work (interest autonomy responsibility trust sufficient staff good material etc) and to its environment (setting atmosphere etc) limit the existence of daily conflicts and tensions that influence emotions The variables that influence the cognitive aspects (norms) knowing what we must do to do it well influence normal expression Most preventative levers correspond to the influence variables of several concepts such as satisfaction at work well-being etc Coaching autonomy motivation and career management and fairness are some of the most-studied levers in these areas Other levers can intervene in the process [VAN 03b] For example some companies play on the setting with research about decor colors or wearing a uniform These levers directly influence the emotions in a climate that is conducive to normal expression The demands of training notably in psychology and personal development allow the employees to get to know themselves better and understand others better in ldquorole-playing gamesrdquo It encourages training with appropriate behaviors Le Scanff [LES 98] discusses intensive training with tasks to complete in conditions that are similar to those encountered in a real environment to acquire an automatic response and consequently an increased sense of control Unfortunately this lever could lead to a kind of robotization of the human stripped of emotion and reproduce the bad through the desire to do good
Managing Individuals 39
2) Curative levers downstream places to express emotions physical and mental activities and discussion groups are needed and would limit the accumulation of emotional dissonance by liberating tension The need for social support would facilitate deep acting and help individuals to assess their emotion (listening leader psychologist) These would influence abnormal expression
When they exist these levers are often too under-used or poorly used in companies to have a real and effective impact
In a qualitative study conducted with 22 people in different professions including office employee undertaker naval firefighter independent artisan plumber university lecturer administrative executive business executive employment agent high-school teacher nursery-school assistant accountant executive secretary manager store salesperson pharmacist and home-care nurse van Hoorebeke [VAN 03a] lists managerial practices for managing emotions
Thanks to these different levers to counteract the negative process the consideration of the basic conditions necessary for administering well positive processes should be encouraged through well-being in the workplace The example of PepsiCo shows that the company is capable of going further engaging the manager in the search for well-being which is seen as the main driving force for growth
As indicated by the process illustrated earlier (see Figure 24) one category of effects is negative and can totally disrupt this search for well-being These negative effects create health problems sometimes serious in individuals who inhibit their emotions In order to better capture the operation the next section focuses on exploring it in more depth through different areas of study
40 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
Method Neutralizing
emotions Isolating emotions
Prescribing emotions
Reducing emotional dissonance
Standardization procedure
Control logic
Norms of rationality
Control logicControl logic
Rules of conduct
No control logic
Support logic
Action on the organizational
climate setting fairness training
Actions on the perception of injustice and
obligation better self-knowledge
emotional expression
Diffusion
Rigorous structuring of
roles relations and
language
Internal regulation
Implicit norms
Diffusion through scripts
Teaching through training
Joint regulation
Control Punishment Punishment Punishment and
autonomy Between control and
autonomy
Objectives
No expression of
emotions
Good performance
of role
Prevention against the expressions
of inappropriate
emotions
Masking inappropriate expressions
Good performance
of role
Showing appropriate
expressions in all situations
Regulation of norms and emotions
Reducing the difference between the emotion felt and
the expression revealed
Decreasing inappropriate expressions
Avoiding consequences on
health performance and relations with others (conflicts)
Table 21 Managerial practices in the management of emotions (source van Hoorebeke [VAN 03a])
Managing Individuals 41
Steacutephane Saba (PepsiCo) stated that ldquoWell-being in the workplace is the primary driving force of our growthrdquo
Florence Davy with the journal Personnel5 explained
ldquoWhat is well-being in the workplace at PepsiCo and what are its main components
ldquoWell-being in the workplace at PepsiCo is a commitment of HR but also and especially of management This commitment is at the core of our managerial strategy around three major pillars
1) the relationship of trust that managers must establish with their colleagues the quality of this relationship is one of the key levers of well-being at work If our colleagues are happy to go to work it is because they have managers that listen to them and nurture them These elements are measured in our surveys on social climate and by Great Place To Work When we leave a company we are often leaving a manager because the relationship is complicated We make a point to ensure that managerial quality is experienced by our colleagues every day as a factor in motivation and development
2) the personal and professional fulfillment of every person notably through the search for balance between private and professional life For example we do everything we can to be able to offer our colleagues the possibility of remote working regardless of their position
3) conviviality At PepsiCo we have a tradition of conviviality in both our products and our managerial operations We celebrate successes and incorporate conviviality into professional relations with all our colleagues
ldquoHow are these principles represented in your practices and operating procedures
ldquoTo help managers develop relationships based on trust we invest heavily in training Independently of the classic tools we have implemented a section about the management of emotions that provides an infusion of soul that is very appreciated by everyone Besides that to help us to continuously move this relationship forward each year we conduct a survey on managerial quality that allows colleagues to assess their manager on a certain number of criteria sending a strong message about the way they are managed throughout the year
ldquoRegarding the worklife balance beyond remote working we have implemented
many initiatives related to well-being including access to gyms to a company
nutritionist and to care or specific concierge services The conviviality
component is explored through a certain number of ways of doing things
notably by recognition through awards but also and especially through 5 Available online at httpsbusinesslesechosfrdirections-ressources-humaines ressources-humainesbien-etre-au-travailstephane-saba-pepsico-le-bien-etre-au-travail-est-le-levier-principal-de-notre-croissance-60773php
42 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
fun events to celebrate the successes of our colleagues This year PepsiCo France
celebrated its 20th anniversary From a conviviality point of view we did
something fairly exceptional for this occasion We organized a music contest
involving all the companyrsquos teams It was a rather spectacular event and very good
for team-buildingrdquo
Case Study 28 Example of managing the process toward well-being at work
24 The art of ensuring health and safety in the workplace well-being at work
One question remains how can emotions disrupt psychological and physical health Since the start of the 1900s a theory was established on an organic model that defined emotion as a biological process For Freud [FRE 02] emotion was a libidinal release which is to say a liberation of instinctual psychic energy For Darwin [DAR 72] it corresponds to an instinct and for James [JAM 84] it corresponds to the perception of a psychological process From these premises neuroscience has been developing the concept for a few years now Neuroscience has a two-fold approach psychobiological which researches the biological bases of behaviors and psychological which studies mental function (the psyche) Among them many current research projects in behavioral neuroscience focus on emotions and explain their biological operation [DAM 94 LAB 94 VIN 86] This part describes the foundations in a succinct and accessible way without denying the extreme complexity of this organ that has yet to reveal all of its secrets and from a specific point of view that of the famous surgeon Professor Laborit
According to Laborit [LAB 94] the brain a regulated system is composed of three systems (1) a reward system (2) a punishment system and (3) an inhibition of action system (balancing system) Hormonal bundles join these different brains [OLD 54] and intervene in the accumulation of experiences and the choice of behavior
1) One of these bundles called the Medial Forebrain Bundle (MFB) which is the reward bundle is involved when an action gratifies us when what we do keeps us in a state of pleasure
Managing Individuals 43
biological equilibrium We know the chemical mediators or hormones the catecholamines
2) Another bundle the Periventricular System (PVS) corresponds to the punishment bundle [LAB 94] These two bundles trigger action or expression When we are kicked we have two options fight or flight If the behavior chosen during the first experience is effective we will repeat this behavior because we avoided punishment and gave ourselves pleasure
3) Then there is a system that inhibits action studied by Laborit [LAB 94] among others This system functions when we cannot choose between fight or flight it consists of not acting of restraining ourselves
Based on the situation the brain makes the hormonal decision to convey a given expression in order to avoid punishment According to Vincent in nerve mechanisms ldquoit is almost always a question of two centres (one inhibiting the other exciting) to manage the same functionrdquo [VIN 86 p 160] The reward bundle activated by pleasure and the intuitive punishment bundle both trigger action Inversely the third bundle corresponds to a system that inhibits action Because the first two trigger action (gratification fight or flight) they are liberating Because it hinders action the third does not allow us to feel pleasure fight or flee This inhibition is the most problematic state
First of all we must summarize the interconnections of the different systems of reward punishment and inhibition
241 A neurobiological process
Following an event an emotion is felt When it is a positive emotion the system of gratification is set in motion ndash this action triggers pleasure ndash and catecholamine hormones are secreted When this happens the action-inhibiting system is inactive because it is unnecessary without the signal of an alarm
When a negative emotion is felt the punishment (fight or flight) system is initiated Hormones (peptides analgesics) are secreted by
44 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
the hypothalamus At the same time the action-inhibiting system activates because an alarm system is initiated by the pituitary gland and its hormone corticotrophin (ACTH) The activation of the inhibitory system acts as a safeguard or precautionary principle because the pituitary gland allows for faster and more effective action
If fight or flight is successful then there is no more reason for the pituitary gland to intervene The system is re-established and returns to the gratification system once the alarm or danger has passed Inversely if the action is ineffective and the danger remains the brain inhibits the action and the pituitary gland commands the adrenal glands to secrete glucocorticoids anti-inflammatory hormones similar to cortisone Unfortunately at this time it is impossible to get out of the inhibition system to return to the reward system Over time the glucocorticoid hormones (asymp cortisol7) secreted by the adrenal glands can destroy the thymus (immune protection) and thereby allow some microbial cells even cancerous ones hosted by the individual to multiply This hormone often attacks the stomachrsquos protective lining (mucus) which can lead to stomach ulcers and perforated ulcers Secreted by the adrenal glands they also alter REM sleep (hypertension) given that protein synthesis in the brain also controls restorative sleep
242 Reasons to become ill
If the inhibition of action can be harmful to us why do we restrain our actions Individuals inhibit their emotions for several reasons
ndash according to Freud [FRE 02] inhibition reveals an impulse that is impossible to satisfy Inhibition can reveal an informational deficit or an imaginary impetus of anxiety
ndash according to Laborit [LAB 94] it is the dominant-dominated relationship that compels one of the individuals present to inhibit his or behaviors in order to avoid punishment
ndash according to Traue and Michael [TRA 93] the expression of emotion leads to an act of controlling the environment In doing so inhibition is part of the set of emotional conduct
Managing Individuals 45
ndash according to MacLean [MAC 75] this inhibition or ldquoschizophysiologyrdquo of the limbic system and the neocortex originates from the conflict between what our neo-mammalian (cognitive) brain knows and what our paleo-mammalian (affective) brain feels
Some [HOC 83 MID 89 VAN 03a VAN 03b] call this ldquoemotional dissonancerdquo
Norms are not everything in a company Companies are like hives or anthills and human interactions are not always simple and to conform to the majority individuals will hold back their emotions
243 Real consequences
The following studies explain and demonstrate the impact of this inhibition According to Laborit [LAB 94] the inhibitory system is triggered by glucocorticoid hormones when the individual is compelled to restrain his behavior or action This conclusion is the result of various experiments conducted on rats In one study he compares the results obtained with two dominant rats enclosed for eight days in a cage with an electrified floor and one single rat in the same situation for the same period In the end despite receiving multiple electrical shocks the first two rats were eating well and had a smooth coat of fur The single rat however had persistent hypertension For a month after the experience his stomach was ulcerated to the point of causing death The difference between these two experiments is action On the one hand the two rats acted and always continued to fight despite the electrical shocks while on the other hand the single rat remained inactive curled up fur dishevelled inhibited It had no behavior According to Traue and Michael [TRA 93] inhibition is the self-control of behavior related to restraint or repression of an emotion Their study demonstrated that holding back anger tested on migraine sufferers resulted in short-term headaches related to high muscular tension and muscle hyperactivity due to an inhibition of emotion
This inhibition of behavior or the underlying emotion is the source of several pathological issues Bischoff and Traue [BIS 83] state that
46 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
ldquoan individual develops myogenic pain [headaches] in a particular muscular system when the muscles have an increased activity [related to inhibition] up to a critical point during a certain timerdquo Several researchers have discovered that the degree of inhibition is associated with compromised immune function and cancer [MOR 81]
The suppression of anger is usually correlated with a high rate of immunoglobulin A in the blood Immunoglobulin A is also associated with the propagation of metastases in breast cancers The inhibition of anger is not the only example Friedman and Booth-Kewley [FRI 87] indicate that other negative emotions measured are also connected with health problems including asthma ulcers headaches immune disorders etc In addition to physical pathologies many researchers in psychobiology and medicine have demonstrated the link between emotions and mental health or ldquobrain healthrdquo whether it is in chronic pathologies (schizophrenia autism etc) or not The biological descriptions of depression (a mental disorder if ever there was one because it can lead to suicide nine times out of ten suicide is related to a form of mental disorder generally severe depression) stress and anxiety indicate that emotions (affective part of the brain) intervene and weaken the different regions of the cortex (rational part of the brain) During the process of the mental disorder emotions ldquotake overrdquo through neurotransmitters and hormones They biologically disrupt the cortex that can no longer remember to act to inhibit the negative emotions and to lead the individual to think about something else (the individuals focus on the problem that was marked by a longer-term emotional process [QUI 06]) As emphasized by Kishi and Elmquist [KIS 05] the bodyrsquos whole process of homeostasis (equilibrium) is affected for a large number of patients with mental disorders
ldquoNo matter what emotion we feel there are consequences for the bodyrdquo explains
Henrique Sequeira professor in affective neuroscience at the University of Lille (I
and II) ldquoEmotions are a true interface between the brain and the body They cause
muscular hormonal neurological and immune reactions These are the links
explored by psychosomatic medicine according to which repeated emotions can
in certain predisposed individuals have effects that are positive (faster recovery
from cancer) or negative (cardiovascular vulnerability asthma) on health by
Managing Individuals 47
repeatedly and unnecessarily striking the same organrdquo he adds Now for each
ldquoemotional maprdquo it remains to define the precise physiological indicators that can
be measured objectively and be used to identify potential emotional dysfunction
The first body map of emotions is illustrated in Figure 25 Finnish researchers
detailed the physical effects of happiness fear sadness and other sentiments
Case Study 29 Effects of emotions at the soma level
Figure 25 The first body map of emotions by Pauline Freacuteour published 01062014 (source lefigarofr) For a color version of this figure see wwwistecoukvanhoorebekemanagementzip
In light of this clinical research any doubts about the bodyemotion relationship and especially the emotion inhibitionhealth relationship can no longer be challenged but confirmed and specified Nevertheless given the various reasons for the inhibition of action (containing onersquos behavior or emotion) it seems likely that inhibition will be increased in an organizational context
48 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
244 A schema like this in business
A variety of research in management describes the phenomenon in the workplace Ashforth and Humphrey [ASH 93] report that the inhibition of emotions in the workplace can provoke emotional exhaustion psychological discontent frustration and stress [SCH 00]
The organizational context seems at first glance to present notable differences from private life ndash complexity repetitive professional relations tasks to accomplish with performance etc ndash yet the organization is a real standardized and regulated emotional arena where several reasons listed as action-inhibiting are perfectly normal Different elements support this perspective
First Rafaeli and Sutton [RAF 89] argue for the addition of two types of behavioral norms that employees must follow at work in comparison to an individualrsquos private life regulated by societal norms occupational norms related to the role held by the individual and organizational norms unique to each company described in section 21
Second the company seeks through its practices what can be called ldquoemotional rationalityrdquo broken down into types depending on the companyrsquos profile and operation
1) The neutralization or total inhibition of emotions prevents the emergence of intense negative emotions with the very strict structuring of roles and interpersonal relations [ASH 95]
2) The system of isolating emotions requires the non-expression of inappropriate emotions without forcing the employee to use particular behaviors [ASH 95] In this context although the individuals are not compelled to express specific dictated emotions the prevention and inhibition of abnormal expressions are no less imposed and sanctioned
3) The prescription of emotions [ASH 95] which tries to control both normal and abnormal expressions of employees is based on the employeersquos adherence to good conduct Individuals must not only follow behavior scripts learn to manage their stress and inhibit certain emotions but most importantly they are asked to thrive
Managing Individuals 49
4) The normalization of emotion has the goal of rationalizing emotions that occur inappropriately It takes the form of making excuses using humor or expressing regret on the part of the employee who said it
Third the organization is the site of diverse social interactions between employees and each other employees and clients employees and managers etc The duration and frequency of these interactions can vary greatly depending on their nature
According to Hochschild [HOC 83] workplace situations that require the regulation of emotions (emotional demands) have three characteristics
1) they require vocal or facial contact with the public
2) they ask the employee to produce an emotional state or reaction from the consumer
3) they provide the employer with the opportunity to control the employeersquos emotional activities
In a company the inhibition of action thus demanded of employees corresponds to a request to hold back their emotions when they do not correspond to the behavioral norms expected by managers among others As we specified in the first approach this request creates the so-called emotional dissonance [HOC 83] in the individual that as with cognitive dissonance [FES 57] generates an unbearable psychological and physical tension related to this restraint inhibition of the emotion that if it is accumulated can have consequences on the mental or biological health of the individual
It has been proven that burnout is just as connected to psychological and affective variables [CHE 92 LEE 93] as to organizational consequences such as turnover the intent to leave negative attitudes in the workplace and decreased performance [LEE 96] especially because these issues have proven to be contagious [BAK 05] In this respect the manager can intervene to limit the effects considering the procedural aspect of emotions in the workplace described earlier and their management levers
50 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
This process is of great interest to management in order to mitigate absenteeism and the direct and indirect costs that absenteeism generates but it cannot negate emotional contagion The risk of the contagion of stress and anxiety has been demonstrated by psychologists and sociologists [BEH 94 GUM 97 PFE 98] To our knowledge only a few studies [BAK 01 BAK 05 GRO 92] have demonstrated the existence of the contagion of burnout and physical exhaustion resulting from emotional exhaustion [SHI 03] However these few studies are specialized in clinical psychology in the professions of a specific domain medical care and in this instance doctors and nurses While Bakker et al [BAK 01] demonstrates that burnout like other mental disorders is not automatically connected to a process of contagion research about depression does demonstrate the existence of a connection [HOW 85]
An important point should be noted Like the role played by pain emotion remains a somatic and psychological signal that reveals several factors including managerial failures From a positive point of view emotions have the ability to foster well-being at work The emotional intelligence and competence of a leader are particularly important
The company Google measures well-being at work This evaluation is part of an
annual evaluation of every employee According to directors Eric Schmidt and
Jonathan Rosenberg in their book How Google Works the Google culture does not
think it is acceptable for employees to feel bad in their place of work Google is also
perceived as a company where people have a good time ldquohave funrdquo The directors
specify that it is not about having fun for funrsquos sake but indeed to intensify
creativity and increase the irresistible desire to work find solutions advance create
and work together [SCH 14]
The online journal Innovation Manageacuteriale6 features an article with the title
ldquolsquoChoose a job you love and you will never have to work a day in your lifersquo
(Confucius)rdquo Although 64 of French people consider themselves satisfied with
their work the percentage drops to 20 when asked if they ldquoget pleasure from
workingrdquo according to a 2014 Ipsos study
The 2016 barometer of well-being in the workplace relies on 10 items grouped into 6 Available online at httpwwwinnovationmanagerialecomconceptsde-la-gestion-du-savoir-faire-au-management-de-laimer-faire
Managing Individuals 51
three essential pillars (see Figure 24) work environment emotion and attention
The work environment corresponds to equipment and the balance between private
and professional life Attention corresponds to the consideration on the part of the
hierarchy and the management of skills Well-being also depends on the consideration
that the manager gives to employees Emotion corresponds to the pleasure of coming
to work in the morning the interest in onersquos work or its stimulating aspect What the
employee feels on a daily basis is also considered7
One particular example is this in England a company had the idea to implement an
uncommon and extremely practical type of leave for employees If they drink too
much on a night out employees at the British online ticket agency DICE can now
ask for ldquohangoverrdquo leave According to the founder of the London-based company
Phil Hutcherson this measure allows colleagues to ldquoembracerdquo the company culture
Employees are expected to attend concerts and festivals regularly and this type of
leave allows them to take advantage of the events without feeling worried about a
difficult day after To set up their day employees only need to follow one extremely
simple step They must send a WhatsApp message to their boss containing the
ldquomusicrdquo ldquobeerrdquo and ldquosickrdquo emojis Regarding this new kind of leave Phil
Hutcherson said ldquoOur whole team lives for music and some of the best
opportunities in the industry happen after a concert We trust each other and we
want people to be open if they are going to see live music No need to pretend to be
sickrdquo On average employees have each asked for four ldquohangoverrdquo leaves since the
measure was implemented Phil Hutcherson says he is delighted with the trust and
transparency that this has created within DICE8
Case Study 210 Emotion and well-being at work an indisputable link
These examples are clearly indicative of the fact that modern management cannot not react faced with the consequences of the poor management of e-motions In addition emo-management can have consequences on health and penalize a company through the costs that it represents something that was unthinkable until about ten years ago Emo-management plays a role in rational decision-making
7 Available online at httpmipsosfrengager-ses-equipes-et-conduire-changement 2016-05-26-barometre-edenred-ipsos-2016-quels-sont-piliers-pour-comprendre-et-agir-sur-bien-etre-au-travail 8 Available online at httpwwwohmymagcominsolitecette-entreprise-propose-des-conges-gueule-de-bois-a-ses-employes_art112460html
52 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
25 A factual approach for effective decision-making knowledge of the emotional decision-making process
Apart from the impact on work emotion has influences that have long been unimaginable Decision-making has been demonstrated to be dependent on emotion a stunning breakthrough
251 Decision and emotion
In fact it is only in the past few years that emotions have been a subject of interest for research about decision-making although some authors anticipated it According to Simon [SIM 59] organizations do not automatically follow the maximization of profits but rather a result deemed satisfactory relative to a level of aspiration Until recently the decision-maker was addressed as a being someone who acted according to rational and distinctly formulated principles Since Plato Kant and Descartes it has been considered that proper logic purely rational and mathematical stripped of all affective considerations can lead to a solution regardless of the problem According to these theories a decision is inspired by sensory data events facts and documents or principles based on which it is enough to correctly deduce only truth from truth [DES 37 KAN 98] If the premises of an emotional intervention in decision-making are already discernable in Darwinrsquos principle of anti-thesis9 [DAR 72] or the research of Lazarus [LAZ 91] it was only in 1994 that Damasio clearly affirmed that emotions are necessary for decision-making According to his theory about somatic indicators or the perception of the secondary emotions of foreseeable consequences ([DAM 94 p 240]) this neurologist explains not only the process of making decisions but especially the time that it takes our brains to decide from a few fractions of a second to a few minutes depending on the case According to him pure or mathematical reasoning requires a memory with an unlimited capacity to retain the multitude of probable
9 Principle of expressions of opposite emotions highlighting the mechanisms implemented during opposite choices A hostile and aggressive dog will walk stiffly head held high tail up ears directed to the front A dog greeting his master will hold its body low tail and ears directed backward The two expressions and postures are opposite and ldquoantitheticalrdquo
Managing Individuals 53
combinations to predict the consequences of any given decision ndash a capacity that humans do not have This is why memory is supported by various emotional indicators A decision that is perceived by emotion as negative and automatically associated with an unpleasant sensation in the body (soma) is then immediately rejected in order to restrict the choice to fewer foreseeable alternatives to better decide When the emotion experienced is positive the alternative is ldquomarkedrdquo and preserved This theory was partially demonstrated by Bechara et al [BEC 98]
Neurologically speaking making a decision is very fast much less than a second when it consists of reacting to an immediate danger and emotion is therefore predominant When the decision is established as a cognitive process with time for reflection where the consequence is a choice between various solutions emotion intervenes without predominating Do we not say ldquoI lsquofeelrsquo that I did not make the right decisionrdquo At that point emotion presents itself as an unconscious signal of the effectiveness of our choice [LAZ 91] In addition at first glance as a process of adjustment and evaluation it plays a moderating role in the control of rational decisions [GRA 00] Emotion is an integral part of decisional complexity
252 Decision and emotion at the origin a rejection
To understand this complexity let us examine how emotions were rejected from the domain of research in decision-making then how they came to be included in it From the start Plato (427 BCE) rejected the world of the senses because it posed too many various obstacles to understanding Instead he dedicated himself to reason and pure understanding In the same sense Kant [KAN 98 p 36] in his Critique of Pure Reason says ldquoEncouraged by such a proof of the power of reason the drive for expansion sees no boundsrdquo10 Similarly Descartes in his Discourse on Method [DES 37] considers that it is reason that makes us human and so we should cultivate our own intelligence According to Berthoz [BER 03] regarding these theories
10 Translation taken from the 1998 English edition translated and edited by Paul Guyer and Allen W Wood and published by Cambridge University Press
54 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
and various other original normative descriptive and prescriptive theories of decision-making it remains ideally rational and essentially cognitive In this context normative currents with numerous variations indicate the way in which to proceed to make a decision descriptive theories detail the process prescriptive theories seek to improve the relevance of the choices made Each field of research has its own perspective and method of measuring cerebral function during decision-making Nevertheless one point remains common to all of them calculation or evaluation It is also this evaluation that is at the heart of the discourse on research about decision-making through emotions
In fact evaluation speculation and even betting are recurrent themes in cognitive research about decision-making The distinctions that are allocated to it in cognitivist research have more to do with its function than with its foundation No matter what the choice to be made is the individual considers predicts and bets on the possible consequences or on the preference that he gives it Based on these currents this estimate depends on three major paradigms
1) The utility function (mathematical formula) [BER 13 VON 44] where decision-making is based on the beliefs and values of the individual and the expected results The ldquosure thing principlerdquo an approach suggested by Savage [SAV 54] revising the utility function considers the choice as dependent on the preferences and beliefs of the individual despite the consequences Finally the theory of the prospect is a mathematical prediction function combining a function of the values and a function of the subjective probabilities [KAH 73]
2) Limited rationality showing that the human limits and deviations of prediction cannot be reproduced by theoretical models An economical person can in fact content themselves with a solution that is satisfying in their eyes without it being proven to be the optimal solution [SIM 59]
3) The algebraic process in the form of equations and weighted means is the aggregate calculation of the judgment
Far from being able to be considered as divergent cognitive processes the differentiation of these three currents summarized by
Managing Individuals 55
Berthoz [BER 03] mainly concerns the role of this evaluation and the strategies undertaken to determine it Evaluation remains an iterative term to such a point that cognitivist approaches and emotional approaches are compatible
As noted earlier already in 1872 in his observations Darwin remarked that decision-making was accompanied by a furrowing of the brow indicating a difficulty in the mind and an emotion expressed before the action Then several theories suggested the predictive aspect of emotions These theories were established by Ribot [RIB 30] for whom an idea that is not felt is nothing and then Sartre [SAR 38] according to whom the emotional conscience is the conscience of the world and finally Schachter [SCH 71] who said that the existence of a cognition associated with physiological activation is indicative of the very nature of emotion It was over the course of the development of these various foundational approaches that emotion was considered to be a real tool of evaluation because of its predictive character Scherer [SCH 89] examined emotion as constituting an affective mechanism of evaluation that intervened between the cognitive evaluation of a situation and human action In his view emotions cause a decoupling of the behavior and the stimuli rendering the individual capable of substituting more flexible kinds of behaviors for reflexive instinctive or usual responses in a given situation Next came the perspective of Lazarus [LAZ 91] according to whom emotions have several functions such as informing people about the quality of what they are experiencing here and now helping them to evaluate situations in which they find themselves and the effectiveness of their conduct (satisfaction or dissatisfaction) giving meaning and value to their experience facilitating the communication of intentions stimulating reflection and the development of thought etc Finally in the 1990s the neurologist Damasio [DAM 94] posed and tested the clearly defined hypothesis that emotion plays a biological role in reasoning and decision-making First he noted that over the course of several experiments using the measurement of certain biological parameters11 there was a strange connection 11 Modification of the resistance of the skin to the electrical current and positron emission tomographer in order to film the brainrsquos reactions
56 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
between the absence of emotions and the disruption of reasoning In short emotions are 100 indispensable for reasoning It was through his questioning of the case of Phineas Gage who was stripped of emotions and unable to make decisions following a brain injury that Damasio suggested in his book Descartesrsquo Error that ldquomechanisms making it possible to express and feel emotions [hellip] all play a role in the faculty of reasoningrdquo12 ([DAM 94 p 10]) In fact while Gage had preserved all of his aptitudes for reasoning he had lost his ability to reason To solve this mystery Damasio studied a patient (Elliot) whom had had a tumor on his meninges removed Although Elliot could reflect talk count and remember he was unable to make good decisions manage his time or execute tasks in several steps An experiment showed that he felt no emotion when presented with shocking photos Because it consisted uniquely of sang-froid Damasiorsquos conclusion was that the faculty of reasoning was affected by the emotional deficit the loss of the ability to experience emotions could be the source of irrational behavior According to him the brain would therefore be a series of loops and infinite cross-referencing between the intellect and the affect
His next studies conducted in collaboration with other researchers [BEC 98 BEC 99] demonstrate that decision-making is a process that is dependent on emotion Some of his studies prove that damage to the ventromedial prefrontal cortex prevents the ability to use the emotions necessary to guide decisions in an advantageous direction In the anatomical analysis of 10 subjects with damaged brains and 16 normal subjects the results demonstrate that damage to the amygdala of the brain the locus of emotions disrupts decision-making
To support this perspective according to Berthoz [BER 03] throughout human
history there seem to be several examples that demonstrate the influence of
emotions on decision-making For example between 1978 and 1980 Stansfield
Turner director of the CIA decided not to order the destruction of a foreign
plane declared to be transporting nuclear missiles on American territory
Despite the imminent danger he did not make the decision to act The events that
followed would prove he was right as the information that had been
communicated to him was false and related to a simple technical error in
12 Translation from French
Managing Individuals 57
transmission Why did he react this way faced with a crucial danger putting in
danger his life and the lives of millions of people Had he considered that it could
be an error Did he evaluate his decision based on his values his representations
No one knows not even him
Case Study 211 Example of an ldquoirrationalrdquo decision
253 Decision and the neurobiological process
In order to better understand and visualize it below is a short overview of the anatomy of the nervous system based on descriptions by Vincent [VIN 86] Damasio [DAM 94] Laborit [LAB 94] and Berthoz [BER 03]
The brain has central parts and peripheral parts
ndash the central system is composed of a right hemisphere and a left hemisphere united
by the corpus callosum ventromedial regions (a set of connective fibers
convergence zone and white matter)
ndash the central nervous system including the diencephalon contains the thalamus and
the hypothalamus placed respectively at the center and under the hemispheres as
well as the midbrain brainstem cerebellum spinal cord and others
In the central nervous system the arrangement of the gray matter provides
information about its role
ndash in layers this corresponds to the cortex which forms the outer layer covering the
hemispheres the most recently evolved part of the cortex is called the neocortex
generally associated with cognition
ndash arranged like nuts gray matter corresponds to different nodes buried in each
hemisphere such as the amygdala (almond-shaped) it is the least recent part in
terms of evolution the limbic cortex associated with emotion
These two systems are interrelated by electrical currents diffusing from neurons (cell
bodies) to the points of contact (synapses) by conductors (axons) The synapses can
then release the neurotransmitters chemical messengers that will carry the message
through the spinal cord and the peripheral nervous system (corporeal) to the next
neuron and to different organs or glands in order to trigger action (or not) and
transmit information about the result back to the brain To put it simply depending
on the situation some parts of the brain (an electrical factory) send through
neurons messages (neurotransmitters) to a point of contact (synapse) that will in
turn send the message to another point of contact and so on until the message
arrives at its destination the body (a chemical factory) At the time of the
58 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
last point of contact the message is decoded (the electrical message becomes a
chemical message) so that it can be read by the receptor
In the context of decision-making both systems (central and peripheral) play a role
[BEC 98 BEC 99 BEC 00 BER 03] More precisely it is the ventromedial regions
notably the prefrontal cortex and the amygdala that come into play The
ventromedial zone located in the prefrontal cortex is where representations that the
individual constructs of a situation are stored This is where the information is
classified based on the experience of the individual and where scenarios describing
the likely consequences of a decision can be found This zone is also directly related
to the so-called primary regions of the cortex such as the motor region certain
ganglions or the amygdala As a central receptor for information the latter is
according to the metaphor used by Damasio ldquothe Bureau of Standards and
Measuresrdquo [DAM 94 p 250] In this sense experiencing an emotion activates the
amygdala of the brain which triggers among other things the ventromedial cortex
The latter sends signals to the motor system so that the muscles create the
expression of emotions on the face and specific postures in the body and activate
endocrine and nervous system hormone secretors (chemical neurotransmitters)
inducing changes in the state of the body and the brain Each of these actions allows the
individual to perceive a corporeal and mental state This is what provides him or her
with information about the choice to make
In a decision-making situation the cognitive brain and the limbic system (emotions)
send messages concurrently The cognitive brain makes an inventory of the
consequences of each probable choice It sends each scenario to the limbic brain
which acts like a customs checkpoint The latter selects the best scenarios or the most
relevant messages For each message received it sends a message directly to the part
of the brain that triggers bodily movements starting from the feeling of the individual
in a given scenario This allows the individual to quickly and distinctly perceive the
message Finally it stores the best scenarios which are the ones that correspond best to
the values interests and experiences of the individual a work that is always carried out
together by the parts of the brain The process continues in this way until there is only
one choice left the best one according to the individualrsquos perception
Case Study 212 Description of the neurological functioning of a decision
The studies by Bechara et al [BEC 98 BEC 99 BEC 00] and Damasio [DAM 94] demonstrate that when making a decision the so-called secondary emotions because they result from representations and images related to scenarios with probable
Managing Individuals 59
consequences for the decision to be made intervene and activate the amygdala and the ventromedial systems One of the results of their latest study [BEC 99 BEC 00] showed that more bad decisions were made by patients with damage to the ventromedial cortex and the amygdala compared to patients with damage to the hypothalamus or who are totally normal These individuals reiterated their poor decisions despite the repetition of experience because the emotion emulating the action could not be inhibited by the prefrontal cortex according to Berthozrsquos theory [BER 03]
Lazarus [LAZ 91] argues that the emotionndashdecision relation is clear Decisions depend on values that revolve around our humanity religion politics loyalty righteousness justice compassion or even trust and personal interest In that respect the maximization of utility by a purely cognitive decision presupposes that each person knows and is aware of his or her own interest Yet according to the economists we only know it when we are wrong
Berthoz [BER 03] indicates that concerning the cognitionndashemotion debate [IZA 84 LAZ 91] emotion has a role that is essential but not consciously perceived in the pre-categorization of stimuli that guide cognitive assessment As confirmation according to the computational approach emotion ldquoalerts the consciousness to evaluate the situation identify what triggered this activity and reorganize the action plansrdquo [BER 03 p 67] Gratch [GRA 00] provides us with an example by establishing a computer program to monitor decision-making in the context of military aviation plans Starting from the observation that the current programs are limited by their incapacity to model different moderators influencing the performance of troops on the ground such as stress emotions and individual differences he mathematically models the way in which individuals evaluate events emotionally and the influence of this evaluation on decision-making Another case supports this argument decisions made under the influence of anger Lerner and Tiedens [LER 06] present the fact that this emotion disrupts the objectivity and rationality that is useful for decision-making When angry individuals experience excessive confidence and optimism which encourages rash risk-taking
60 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
The objective of these descriptions is to show that the intervention of emotions in decision-making is not only effective but also shared by all human beings regardless of the context (private or professional life) status or hierarchical level of the individual confronted with making a decision Probable distinctions are located in the essential and crucial aspect of the consequences of this or in other words in the type of decision to make Research shows that emotions guide us throughout our daily life Whether they are negative or positive they are meaningful for our decisions
254 Decision and emo-management
In a context like the one in an organization decision-making is especially perceived as a rational process because it is anchored in an essentially economic domain However the decisional rationality of managers is also subject to emotions just like each member of the organization Faced with fierce competition the company and its decision-makers must make fast and effective strategic decisions In order to make the best decisions conventional theories which assume that the decision-makers maximize their expected utility through a complete rational analysis of the information are opposed to neo-classical theories that argue that decision-makers have limited capacities to dissect and assess this information The difficulty that these conventional theories encounter in their study of the behavior of economic and rational individuals is that each partially or totally irrational behavior must be randomized and excluded because it is deviant [AKE 82] Since then some studies have considered intuition and irrationality in decision-making [FRA 03 HEI 88 SIM 87] This intuition or irrationality is considered to be a predictor in the context of decision-making with a lack of information or partial information In 2003 in the section of his article entitled ldquoLa dimension strateacutegique du recours agrave lrsquoexternalisation les contributions anteacuterieuresrdquo (p 27) Fimbel [FIM 03] explained ldquoIn the decision-making phase the issues are the subject of an assessment in which the degree of rationality is limited these concerns can be understood as a set of gains or losses that the operation in question will produce Finally in the duration the
Managing Individuals 61
operational phase will reveal the qualitative and quantitative intensity of the real strategic effects which is to say the intensity of the gains andor losses observedrdquo
In addition the concept of cognitive dissonance [FES 57] notably used in organizational strategy indicates that individuals have a tendency to persist in their convictions when faced with contradictory evidence Whatrsquos more this contradiction is perceived as a confirmation of their first conviction This approach leads to considering that companies react in the same way and show themselves to be resistant to change due to their certainty when faced with an opposite or divergent approach Individuals place more importance on the state of their situation compared to a level of reference rather than on ldquoabsoluterdquo characteristics [HEL 64] This established fact suggests that companies do not imitate simply to copy but out of interest In addition to this definition the cognitive dissonance described by Festinger [FES 57] has another aspect that is as much cognitive as it is emotional One of the reasons for this imitation is not to be marginalized and to ensure positive relationships with different actors surrounding the company The contagion that companies can demonstrate as shown in studies about in-progress bankruptcies and the influence of negotiation [ALE 01] is a considerable driving force for the implementation of a new paradigm of practices and managerial perspectives According to these studies contagion can occur extremely quickly (avalanche theory [ALE 01]) However it can be managed if the decision-maker is aware of the many decisional biases that affect decisions and the psychological neurological and sociological processes that the decision follows
The European Helicopter Safety Analysis Team (EHSAT) in its analysis of
helicopter accidents between 2000 and 2005 indicated in its final 2010 report that
ldquoWe observed that most of the fatal crashes were due to errors in judgment rather
than errors in perception or execution Many incidents were also connected to errors
in decision-making These could translate into accidents if the situation was not
rectified in time Although we cannot eliminate human error an in-depth
understanding of the principles of human factors can lead to appropriate strategies
62 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
methods and practical tools in order to prevent most errors better detect and
manage them and limit their negative impact on air safetyrdquo13
Case Study 213 Example of decisional bias
Therefore managing an individual requires an emo-management that
ndash views the individual as a being gifted in the strategy of adjustment and adaptation capable of limiting dissonances and responding to the companyrsquos needs
ndash considers emotions as a limiting factor of discontent in the workplace
ndash considers the impact of emotions on well-being in the workplace which is very meaningful in an era when some companies are leading by example and reaping substantial benefits
ndash considers the rational to which the manager has been subject for several years under its emotional aspect Damasio [DAM 94] specifies that emotion precedes cognition The decision cannot be made without emotion
In this regard emo-management gives the individual the opportunity to be successful
255 Decision emo-management and contagion
Loewenstein and Lerner [LOE 03] outline a theory of the contagion of decisions through emotions They use the example of an investor confronted with the choice of a risky investment To make his decision the individual attempts to predict the probabilities of different consequences earning or losing money The immediate emotion when he makes his decision anxiety can either discourage him or cause him to dismiss his regrets if it proves to be a bad choice To limit the risk the choice of the investor can also be to imitate
13 Translation from French Available online at httpswwwecologique-solidairegouvfrsitesdefaultfilesSymposium2012_HE4pdf
Managing Individuals 63
others and make similar decisions The image of the stock market crash can be used to illustrate this situation If human decision-making depends on an emotional process then a decision can be dependent on its contagion an emo-decisional contagion Because in an organization getting all actors to accept a decision is vital the emotional aspect of the decision can prove to be a powerful tool [VAN 08a] According to Lazarus [LAZ 91] emotion induces the individualization of the decision Every person has his or her own interests and personal values which lead notably in the context of an organization to a multiplication of decisions and individual choices that complexify effective successful management We find ourselves once again in an issue of decisional individualism versus collectivism This raises several questions
Since it has been shown that decision-making is dependent on emotion and contagion what about collective decisions It has also been proven that human relations depend on emotions that have allowed the human species to survive since its very beginning through the social instinct that resulted from it Does this precious combination favor more rational judgment
3
Managing a Collective
31 An evidence-based approach for effective collective decision-making understanding the process of emo-decisional contagion
The decisional processes described for many years in the research seem to have similar foundations at first glance regardless of whether they are individual or collective decisions aside from the negotiation or discussion aspect that is involved However some of the studies that focus on game theory and decision-making analyze different types of imitation dynamics based on which agents are more inclined to adopt popular andor winning strategies [FUD 05] ndash decisions that were a success or that the majority can appreciate In a group and especially in a crowd individuals more easily become fierce imitators (such as via herd mentality mimicry) They tend to lose their own reference frame to share common beliefs and to communicate their collective emotion between themselves acting in the same way even to the point of engaging in excesses Greed fear admiration enthusiasm contempt hatred and many other emotions influence the action of investors This causes the stock market to fluctuate rapidly It has often been suggested in the literature that competitors in an oligopolistic market can be guided more by imitation than by calculations of profitability Following a suggestion by Todt [TOD 70 TOD 71 TOD 81 TOD 96] in the analysis of an experimental study of investment decisions and price fixing Goyal and Vega-Redondo [GOY 07] Rhode and Stegeman [RHO 01] Schlag [SCH 98] and Vega-Redondo [VEG 97] describe the process of imitation as a
The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management First Edition Delphine van Hoorebeke copy ISTE Ltd 2018 Published by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley amp Sons Inc
66 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
factor in decision-making faced with competition in the context of game theory
In the same way however in the context of the theories of natural selection and evolution there is a presumption that competition excludes irrational entities Although according to these models group behavior seems more rational than individual behavior it can be supposed that a company viewed as a decision-making group occasionally feigns its rationality It seems reasonable to assume the opposite far from being the exception these models assume these irrational behaviors (and supposed anomalies) are the norm in decision-making Based on comparative studies of individual and collective decisions there does not appear to be a real consensus on the predominance of one or the other regardless of the domain of study (see Table 31) However there is a consensus within organizations the decision-making process cannot be understood in terms of one single actor in an individual way The decision-making process is collective and sequential in organizations [ALL 71] Decision-making processes in organizations generally involve several actors interacting with one another [SMO 02]
Decision-making
Risk-taking Participants take significantly fewer risks when they are in a group [MAS 09]
Trust According to Kugler et al [KUG 12] the group has a similar level of trust as the individuals have between themselves
Information Information has more influence on a decision when it is shared than when it is not [STA 89]
Framing effect
ndash Is reduced when making decisions in a group [NEA 86] ndash Is greater for decisions in homogenous groups [PAE 93] ndash Is not significantly increased or decreased when making decisions in a group [WEB 09] ndash Is amplified by the group [YAN 11]
Rationality The group members mutually correct their errors and pool complementary resources [STA 01]
Similar choices Advantages
Collaborative decision-making makes it possible to better discern and better understand problems [TUR 01]
Table 31 Comparative studies of collectiveindividual decision-making
Managing a Collective 67
Although there is not a complete consensus on the concepts in Table 31 it is still undeniable and taken for granted that there are a multitude of individual and collective biases involved in decision-making
If the individual biases are extremely numerous a review of collective biases interacting with decisional rationality also supports the involvement of emotion in individual and collective biases From an individual perspective according to the results of the neurological study by De Martino et al [DEM 06] the decisional bias of the framing effect or the effect of manipulating the formulation of choices is limited when emotion is managed Their study reveals specific activation in areas of the brain that are not active during decision-making without manipulation The activation of the emotional zone ndash the brainrsquos amygdala in this case ndash is significantly more intense when individuals choose the positive formulation ldquochance of winningrdquo The authors conclude ldquoOur data raise an intriguing possibility that more lsquorationalrsquo individuals have a better and more refined representation of their own emotional biases that enables them to modify their behavior in appropriate circumstancesrdquo [DEM 06 p 686]
The framing effect was revealed [TVE 80] through an experiment that revolved around a hypothetical epidemic threatening the USA The number of victims was estimated at 600 people Two programs were proposed to fight it If program A was adopted 200 people would be saved if program B was chosen there was one chance in three that the 600 people would be saved and a probability of two out of three that no one would be saved The choice 72 of participants chose program A and 28 chose program B
The researchers then reproduced the same experiment with other participants This time they presented not the number of people that would be saved but the number of people who would not survive It was explained to the subjects that if program A was chosen 400 people would die and if program B was chosen there was a probability of 1 out of 3 that no one would die and a probability of 2 out of 3 that 600 people would die These program results are exactly equivalent to the previous ones but the presentation is different a positive aspect as opposed to a negative aspect They are framed differently In the second experiment 78 of participants chose program B and only 22 chose program A
The two authors concluded that human beings have a tendency to refuse to take risks when they think of the potential gains (as in the first phase of the experiment) and accept to take them when they think of the potential losses (as in the second phase of the experiment) The framing effect reveals that opinions may differ when messages about the same subject are presented in different lights causing individuals to evaluate them based on different considerations
Case Study 31 The framing effect
68 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
There is no consensus to privilege the collective over the individual in decision-making but there is a consensus about the fact that the collective like the individual has its own biases An analysis of the literature points out that emotional bias is significant in collective decision-making (see Table 32)
Collective bias Definition Terms related to the emotion
Groupthink [JAN 82] Conformism effort to establish a consensus at the expense of a realistic evaluation of alternatives
Conformism
Halo effect [THO 20 ASC 55]
Effect of contamination Selective interpretation and perception of information in line with a first impression that we try to confirm
Contamination
Sunflower management [BOO 05]
Tendency to align with the leaderrsquos vision
Social influence by the vision of the leadership
Champion bias [LEF 06]
Evaluation based on the experience of a person rather than on facts
Social influence
Emo-decisional contagion [VAN 08a]
Effect of contagion of emotions experienced and expressed
Contagion unconscious mimicry
Table 32 Biases related to emotion
The surveys conducted by Alvesson and Spicer [ALV 15] regarding the paradox of stupidity revealed several examples of situations where reasonable decisions were ignored ldquoTop executives who rely on consultantsrsquo PowerPoint shows rather than careful analysis [hellip] IT analysts who prefer to ignore problems so as not to undermine the upbeat tone of their workplace [hellip] Marketing managers who are obsessed with their brand strategy while the only thing that should have mattered was the price Companies capable of spending millions on lsquorebranding exercisesrsquo and that in case of failure start again and again Senior figures in the armed forces who prefer to run rebranding exercises rather than military exercisesrdquo The positive impact of these different decisions favoring group cohesion and limiting disruptive questions which the authors call the paradox of stupidity
Case Study 32 Examples of stupid or biased decision-making
Managing a Collective 69
Table 32 highlights the emotional aspects perceptible in each of the collective biases listed It indicates that if the group is connected to emotion in order to create interpersonal relationships then unfortunately through a boomerang effect the same is true for biases
Faced with the observation that emotion is disruptive for decision-making in the form of a bias we should not neglect the fact that it can also prove to be a tool for rationalization In fact in his theory of somatic indicators Damasio [DAM 94] considers it to be an antecedent and a necessity for rational decision-making Another point that recurs in Table 32 can remedy this problem Collective decision-making is not only subject to group biases but also to the managerrsquos influence Managers must be aware that their attitudes and behaviors influence the group and collective judgment In this respect the emo-manager by ethical principle does not wield this power inappropriately Emotion can prove to be a harmful tool Nevertheless it is important not to forget the authenticity described in section 11 Emotion cannot be based on calculating and manipulative strategies at the risk of destroying its advantages for the group and the company If emo-managers must know how to be charismatic leaders who can consciously and unconsciously influence a group they must also know how to lead by example avoid excessively emotion-driven decisions as shown in the previous example and have the honesty to alert the group to biases that it may confront
32 The art of leading authentic leadership and emotional intelligence
To influence human behavior in the workplace the leadership of a manager is qualified as ldquotransformationalrdquo by Burns [BUR 78] or as charismatic leadership [BAS 99] Koestenbaum [KOE 87] dedicates his first reflections on leadership by trying to relate it to the ethical dimension considering that management and leadership are catalysts for commitment [PET 83] According to Le Bas [LEB 04] current thinking revolves around reflections about leadership and ethics in companies as a state of mind Leadership comes from the Anglo-Saxon verb ldquoto leadrdquo Here again we find the concepts of leading and guiding close to the term of managing What is the difference It is assumed that
70 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
a manager is not necessarily a leader A leader is seen as a personality and has political psychological and social influence over an individual or a group Leaders have personal skills that make them different and allow them to be listened to and followed by a group of people Managers manage things Leaders manage people [KOT 90]
Leaders work with people and must try in spite of this to ensure decisional autonomy Unfortunately according to Koestenbaum [KOE 87] the traditional scheme hopes for and relies on absolute control which does not ensure the subjectrsquos emancipation A companyrsquos staff do not often have any other option than to submit to authority It is with this in mind that this section attempts to understand how what some people call ldquofreely consenting to submitrdquo can be a totally legitimate and natural reaction
To understand this let us return to the details of how emotions work In everyonersquos daily lives including in organizations emotions are integral to the phenomenon of expression which is to say to behavior [AND 96] Nevertheless the natural condition of emotion is to be expressed interpersonally Emotive expression includes actions that occur in private (such as grimacing and swearing if we hit our hand with a hammer) spontaneous emotive expressions (such as smiling automatically in response to someone elsersquos smile) and strategic communication (such as telling someone that we love them before critiquing them) Humans can also express (or not) emotion using rules of expression that involve their emotive expression in a logical and strategic manner based on their personal objectives or the rules of social norms [GUE 98]
321 The manager and emotions
To re-establish the link with the managerrsquos and leaderrsquos behavior Fitness [FIT 00] indicates that several people interviewed in his study said that they had feigned anger in order to intimidate their subordinates In this context the emotion of anger is used as an intimidation tactic [OAK 96] Angry individuals are more often perceived as ldquodominantrdquo [CLA 97 VAN 07b] In addition this study indicates that anger from a hierarchical superior far from being
Managing a Collective 71
shocking is expected by employees Another study analyzes the place of emotional work and emotional power in the workplace for care staff It shows that emotional labor is an integral part of the task of nurses and considers that we should understand emotion as a source of power [TRE 96] On this topic Lazarus [LAZ 91] like Hochschild [HOC 83] discusses social influence and compares the power and status of hierarchical superiors to those of parents According to this point of view several or even all types of emotions play a role in the superiorndashsubordinate relationship [KEM 78] Kemper [KEM 78] defines power as an individual possessing the capacity to command others Some feel safe holding power over other people while others feel awkward The first group can feel anxious or sad when they do not benefit from this power sufficiently or at all while the second group considers it unfair that they benefit from it and feel guilty
The study by Dasborough and Ashkanasy [DAS 02] shows that leadership is an inherently emotional process in which leaders express emotions and tend to cause emotions to be felt in others Humphrey [HUM 02] supports this view specifying that in certain circumstances the expression of emotions has more impact on the perception of the leader than on the content of the leaderrsquos message and that one of the keys to leadership is to manage the emotions of the group In this context studies have demonstrated that the ability of managers to manage their own emotions and influence those of others has an impact on results and performance Although in this case leaders play an important role (namely bringing out the best in others) the results of another study [BON 07] demonstrate that leaders influence employees in different ways Employees whose supervisors express more positive emotions demonstrate that they experience positive emotions in their interactions with their leader The employees experience these positive emotions throughout their workday including in their interactions with colleagues and clients and feel more satisfaction at work and less stress
322 The manager and emotional intelligence
According to Goleman [GOL 97] leaders require a certain emotional intelligence and certain skills in the art of managing other
72 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
peoplersquos emotions but also in managing their own emotions as well as the ability to reward themselves and others to understand control and redirect emotions and to feel personal and social emotions With this in mind Goleman created a typology in four categories based on personal competence social competence recognition of emotions and regulation of emotions self-awareness social awareness self-management and relationship-management Self-awareness combines personal competence and recognition of emotions while social awareness includes social competence and the recognition of emotions
George [GEO 90] specifies that dynamic enthusiastic and energetic managers are likely to stimulate their subordinates and similarly managers who feel anxious and aggressive will probably have a negative effect on their subordinates For example given that managers who display sadness seem less effective [LEW 00] their subordinates will seem less enthusiastic and motivated through contact with them The importance of emotions is used as a directive tool in leadership styles that encourage the charismatic aspect of the manager Consequently managers are charismatic [HOU 77] primal [GOL 02] and transformational to the extent that the charismatic style is a part of the transformational leadership style [BAS 85] using emotions to motivate employees communicate ideas and prompt interest from employees to attain strategic long-term ideals and objectives [BER 01] Transformational managers must not only be receptive to the needs of their subordinates and pay attention to each one of them or at least give the impression of doing so (a task that requires getting involved on an emotional level) but must also feel and display optimism [ASH 00b]
There is no doubt that these leadership styles can have a great deal of success However recommending the use of emotions as a management tool does have a certain number of risks [ZER 08] First managers who strategically use their emotions risk having to regularly ldquocreaterdquo the emotions necessary to reach a particular objective In addition the success of transformational or charismatic leadership lies on the impression of authenticity that emerges from the managerrsquos emotions More precisely emotional behaviors used simply as management tools can prove to be ineffective or even produce unexpected harmful effects Employees react negatively to managers
Managing a Collective 73
whose tone betrays their words ndash a typical clash over simulated interest and sympathy [NEW 02] In addition managers who try in vain to hide negative emotions can be perceived to be manipulative and calculating [DAS 02] It is therefore important that transformational and charismatic leaders be masters of regulating emotions which is truly a considerable challenge Although emotions are universal [EKM 79] expressions depend on culture personality gender and other factors For these reasons people do not express emotions in the same way a fact that is increasingly important in multicultural company environments In fact the same emotion transmitted by a man a woman or a member of a different ethnic group is not perceived in the same way which has been demonstrated in the case of women occupying management positions [LEW 00 MOR 96 ROB 97]
323 Is everyone capable of emo-managing
Although some specific examples suggest that all hierarchical superiors have the ability to hold the position of manager nothing proves that they have the personality of a leader which is just as requested by most companies Is it essential
An example of so-called ldquoliberatedrdquo companies where every employee is seen as responsible shows that everyone can become a manager The company Favi is one of the companies that share its management method The title of a book about this company called The Company that Believes that Man is Good [FAV 06] advocates for the art of managing by leaving all autonomy to the operators This case is a counter-example In most companies it is expected that managers be leaders gifted with emotional intelligence to better manage the emotions of colleagues
In his article about what makes a leader in the Harvard Business Review in 2004 Daniel Goleman gives a specific example of emotional intelligence ldquoImagine an executive who has just watched a team of his employees present a botched analysis to the companyrsquos board of directors In the gloom that follows the executive might find himself tempted to pound on the table in anger or kick over a chair He could leap up and scream at the group Or he might maintain a grim silence glaring at everyone before stalking off But if he had a gift for self-regulation he would choose a different approach He would pick his words carefully acknowledging the teamrsquos poor performance without rushing to any hasty judgment He would then step back to consider the reasons for the failure Are they personal ndash a lack of effort Are there any mitigating factors What was his role in the debaclerdquo [GOL 04]
Case Study 33 Are we all leaders
74 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
Golemanrsquos text indicates that individual emotional intelligence is seen as a true performance According to Goleman et al [GOL 02] the most effective managers according to employees are those who listen are attentive to what goes on in the workplace and are capable of regulating their emotions
Although some articles note that emotional intelligence can be used for nefarious purposes the majority of studies about emotional intelligence praise it extensively and consider it to be an indispensable skill for todayrsquos managers When the terms ldquoemotional intelligencerdquo are searched on the Internet a plethora of training courses tools guides and tests comes up This is because in todayrsquos competitive commercial climate organizations need leaders with technical skills and with people skills to maintain a competitive advantage
To return to the somewhat contradictory example of the liberated company note that a new form of emotional intelligence is now taking precedence group emotional intelligence It is a movement that is based on the involvement of a set of intelligences to construct a collective intelligence ldquoGroup intelligence [hellip] depends on emotional intelligencerdquo [GOL 14 p 234]
An exploratory quantitative study analyzes the invention of group emotional intelligence on collaborative remote work [DEB 16] Although it has not been studied extensively collaborative remote working is an effective concept for work now and in the future In the goal of better understanding the inner workings to improve management this study focuses on managementrsquos direct impact on group creativity and performance The concept of mediated collaborative work is described as another type of group work These so-called virtual teams are groups of people who collaborate to execute a specific project They are dispersed in time and space without this distance being an obstacle for their collaboration They communicate thanks to modern technologies managed by computer [LEE 03] Virtual teams offer several advantages over traditional teams However their flexibility also faces challenges due to their own integral characteristics Given the separation in time and space some factors can negatively affect communication between members by creating a conflict The concept of group emotional intelligence is seen as a dimension of collective intelligence It is assessed for its role as a moderator of connections between the collaborative work performance and creativity of the group Since Tannenbaum et al [TAN 92] show that group performance is influenced by the characteristics process and structure of the group emotional intelligence is seen as a characteristic of the group as in Jordan and Lawrence [JOR 09] where the area studied is a professional and amateur collaborative discussion site about botany with the goal of completing
Managing a Collective 75
international projects The first results obtained were drawn from 40 usable questionnaires Thanks to these results it is possible to assume that collective work by mediation is indeed marked by creativity and group performance seen through its ldquoproblem-solvingrdquo aspect Group emotional intelligence takes on its full meaning there demonstrating a very significant relation between emotional intelligence and collaborative remote working
Case Study 34 Study of the influence of emotional intelligence on the performance and creativity of a remote group
Has group leadership become the new key to a collective emotional intelligence In any case in companies it is unfortunately not enough for the manager and the team to demonstrate charisma and emotional intelligence it is also necessary to anticipate the future and focus on maintaining quality even improving over time with continuous improvement This improvement can prompt regular changes and modifications and these changes must be accepted by each member of the company
33 The art of reconciling the present with the future the principle of continuous improvement
Continuous improvement in a company can effectively lead to constant regulatory and economic changes Resulting from updating the standards or a prospective strategy this improvement considers the employeesrsquo acceptance of change This factor is essential for implementing any process Because of this there is a lot of research investigating the concepts of resistance to change change management and the adoption of organizational change According to Guilhon [GUI 98] organizational change is generally defined as ldquoa process of radical or marginal transformation of the structures and skills that punctuate an organizationrsquos evolutionary processrdquo A change is a passage from state 1 to state 2 This change can meet with success or failure One of the criteria of success is the acceptance and then appropriation of the project by the relevant actors
76 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
331 Change and emotion
Most research highlights the cognitive aspect of the adoption of change It proposes tools such as various forms of information training or influence by leaders or champions [GRI 03] capable of leading the majority to adhere to the change through rational persuasion tactics (raising awareness about the targets with oral communication articulating the alignment of a project with the target priorities directly convincing the targets through speech) However according to some researchers including Le Bon [LEB 63] Durkheim [DUR 67] and Hatfield et al [HAT 94] this ignores an important human factor the emotional aspect which can be contagious One research current in particular about the intervention of emotion in organizational change has been gradually growing for a few years Liu and Perreweacute [LIU 05] suggest a procedural model describing the role of emotions in organizational change According to the authors during the period of change ambiguity and uncertainty gradually appear and evaluation of gains andor losses for the individual or the organization also surfaces Until the period of change comes to an end emotions of varying intensity and content are experienced prompting various attitudes and behaviors Howard [HOW 06] argues that in the context of organizational change positive emotion facilitates the individual intention to change A study by Zid [ZID 06] complements these findings and demonstrates that organizational change has an effect on emotions during changes employees feel emotions that are both positive (50) and negative (50) and the explanation and comprehension of changes has positive effects on certain emotions In his case study Huy [HUY 02] analyzes the effect of emotional engagement in middle managers on the adaptation to change through learning an engagement that has been shown to be key Regardless emotion cannot be absent from a period of change because it serves at all times as a safeguard as it is described by research in psychology and psychobiology Changes in the organizational values of the collective in the workplace that we notice during strategy changes company takeovers reorganizations privatizations etc are often experienced by the people concerned as serious breaches of the psychological contract with the company these breaches cause strong negative and painful emotions which can even be similar to a grieving
Managing a Collective 77
process and can translate into de-motivation and rejecting or resisting the change [ROU 03]
A paper written by Zouhaoui Boisard-Castelluccia and van Hoorebeke [ZOU 16] studies this resistance It has been the subject of a lot of research notably in its cognitive aspect Nevertheless one element remains little-studied the role of emotions That was the objective of this study Through participant observation over about two years at an international service company facing a change in computer software the role of the balance necessary between emotions and cognitions was revealed The results obtained included
ndash a series of resignations including by people involved in the change project
ndash staff reluctance or blocking faced with the gradual but imposed change
ndash categorical rejection of the tool by 13 of users
ndash the change provoked by this project not only concerned the work methods of the actors but also the content of their missions
ndash constant pressure from the manager on the team to finish training and tests related to the new software despite the teamrsquos work load
ndash the attitude of the manager forced the team not to share real impressions but to use simulated behaviors that were appropriate to expectations
Faced with this failure management decided to entrust this process to a team of external experts
In this context the emotions experienced are negative and lead to emotional exhaustion They remain hidden and inhibited but behaviors allow them to be perceived (demotivation lack of enthusiasm etc) revealing a real cognitionndashemotion conflict The team does not get involved and suffers in silence forcing the manager who is compelled to follow the change process to the result expected by management to request external intervention
Case Study 35 Analysis of an organizational change and the emotioncognition influence
This example shows not only to what point the change is connected to emotional impressions ndash inhibited in this case ndash but also to what point the psychological contract established between managers and employees is fragile In fact regarding the acceptance of change one factor is key in this psychological contract (perceived to be breached in this case) and it is a factor that organizations attempt to preserve trust [MOR 02] Although the reputation of partners and the perception of honesty and integrity are evaluated by each actor freely the emergence of implicit and explicit rules obliges them to follow the
78 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
choice enforced by the organization Paradoxically the employee is forced to have spontaneous trust
How can we invite an actor to adopt and even appreciate a change if the trust that they feel is forced Is it necessary for each actor to have immediate trust in order to commit
332 Change = trust = emotion
In fact actors can commit without trust through simulation [CAS 98] leaving the door open to power relations There are many examples that illustrate this idea Thus some employees who do not trust their hierarchical superior still execute their tasks and follow instructions but in a routine fashion Nevertheless the degree of cooperation that management can expect from these employees remains limited [BAB 99] The concept of emotional dissonance [MID 89] also takes on its full meaning here Imposing instructions forces the individual to behave in a certain way which also reveals the existence of a dissonance between feeling and expression identified by the individual given the imposed norms
No research seems to deny that emotions are an element that influences behavior when facing a change In addition although Baumard and Benvenuti [BAU 98] identify four types of trust the literature resulting from research in sociopsychology supports a distinction between only two forms of trust Johnson-George and Swap [JOH 82] distinguish and test two dimensions of trust reliability and emotional trust Similarly Rempel et al [REM 85] makes a distinction between security and faith as unique forms of trust Finally McAllister [MCA 95] reveals one dimension based on the cognitive and another dimension based on the affective which are interconnected
Cognitive trust is positioned from a rational point of view and considers competence responsibility integrity credibility and consistency [SCO 80] It is said to be based on the cognitive because the individual chooses who to trust according to what criteria and in what circumstances This choice is based on ldquogood reasonsrdquo that serve
Managing a Collective 79
as foundations for trust decisions It is especially necessary for affective trust in fact a certain level of cognitive trust is necessary for its development [MCA 95]
Like emotion is distinguished from rationality so affective trust is distinguished from cognitive trust [DAM 94] Affective trust has an emotional connotation It is based on care altruism involvement commitment mutual respect the ability to listen and understand and a belief in reciprocity of feelings [SCO 80] The affective foundations of trust correspond to the emotional ties that exist between individuals Individuals make emotional investments in trust relationships express care feel concerned about others and believe in the virtue of these relationships and that their feelings are mutual [MCA 95] The results of McAllisterrsquos study [MCA 95] demonstrate the importance of relationships built on affective trust and the expressive qualities of interpersonal behavior In particular he specifies that research in management recognizes that a large part of managerial work is accomplished through interpersonal action and that the nature of the relationships between managers and their peers can determine their capacity to accomplish their work and accept change
Definitively affective trust is a prerequisite for accepting change It is also intangible and difficult to control given its emotional character and thus remains a preoccupying problem for organizations The intangibility and the difficulty of controlling affective trust stems from the fact that it is the result of an emotional evaluation of the situation carried out by all actors concerned by a change As highlighted by Baba [BAB 99] its complexity comes from its existence at all levels of the organization ndash micro- meso- and macroscopic ndash and in relationships with international suppliers or with stakeholders closer to home colleagues
In order to promote affective trust between two or more parties managers must understand how individuals feel trust toward another person group or organization and how this trust evolves over time It is necessary to study it psychologically before identifying the essential
80 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
issue of the company leading an internal actor to feel real trust to accept and adopt the change and be flexible
Trust is a complex multidimensional mechanism whose affective dimension interacts with emotions In specific and general ways emotions act on several levels of trust which is to say upstream and downstream
First of all individuals often decide to trust someone after examining the emotions that they feel toward this person [JON 98] The step preceding the decision to trust corresponds to an evaluation of the emotion felt A positive emotion leads to trust while a negative emotion causes distrust
Second the emotional process that follows the traditional schema (emotion evaluation adaptation [LAZ 91]) is primarily based on experience This means that the way in which individuals will judge the interlocutor worthy of trust also depends on their affective experience with them Having experienced positive emotions causes individuals to perceive the situation of a solicitation of trust more positively More generally we talk about faith in human nature [GOU 71] As a concrete example we say things like ldquoI donrsquot feel connected to himrdquo
Third emotion is an expectation of human beings regarding trust If these expectations are not satisfied the emotions we feel warn us about a violation of trust [FRI 88] Emotions are a warning signal for a trust relationship In this sense they evolve over time in order to signal changes perceived in the experience of trust At each point of exchange emotions affect the experience and significance of the relationship
Finally it is the expression of the emotions experienced in the context of an experience of trust that will be consistent or not with the behavior expected by the organization and more specifically managers In fact it increases the probability that the parties will develop shared schemas entering into a collaborative relationship more quickly by adjusting to the other person and learning about one another
Managing a Collective 81
333 Change a shared emotional acceptance
Therefore a companyrsquos problem is partly due to affective trust because this causes publicly visible behaviors [FRI 00] and because it is the result of emotions that in the context of implementing change can go as far as to cause a project to fail [JEN 00] In fact a contagion-like effect gives emotions the ability to propagate rapidly between individuals in a social group [HAT 94] ldquoNegativerdquo emotions felt by certain actors can through this process spread to all levels and in doing so hinder all cooperation
A positive emotional contagion can lead to mass acceptance of an organizational change through the phenomenon of imitation The simplest case of contagion between individuals includes a minimum of two people one individual who has not yet adopted a change called ldquoegordquo by Burt [BUR 87] in contact with another individual called ldquoalterrdquo who has already adopted it The more similar the relations of ldquoegordquo and ldquoalterrdquo with other people are the more the alter that can be substituted for ego in relations with others If alter adopts before ego there is a good chance that they will become a source of more attractive relations than ego which pushes ego to adopt the change quickly and contributes to creating a feeling of competition between alter and ego Despite this vision of the adoption of change only the minority of research tends to demonstrate the impact of the affective in the context of adopting change notably with new technologies [GAG 03] Rogers [ROG 95] is one of the pillars in this domain with his description of the adoption of new products by consumers ndash he does not hide in any way the intervention of irrationality in a decision to purchase supporting the concept of imitation in behavior models This model of adoption that Bass [BAS 69] drew up and his mathematical formulation have been taken up by Vas [VAS 05] concerning the adoption of organizational change
Finally one question remains given the possible existence of an emotional contagion how can an internal andor an external actor be convinced that the strategic approach followed by the organization is
82 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
beneficial so that the actor feels and spreads the emotions perceived and authentically experienced as ldquopositiverdquo
334 Lever for the acceptance of change through emo-management
One proposed solution in addition to other more cognitive ones is based on research in sociology and more recently in information and communication sciences through the perceived critical mass effect [LOU 00] The authors argue that it is essential to create a critical mass of users or to reach a certain number of supporters in the first steps of implementing an internal network for it to be accepted by the majority This highlights the influence of the group on individuals The critical mass effect is based on the principle of adoption by imitation where innovators or early adopters adopt new technologies and influence late adopters who imitate them Of course it is important to underscore that this solution is not perfect because in the case of information technologies the interdependence between the two types of adopters is mutual [LOU 00] Thus an early adopter can also be influenced by a late adopter For instance if the late adopter is not inclined to accept a technology after a certain period the innovator may decide to reject it However Lou et alrsquos study [LOU 00] demonstrates the positive effect of perceived critical mass on the intention to use the perception of ease of use and the perceived utility
Given the influence of the critical mass on the group previously revealed by Maffesoli [MAF 96] among others the emotion that is then spread between individuals would be positive This would make it possible to promote affective trust and simultaneously promote the adoption of change [MOR 02] This is why companies must encourage emotional communication by individuals who have a specific aptitude in the matter [HAT 94] a relevant decisional message emotionally speaking With their emotions individuals imitate one another through emotional contagion in order to avoid any marginalization The message transmitted must then convince the majority of the group such that it adheres to the decision presented [BER 03] The use of these tools may appear simple at first glance
Managing a Collective 83
but their opportune use cannot be realized without the existence of organizational ethics and evidence of the existence of real trust between managers and employees
Continuous improvement is the hallmark of quality management Some companies have noticed that it is not only found at the level of customer relations or logistics It is also based on managerial innovation and good interpersonal relations In their book The Heart of Change Kotter and Cohen [KOT 02] indicate several steps to successfully implement a change based on an analysis of 100 company cases The first two are
1) to create a sense of urgency the example given is a company that played a video showing customers who were dissatisfied with the services provided by the company in order to prompt the employees to feel that it was high time to act
2) to consider that it is a story of heart members of the project team must become a source of inspiration through their optimism devotion credibility ability and networking
The Sciences Humaines website provides an evidentiary and constructed example of the role of emotion in change ldquoMichel is on a winter sports vacation with his friends This morning he let himself be dragged to the top of the ski hill As a beginner skier he is not comfortable on the black diamond slope Snowplowing is not ideal His friend Bertrand advises him to turn on the moguls by sliding his skis parallel like he did yesterday on the blue slopes But Michel clings to the technique that he knows the best For the moment taking the risk of falling on this steep slope is out of the question Michel adopts the behaviors that is most reassuring in the immediate even though he knows that this is not the best method to proceedrdquo1
Case Study 36 Change and emotion
This concern for control over emotion in the short term is a frequent obstacle for the progression of learning and change in companies Companies must try to find out the emotional level that the change elicits from their employees
In the same vein it should not be forgotten that the adherence of all members is essential to avoid the ldquoemotional plaguerdquo [REI 45] of a defiant majority or a possible outbreak of panic In this respect mutually beneficial relations and the climate of established trust detailed earlier become major assets
1 Available online at httpwwwscienceshumainescomle-role-des-emotions_fr_ 12036html
84 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
34 The art of bringing people together mutually beneficial relations with others and the social aspect of managerial responsibility
In a context subject to irrationality and imitation one of the other roles of managers is to ensure mutually beneficial relations internally in their teams Studies show that the closer the individuals are the faster the contagion and diffusion that occurs [ROG 95] In effect understanding social processes in work groups becomes an essential managerial focus given the organizational tendency to move toward high-performing and dynamic work team relationships
This focus shared between a company and an employee still faces existing conflicts between the economic and the social Owing to the struggle between the rational and emotional within an organization relations cannot be established there and even less in the sincere and authentic way that the company is looking for
Along the same lines research in management has put particular emphasis on the cognitive aspect of interpersonal relations exploring the cognitive method and process of sharing ideas memories and constructs While understanding the sharing of cognition contributes to discerning the group dynamic it does not represent the complete picture Only the affective and especially the emotional aspect make it possible to distinguish the quality of intragroup and intergroup interactions According to Barsade [BAR 02] one of the reasons for a company to consider group emotions would be to encourage the social cohesion of its employees
On the one hand according to Oketch [OKE 04] companies require social cohesion of their employees as a strategy to increase their profits and face periods of economic and budgetary restrictions On the other hand in some new technology and information organizations the concept of a community at work plays an important role
In the context of the concept of social capital or the management of company talent the existence of social cohesion is essential to the very function of the organization In this regard it consists of
Managing a Collective 85
fostering the group dynamic and establishing relationships between individuals Yet the diffusion of emotions in a group is a characteristic that is integral to the existence of the group [SAN 93 p 445] In fact as described in Chapter 1 emotions can be synchronized or imitated and become contagious Imitation corresponds to a step in the learning and socialization processes One of the explanations of these processes is emotional contagion even if it remains unexplained by research More than a process of synchronization and unintentional imitation when the same characteristics are synchronized with another individual we are capable of feeling them through the emotions of the other person which is to say feeling the same emotions or complementary emotions
341 Collective emotion arsenal of emo-management
This is why managers must pay particular attention to collective emotion a concept studied notably in the analysis of organizational behaviors such as the social cohesion of a group sharing of values and organizational culture [TIC 87] Emotionrsquos capacity for contagion can prove to be a considerable driving force for communication and emulation Through the cohesion that it can amplify it encourages performance through emulation and cooperation of teams spontaneity and trust [GEO 89 GEO 07b JON 98 WEI 93] Texts by George [GEO 89 GEO 90] demonstrate the influence of the grouprsquos mood on pro-social behavior in relation to colleagues and customers as well as performance and absenteeism Finally Barsade [BAR 02] demonstrates that group emotion dependent on emotional contagion influences the group dynamic and performance results corroborated by van Hoorebeke [VAN 07a] From another perspective an observational study ndash a case of participatory observation during a six-month strike in Canada ndash outlined the development of interprofessional relationships the creation of social interactions cohesion or even disconnections caused by negative emotional contagion [VAN 06]
86 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
During the six-month strike including three months where there were daily protests in the street group connections were solidified The objective of the study after observing the links created between individuals was to analyze the strength of the relations established The observation indicated that following the strike strong connections proved to be rarer than relations of work or courtesy According to the analysis of the observations gathered the social cohesion established during the strike appeared fragile There are several explanations for this First these people were brought together by a negative situation This situation highlighted a social interaction that appeared by definition between individuals in a relationship or not and referring to an event Second the negative and positive emotions felt remained fleeting and highly variable reinforcing their transient nature Third the ephemeral aspect of this one-off situation could lead to a social rapprochement whose importance tended to fade way over time Nevertheless research in psychology proves that an emotion that is felt and experienced remains etched on the affective memory consciously or unconsciously This fact contributes to extending the social rapprochement
Observed in the field ldquosolidrdquo connections were indeed created from this situation leading some individuals to discover common work interests for example After the strike the organizational climate was perceived as healthier and more relaxed by the majority of members Only one group of individuals was isolated indicating that the disconnections resulting from the negative emotions experienced at a certain time can continue but in their own terms in a situation that they voluntarily sought out In the six months following the strike a new confrontation arose between this group and the union regarding an increase in union dues The objective of this increase was to replenish the union coffers in two years while the group argued that the union had enough money coming from its investments However this observation shows that the members of the respective groups continued to communicate for professional reasons and that these confrontations did not negatively affect working relationships
Case Study 37 Emotion a factor in social connections and disconnections
342 A paradoxical arsenal positive and negative effects
The results obtained in the study described above clearly demonstrate the paradoxical effect of emotional contagion on interpersonal relations creating both cohesion and disconnection because the collective spirit is subject to individual differences [WEI 93]
This example points out that in spite of this emotions are factors of authenticity in relationships [GRA 05b VAN 08b] and promote lasting relationships when they are experienced and not feigned In a company managers seek out authenticity in their subordinates notably those in contact with customers or in work teams and aim to
Managing a Collective 87
inspire it ndash which seems to be a waste of time since emotions are not manipulable and normalizing them can only be paradoxical as in ldquobe spontaneousrdquo [WAT 80] Real social cohesion requires a synchronicity euphony and eurhythmy2 between actors [LEacuteP 05] According to The Standing Committee on Social Affairs3 social cohesion refers to a situation where everyone has the opportunity to establish basic social relations in society in the context of work family and social or political activities The affective contagion on which this is based is not moral We do not consider the value and the quality of othersrsquo feelings Form prevails over content Therefore the idea of the social contract presented by Rousseau (ldquoThere are a thousand ways of assembling men and only one of uniting themrdquo) shows that the establishment of a fundamental social pact is essential [MAL 96] This pact formed by the community of interests and the awareness of these interests is based on the absence of control restrictions and obligations ldquoEvery man submits his will to the general will and in doing so becomes free These operating conditions sanctify the contract and sustain itrdquo
To understand the concept of social cohesion it is necessary to distinguish the social connections that result from it individual interactions According to Reis [REI 01] cohesion refers to a lasting association between individuals Its existence implies that these people established connections with one another and that this link had specific properties such as a story or an awareness of the nature of this relationship that influenced the thoughts feelings and behaviors of each protagonist In contrast interaction appears between individuals whether or not they are in a relationship and refers to an event The common factor in these two types of human relations is emotions In interaction emotion is expressed ndash or rather simulated ndash whether it is felt or not and in cohesion emotion is experienced and then expressed hence the perception of authenticity [ASH 00a] Emotional reactions help all individuals to be aware of the situation and make connections with others [DAR 72] Simulation can destroy these
2 Euphony and eurhythmy harmony of sound and rhythms without wrong notes or breaks 3 Available online at httpslopparlcacontentlopresearchPublicationsprb0756-ehtml
88 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
reactions and impede someonersquos authenticity [ASH 00a] and the foundation of a sincere and engaged relationship established on effective trust In this respect only social linkage can help to form social cohesion
The Journal du Net gives us three examples of companies that innovated to emphasize the trust and dynamics required for interpersonal relations within the company
In France at Mars Chocolat CEO Thierry Gaillard organizes one 30-minute meeting every six weeks called ldquoCcedila se discuterdquo (ldquoThatrsquos debatablerdquo) where he answers any questions from his colleagues This practice is all the more intriguing since we know that employees have much less trust in their directors than in their direct managers
In India at HCL Technologies employees can express their doubts and questions on an internal forum called UampI (ldquoyou and Irdquo) to members of management (CEO included) who commit to answering them even if it is just to say that they do not know To establish trust management must take a step that is essential but not always pleasant for them authorizing the expression of doubts concerns and criticism It is better to channel these expressions than to let them spread through the halls around the coffee machine or with clients
In California the software publisher Intuit organizes what it calls ldquocelebrating failurerdquo to recognize failures in such a way as to ldquocollectively turn the pagerdquo and learn from mistakes To err is human so why deny it It is better to accept failures and make good use of them than to deny them and allow them to darken the mood and affect trust4
Case Study 38 Establishing trust examples
Consequently to achieve a true social cohesion formed from constructive links between all of the participants emotions must be synchronized or imitated and also felt by the parties as part of an established trust In this context it is the fact of feeling emotions that introduces a depth to the exchanges The individual is not faking they are authentic and sincere This solidifies the connection
According to Weick and Roberts [WEI 93] managers can only encourage the homogeneity of teams that facilitate the depth of connection However the time has come for managing cultural
4 Available online at httpwwwjournaldunetcommanagementexpert58679les-pratiques-manageriales-les-plus-innovantes-du-mondeshtml
Managing a Collective 89
diversity and group heterogeneity This requires not only regulating group emotions and building a climate of trust but also managing the diversity of individuals in order to create and learn together
35 The art of managing diversity learning and creating collectively
There has been an increasing interest in diversity management over the past 15 years related to the consideration of the ldquolearningrdquo dimension Diversity management no longer only consists of increasing the representation of different minorities in the workplace It is now built on a new paradigm of learning and efficiency [THO 96a] that no longer only considers individuals based on their appearance or background but according to the different knowledge and perspectives they can provide In other words diversity is no longer sought only in terms of equality but also in terms of learning about difference [BOI 10]
The literature in management sciences retraces 50 years of research on the effects of demographic diversity on a work team and its performance Although it does support the argument that the demographic diversity of a group has a certain influence on its processes and performance it does not clearly establish whether diversity is a source of performance Demographic diversity (or heterogeneity) corresponds to the degree to which a unit (a managing team work team or organization) is heterogeneous in terms of demographic characteristics age sex nationality seniority and the functional area in which individuals apply their training and finally family status [EIS 99]
Field studies over the past 50 years have shown that variations in group composition can have significant effects on performance [WIL 98] Demographic heterogeneity in terms of seniority sex and nationality could have negative effects on behavior in the workplace and on performance [CHA 98 SMI 94] Inversely increased demographic homogeneity could have positive effects on appreciation satisfaction commitment seniority and performance and reduce turnover [ELF 07] Authors like Earley and Mosakowski [EAR 00]
90 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
and Murray [MUR 89] have highlighted an intermediary approach based on which homogeneity and heterogeneity could both be sources of performance Heterogenous groups would be more effective in a changing environment while homogenous groups would be more effective in stable and competitive environments [MUR 89] For a team to benefit from its diversity and be effective it must manage to collectively learn ndash that is to create a common mental model or even a consensus characterized by the values beliefs and representations shared its members among other things [FIO 94] The creation of this common representation becomes a necessary condition for the teamrsquos performance
However the demographic diversity of a team creates situations where members have mental representations that are not totally compatible A mental representation is ldquothe product and process of a mental activity through which an individual or a group reconstructs the reality that it confronts and attributes a specific signification to itrdquo [ABR 89] The representation is then an organized set of opinions attitudes beliefs and information that refers to an object or a situation Conflict between the mental representations of different team members can stir up intragroup conflicts that are cognitive which can be a source of creativity Yet cognitive conflicts cannot emerge without the parallel appearance of another type of intragroup conflict affective conflicts which leech off the benefits of the cognitive conflict and affect the teamrsquos capacity to create a common mental model and thereby affect its performance
How then can we guarantee benefits from demographic diversity Could emotional contagion reduce the harmful effects of affective conflicts while preserving the compelling properties of cognitive conflicts
351 Diversity between conflicts and group work
Traditionally organization theorists assumed that conflict was harmful for the organization In the past few years hypotheses about organizational conflict have radically changed It is now considered inevitable and even a positive indicator of an organizationrsquos good
Managing a Collective 91
management It is generally accepted that conflict is both functional and dysfunctional for an organization It is functional when it provides better solutions to problems or when it makes it possible to reach the objectives of the individual the group and the organization It is essential to study the conflicts that take place within groups given that today individuals interact daily more and more often Conflict management is an important part of a teamrsquos efficiency To be effective teams must be able to manage the conflicts that are naturally part of their environment
The literature distinguishes two types of intragroup conflicts cognitive conflict and affective conflict Cognitive conflict involves opposing ideas within a group or a disagreement over content or task completion It is born out of differences in judgment or confrontations between different individual representations This type of disagreement is a natural part of a teamrsquos proper functioning It is natural in the sense that when members get together to make important decisions they all bring ideas opinions and perspectives that are different and representative of each personrsquos environment
Taken in isolation cognitive conflict appears when members examine compare and reconcile their differences This process is very important because it makes it possible to reach high-quality decisions that are understood and accepted by all This conflict is beneficial because it requires the engagement of the team in activities that are essential to its efficiency By facilitating open communication and making good use of the membersrsquo diversity (meaning their different gifts and skills) this type of conflict produces understanding and engagement in objectives and decisions The result is not only a better decision but a decision that can be applied more effectively To the extent that cognitive conflict is the result of confrontation between individual representations we can deduce that it elicits an internal conflict in the individual that is expressed in the form of cognitive dissonance [FES 57] By eliciting cognitive dissonance cognitive conflict will trigger individual learning within the person The learning individual modifies or radically changes their mental representations thereby creating something new We can then talk about creativity which is itself a source of performance Neurologists have described the process
92 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
of creativity This process is according to their analyses the result of several concurrent cognitive processes that include unfocused attention cognitive flexibility cognitive control and several cognitive constructs [DIE 04] Thanks to the cognitive dissonance that it creates group diversity allows for the reconstruction of mental representations This internal conflict makes it possible to break with inhibitions and open up to different perspectives
Within a diversified group cognitive and affective conflicts are necessarily born together as we cannot appear without the other When members have different perspectives there is often cognitive disagreement As this disagreement is frequently misinterpreted and perceived as a personal criticism affective conflict necessarily emerges in parallel It seems that an affective conflict situation is very harmful
To explain this consider that even if conceptually the affective is distinguished from emotion their link is such that they are often seen as more than indissociable since emotion is considered by some to be a dimension of the affective However emotions not only have specific characteristics that can harm human relations but they also have the particularity of not always being manageable
Consider these two conflictual configurations [BOI 10]
ndash The level of the cognitive conflict (CC) exceeds that of the affective conflict
(CA) CC gt CA In this case the team benefits fully from its diversity and the debate
of opinions that it elicits The negative effect of the affective conflict is neutralized
The emotions of the group are manageable
ndash Inversely the level of the affective conflict is greater than or equal to that of
the cognitive conflict CA ge CC The team is then overwhelmed by its affective
conflicts and cannot benefit fully from the wealth of its diversity Debates over
opinions become sterile and can be likened to settling accounts The emotions of group
members have taken over
Case Study 39 Analysis to limit an affective conflict that is problematic for the group
Managing a Collective 93
However only statistical studies examine this issue deeply which involve considering the group at only one moment t These studies have shown that affective conflict is detrimental to the performance of individuals and whole groups to the satisfaction of its members and to the probability that individuals involved in this group will work again in the future [JEH 95] The anxiety created by interpersonal animosity is likely to inhibit cognitive work and distract members from their tasks Owing to this they work less efficiently and produce sub-optimal results Inversely moderate levels of cognitive conflict are beneficial to group performance for certain types of tasks [JEH 95 JEH 97]
In our view effectively managing the demographic diversity of a team comes down to guaranteeing a type 1 conflict configuration which is a situation in which cognitive conflict exceeds affective conflict
352 Managing diversity with emo-management
In the specific work context striving for diversity management there is a solution to foster positive emotions and affect in a group positive emotional contagion as a catalyst and cohesive force for conflicts Barsade [BAR 02] demonstrates with experiments that not only is group emotion influenced by the dynamic and performance of the group it is also dependent on a contagion
An experimental study on 223 individuals broken down in to 29 teams demonstrated that positive contagion influenced group performance through the action of an actor who was involved in the experiment [VAN 07a] This accomplice selected for his contagion based on the scale presented in Hatfield et al [HAT 94] propagated a negative or positive emotion through acting The accomplice played the role of an evaluator who was satisfied or disappointed by the grouprsquos work According to the groups and during the execution of their work the actor spread a positive or negative contagion The results obtained confirm those obtained by Barsade [BAR 02] and show that teams performed better when group emotional contagion was provoked and judged positive
Case Study 310 Emotional contagion a factor in group performance
94 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
Annual reports for publicly traded companies indicate that cultural diversity is an asset in the context of globalization and in terms of image a point that is essential for the good operation of a new management system in both the context of NorthndashSouth relations and from a socio-global angle In this respect studies show that when well-managed diversity is a real competitive advantage in favor of performance and creativity Unfortunately the existence of affective conflicts can lead to demotivation resulting in the counter-performance of a team if it is poorly managed
Recruitment firms propose candidates based on a diversity that corresponds perfectly to the profile requested by the company which makes the ultimate decision However ldquothis does not fix everythingrdquo says Mariam Khattab a recruiter and adviser at the firm Mozaiumlk Nevertheless diversity has several advantages for companies opening up the diversity of customers and backers accentuating creativity and creating a dialogue between stakeholders with different backgrounds5
Case Study 311 Diversity several advantages
353 Emo-management a factor in diversity
Despite the cognitive and affective differences that can create conflicts heterogenous groups encourage not only high-quality group work and synergy but most of all creativity [CHA 01 TOL 02] Heterogeneity limits the effect of conformism which is reduced because differences within the group are affirmed Nevertheless as is the case early in the life of a group heterogeneity can give way to individual affinities that can favor conformism in the long term In fact when a group is created the group composition is an important initial factor that can have permanent effects on its affective and cognitive processes When a work group meets for the first time the social identity [TAJ 04] and self-categorization theory [TUR 87] require that members define their social categories within the group When individuals are familiar with the differences that exist between members they can favor those who they consider similar to themselves and isolate themselves from those who they perceive to be
5 Available online at httpswwwzamanfrancefrarticlemanagement-diversit-atout-entreprises
Managing a Collective 95
different Heterogeneity can then only be temporary If emotion fosters inter-individual connections does it encourage heterogeneity a factor in creativity
Creativity is defined as the use of knowledge to form new ideas [DRU 93] Social relations and the emotions connected to them play a significant role in this process [KOG 92] From a neurological point of view researchers describe a biological process arguing that creativity is not the result of one cognitive process but several cognitive processes including unfocused attention cognitive flexibility cognitive control and other cognitive constructions [DIE 04] The production of something new seems to depend in part on the neuronal processes of disinhibition within a central network of neurons Creative cognition is similar to other types of cognition but is more specialized in its direction [MAC 00] Creative cognition can be simulated in a network of regions in the brain dedicated to thoughts unrelated to the task (experimental thoughts and futures that are unrelated to the project)
Creativity as an individual construction is defined as the creation of ideas products processes or solutions [AMA 83] This construction can include creative solutions to problems the company faces The study of creativity is traditionally related to psychology and typically includes research geared toward understanding why some individuals are more creative than others Owing to this researchers know little about the social context and how it affects individuals when producing ideas or solutions According to Dietrich [DIE 04] there are four types of creativity based on their emotional or cognitive aspects emotional or deliberate cognitive creativity and emotional or spontaneous cognitive creativity These four types indicate different neurocognitive processes of creativity The author tends to show by these processes that creativity is accessible to all It is also known that stress is detrimental to creativity The first studies showed a decrease in the creative process associated with an increase in stress-induced stimulation [KRO 69] especially social stress [LIN 65] The production of something new depends on in part an uninhibited process According to Chrysikou [CHR 14] performance in creativity requires the perception of filters at low levels This filtration is related
96 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
to the prefrontal cortex that regulates perceptual data However group creativity involves a collection of individuals [PIR 04] Like group performance it appears when a group of individuals work interdependently toward the common goal [HAC 92] of developing ideas that are both new and useful [AMA 83] Unfortunately this community can inhibit creativity in order to correspond to imposed norms The famous concept of conformity can intervene to incite individuals to conform not only to the norms described in approach 1 (societal organizational and occupational norms) but also implicit group norms Here critical thinking is in favor of creativity [HOW 15] According to certain conclusions the so-called creative personalities assign a particular role to intuition and have rightly an aversion to norms which makes it difficult for them to face others (inhibition stress) However other studies show that collaborative work reinforces individual learning and creativity [PAU 03] Previous studies have shown a connection between social network parameters and individual creativity [FLE 07 PER 06] As suggested by Hansen [HAN 02] this research was established on a study of knowledge networks and the complex networks that workers confront
We can then question whether groups encourage creativity and because an essential function of emotion is the coordination of social interactions [LAZ 91] whether emotional contagion can be a lever for creativity or a multiplying factor of conformism within a group
Two studies were conducted on the contagion of mood and emotion in work groups As we saw earlier the first study [GEO 90] shows that a perfect emotional agreement can exist within a group of salespeople The second study [TOT 98] reveals that the average mood of one member can predict the mood of a group at a given moment t In this sense the effect of contagion is often associated with a convergence of moods and attitudes in the workplace [MAS 02] However according to Barsade [BAR 02] a single member of the group can have a negative effect and lead the entire group to reject creative ideas Inversely Isen [ISE 02] shows that positive emotions are associated with individual and collective creativity
To our knowledge there are few studies about the impact of emotional contagion on group creativity [FLE 06] so one was
Managing a Collective 97
conducted to test the effect of emotional contagion on group creativity [VAN 16]
A quantitative study conducted with young professionals in training sought to examine the link between social cohesion emotional contagion and creativity According to the literature emotional contagion remains fleeting and only produces a temporary mental unity If this contagion leads to a social interaction it does not necessarily lead to the social cohesion of a group which requires simultaneity euphony (harmony) and eurythmy between actors [LEacuteP 05] Group cohesion is strong when members appreciate one another make the most of group objectives adopt group values and are convinced that adherence is crucial to obtain their personal interests Emotion and its contagion are seen as moderating factors because they are the basis for positive and negative human relations In this respect this study tests whether emotional contagion can improve the relation of group cohesion and influence group performance and creativity
The study experiment conducted three times focused on a general sample of 223 young managers in training within a ldquocommunity of practicerdquo in the context of a management simulation The sample was arranged into 29 different teams by way of three groups of around 70 people Positive or negative emotional contagion was measured in a binary way its presenceabsence based on observations made through the management simulation Group cohesion was measured by a team evaluation based on the scale from Beal et al [BEA 03] according to five elements (group efficiency fairness in task sharing similarity of objectives pursued collective decision-making team member involvement) on a five-point semantic scale Group performance was measured based on the results gathered in each team report and their efficiency that is the teamrsquos results in terms of sales in the last period of the game on a ranking function based on the market and the net profit of all of the teams over four periods The ranking was binary based on an evaluation on a five-point semantic scale with 2 = good profits (mark 5 and 4) and 1 = poor profits (3 2 1) Creativity was measured based on the degree of effort provided by the team for creative exercises (according to observations) and the final result of the creativity in the game The coding of creative thought was based on Weisburgrsquos description [WEI 88] of creativity as the act of solving new problems or generating ideas and real solutions The coding schema defined creative thinking as
1) a discovery or an idea 2) the action of searching for an idea or solution to create or solve a problem The evaluation was made on a five-point scale that was part of the overall
grade on the final report The results indicated that if group cohesion positively affects performance it does not directly affect creativity These results contradict the results reported in some earlier studies Nevertheless the results provide additional clarification that the moderating effect of emotional contagion improves the relation between group cohesion and performance but it does not have any significant impact on the relation between group cohesion and creativity These results highlight the paradox revealed in the literature about creativity
Case Study 312 Effect of emotional contagion on group performance
98 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
Emotion and its contagion must be considered in a group during an exercise in creativity However the idea that it can encourage group conformity or creative enthusiasm has not yet been demonstrated Emotional contagion definitely has a role to play but other more specific studies need to be conducted to better understand how this contagion is involved and how it can provide levers to promote group creativity and encourage innovation whether it is ordinary or not in management However the results [VAN 16] also show that the key to understanding the neuroscience of creativity and the ldquoconstruction of dynamic mental simulationsrdquo is based on different modes of neural activation and deactivation at different steps in the creative process Since emotional contagion is related to synchronization it can both hinder creativity and support it According to Brand [BRA 98] creative organizations have a tendency to be flexible and grant a great deal of independence Our analysis agrees with this revealing that it is sometimes useful for neurological networks to work together and that sometimes this cooperation can impede the creative process due to the behaviors that are subject to the norms of the group Creativity requires specific conditions
To better understand the above we will turn to neurology Creativity is predicated on a lack of inhibition Norms create neural inhibitions related to a dissonance between the emotions experienced and the expressions expected by a group or an organization [FES 57] Fortunately the psychological distress associated with dissonance can be quickly resolved thanks to a change in attitude [JAR 04] The change in attitude resolves this internal conflict but can also lead to a re-evaluation of the process and such a re-evaluation is often associated with a stimulation of the neurological zone of inhibition [TAB 08] Unfortunately these processes of inhibition can in turn impede creativity To solve this conflict it is essential to limit the dissonance from the start Amabile [AMA 96] advocates for good relationships between group members that make it possible to act freely and spontaneously All the same when members are not free to act as they wish and in a creative climate ensured by positive emotions and creative cohesion a lever is necessary an area to liberate instinct to connect these cognitive behaviors [PEC 03] free of inhibitions and open to creativity
Managing a Collective 99
Ubisoft like other high-technology companies is a good example At Ubisoft the offices have large panels to allow for the flow of traffic within the company which also act as expression spaces where collaborators can present their creations There are also spaces dedicated to relaxation In these spaces there are game consoles foosball tables newspapers comics etc The human resources manager and Yann Beauvinon who is responsible for buildings and arrangements at Ubisoft go further and affirm wanting some offices because creators must have their own universe tools and space to be able to isolate themselves and be creative6
Case Study 313 Freedom and creativity
36 A common point an essential element for collective intelligence emotional contagion
Two recurring elements must be managed in emo-management Emotional dissonance intervenes in management repeatedly at the individual level and emotional contagion intervenes repeatedly at the collective level Emotional dissonance can appear within a group and harm the whole group dynamic because it is subject to contagion like emotion It is impossible not to consider this contagion in collective and collaborative management
It is because of these effects that in their book Emotional Contagion [HAT 94] Hatfield et al suggest that ldquothe power of contagion gives us a realistic perception as to how much we can expect to influence social situationsrdquo [HAT 94 p 193] One question remains are emotions the friends or enemies of collective intelligence in companies
Emotions make it possible to synchronize with others and share decisions as well as attitudes and behaviors They are gifted with contagion When a manager makes a good decision they feel that they are headed for success The emotions experienced are positive when the decision appears favorable to them They comforted The decision maker then only needs to communicate consciously or unconsciously their feeling to others to better convince them of the good choice So how can a manager convince others to follow
6 2015 Ubisoft annual report
100 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
Through the contagion conferred by their emotions a manager can inspire enthusiasm Not everyone knows how to transmit these emotions however According to Hatfield et al [HAT 94] some people have a greater ability to contaminate others and ldquoseducerdquo others more easily Through the margin of maneuver and the freedom that a manager imparts to their colleagues they can unleash creativity On this topic the directors at Google [SCH 14] advocate for the right to express objections and divergences In this respect contagion must avoid replacing normative restrictions and conformity
Since emotions are an integral part of the mechanism of collective sharing their contagion helps to convince to share decisions behaviors and attitudes and to integrate and involve the team in managerial practices Managers and directors of a large or small company can no longer ignore emotions and argue that pure rationality and pragmatism are necessary to lead a company and team projects Emotions are a pillar of this rationality and its diffusion and acceptance in ldquocollective intelligencerdquo by the team or partners
Nevertheless contagion must be a characteristic that makes it possible to ldquolive and play togetherrdquo Unconscious it must not conform but group in a temporary and fleeting way It must be corroborated by a group cohesion that authorizes divergence in an intelligent way
Studies have shown that some emotions are more collective than others Cardon et al [CAR 17] and Fehr et al [FEH 17] studied collective emotions shared between members of a group Collective emotions do not only reflect a homogenous group at the emotional level Some emotions are shared more easily For example 70 of the group members reported feeling negative emotions whereas only 30 reported positive ones
Unfortunately these results highlight that contagion is more prevalent when negative emotions occur This is all the more problematic since contagion is a phenomenon that remains little understood and can be hard to manage as shown by stock market crashes crowd movements or waves of insults and ridicule on the Internet One of the objectives for research in areas
Managing a Collective 101
such as psychology finance economy sociology epidemiology and neuro-economics is therefore to model the contagion to better understand it endeavoring to rationalize it and find ways to deal with it With this in mind several studies have sought to measure contagion
361 Emo-management dealing with emotional contagion
The first model of social contagion was proposed by Mansfield [MAN 61] His mathematical model makes reference to models of contagion originating in epidemiology Different determinist or stochastic models of social contagion are used to describe decisions made by individuals about adopting an innovation [BAN 92 BAS 69 BIK 92 BRO 01 GRA 78 SCH 73 WAT 02]
Aleksiejuk and Holyst [ALE 01] discuss avalanche theory to describe a contagion of bank failures Like network theory their model shows that networks between banks can lead to a contagion of bankruptcies Later Adamatzky [ADA 02] models emotional interactions based on the paradigm of artificial chemistry This author considers four emotional states as molecules that make up an affective liquid Dodds and Watts [DOD 05] use different existing models and combine them Their model considers an individualrsquos memory of exposure to a contagious entity (mood or illness) the magnitude of the exposure (doses size) the degree of susceptibility of the individual to be contaminated and an individual emerging from a contagion becoming susceptible to being contaminated again immediately
362 Mathematical and economic tools to better manage emotional contagion
Through a digital interpretation of an observation in vivo Samet and van Hoorebeke [SAM 06] measure how contagion works between individuals This text establishes a measurement scale deduced from the observed process and the scale presented by Hatfield et al [HAT 94]
102 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
This study was conducted over a period of four months and more specifically given the fleeting nature of emotions and especially emotional contagion two three-hour observations The site observed was a class of 193 students in two groups (101 in group A and 92 students in group B) at an American university The contagion observed during a course resulted from the accumulation of several negative events (a teachersrsquo strike the risk of losing a semester if the strike continued a class exercise that had technical issues an exam where the majority of grades were not the results expected) According to the observation the emotional contagion appeared over a period of only 20 min A model of the observation conducted is presented in Figure 31 Like Dodds and Watts [DOD 05] it was attributed measurements that qualify the different degrees of the transmission of emotion in the group observed
Case Study 314 Measuring emotional contagion a study in vivo
Figure 31 Graphical representation of emotional contagion (EC) For a color version of this figure see wwwistecoukvanhoorebekemanagementzip
According to the results emotional contagion characterized by its fleeting and temporary nature is not at the origin of a social contagion but is rather a sudden crowd effect It is at a given moment t that emotional contagion takes on its full meaning According to the observation at this precise moment contagious individuals have the highest degree of emotional feeling and other individuals as described in Hatfield et al [HAT 94] follow them unconsciously through what we could call irrational imitation or mimicry Based on the observation to create emotional contagion a measure of group emotional feeling is necessary This dose according to the dose scale can only be attained by an accumulation of high doses of emotional feelings ndash in this case four consecutive events and a minimum of one individual to contaminate ten people
Case Study 315 Measuring emotional contagion results
Managing a Collective 103
Another way of modeling contagion is experimentation in a laboratory by reconstructing a situation of managerial decision-making under control by isolating the elements of individual decision-making to the maximum7 Repeating the experiment makes it possible to draw meaningful conclusions
Below a description of the study reveals its inner workings
In this experiment conducted with 70 players divided into five groups each member of the group (14 members who do not know each other) must choose between 14 similar managerial choices8 After reading a document that provides some information (partial and complex) about each choice the individuals must adjudicate based on their strategy belief analysis and choice perceived by the other players (unconscious perception communication prohibited) Only one choice is the winner and is awarded a prize a decision that is drawn beforehand at random by the experimenter
The initial analyses of the results of this study indicate that 41 of players recognize having copied the decisions of other players when they noted that these other players always selected the same decision Watching video tapes of the experiment indicates that the majority of winners displaying expressions of satisfaction and contentment (discreet for some but perceptible) caused players who had lost up to that point to make a greater effort to win While some recognized having discreetly scanned the decisions written by other players others confessed to having quickly understood the rules of the game and coping knowingly Several participants denied having copied the results of others totally omitting this explanation of their correct choice (random trial-and-error) although the videos and the results noted on their decision sheet indicated the opposite Their results indicate that they followed the results of their neighbor when the neighbor changed his behavior (grinning indication of assurance relaxing in his seat and speed of responding nonchalantly) Although in the end there was a tie between conscious imitation and unconscious mimicry the results indicate that only the mimicry (emotional contagion) made it possible to accelerate making the right decision More advanced results indicate that emo-decisional contagion can prove to be a bias that causes individuals who lack information and time to ldquoimitaterdquo decisions made by other individuals simply by seeing the emotions they express
Case Study 316 Emo-decisional contagion a study in vitro
These two studies clearly show that emotional contagion can be grasped because it is perceptible and measurable In this respect it 7 Unpublished study realized in 2008 8 Based on our statistical and probabilistic calculations
104 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
could prove to be a management lever that is indispensable for decision-making and group management Group emotion can also prove to be positive and encourage the establishment of this new vision of management through emotional involvement Of course collective intelligence cannot always rely on emotion to guide or decide Information and the rational are important The new manager must strike a balance between the rational and the emotional
NEGATIVE EXAMPLEndash ldquoLe burnout un syndrome contagieuxrdquo (ldquoBurnout Is it contagiousrdquo) is the title of an article from May 25 2005 on the site activrsquo assistante9 ldquoWhen a symptom gradually contaminates the professional areas in a society including assistant positions observing it is no longer enough We must fight the evil at the source With Pascale Venara president of the Institut de preacutevention du burn out discover how to recognize it and act before the curtain falls on burnt out colleaguesrdquo POSITIVE EXAMPLEndash The focus was on happiness at the regional council reception of the Ordre des Experts-Comptables on Friday January 30 For the occasion the president Jacques Maureau invited Rodolphe Carle to debate about the happiness of entrepreneurship along with Bernard Jacquand The CEO of Babilou discussed accepting the social dimension of onersquos company today in that it takes on a ldquouseful dimension for the companyrdquo and contributes to ldquoliving well togetherrdquo ldquoThis usefulness is part of our DNA and our values Values that are shared by all of our employees Because we must never forget that a company is not built alone A company is first and foremost the men and women who come together around a project with meaning united around common values driven by the same energy and the same desire to work together The sense of entrepreneurship must be contagious shared communicated within a grouprdquo [ROU 15]
Case Study 317 Examples of contagion in the workplace
The underlying question we faced at the start of our reflection was how can we envision a new style of management that would foster complete responsibility marked by authentic commitment that is favorable for individuals and the collective in a company Our work suggests that the first step is for the company to consider humans in a holistic way (cognitively rationally biologically emotionally) to better draw a common benefit if the relationship is balanced marked by trust and in particular deep understanding To put it simply and metaphorically how can we make a machine work if we do not 9 Available online at httpwwwactivassistantecomvie-pro-persomissions-proefficacite-prole-burn-out-un-syndrome-contagieux
Managing a Collective 105
understand the basic inner mechanisms How can we consider human behavior if we only think of a person as a simple android the main responsibility of the company How can we make people stick with changes or projects without affecting their deep emotions and galvanizing feelings To get them involved it is essential to ensure an individual well-being that is unique to them and an economic efficiency The company is confronted by the same issues to respond to the requirements and challenges that the future holds with emo-management changing a short-term perspective or perception for a long-term challenge
Conclusion
To summarize the contribution of this text and address our goal of describing and demonstrating the role of emotions in management the progression of our text made it possible to situate the intervention of emotions at all levels of management at both the individual and collective levels Supported by research analyses and concrete examples this text shows that management and emotions are one and the same Management must manage humans in their relations in person or at a distance Currently humans are recognized as psychological biological and emotional Future management of these beings must adapt to this
Emo-management completes the traditional exogenous approach to management based on people by proposing an endogenous approach to management for and by people It considers humans in a holistic way as beings gifted with rationality and irrationality psychobiological and emotional beings Traditional management where the objective is to make profit for profitrsquos sake is evolving toward searching out advances for the collective interest The fundamental distinction compared to classic management is how we view people in the workplace whether they are managers or employees Managers must understand how they themselves work (biologically rationally and emotionally) and how their colleagues work Managers must advocate for and respect values leading in all probability to sharing them
The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management First Edition Delphine van Hoorebeke copy ISTE Ltd 2018 Published by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley amp Sons Inc
108 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
This leads to a ldquocollective intelligencerdquo in favor of these values Some historical authors (Fayol Mayo etc) would be surprised to find that their theories are still current and that despite our extremely rapid developments no new vision has yet really gained ground in companies where hierarchy remains necessary
Emo-management the new vision of management must not only perceive individuals as single entities but also as a chain in a real collective ldquointelligencerdquo ndash the quotation marks underscore that this type of intelligence can only occur with a balance between cognition and emotion [DAM 00] Some talk about returning to the source Companies see that humans as social beings need to return to their intuitions and emotions and re-learn how to understand and experience them
To summarize this approach to management originating in fields as varied as psychology sociology management and even neurobiology allows us to propose a new idea of management a more global vision that considers the different realities and resources of human beings To the basic definition of management proposed in Le Littreacute (that is the art of the possible ldquothe art of directing steering handling motivatinghellip even the action of regulating effectively administering wellrdquo) we can add the definition of a modern management that is capable of reconciling the present to the future solving daily problems while predicting future problems and that has the primary role of knowing managing onersquos own emotions and those of others which we call a savoir faire-faire (or the skill of directing) It is an economic performance that is individual and also collective composed of different pieces of knowledge described by Picard [PIC 95] that notably includes e-motions through the knowledge and skills necessary to ensure them and ensure management
The basic elements are similar including a set of capacities
ndash the capacity to do at least what is necessary this individual economic performance considers measurable and tangible results
Conclusion 109
through a temporary vision Some call this type of performance ldquoproductivity at workrdquo ensured by the individualrsquos cognitive aspect
ndash the capacity to do what is necessary in a responsible way this socio-economic performance combines a concern for short-term cost-effectiveness with long-term flexibility It consists of the managersrsquo capacity to take on their part of the responsibilities and adapt their actions The ability of managers to engage in economic objectives factors of organizational flexibility is determined by their ability to manage skills knowing the needs and expectations of each person
ndash a capacity to do things well this consists of addressing situations better or differently with knowledge and learning Picard [PIC 95 p 5] called this type of individual economic performance ldquoefficiencyrdquo This corresponds to a mastery of ldquothe good methods of progressive people management [and] holding positions of power appropriatelyrdquo This capacity can be applied to the collective level as well Doing things better consists then of doing things in complementarity and with good understanding
ndash and finally a capacity for collective sharing
Relying on several studies in psychology Rimeacute [RIM 05] indicated in his book about the social sharing of emotions that the expression of emotions is not a source of emotional recovery notably in the case of post-traumatic stress Nevertheless social sharing and debriefing are according to the participants in a multitude of experiments on the topic a tool for satisfaction in that they provide a feeling of having been helped Without needing to become experts in psychology in our view each actor (manager and group members) involved in collective sharing helps to initiate the bringing together of the individual and the collective
For this the capacities of the manager include several other kinds of knowledge aside from savoir-faire (technical skills)
ndash Savoir-ecirctre (social or interpersonal skills) the management of behaviors Managers must have an emotional adaptability and a capacity to make an effort to manage their emotions and do emotional
110 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
labor [HOC 83] They must also develop the capacity to be aware of their behavior and to acquire ldquobody techniquesrdquo [TYL 01] Faced with new market conditions more and more companies want to evaluate the performances of their managers in terms of soft skills to close the gap between actual and expected behaviors This faculty requires acting whether it is a performance of theatrically simulating expressions or intensively working on managing behaviors [GOF 59] Levers help to foster this emotional work without triggering harmful inhibitions
ndash Savoir-vivre (life management skills) having the capacity to master the right processes improve coordination optimize customer relations and in all cases detect difficulties as soon as they arise It is added to social skills as an indispensable element for a manager and staff in contact with the public Life management skills literally correspond to ldquothe art of conducting onersquos life well civilityrdquo It is considered here as the art of managing relations with others through the management of onersquos own e-motions and those of others Amherdt [AMH 05] suggested five recommendations to ensure optimal operations for team members According to this author this type of manager has very clear expectations displays real interest for his team is a good decision maker inspires confidence knows how to overcome challenges and present them to his team and knows how to show a leaderrsquos charisma In its ideal form this management of self and others is sincere and authentic In the 2005 seminar called ldquoLrsquoadoption drsquoune attitude socialement responsable et ses fondements psychologiques Un point de vue Aristiteacutelicienrdquo (ldquoThe adoption of a socially responsible attitude and its psychological foundations an Aristotelian perspectiverdquo) Pellissier-Tanon [PEL 05] stated ldquoThe famous definition of power as the capacity of making someone do something that they would not have done themselves suggests that management to the extent that it consists in the exercise of a power of adherence borders on manipulation We may also be tempted to extend to management the suspicion that weighs on manipulation donrsquot managers risk abusing their power of adherencerdquo
Sincerity and authenticity are two keywords that can mark the difference of a modern manager considering the knowledge and recognition of the intervention of several factors in his behavior
Conclusion 111
decisions managerial processes team cohesion the well-being of his subordinates and colleagues and his tolerance of diverging opinions
ndash The final savoir the skill of deciphering and internalizing emotions knowing how to empathize through experiencing emotions similar to those of the interlocutor so that emotions are felt on both sides and knowing how to encourage a positive emotional contagion coming out of a debriefing Far from standing apart from emotional intelligence this type of knowledge goes deeper and prompts the notion of integration Although individuals are particularly contagious according to Hatfield et al [HAT 94] and emotionally intelligent [GOL 97] our various experiments have shown that everyone can become contagious just as everyone can be susceptible to contamination With this skill the manager can integrate the power and function of emotions The key to collective sharing the manager subscribes not only to developing the aforementioned skills personally but also developing them in the members of his team The emo-manager seeks mutual integration1 accommodation2 [PIA 37] and the expression of critical thinking
This vision of management advocates a management in movement (like the original definition of e-motion) an emo-management that is appropriate for the current context of flexibility speed and collectivity
Thus future management involves a referential change in time and space The strategies must be designed for the long term and for a global space Emo-management totally fits because the common point of all managerial tasks is contagion which does not only account for the quantitative dimension (such as growth) but also introduces reflection at a qualitative and even emotional level of analysis that undeniably exists in management especially collaborative management This concept renounces the accumulation of wealth by
1 Process by which each scheme becomes capable of integrating the domain of the other (coordination between vision and prehension) 2 Mechanism that modifies schemes to adjust them to new data
112 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
ldquoindividual egoismrdquo [SMI 76] which even if there is no need to renounce individual interests seems not to be unique in the very origins of humanity in favor of the search for mutual survival that is collectively intelligent because it is aware of human behavior The ultimate objective of implementing a new vision of management which must know how to combine the adherence of every person with knowledge (understanding and integration) is to encourage a deep change in mentality As Calvez [CAL 10] states in his article ldquoEacutethique morale deacuteontologie proches et diffeacuterentes lrsquoeacutethique en peacuteriode de criserdquo (ldquoEthics Morality Deontology Similar and Different Ethics in Times of Crisisrdquo) from 2010 ldquoJust like in the ideas of a Charles Maurras of yore politics being lsquophysicalrsquo there was no place for a debate about politics and ethics [hellip] In most economic realities and the measures taken to enact them we are indeed obliged [hellip] to consider the thoughts desires and needs of people as well as their intolerances and their prejudices And we must also consider their specific history family choices health demographic with these realities being certainly likely to be understood to some extent in a statistical wayrdquo Thus the future of management requires a ldquocollective intelligencerdquo that is not fleeting based on a simple passing fad and this collective intelligence is a panacea of current and future society as well as the developing economy Because of this emo-management which is not only an evolutive vision but also fundamental to current management essentially advocates for knowing and understanding human foundations for a ldquoreasonedrdquo management and as far as possible basic human reactions to ensure movement
Knowledge of human ldquoemotionsrdquo and ldquothe heuristics of fearrdquo as specified by Jonas can also unfortunately encourage acceptance by submission and resignation in the face of certain events In this respect these e-motions can also paralyze and restrict some types of management ldquoTo ldquoreform thoughtrdquo If the obligation cannot be deduced from knowledge the obligation needs knowledge The moral conscience cannot be deduced from the intellectual conscience But it needs the intellectual conscience that is thought and reflection Good intention risks leading to bad actions and moral will can have immoral consequencesrdquo Like Edgar Morin in Eacutethique [MOR 06] we believe
Conclusion 113
that it is indeed through the knowledge of the various modes of operation evoked in this book that human beings can evolve while responding to the social economic and environmental needs to which the future economy will subject us This economy will be based on the ldquoheart and the collectiverdquo but despite the speed of its development knowledge sharing and globalization it must not neglect the search for balance between cognition and emotion to conserve its homeostasis and ethics
According to the writings of Ashkanasy et al [ASH 17] the manager must acquire an ldquoemotional sophisticationrdquo to win in opposition to the robots Emo-management buoyed by the skills to engage motivate and create emulation in a sustainable group inimitable by any robot to date must understand the strengths and weaknesses of emotion Emo-management is not content to ldquosimulaterdquo emotional enthusiasm nor to provoke it This management must know how to tame it moderate it or guide it in full awareness
Bibliography
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[ADA 02] ADAMATZKY A ldquoOn dynamics of affective liquidsrdquo Dynamical Psychology available at httpwwwgoertzelorgdynapsyc2002 emot2708html 2002
[ADE 95] ADELMANN PK ldquoEmotional labor as a potential source of job stressrdquo in SAUTER SL MURPHY LR (eds) Organizational Risk Factors for Job Stress American Psychological Association Washington DC 1995
[AKE 82] AKERLOF G DICKENS W ldquoThe economic consequence of cognitive dissonancerdquo American Economic Review vol 72 no 3 pp 307ndash319 1982
[ALE 01] ALEKSIEJUK A HOŁYST JA ldquoA simple model of bank bankruptciesrdquo Physica A vol 299 nos 1ndash2 pp 198ndash204 2001
[ALL 71] ALLISON GT Essence of Decision Explaining the Cuban Missile Crisis Little Brown Boston 1971
[ALL 97] ALLEN NJ MEYER JP Commitment in the Workplace Theory Research and Application Sage Publications Thousand Oaks 1997
[ALV 02] ALVARADO N ADAMS S BURBECK S The role of emotion in an architecture of mind IBM available at httpspdfssemanticscholarorg c9f698270d71811742cf7f17a36d9a11f1735b35pdf 2002
[ALV 15] ALVESSON M SPICER A The Stupidity Paradox The Power and Pitfalls of Functional Stupidity at Work Profile Books London 2015
The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management First Edition Delphine van Hoorebeke copy ISTE Ltd 2018 Published by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley amp Sons Inc
116 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
[AMA 83] AMABILE TM ldquoThe social psychology of creativity a componential conceptualizationrdquo Journal of Personality and Social Psychology vol 45 pp 357ndash377 1983
[AMA 96] AMABILE TM CONTI R COON H et al ldquoAssessing the work environment for creativityrdquo Academy of Management Journal vol 39 no 5 pp 1154ndash1184 1996
[AMH 05] AMHERDT C-H La santeacute eacutemotionnelle au travail Demos Eacuteditions Paris 2005
[AND 96] ANDERSEN P-A GUERRERO LK ldquoPrinciples of communication and emotion in social interactionrdquo in ANDERSEN P-A GUERRERO LK (eds) Handbook of Communication and Emotion Research Theory Applications and Contents Academic Press San Diego CA 1996
[ARR 01] ARRIVE JY Savoir vivre ses eacutemotions Retz Paris 2001
[ASC 55] ASCH SE ldquoOpinions and social pressurerdquo Scientific American vol 193 no 5 pp 31ndash35 1955
[ASH 93] ASHFORTH BE HUMPHREY RH ldquoEmotional labor in service roles the influence of identityrdquo Academy of Management Review vol 18 no 1 pp 88ndash115 1993
[ASH 95] ASHFORTH BE HUMPHREY RH ldquoEmotion in the workplace a reappraisalrdquo Human Relations vol 48 no 2 pp 97ndash125 1995
[ASH 00a] ASHFORTH BE TOMIUK MA ldquoEmotional labour and authenticity views from the service agentsrdquo in FINEMAN S (ed) Emotion in Organizations Sage Publications London 2000
[ASH 00b] ASHKANASY NM TSE B ldquoTransformational leadership as management of emotion a conceptual reviewrdquo in ASHKANASY N HARTEL C ZERBE W (eds) Emotions in the Workplace Developments in the Study of the Managed Heart Quorum Books Westport CT 2000
[ASH 07] ASHLEY COOPER A (EARL OF SHAFTESBURY) An Inquiry Concerning Virtue or Merit The Internet Archive available at httpsarchiveorgstreaminquiryconcernin00shafuoftpagen0 mode2up 2007
[ASH 17] ASHKANASY NM HUMPHREY RH HUY QN ldquoIntegrating emotions and affect in theories of managementrdquo Academy of Management Review vol 42 no 2 pp 175ndash189 2017
Bibliography 117
[ASS 09] ASSELINEAU A PIRE-LECHALARD P ldquoLe deacuteveloppement durable un paradigme geacuteneacuterateur drsquoune rupture drsquoinnovationrdquo Management et Avenir Lrsquoorganisation revisiteacutee au travers du deacuteveloppement durable une approche multidisciplinaire Special edition no 26 2009
[AUT 06] AUTISSIER D WACHEUX F Manager par le sens les cleacutes de lrsquoimplication au travail Eyrolles Paris 2006
[AVE 75] AVERILL JR ldquoA semantic atlas of emotional conceptsrdquo JSAS Catalogue of Selected Documents in Psychology vol 5 p 330 1975
[BAB 99] BABA ML ldquoDangerous liaisons trust distrust and information technology in American work organizationsrdquo Human Organization vol 58 no 3 pp 331ndash346 1999
[BAK 01] BAKKER AB SIXMA HJ BOSVELD W ldquoBurnout contagion among general practionersrdquo Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology vol 20 no 1 p 82698 2001
[BAK 05] BAKKER AB LEBLANC PM SCHAUFELI WB ldquoBurnout contagion among intensive care nursesrdquo Nursing Theory and Concept Development or Analysis vol 51 no 3 pp 276ndash287 2005
[BAN 92] BANERJEE AV ldquoA simple model of herd behaviorrdquo The Quarterly Journal of Economics vol CVII no 3 pp 797ndash817 1992
[BAR 02] BARSADE SG ldquoThe Ripple effect emotional contagion and its influence on group behaviourrdquo Administrative Science Quarterly vol 47 pp 647ndash675 2002
[BAS 69] BASS F ldquoA new product growth model for consumer durablesrdquo Management Science vol 15 pp 215ndash227 1969
[BAS 85] BASS BM Leadership and Performance Beyond Expectation Free Press New York NY 1985
[BAS 99] BASS BM ldquoEthics character and authentic transformational leadership behaviourrdquo Leadership Quarterly vol 10 no 2 p 81 1999
[BAT 86] BATRA R RAY ML ldquoAffective responses mediating acceptance of advertisingrdquo Journal of Consumer Research vol 13 no 2 pp 234ndash249 1986
[BAT 02] BATLLE A ldquoLrsquoeacutemotion dans lrsquoentrepriserdquo Les Eacutechos February 2002 Available at httpswwwlesechosfr26022002LesEchos 18602-118-ECH_l-emotion-dans-l-entreprisehtm
118 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
[BAU 98] BAUMARD P BENVENUTI J-A Compeacutetitiviteacute et systegravemes drsquoinformation De lrsquooutil drsquoanalyse au management strateacutegique InterEditions Paris 1998
[BEA 03] BEAL DJ COHEN RR BURKE MJ et al ldquoCohesion and performance in groups a meta-analytic clarification of construct relationsrdquo Journal of Applied Psychology vol 88 no 6 pp 989ndash1004 2003
[BEC 98] BECHARA A DAMASIO H TRANEL D et al ldquoDissociation of working memory from decision making within the human prefrontal cortexrdquo Journal of Neurosciences vol 18 pp 428ndash437 1998
[BEC 99] BECHARA A DAMASIO H DAMASIO AR et al ldquoDifferent contributions of the human amygdala and ventromedial prefrontal cortex to decision-makingrdquo The Journal of Neuroscience vol 19 no 13 pp 5473ndash5481 1999
[BEC 00] BECHARA A DAMASIO H DAMASIO AR ldquoEmotion decision-making and orbitofrontal cortexrdquo Cerebral Cortex vol 10 no 3 pp 295ndash307 2000
[BEH 94] BEHNKE PR SAWYER CR KING P-E ldquoContagion theory and the communication of public speaking state anxietyrdquo Communication Education vol 43 pp 246ndash251 1994
[BER 13] BERNOULLI J Ars conjectandi opus posthumum Accedit Tractatus de seriebus infinitis et epistola galliceacute scripta de ludo pilae reticularis Thurneysen Brothers Basel 1713
[BER 01] BERSON Y ldquoThe relationship between vision strength leadership style and contextrdquo Leadership Quarterly vol 12 no 1 pp 53ndash74 2001
[BER 03] BERTHOZ A La deacutecision Odile Jacob Paris 2003
[BIK 92] BIKHCHANDANI S HIRSHLEIFER D WELCH I ldquoA theory of fads fashion custom and cultural change as informational cascadesrdquo Journal of Politics and Economics vol 100 pp 992ndash1026 1992
[BIL 95] BILTS R Walt Disney The Dreamer the Realist and the Critic Dynamic Learning Publications Library of Congress Catalog in Publications Data Washington 1995
[BIS 83] BISCHOFF C TRAUE HC ldquoMyogenic headacherdquo in HOLROYD KA SCHLOTE B ZENZ H (eds) Perspectives in Research on Headache Levinston New York NY Hogrefe and Huber Publishers Toronto 1983
Bibliography 119
[BOI 10] BOISARD-CASTELLUCCIA S VAN HOOREBEKE D ldquoLe management de la diversiteacute des eacutequipes par la contagion eacutemotionnelle au cœur de la performance de grouperdquo Revue Management et Avenir vol 8 no 38 pp 240ndash256 2010
[BON 07] BONO J JACKSON-FOLDES H VINSON G et al ldquoWorkplace emotional regulation the role of supervision and leadershiprdquo Journal of Applied Psychology vol 9 no 5 p 1357 2007
[BOO 05] BOOT AWA THAKOR V MILBOURN TT ldquoSunflower management and capital budgetingrdquo The Journal of Business vol 78 no 2 pp 501ndash527 2005
[BRA 98] BRAND A ldquoKnowledge management and innovation at 3Mrdquo Journal of Knowledge Management vol 2 no 1 pp 17ndash22 1998
[BRO 61] BROCA P Bulletin de la socieacuteteacute franccedilaise drsquoanthropologie no 1 April 1861
[BRO 01] BROCK WA DURLAUF SN ldquoDiscrete choice with social interactionsrdquo Revue of Economics Studies vol 68 pp 235ndash260 2001
[BUR 78] BURNS JM Leadership Harper and Row New York NY 1978
[BUR 87] BURT RS ldquoSocial contagion and innovation cohesion versus structural equivalencerdquo American Journal of Sociology vol 92 pp 1287ndash1335 1987
[BUR 93] BURGOON JK ldquoInterpersonal expectations expectancy violations and emotional communicationrdquo Journal of Language and Social Psychology vol 12 pp 30ndash48 1993
[CAL 10] CALVEZ JY ldquoEacutethique morale deacuteontologie proches et diffeacuterentes lrsquoeacutethique en peacuteriode de criserdquo Revue franccedilaise du marketing vol 226 pp 1ndash5 2010
[CAP 07] CAPRON M QUAIREL F La responsabiliteacute sociale drsquoentreprise La Deacutecouverte Paris 2007
[CAR 17] CARDON MS POST C FORSTER WR ldquoTeam entrepreneurial passion its emergence and influence in new venture teamsrdquo Academy of Management Review vol 42 pp 283ndash305 2017
[CAS 98] CASTRO JL GUERIN F LAURIOL J ldquoLe modegravele des 3C en questionrdquo Revue Franccedilaise de Gestion vol 118 pp 75ndash89 1998
[CHA 90] CHANLAT J-F (ed) Lrsquoindividu dans lrsquoorganisation les dimensions oublieacutees Eska Paris 1990
120 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
[CHA 98] CHATMAN JA POLZER JT BARSADE SG et al ldquoBeing different yet feeling similar the influence of demographic composition and organizational culture on work processes and outcomesrdquo Administrative Science Quarterly vol 43 no 4 pp 749ndash780 1998
[CHA 01] CHATMAN JA FLYNN FJ ldquoThe influence of demographic heterogeneity on the emergence and consequences of cooperative norms in work teamsrdquo Academy of Management Journal vol 44 no 5 pp 956ndash974 2001
[CHA 03] CHANLAT J-F ldquoEacutemotions organisation et management une reacuteflexion sur la notion drsquointelligence eacutemotionnellerdquo Travailler vol 1 no 9 pp 113ndash132 2003
[CHE 92] CHERNISS C ldquoLong term consequences of burn out an exploratory studyrdquo Journal of Organic Behavior vol 13 pp 1ndash11 1992
[CHR 14] CHRYSIKOU EG WEBER MJ THOMPSON-SCHILL SL ldquoA matched filter hypothesis for cognitive controlrdquo Neuropsychologia vol 62 pp 341ndash365 2014
[CLA 95] CLARKSON MBE ldquoA stakeholder framework for analysing and evaluating corporate social performancerdquo Academy of Management Review vol 20 no 1 pp 92ndash117 1995
[CLA 97] CLARK CE CAVANAUGH NC BROWN CV et al ldquoBuilding change-readiness capabilities in the IS organization insights from the bell Atlantic experiencerdquo MIS Quarterly vol 21 no 4 pp 425ndash455 1997
[COL 05] COLLE R PERETTI J-M CERDIN J-L ldquoLa fideacutelisation des salarieacutes par lrsquoentreprise agrave la carterdquo Revue de Gestion des Ressources Humaines vol 55 pp 2ndash21 2005
[DAL 47] DALE HH ldquoWalter Bradford Cannon 1871ndash1945rdquo Obituary Notices of Fellows of the Royal Society vol 5 no 15 pp 407ndash426 1947
[DAM 94] DAMASIO AR Lrsquoerreur de Descartes la raison des eacutemotions Odile Jacob Paris 1994
[DAM 00] DAMASIO AR ldquoA second chance for emotionrdquo in RICHARD DR LANE L NADEL GL et al (eds) Cognitive Neuroscience of Emotion Oxford University Press Oxford 2000
[DAR 72] DARWIN C The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animal John Murray London 1872
Bibliography 121
[DAR 95] DARWALL S The British Moralists and the Internal ldquoOughtrdquo Cambridge University Press Cambridge 1995
[DAS 02] DASBOROUGH MT ASHKANASY NM ldquoEmotion and attribution of intentionality in leader-member relationshipsrdquo The Leadership Quarterly vol 13 no 5 pp 615ndash634 2002
[DAU 99] DAUMAS C ldquoDeacutemunis face aux tensionsrdquo Libeacuteration available at httpwwwliberationfrcahier-special19991018vincent-dubois-sociologue-a-passe-six-mois-aux-guichets-des-allocations-familiales-demunis-face-aux-_286563 October 1999
[DEB 16] DEBBAH S VAN HOOREBEKE D ldquoTravail collaboratif agrave distance lrsquoinfluence de lrsquointelligence eacutemotionnelle une eacutetude exploratoirerdquo XXIe Congregraves de lrsquoAssociation Information et Management Lille May 2016
[DEM 06] DE MARTINO B KUMARAN D SEYMOUR B et al ldquoFrames biases and rational decision-makingrdquo Human Brain Science vol 313 no 5787 pp 684ndash687 2006
[DER 87] DERBAIX C ldquoLe comportement de lrsquoacheteur voies drsquoeacutetudes pour les anneacutees agrave venirrdquo Recherche et Applications Marketing vol 2 no 2 pp 81ndash92 1987
[DER 89] DERBAIX C PHAM M ldquoPour un deacuteveloppement des mesures de lrsquoaffectif en marketing synthegravese des preacute-requisrdquo Recherche et Applications Marketing vol 4 no 4 pp 71ndash87 1989
[DES 37] DESCARTES R Discours de la meacutethode Flammarion Paris 1637
[DES 49] DESCARTES R Les Passions de lrsquoacircme Henry le Gras Paris 1649
[DIE 03a] DIEFENDORFF JM GOSSERAND RH ldquoUnderstanding the emotional labor process a control theory perspectiverdquo Journal of Organizational Behavior vol 24 no 8 pp 945ndash959 2003
[DIE 03b] DIEFENDORFF JM RICHARD EM ldquoAntecedents and consequences of emotional display rule perceptionsrdquo Journal of Applied Psychology vol 88 pp 284ndash294 2003
[DIE 04] DIETRICH A ldquoNeurocognitive mechanisms underlying the experience of flowrdquo Consciousness and Cognition vol 13 no 4 pp 746ndash761 2004
[DOD 05] DODDS PS WATTS DJ ldquoA generalized model of social and biological contagionrdquo Journal of Theoritical Biology vol 232 no 4 pp 587ndash604 2005
122 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
[DRE 52] DREVER J A Dictionary of Psychology Penguin London 1952
[DRU 93] DRUCKER PF Post-capitalist Society HarperCollins New York NY 1993
[DUB 08] DUBOIS V La vie au guichet Relation administrative et traitement de la misegravere Economica Paris 2008
[DUR 67] DURKHEIM E Le suicide Eacutetude de sociologie 2nd edition PUF Paris 1967
[EAR 00] EARLEY PC MOSAKOWSKI E ldquoCreating hybrid teams culture an empirical test of transnational team functioningrdquo Academy of Management Journal vol 43 no 1 pp 26ndash49 2000
[EIS 99] EISENHARDT KM HOPE PELLED L XIN KR ldquoExploring the black box an analysis of work group diversity conflict and performancerdquo Administrative Science Quarterly vol 44 pp 1ndash28 1999
[EKM 79] EKMAN P OSTER H ldquoFacial expressions of emotionrdquo Annual Review of Psychology vol 30 pp 527ndash554 1979
[ELF 07] ELFENBEIN HA OrsquoREILLY CA ldquoFitting in the effects of relational demography and person-organization fit on group process and performancerdquo Group and Organization Management vol 32 no 1 pp 109ndash142 2007
[ELI 94] ELIAS N The Civilizing Processes 1 and 2 Blackwell Oxford 1994
[FAV 06] FAVI The story of FAVI The company that believes that man is good Paper available at httpukukwoneuFile20Storage 5160692_7_The-story-of-favipdf 2006
[FEH 17] FEHR R FULMER A AWTREY E et al ldquoThe grateful workplace a multilevel model of gratitude in organizationsrdquo Academy of Management Review vol 42 pp 361ndash381 2017
[FES 57] FESTINGER L A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance Stanford University Press Stanford CA 1957
[FIM 03] FIMBEL E ldquoNature et enjeux strateacutegiques de lrsquoexternalisationrdquo Revue franccedilaise de gestion vol 143 no 2 pp 27ndash42 2003
[FIN 00] FINEMAN S ldquoEmotional arenas revisitedrdquo in FINEMAN S (ed) Emotions in Organisations Sage Publications London 2000
Bibliography 123
[FIO 94] FIOL CM ldquoConsensus diversity and learning in organizationsrdquo Organization Science vol 5 no 3 pp 403ndash420 1994
[FIS 00] FISHER CD ldquoMood and emotions while working missing pieces of job satisfactionrdquo Journal of Organizational Behavior vol 21 pp 185ndash202 2000
[FIT 00] FITNESS J ldquoAnger in the workplace an emotion script approach to anger episodes between workers and their superiors co-workers and subordinatesrdquo Journal of Organizational Behavior vol 21 pp 147ndash162 2000
[FLE 06] FLEMING L MARX M ldquoManaging creativity in small worldsrdquo California Management Review vol 48 no 4 pp 6ndash27 2006
[FLE 07] FLEMING L MINGO S CHEN D ldquoCollaborative brokerage generative creativity and creative successrdquo Administrative Science Quarterly vol 52 pp 443ndash475 2007
[FRA 94] FRANCE KR SHAH RH PARK CW ldquoThe impact of emotional valence and intensity on Ad evaluation and memoryrdquo in ALLEN C ROEDDER-JOHN D (eds) Advances in Consumer Research 21 Association for Consumer Research Duluth MN 1994
[FRA 03] FRANK J ldquoNatural selection rational economic behavior and alternative outcomes of the evolutionary processrdquo Journal of Socio-Economics vol 32 pp 601ndash622 2003
[FRA 10] FRAY AM SOPARNOT R ldquoLe manager responsablerdquo in DE BRY F IGALENS J PERETTI J-M (eds) Eacutethique et Responsabiliteacute Sociale EMS Eacuteditions Paris 2010
[FRE 84] FREEMAN RE (ed) ldquoStrategic management framework and philosophyrdquo Strategic Management A Stakeholder Approach Pittman Marshfield WI 1984
[FRE 99] FREEMAN RE ldquoDivergent stakeholder theoryrdquo The Academy of Management Review vol 24 no 2 pp 233ndash236 1999
[FRE 02] FREUD E Œuvres complegravetes vol 15 PUF Paris 2002
[FRI 86] FRIJDA NH The Emotions Cambridge University Press Cambridge MA 1986
[FRI 87] FRIEDMAN HS BOOTH-KEWLEY S ldquoThe disease-prone personality a meta-analytic view of the constructrdquo American Psychologist vol 42 pp 539ndash555 1987
124 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
[FRI 88] FRIJDA NH ldquoThe laws of emotionrdquo American Psychologist vol 43 no 5 pp 349ndash358 1988
[FRI 00] FRISOU J ldquoConfiance interpersonnelle et engagement une reacuteorientation beacutehavioristerdquo Recherche et Applications en Marketing vol 15 pp 63ndash80 2000
[FUD 05] FUDENBERG LA IMHOF D NOWAK MA ldquoEvolutionary cycles of cooperation and defectionrdquo Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences vol 102 pp 10797ndash10800 2005
[GAG 03] GAGNON MP GODIN G GAGNEacute C et al ldquoEvolutionary cycles of cooperation an adaptation of the theory of interpersonal behaviour to the study of telemedicine adoption by physiciansrdquo International Journal of Medical Informatics vol 71 no 3 pp 103ndash115 2003
[GAR 85] GARDNER MP ldquoMood states and consumer behavior a critical reviewrdquo Journal of Consumer Research vol 12 no 3 pp 281ndash300 1985
[GAZ 78] GAZZANIGA MS LEDOUX JE The Integrated Mind Plenum New York NY 1978
[GEO 89] GEORGE JM ldquoConflict and performance in mood and absencerdquo Journal of Applied Psychology vol 74 pp 317ndash324 1989
[GEO 90] GEORGE JM ldquoPersonality affect and behavior in groupsrdquo Journal of Applied Psychology vol 75 pp 107ndash116 1990
[GEO 07a] GEORGE JM ldquoEmotions and leadership the role of emotional intelligencerdquo in MANSTEAD A (ed) Psychology of Emotions vol 2 Sage Publications London 2007
[GEO 07b] GEORGE JM BRIEF AP ldquoFeeling good-doing good a conceptual analysis of the mood at work ndash organizational spontaneity relationshiprdquo in ANDERSON N (ed) Fundamentals of HRM vol 3 Sage Publications London 2007
[GOF 59] GOFFMAN E The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life Doubleday Anchor New York NY 1959
[GOL 97] GOLEMAN D Lrsquointelligence eacutemotionnelle Robert Laffont Paris 1997
[GOL 02] GOLEMAN D BOYATZIS R MACKEE A Primal Leadership Harvard Business School Press New York NY 2002
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[GOL 04] GOLEMAN D ldquoWhat Makes a Leaderrdquo Harvard Business Review available at httpswwwthebraudisgroupcomwp-content uploads201605What-Makes-A-Leader-_-1pdf 2004
[GOL 14] GOLEMAN D Lrsquointelligence eacutemotionnelle analyser et controcircler ses sentiments et ceux des autres Jrsquoai lu Paris 2014
[GOU 71] GOUAUX C ldquoInduced affective states and interpersonal attractionrdquo Journal of Personality and Social Psychology vol 20 pp 37ndash43 1971
[GOY 07] GOYAL S VEGA-REDONDO F ldquoStructural holes in social networksrdquo Journal of Economic Theory vol 137 pp 460ndash492 2007
[GRA 78] GRANOVETTER M ldquoThreshold models of collective behaviourrdquo American Journal of Sociology vol 83 pp 1420ndash1443 1978
[GRA 00] GRATCH J ldquoModelling the interplay between emotion and decision-makingrdquo 9th Conference on Computer Generated Forces and Behavioral Representation Orlando FL 2000
[GRA 03] GRANDEY A ldquoWhen lsquothe show must go onrsquo surface and deep acting as predictors of emotional exhaustion and service deliveryrdquo Academy of Management Journal vol 46 no 1 pp 86ndash96 2003
[GRA 05a] GRACIAacuteN B Oraculo manual y arte de prudencia Translated from Spanish by Joseph Jacobs Andrew Burke 2005
[GRA 05b] GRANDEY AA FISKA GM MATTILAB AS et al ldquoIs lsquoservice with a smilersquo enough Authenticity of positive displays during service encountersrdquo Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes vol 96 pp 38ndash55 2005
[GRI 03] GRIMA F TREPO G ldquoInitier une innovation organisationnelle tactiques drsquoinfluence et processus de persuasion mis en œuvre par les championsrdquo Revue de gestion des ressources humaines vol 50 p 23 2003
[GRO 92] GROENESTIJN E BUUNK BP SCHAUFELI WB ldquoThe danger of burnout contagion the role of social comparison processesrdquo in BUUNK M VAN LANGE V (eds) Sociale Psychologie De Boek The Hague 1992
126 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
[GUE 98] GUERRERO LK ANDERSEN PA TROST MR ldquoCommunication and emotion basic concepts and approachesrdquo in ANDERSEN PA GUERRERO LK (eds) Handbook of Communication and Emotion Research Theory Applications and Contents Academic Press San Diego CA 1998
[GUI 98] GUILHON A ldquoLe changement est un apprentissagerdquo Revue Franccedilaise de Gestion vol 120 pp 98ndash107 1998
[GUM 97] GUMP BB KULIK JA ldquoStress affiliation and emotional contagionrdquo Journal of Personality and Social Psychology vol 722 pp 305ndash319 1997
[HAC 92] HACKMAN JR ldquoGroup influences on individuals in organizationsrdquo in DUNNETTE MD HOUGH LM (eds) Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology Consulting Psychologists Press Palo Alto CA 1992
[HAN 02] HANSEN MT ldquoKnowledge networks explaining effective knowledge sharing in multiunit companiesrdquo Organization Science vol 13 pp 232ndash248 2002
[HAT 94] HATFIELD E CACIOPPO JT RAPSON RL Emotional Contagion Cambridge University Press Paris 1994
[HEI 88] HEINER R ldquoImperfected decisions and routinized production implication for evolutionary modelling and inertial technical changerdquo in DOSI G (ed) Technical Change and Economic Theory Pinter Publishers London 1988
[HEL 64] HELSON H Adaptation-level Theory Harper and Row New York NY 1964
[HER 04] HERRBACH O LERAT-PYTLAK J ldquoImplication et eacutemotions au travail une eacutetude empiriquerdquo 15e congregraves de lrsquoAssociation francophone de gestion des ressources humaines ESG UQAM Montreal 2004
[HOC 83] HOCHSCHILD AR The Managed Heart Commercialization of Human Feeling University of California Press Los Angeles CA 1983
[HOU 77] HOUSE RJ ldquoA 1976 theory of charismatic leadershiprdquo in HUNT JG LARSON LL (eds) Leadership The Cutting Edge SIUP Carbondale IL 1977
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[HOW 85] HOWES MJ HOKANSON JE LOWENSTEIN DA ldquoIntroduction of depressive affect after prolonged exposure to a mildly depressed individualrdquo Journal of Personality and Social Psychology vol 49 pp 1110ndash1113 1985
[HOW 06] HOWARD A ldquoPositive and negative emotional attractors and intentional changerdquo Journal of Management Development vol 25 no 7 pp 657ndash670 2006
[HOW 15] HOWARD LW LI-PING TANG T AUSTIN MJ ldquoTeaching critical thinking skills ability motivation intervention and the Pygmalion effectrdquo Journal of Business Ethics vol 128 no 1 pp 133ndash147 2015
[HUM 02] HUMPHREY H ldquoThe many faces of emotional leadershiprdquo The Leadership Quarterly vol 13 no 5 pp 493ndash504 2002
[HUY 02] HUY QN ldquoEmotional balancing of organizational continuity and radical change the contribution of middle managersrdquo Administrative Science Quarterly vol 47 pp 31ndash69 2002
[IAC 05] IACOBINI M ldquoNeural mechanisms of imitationrdquo Current Opinion in Neurobiology vol 15 no 6 pp 632ndash637 2005
[ISE 02] ISEN AM ldquoMissing in action in the AIM positive affectrsquos facilitation of cognitive flexibility innovation and problem solvingrdquo Psychological Inquiry vol 13 no 1 pp 57ndash65 2002
[IZA 77] IZARD CE Human Emotions Plenum Press New York NY 1977
[IZA 84] IZARD CE KAGAN J ZAJONC R (eds) Emotions Cognition and Behaviour Cambridge University Press Cambridge MA 1984
[JAM 84] JAMES W ldquoWhat is an emotionrdquo Mind vol 9 pp 188ndash205 1884
[JAM 89] JAMES N ldquoEmotional labour skill and work in the social regulation of feelingsrdquo Sociological Review vol 37 pp 15ndash32 1989
[JAN 82] JANIS IL Victims of Groupthink Houghton Mifflin Boston MA 1982
[JAR 04] JARCHO JM BERKMAN ET LIEBERMAN MD ldquoThe neural basis of rationalization cognitive dissonance reduction during decision-makingrdquo Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience vol 6 no 4 pp 460ndash467 2004
128 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
[JEH 95] JEHN KA ldquoA multimethod examination of the benefits and detriments of intragroup conflictrdquo Administrative Science Quarterly vol 42 pp 530ndash557 1995
[JEH 97] JEHN KA SHAH P ldquoInterpersonal relationship and task performance an examination of mediating processes in friendship and acquaintance groupsrdquo Journal of Personality and Social Psychology vol 72 pp 775ndash790 1997
[JEN 00] JENNINGS DF ARTZ K GILLIN LM et al ldquoDeterminants of trust in global strategic alliances Amrad and the Australian biomedical industryrdquo Competitiveness Review vol 10 no 1 pp 25ndash44 2000
[JOH 82] JOHNSON-GEORGE CE SWAP WC ldquoMeasurement of specific interpersonal trust construction and validation of scale to assess trust in specific otherrdquo Journal of Personality and Social Psychology vol 43 pp 1306ndash1317 1982
[JON 98] JONES GR GEORGE JM ldquoThe experience and evolution of trust implications for cooperation and teamworkrdquo Academy of Management Review vol 23 no 3 pp 531ndash546 1998
[JON 99] JONES TM WICKS AC ldquoConvergent stakeholder theoryrdquo Academy of Management Review vol 24 pp 206ndash221 1999
[JOR 09] JORDAN PJ LAWRENCE SA ldquoEmotional intelligence in teams development and initial validation of the short version of the workgroup emotional intelligence profile (WEIP-S)rdquo Journal of Management and Organization vol 15 pp 452ndash469 2009
[KAH 73] KAHNEMAN D TVERSKY A ldquoOn the psychology of predictionrdquo Psychological Review vol 80 no 4 pp 237ndash251 1973
[KAN 98] KANT I Critique of Pure Reason Cambridge University Press New York NY 1998
[KEM 78] KEMPER TD A Social Interactional Theory of Emotions Wiley New York NY 1978
[KIS 05] KISHI T ELMQUIST JK ldquoBody weight is regulated by the brain a link between feeding and emotionrdquo Molecular Psychiatry vol 10 pp 132ndash146 2005
[KOE 87] KOESTENBAUM P The Heart of Business Ethics Power and Philosophy Saybrook Publishing San Francisco CA 1987
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[KOG 92] KOGUT B ZANDER U ldquoKnowledge of the firm combinative capabilities and the replication of technologyrdquo Organization Science vol 3 no 3 pp 383ndash397 1992
[KOT 90] KOTTER JP A Force for Change How Leadership Differs from Management The Free Press New York NY 1990
[KOT 02] KOTTER JP COHEN DS The Heart of Change Harvard Business School Press Boston MA 2002
[KRO 69] KROP HD ALEGRE CE WILLIAMS CD ldquoEffect of induced stress on convergent and divergent thinkingrdquo Psychological Reports vol 24 pp 895ndash898 1969
[KRU 00] KRUML JR GEDDES D ldquoExploring the dimensions of emotional labourrdquo Management Communication Quarterly vol 14 no 1 pp 8ndash49 2000
[KRY 08] KRYSTYNA G ldquoThe role of affect in developing communicative and cultural competence in ESPrdquo English Education and English for Specific Purposes Crane Publishing Co Taipei 2008
[KUG 12] KUGLER T KAUSER EE MARTIN G et al Are groups more rational than individuals A review of interactive decision making in groups Document no 3701 CESifo January 2012
[LAB 94] LABORIT H Les bases biologiques des comportements sociaux Fides Montreal 1994
[LAD 07] LADHARI R ldquoThe movie experience a revised approach to determinants of satisfactionrdquo Journal of Business Research vol 60 no 5 pp 454ndash462 2007
[LAZ 91] LAZARUS RS Emotion and Adaptation Oxford University Press Oxford 1991
[LEB 63] LE BON G Psychologie des foules PUF Paris 1963
[LEB 04] LE BAS C ldquoManagement responsable et neacutecessaire reacutegulation globalerdquo Eacuteconomie et Humanisme no 370 pp 58ndash59 2004
[LED 97] LEDOUX JE MULLER J ldquoEmotional memory and psychopathologyrdquo Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society vol 352 pp 1719ndash1726 1997
[LED 98] LEDOUX JE The Emotional Brain Weidenfeld and Nicolson London 1998
130 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
[LEE 93] LEE RT ASHFORTH BE ldquoA longitudinal study of burnout among supervisors and managers comparisons between the Leiter and Maslach (1988) and Golembiewski et al (1986) modelsrdquo Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes vol 54 pp 369ndash398 1993
[LEE 96] LEE RT ASHFORTH BE ldquoA meta-analystic examination of the correlates of the three dimensions of job burnoutrdquo Journal of Applied Psychology vol 81 pp 123ndash133 1996
[LEE 03] LEENDERS RTAJ VAN ENGELEN JML KRATZER J ldquoVirtuality communication and new product team creativity a social network perspectiverdquo Journal of Engineering and Technology Management vol 20 no 1 pp 69ndash92 2003
[LEE 15] LEE C AN M NOH Y ldquoThe effects of emotional display rules on flight attendantsrsquo emotional labor strategy job burnout and performancerdquo Service Business vol 9 no 3 pp 409ndash425 2015
[LEF 06] LEFLEY F ldquoCan a project champion bias project selection and if so how can we avoid itrdquo Management Research News vol 29 no 4 pp 174ndash183 2006
[LEacuteP 05] LEacutePINEUX F ldquoStakeholder theory society and social cohesionrdquo Corporate Governance vol 5 no 2 pp 99ndash110 2005
[LER 06] LERNER JS TIEDENS LZ ldquoPortrait of the angry decision maker how appraisal tendencies shape angerrsquos influence on cognitionrdquo Journal of Behavioral Decision Making vol 19 pp 115ndash137 2006
[LER 11] LEROUX E VAN HOOREBEKE D ldquoSI eacuteco-responsables et innovation les pratiques des salarieacutes dans les PMErdquo Gestion 2000 vol 28 no 4 pp 119ndash135 2011
[LES 98] LE SCANFF C ldquoLa preacuteparation-entraicircnement psychologique pour des situations extrecircmes application au sport de haut niveaurdquo Bulletin de Psychologie vol 51 no 6 pp 765ndash781 1998
[LEW 51] LEWIN K Field Theory in Social Science Selected Theoretical Papers Harper and Row New York NY 1951
[LEW 00] LEWIS KM ldquoWhen leaders display emotion how followers respond to negative emotional expression of male and female leadersrdquo Journal of Organizational Behavior vol 21 pp 221ndash234 2000
[LIN 65] LINDGREN HC LINDGREN F ldquoCreativity brainstorming and orneriness a cross-cultural studyrdquo Journal of Sociology and Psychology vol 67 pp 23ndash30 1965
Bibliography 131
[LIU 05] LIU Y PERREWEacute PL ldquoAnother look at the role of emotion in the organizational change a process modelrdquo Human Resource Management Review vol 15 pp 263ndash280 2005
[LOE 03] LOEWENSTEIN G LERNER JS ldquoThe role of affect in decision makingrdquo in DAVIDSON RJ et al (eds) Handbook of Affective Science Oxford University Press Oxford 2003
[LOS 02] LOSTRA F ldquoLe cerveau eacutemotionnel ou la neuroanatomie des eacutemotionsrdquo Cahiers critiques de theacuterapie familiale et de pratiques de reacuteseaux vol 29 no 2 pp 73ndash86 2002
[LOU 00] LOU H LUO W STRONG D ldquoPerceived critical mass effect on groupware acceptancerdquo European Journal of Information Systems vol 9 pp 91ndash103 2000
[MAC 75] MACLEAN PD ldquoSensory and perspective factors in emotional functions of the trinue brainrdquo in LEVI L (ed) Emotions Their Parameters and Measurement Raven New York NY pp 71ndash92 1975
[MAC 00] MACDONALD AW COHEN JD STENGER VA et al ldquoDissociating the role of the dorsolateral prefrontal and anterior cingulate cortex in cognitive controlrdquo Science vol 288 pp 1835ndash1838 2000
[MAE 10] MAES B FONTANAUD N PRONOST A-M ldquoEffet de la mise en place drsquoun instrument drsquoeacutevaluation continue de la qualiteacute des soins infirmiers sur la satisfaction au travail des soignants et sur leur implication affectiverdquo Recherche en soins infirmiers vol 102 no 3 pp 42ndash49 2010
[MAF 96] MAFFESOLI M Eacuteloge de la raison sensible Grasset Paris 1996
[MAL 96] MALVILLE P Leccedilons litteacuteraires sur les lsquoConfessionsrsquo de Jean-Jacques Rousseau PUF Paris 1996
[MAN 61] MANSFIELD E ldquoTechnical change and the rate of imitationrdquo Econometrica vol 29 no 4 pp 741ndash766 1961
[MAN 13] MANJOO F ldquoThe happiness machine how Google became such a great place to workrdquo Slate Magazine available at httpwwwslatecom articlestechnologytechnology201301google_people_operations_the_secrets_of_the_world_s_most_scientific_humanhtml January 2013
[MAS 82] MASLACH C Burnout The Cost of Caring Englewood Cliffs New York NY 1982
132 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
[MAS 02] MASON CM GRIFFIN MA ldquoGroup task satisfaction applying the construct of job satisfaction to groupsrdquo Small Group Research vol 33 no 3 pp 271ndash312 2002
[MAS 09] MASCLET D COLOMBIER N DENANT-BOEMONT L et al ldquoGroup and individual risk preferences a lottery-choice experiment with self-employed and salaried workersrdquo Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization vol 70 no 3 pp 470ndash484 2009
[MCA 95] MCALLISTER DJ ldquoAffect- and cognition-based trust as foundations for interpersonal cooperation in organizationsrdquo Academy of Management Journal vol 38 no 1 pp 24ndash60 1995
[MCC 84] MCCRAE RR ldquoSituational determinants of coping responses loss threat and challengerdquo Journal of Personality and Social Psychology vol 46 no 4 pp 919ndash928 1984
[MER 99] MERCIER S Lrsquoeacutethique dans les entreprises La Deacutecouverte Paris 1999
[MID 89] MIDDLETON DR ldquoEmotional style the cultural ordering of emotionsrdquo Ethos vol 17 pp 187ndash201 1989
[MON 05] MONOD-BROCA P Paul Broca un geacuteant du XIXe siegravecle Vuibert Paris 2005
[MOR 81] MORRIS T GREER S PETTINGALE KW et al ldquoPattern of expression of anger and their psychological correlates in women with breast cancerrdquo Journal of Psychosomatic Research vol 25 pp 111ndash117 1981
[MOR 96] MORRIS JA FELDMAN DC ldquoThe dimensions antecedents and consequences of emotion laborrdquo The Academy of Management Review vol 21 no 4 pp 986ndash1010 1996
[MOR 97] MORRIS JA FELDMAN DC ldquoManaging emotions in the workplacerdquo Journal of Managerial Issues vol 9 no 3 pp 257ndash274 1997
[MOR 02] MORANA J VAN HOOREBEKE D ldquoLe facteur humain au cœur du supply chain managementrdquo Gestion 2000 vol 6 pp 131ndash141 2002
[MOR 06] MORIN E Eacutethique vol 6 Le Seuil Paris 2006
[MUR 89] MURRAY AI ldquoTop management group heterogeneity and firm performancerdquo Strategic Management Journal vol 10 pp 125ndash141 1989
Bibliography 133
[NEA 86] NEALE MA BAZERMAN MH NORTHCRAFT GB et al ldquoChoice shift effects in group decisions a decision bias perspectiverdquo International Journal of Small Group Research vol 23 pp 33ndash42 1986
[NEL 00] NELSON K BOWEN J ldquoThe effect of employee uniforms on employee satisfaction the Cornell Hotel and Restaurantrdquo Administration Quarterly vol 41 no 2 pp 86ndash95 2000
[NEW 02] NEWCOMBE MJ ASHKANASY NM ldquoThe role of affect and affective congruence in perceptions of leaders an experimental studyrdquo Leadership Quarterly vol 13 pp 601ndash614 2002
[OAK 96] OAKLAND S OSTELL A ldquoMeasuring coping a review and critiquerdquo Human Relations vol 49 no 2 p 133 1996
[OKE 04] OKETCH M ldquoThe corporate stake in social cohesionrdquo Corporate Governance vol 4 no 3 pp 5ndash19 2004
[OLD 54] OLDS J MILNER PM ldquoPositive reinforcement produced by electrical stimulation of the septal area and the other regions of the rat brainrdquo Journal of Comparative and Psychological Psychology vol 47 pp 419ndash427 1954
[PAE 93] PAESE PW BIESER M TUBBS ME ldquoFraming effects and choice shifts in group decision makingrdquo Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes vol 56 pp 149ndash165 1993
[PAP 37] PAPEZ JP ldquoA proposed mechanism of emotionrdquo Archives of Neurology amp Psychiatry vol 38 pp 725ndash743 1937
[PAU 03] PAULUS P NIJSTAD B Group Creativity Innovation through Collaboration Oxford University Press New York NY 2003
[PEC 03] PECH RJ ldquoMemes and cognitive hardwiring why are some memes more successful than othersrdquo European Journal of Innovation Management vol 6 no 3 pp 173ndash181 2003
[PEL 05] PELLISSIER-TANNON A ldquoLrsquoadoption drsquoune attitude socialement responsable et ses fondements psychologiques un point de vue aristoteacutelicienrdquo Congregraves International de lrsquoADERSE Lyon October 2005
[PER 06] PERRY-SMITH JE ldquoSocial yet creative the role of social relationships in facilitating individual creativityrdquo Academy of Management Journal vol 49 pp 85ndash101 2006
[PET 83] PETERS T WATERMAN R Le prix de lrsquoexcellence InterEacuteditions Paris 1983
134 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
[PET 96] PETER JP OLSON JC Consumer Behavior and Marketing Strategy Irwin Chicago IL 1996
[PFE 98] PFEFFERBAUM B PFEFFERBAUM RL ldquoContagion in stress ndash an infectious disease model for post-traumatic stress in childrenrdquo Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America vol 7 p 183 1998
[PIA 37] PIAGET J La construction du reacuteel chez lrsquoenfant Delachaux et Niestleacute Paris 1937
[PIC 95] PICARD D ldquoRecherche performance humaine deacutesespeacutereacutement la contribution de cabinets de conseilrdquo Cahier de recherche du Gregor no 10 1995
[PIR 04] PIROLA-MERLO A MANN L ldquoThe relationship between individual creativity and team creativity aggregating across people and timerdquo Journal of Organizational Behavior vol 25 pp 235ndash257 2004
[PLU 80] PLUTCHIK R Emotion A Psychoevolutionary Synthesis Harper and Row New York NY 1980
[QUI 06] QUIRK J BEER JS ldquoPrefrontal involvement in the regulation of emotion convergence of rat and human studiesrdquo Current Opinion in Neurobiology vol 16 pp 723ndash727 2006
[RAF 89] RAFAELI A SUTTON RI ldquoThe expression of emotion in organizational liferdquo Research in Organizational Behavior vol 11 pp 1ndash42 1989
[REI 45] REICH W ldquoLa peste eacutemotionnellerdquo in REICH W (ed) Lrsquoanalyse caracteacuterielle Petite Bibliothegraveque Payot Paris 1945
[REI 01] REIS HT ldquoRelationship experiences and emotional well-beingrdquo in RYFF CD SINGER BH (eds) Emotion Social Relationship and Health Oxford University Press Oxford 2001
[REM 85] REMPEL JK HOLMES JG ZANNA MD ldquoTrust in close relationshipsrdquo Journal of Personality and Social Psychology vol 49 pp 95ndash112 1985
[RHO 01] RHODE P STEGEMAN M ldquoNon-Nash equilibria of Darwinian dynamics with applications to duopolyrdquo International Journal of Industrial Organization vol 19 pp 415ndash453 2001
[RIB 30] RIBOT T La psychologie des sentiments Alcan Paris 1930
[RIM 05] RIME B Le partage social des eacutemotions PUF Paris 2005
Bibliography 135
[ROB 97] ROBINSON MD JOHNSON JT ldquoIs it emotion or is it stress Gender stereotypes and the perception of subjective experiencerdquo Sex Roles vol 36 pp 235ndash258 1997
[ROG 95] ROGERS E The Diffusion of Innovations The Free Press New York NY 1995
[ROU 03] ROUSSILLON S Les eacutemotions dans le travail Research paper no 200312 EMLYON Business School December 2003
[ROU 15] ROUSSEAU N ldquoEn entreprise le bonheur est contagieuxrdquo La Tribune available at httpacteursdeleconomielatribunefrdebats conferences2015-02-04en-entreprise-le-bonheur-est-contagieuxhtml February 2015
[RUS 79] RUSSELL JA ldquoAffective space is bipolarrdquo Journal of Personality and Social Psychology vol 37 no 3 pp 345ndash356 1979
[SAM 06] SAMET R VAN HOOREBEKE D ldquoLa contagion eacutemotionnelle de groupe interpreacutetation numeacuterique du processus observeacute au travailrdquo Confeacuterence ACFAS Montreal 2006
[SAN 93] SANDELANDS L ST CLAIR L ldquoToward an empirical concept of grouprdquo Journal for the Theory of Social Behavior vol 23 pp 423ndash458 1993
[SAR 38] SARTRE J-P Esquisse drsquoune theacuteorie des eacutemotions Hermann Paris 1938
[SAV 54] SAVAGE L The Foundations of Statistics Dover Publications New York NY 1954
[SCH 71] SCHACHTER S Emotion Obesity and Crime Academic Press New York NY 1971
[SCH 73] SCHELLING TC ldquoHockey helmets concealed weapons and daylight saving a study of binary choices with externalitiesrdquo Journal of Conflict Resolution vol 17 pp 381ndash428 1973
[SCH 89] SCHERER KR ldquoVocal correlates of emotional arousal and affective disturbancerdquo in WAGNER H MANSTEAD A (eds) Handbook of Social Psychophysiology John Wiley amp Sons New York NY 1989
[SCH 94] SCHERER KR ldquoAffect burstsrdquo in VAN GOOZEN HM VAN DE POLL NE SERGEANT JA (eds) Emotions Essays on Emotion Theory Lawrence Erlbaum Hillsdale 1994
136 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
[SCH 98] SCHLAG K ldquoWhy imitate and if so how A boundedly rational approach to multi-armed banditsrdquo Journal of Economic Theory vol 78 no 1 pp 130ndash156 1998
[SCH 00] SCHAUBROECK J JONES JR ldquoAntecedents of workplace emotional labor dimensions and moderators of their effects on physical symptomsrdquo Journal of Organizational Behavior vol 21 pp 163ndash183 2000
[SCH 14] SCHMIDT E ROSENBERG J How Google Works John Murray London 2014
[SCO 80] SCOTT CLldquoInterpersonnel trust a comparison of attitudinal and situational factorsrdquo Human Relations vol 33 pp 805ndash812 1980
[SHA 87] SHAVER P SCHWARTZ J KIRSON D et al ldquoEmotion knowledge further exploration of a prototype approachrdquo Journal of Personality and Social Psychology vol 52 pp 1061ndash1086 1987
[SHI 03] SHIROM A ldquoJob related burnout a reviewrdquo in QUICK JC TETRICK LE (eds) Handbook of Occupational Health Psychology American Psychological Association Washington DC 2003
[SIM 59] SIMON HA ldquoTheories of decision-making in economics and behavioral sciencerdquo The American Economic Review vol 49 no 3 pp 253ndash283 1959
[SIM 87] SIMON HA ldquoMaking management decisions the role of intuition and emotionrdquo Academy of Management Executive vol 1 no 1 pp 57ndash64 1987
[SMI 76] SMITH VL ldquoExperimental economics induced value theoryrdquo American Economic Review Papers and Proceedings vol 66 no 2 pp 274ndash279 1976
[SMI 94] SMITH KG SMITH KA OLIAN JD et al ldquoTop management team demography and process the role of social integration and communicationrdquo Administrative Science Quarterly vol 39 pp 412ndash438 1994
[SMO 02] SMOLIAR SW SPRAGUE R ldquoCommunication and understanding for decision supportrdquo Proceedings of International Conference IFIP TC8WG83 Cork pp 107ndash119 2002
[SOL 98] SOLOMON RC ldquoThe politics of emotionrdquo Midwest Studies in Philosophy vol 22 no 1 pp 1ndash20 1998
Bibliography 137
[STA 89] STASSER G TAYLOR LA HANNA C ldquoInformation sampling in structured discussions of three- and six-person groupsrdquo Journal of Personality and Social Psychology vol 57 pp 57ndash67 1989
[STA 01] STASSER G DIETZ-UHLER B ldquoCollective choice judgment and problem solvingrdquo in HOGG MA TINDALE RS (eds) Handbook of Social Psychology Group Processes Blackwell Publishers Hoboken NJ 2001
[STE 93] STEARNS PN ldquoHistory of emotions the issue of changerdquo in
LEWIS M HAVILAND JM (eds) Handbook of Emotions Guilford New York NY 1993
[SUT 90] SUTTON RJ RAFAELI A ldquoBusy stores and demanding customers how do they affect the display of positive emotionrdquo Academy of Management Journal vol 33 no 3 pp 623ndash637 1990
[SUT 91] SUTTON RI ldquoMaintaining norms about expressed emotions the case of bill collectorsrdquo Administrative Science Quarterly vol 36 pp 245ndash268 1991
[TAB 08] TABIBNIA G SATPUTE AB LIEBERMAN MD ldquoThe sunny side of fairness preference for fairness activates reward circuitry (and disregarding unfairness activates self-control circuitry)rdquo Psychological Science vol 19 pp 339ndash347 2008
[TAJ 04] TAJFEL H TURNER JC ldquoThe social identity theory of intergroup behaviorrdquo in JOST TJ SIDANIUS J (eds) Political Psychology Psychology Press New York NY 2004
[TAN 92] TANNENBAUM SI BEARD RL SALAS E ldquoTeam building and its influence on team effectiveness an examination of conceptual and empirical developmentsrdquo in KELLEY K (ed) Issues Theory and Research in IndustrialOrganizational Psychology North Holland New York NY 1992
[THEacute 00] THEacuteVENET M Le plaisir de travailler favoriser lrsquoimplication des personnes Eacuteditions drsquoOrganisation Paris 2000
[THEacute 92] THEacuteVENET M Impliquer les personnes dans lrsquoentreprise Eacuteditions Liaisons Paris 1992
[THO 20] THORNDIKE EL ldquoA constant error in psychological ratingrdquo Journal of Applied Psychology vol 4 pp 25ndash29 1920
138 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
[THO 96a] THOMAS D ELY R ldquoMaking differences matter a new paradigm for managing diversityrdquo Harvard Business Review vol 74 no 5 pp 79ndash92 1996
[THO 96b] THOMASSET A Paul Ricœur une poeacutetique de la morale University Press Leuven 1996
[TIC 87] TICKLE-DEGNEN L ROSENTHAL R ldquoGroup rapport and nonverbal behaviourrdquo in HENDRICK C et al (eds) Group Processes and Intergroup Relations Review of Personality and Social Psychology vol 9 Sage Publications Beverly Hills CA 1987
[TOD 70] TODT D ldquoZur ordnung im gesang der nachtigall (Luscinia megarhynchos)rdquo Verhandlungen der Deutschen Zoologischen Gesellschaft vol 64 pp 249ndash252 1970
[TOD 71] TODT D ldquoAumlquivalente und konvalente gesangliche Reaktionen einer extrem regelmaumlssig singenden Nachtigall (Luscinia megarhynchos B)rdquo Zeitschrift fuumlr vergeichende Physiologie vol 71 pp 262ndash285 1971
[TOD 81] TODT D ldquoOn functions of vocal matching effect of counter-replies on song-post choice and singingrdquo Zeitschrift fuumlr Tierpsychologie vol 57 pp 73ndash93 1981
[TOD 96] TODT D HULTSCH H ldquoAcquisition and performance of repertoires ways of coping with diversity and versatilityrdquo in KROODSMA DE MILLER EH (eds) Ecology and Evolution of Communication Cornell University Press Ithaca 1996
[TOL 02] TOLBERT AS MCLEAN GN MYERS RC ldquoCreating the global learning organization (GLO)rdquo International Journal of Intercultural Relations vol 26 pp 462ndash472 2002
[TOT 98] TOTTERDELL P KELLETT S TEUCHMANN K et al ldquoEvidence of mood linkage in work groupsrdquo Journal of Personality and Social Psychology vol 74 pp 1504ndash1515 1998
[TOT 03] TOTTERDELL P HOLMAN D ldquoEmotion regulation in customer service roles testing a model of emotional laborrdquo Journal of Occupational Health Psychology vol 8 no 1 pp 55ndash73 2003
[TRA 93] TRAUE HC MICHAEL AM ldquoBehavioral and emotional inhibition in head painrdquo in TRAUE HC PENNEBAKER JW (eds) Emotion Inhibition and Health Hogrefe and Huber Publishers Seattle DC 1993
Bibliography 139
[TRE 96] TREWEEK P ldquoComparing interfaces should we assume that ease of use influences users preferencerdquo OzChirsquo96 Conference Proceedings IEEE Computer Society Press Hamilton 1996
[TUR 87] TURNER JC HOGG MA OAKES PJ et al Rediscovering the Social Group A Self-Categorization Theory Blackwell Oxford 1987
[TUR 01] TURBAN E ARONSON JE LIANG T-P Decision Support Systems and Intelligent Systems Prentice-Hall International Upper Saddle River NJ 2001
[TVE 80] TVERSKY A KAHNEMAN D ldquoCausal schemas in judgments under uncertaintyrdquo in FISHBEIN M (ed) Progress in Social Psychology Erlbaum Hillsdale MI 1980
[TYL 01] TYLER M HANCOCK P ldquoFlight attendants and the management of gendered lsquoOrganizational Bodiesrsquordquo in BACKETT-MILBURN K MCKIE L (eds) Constructing Gendered Bodies Explorations in Sociology Palgrave Macmillan London 2001
[VAN 03a] VAN HOOREBEKE D ldquoLe management des eacutemotions au travail une reconsideacuteration des pratiques organisationnellesrdquo Revue de Gestion des Ressources Humaines vol 49 2003
[VAN 03b] VAN HOOREBEKE D Les eacutemotions au travail processus conseacutequences et leviers de gestion PhD Thesis Universiteacute Aix-Marseille III 2003
[VAN 04] VAN HOOREBEKE D ldquoLa dissonance eacutemotionnelle au travail une approche ethnomeacutethodologiquerdquo Management et Avenir vol 3 pp 62ndash81 2004
[VAN 06] VAN HOOREBEKE D ldquoLa contagion eacutemotionnelle problegraveme ou ressource pour les relations interpersonnelles dans lrsquoorganisation rdquo Humanisme et Entreprise vol 279 pp 23ndash42 2006
[VAN 07a] VAN HOOREBEKE D ldquoContagion eacutemotionnelle facteur modeacuterateur de creacuteativiteacute et de performance de groupe au travail rdquo 9e Universiteacute de printemps de lrsquoIAS Moscow May 2007
[VAN 07b] VAN KLEEF GA COcircTEacute S ldquoExpressing anger in conflict when it helps and when it hurtsrdquo Journal of Applied Psychology vol 92 pp 1557ndash1569 2007
[VAN 08a] VAN HOOREBEKE D ldquoLrsquoeacutemotion et la prise de deacutecisionrdquo Revue Franccedilaise de Gestion vol 2 no 182 pp 33ndash44 2008
140 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
[VAN 08b] VAN HOOREBEKE D ldquoProposition de mesure de la performance des normes de comportements organisationnelles agrave lrsquoatteinte drsquoun service agrave la clientegravele authentiquerdquo Revue des Sciences de Gestion vol 1 no 229 pp 11ndash27 2008
[VAN 08c] VAN HOOREBEKE D BRASSEUR M ldquoEntre tradition et innovation la gestion des eacutemotions au travail eacutetude des leviers de gestionrdquo 15e congregraves de psychologie du travail et des organisations entre tradition et innovation comment transformons-nous lrsquounivers du travail Laval Quebec August 2008
[VAN 16] VAN HOOREBEKE D ldquoThe process of sharing ideas within a group while maintaining individual creativity a management leverrdquo International Review of Social Sciences vol 3 pp 34ndash45 2016
[VAS 05] VAS A ldquoLa vitesse de lrsquoadoption du changement au sein des grandes organisationsrdquo Revue Franccedilaise de Gestion no 155 pp 135ndash151 2005
[VAT 03] VATTEVILLE E Management strateacutegique de lrsquoemploi EMS Eacuteditions Paris 2003
[VEG 97] VEGA-REDONDO F ldquoThe evolution of Walrasian behaviorrdquo Econometrica vol 65 no 3 pp 375ndash384 1997
[VIN 86] VINCENT JD Biologie des passions Odile Jacob Paris 1986
[VON 44] VON NEUMANN J MORGENSTERN O Theory of Games and Economic Behavior Princeton University Press Princeton NJ 1944
[WAT 80] WATZLAWICK P Le langage du changement eacuteleacutements de communication theacuterapeutique Le Seuil Paris 1980
[WAT 02] WATTS DJ DODDS PS NEWMAN MEJ ldquoIdentity and search in social networksrdquo Science vol 296 pp 1302ndash1305 2002
[WEB 09] WEBER EU JOHNSON EJ ldquoMindful judgment and decision makingrdquo Annual Review of Psychology vol 60 pp 53ndash85 2009
[WEI 88] WEISBERG RW ldquoProblem solving and creativityrdquo in STERNBERG RJ (ed) The Nature of Creativity Contemporary Psychological Perspectives Cambridge University Press Cambridge 1988
[WEI 93] WEICK KE ROBERTS KH ldquoCollective mind in organizations heedful interrelating on flight decksrdquo Administrative Science Quarterly vol 38 pp 357ndash381 1993
Bibliography 141
[WEI 96] WEISS HM CROPANZANO R ldquoAffective events theory a theoretical discussion of the structure causes and consequences of affective experiences at workrdquo Research in Organizational Behavior vol 18 pp 1ndash74 1996
[WES 91] WESTBROOK RA OLIVER RL ldquoThe dimensionality of consumption emotion patterns and consumer satisfactionrdquo Journal of Consumer Research vol 18 no 1 pp 84ndash91 1991
[WIL 98] WILLIAMS KW OrsquoREILLY CA ldquoDemography and diversity in organizations a review of 40 years of researchrdquo Research in Organizational Behavior vol 20 pp 77ndash140 1998
[YAN 11] YANIV I ldquoGroup diversity and decision quality amplification and attenuation of the framing effectrdquo International Journal of Forecasting vol 27 pp 41ndash49 2011
[ZAP 02] ZAPF D ldquoEmotion work and psychological well-being a review of the literature and some conceptual considerationsrdquo Human Resource Management Review vol 12 pp 237ndash268 2002
[ZER 08] ZERBE WJ HAumlRTEL CEJ ASHKANASY NM (eds) Research on Emotion in Organizations vol 4 Emerald Group Publications Bingley 2008
[ZID 06] ZID R Comprendre le changement organisationnel agrave travers les eacutemotions Working paper University of Quebec Montreal 2006
[ZOU 16] ZOUHAOUI F BOISARD-CASTELLUCCIA S VAN HOOREBEKE D ldquoLa reacutesistance au changement expliqueacutee par le respect de lrsquoeacutequilibre cognition-eacutemotion le cas de lrsquoimplantation drsquoun nouveau logiciel dans une entreprise internationale de servicerdquo 6e colloque de lrsquoIseor avec divisions lsquoDeacuteveloppement Organisationnel et Changementrsquo et lsquoManagement Consultingrsquo de lrsquoAcademy of Management Lyon June 2016
Index
A B C
acting deep 20 33 35 39 surface 20 33 36
adjustment 8 adoption 82 affective 2 anger 6 authentic 84 balance 108 behavior 15 bias
champion 68 decisional 67
capacity 108 categories of emotions 2 change 98 cognition 13 16 55 62 77 95
108 113 cognitive 12 13 15 38 45 53
57 59 76ndash78 84 90ndash93 95 104 109
cohesion 85 collective 16 complex 96 conflict 90
contagion 15 50 61 68 81 82 85 87 90 93 96ndash99 101ndash103 111 emo-decisional 63 65 emotional 14
creativity 95
D E G
decision 11 dissonance
cognitive 13 49 61 91 emotional 14 25 33 36 39
40 45 78 99 divergence 100 diversity 89 e-motion 14 29 51 110ndash112 emotion 1ndash4 6ndash9 12 13 15ndash17
20ndash23 29 32 33 35 38ndash40 42ndash47 49 50 52 53 55ndash57 59 62 63 65 67ndash70 73 76ndash80 82 83 85ndash87 92 93 95ndash99 102 104 113
emotional plague 83 experimentation 103 expression 6 group 89 groupthink 68
The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management First Edition Delphine van Hoorebeke copy ISTE Ltd 2018 Published by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley amp Sons Inc
144 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
H I J
heterogeneity 94 hormones 14 43ndash46 57 imitation 15 impression 3 inhibition 8 13 14 31 43ndash49
96 98 intelligence 100
emotional 71 73ndash75 intensity 5 joy 6
K L M N
knowing 16 limbic 10 management 5
sunflower 68 mimicry 15 84 model 101 mood 3 negative 100 nervous system 7 norms 96
P R S T
perception 6 positive 100 process 3 7ndash9 12ndash16 19 22
31ndash33 35ndash39 42 46 50 52ndash54 56 57 60 61 63 65 66 71 74 75 77 80 81 84 85 89ndash91 94 95 98 101 111
rational 104 sadness 6 satisfaction 30 share 5 social influence 71 task-unrelated thoughts 95 temperament 3
V W
ventromedial regions 57 work
collaborative 96 collaborative remote 74 emotional 20 22 25 32 33
35 36 38 71 110
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WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENTGo to wwwwileycomgoeula to access Wileyrsquos ebook EULA
- Cover
- Half-Title Page
- Title Page
- Copyright Page
- Contents
- Foreword by Martine Brasseur
- Foreword by Claude Berghmans
- Preface
- Introduction
- 1 Emotion
-
- 11 Emotion a complex concept
- 12 Expression
- 13 An adjustment tool
- 14 A neurological system
- 15 A complex system
- 16 Subject to dissonance and inhibition
- 17 Contagion
-
- 2 Managing Individuals
-
- 21 The art of managing customer focus the relations dependent on monitoring and margins to maneuver
-
- 211 Organizational norms
- 212 Dissonances
-
- 22 The art of motivating commitment and satisfaction
-
- 221 Different types of commitment
- 222 Commitmentndashsatisfactionndashe-motion
-
- 23 The art of administering well the process approach a proactive and sustainable method
-
- 231 Emo-management a process that concerns everyone
- 232 A multitude of effects in the workplace
- 233 Levers for managing
-
- 24 The art of ensuring health and safety in the workplace well-being at work
-
- 241 A neurobiological process
- 242 Reasons to become ill
- 243 Real consequences
- 244 A schema like this in business
-
- 25 A factual approach for effective decision-making knowledge of the emotional decision-making process
-
- 251 Decision and emotion
- 252 Decision and emotion at the origin a rejection
- 253 Decision and the neurobiological process
- 254 Decision and emo-management
- 255 Decision emo-management and contagion
-
- 3 Managing a Collective
-
- 31 An evidence-based approach for effective collective
- 32 The art of leading authentic leadership and emotional intelligence
-
- 321 The manager and emotions
- 322 The manager and emotional intelligence
- 323 Is everyone capable of emo-managing
-
- 33 The art of reconciling the present with the future the principle of continuous improvement
-
- 331 Change and emotion
- 332 Change = trust = emotion
- 333 Change a shared emotional acceptance
- 334 Lever for the acceptance of change through
-
- 34 The art of bringing people together mutually beneficial relations with others and the social aspect of managerial responsibility
-
- 341 Collective emotion arsenal of emo-management
- 342 A paradoxical arsenal positive and negative effects
-
- 35 The art of managing diversity learning and creating collectively
-
- 351 Diversity between conflicts and group work
- 352 Managing diversity with emo-management
- 353 Emo-management a factor in diversity
-
- 36 A common point an essential element for collective intelligence emotional contagion
-
- 361 Emo-management dealing with emotional contagion
- 362 Mathematical and economic tools to better manage emotional contagion
-
- Conclusion
- Bibliography
- Index
- Other titles from iSTE in Innovation Entrepreneurship and Management
- EULA
-
Contents
Foreword by Martine Brasseur ix
Foreword by Claude Berghmans xiii
Preface xvii
Introduction xxi
Chapter 1 Emotion 1
11 Emotion a complex concept 1 12 Expression 6 13 An adjustment tool 8 14 A neurological system 10 15 A complex system 12 16 Subject to dissonance and inhibition 13 17 Contagion 14
Chapter 2 Managing Individuals 19
21 The art of managing customer focus the relations dependent on monitoring and margins to maneuver 19
211 Organizational norms 21 212 Dissonances 23
22 The art of motivating commitment and satisfaction 27 221 Different types of commitment 27 222 Commitmentndashsatisfactionndashe-motion 29
vi The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
23 The art of administering well the process approach a proactive and sustainable method 31
231 Emo-management a process that concerns everyone 32 232 A multitude of effects in the workplace 35 233 Levers for managing 38
24 The art of ensuring health and safety in the workplace well-being at work 42
241 A neurobiological process 43 242 Reasons to become ill 44 243 Real consequences 45 244 A schema like this in business 48
25 A factual approach for effective decision-making knowledge of the emotional decision-making process 52
251 Decision and emotion 52 252 Decision and emotion at the origin a rejection 53 253 Decision and the neurobiological process 57 254 Decision and emo-management 60 255 Decision emo-management and contagion 62
Chapter 3 Managing a Collective 65
31 An evidence-based approach for effective collective decision-making understanding the process of emo-decisional contagion 65 32 The art of leading authentic leadership and emotional intelligence 69
321 The manager and emotions 70 322 The manager and emotional intelligence 71 323 Is everyone capable of emo-managing 73
33 The art of reconciling the present with the future the principle of continuous improvement 75
331 Change and emotion 76 332 Change = trust = emotion 78 333 Change a shared emotional acceptance 81 334 Lever for the acceptance of change through emo-management 82
Contents vii
34 The art of bringing people together mutually beneficial relations with others and the social aspect of managerial responsibility 84
341 Collective emotion arsenal of emo-management 85 342 A paradoxical arsenal positive and negative effects 86
35 The art of managing diversity learning and creating collectively 89
351 Diversity between conflicts and group work 90 352 Managing diversity with emo-management 93 353 Emo-management a factor in diversity 94
36 A common point an essential element for collective intelligence emotional contagion 99
361 Emo-management dealing with emotional contagion 101 362 Mathematical and economic tools to better manage emotional contagion 101
Conclusion 107
Bibliography 115
Index 143
Foreword by Martine Brasseur
The management of emotions in companies is a necessity It is nevertheless a difficult challenge especially as emotions are associated with an inalienable liberty of the subject At first their spontaneous character appears to be in conflict with any attempts at management Even when addressing the question of emotional control and distinguishing perception from emotional expression at the risk of placing people in cognitive dissonance a second objection to the potential management of emotions seems to reside in the possible intervention of a third party into an intrapsychic process that each individual is already struggling to channel How can we move past the stage of philosophical debates like the ongoing one [DAR 95] opposing in particular the Earl of Shaftesbury1 who like the Stoics
1 ldquoIt may be objected here that these passions unnatural as they are carry still a sort of pleasure with them and that however barbarous a pleasure it be yet still it is a pleasure and satisfaction which is found in pride or tyranny revenge malice cruelty exerted Now if it be possible in nature that anyone can feel a barbarous or malicious joy otherwise than in consequence of mere anguish and torment then we may perhaps allow this kind of satisfaction to be called pleasure or delight But the case is evidently contrary To love and to be kind to have social or natural affection complacency and good-will is to feel immediate satisfaction and genuine content It is in itself original joy depending on no preceding pain or uneasiness and producing nothing beside satisfaction merely On the other side animosity hatred and bitterness are original misery and torment producing no other pleasure or satisfaction than as the unnatural desire is for the instant satisfied by something which appeases itrdquo [ASH 07 p 110]
x The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
called for a self-government outside of all external laws and all sanctions solely through the satisfaction of good deeds and Immanuel Kant for whom self-determination fell under individual will and consisted of imposing the application of moral law on oneself For both emotions are understood as passions that cloud or distort judgment This is not a matter for management because managing emotions would be reduced to personal discipline very far from the challenges of developing professional skills or interacting with others and reinforcing traditional conceptions that place emotions outside of the field of management
Delphine van Hoorebekersquos approach developed based on several scientific disciplines including sociology psychology and neuroscience is very different and allows her to address the complexity of motivations and emotional processes while demonstrating that their integration into management practices is not only possible but also represents an important performance factor Approaching management like a relational exercise requiring the development of human qualities in the people who practice it [CHA 90] she treats emotion as a manifestation resulting in a bias one consisting of ldquotaking something at face valuerdquo [THO 96b] Emotions come to play the roles of indicators or alerts Their capacity to make certain aspects of professional situations intelligible leads to an evocation of the existence of a form of emotional intelligence in line with Sartre [SAR 38] who considered that ldquoemotional consciousness is primarily consciousness of the worldrdquo or Robert Solomon [SOL 98] for whom emotions ldquodo not just happen to usrdquo they help us to face other people In its pedagogical development this book shows us step by step how emotions intervene in each step of management and what mechanisms managers should use
Over the course of these pages a model emerges of a professional practice that by considering the emotions of the subject and the role attributed to feelings toward other people comes to promote the recognition of humanity in the other while giving managers the opportunity to affirm their own existence as human beings It is
Foreword by Martine Brasseur xi
through the management of people this emo-management that is so aptly named that we can humanize management
Martine BRASSEUR Professor at the Universiteacute Paris-Descartes Chief editor of the interdisciplinary journal
Management Homme amp Entreprise
Foreword by Claude Berghmans
The management of organizations has experienced many evolutions and mutations in the last 50 years that are directly related to the multiple evolutions of our society (technological human economic and political) and the major organizational figures who compose it in the context of globalization From the scientific organization of labor in Taylorian structures to different methods of participatory management that we can observe in our current societies the changes have been numerous and varied New research disciplines and rich innovative conceptual contributions have appeared in human resources and management sciences under the necessary pressure of multiple social changes that we have observed in English-speaking countries Subsequently the globalization of these approaches appeared and today we find very similar management methods in different areas around the world moving toward a kind of standardization in the management of human capital The same organizational and managerial dynamics are found in major financial or industrial groups In addition there are also innovative areas similar to small groups or networks that can provide new modifications to the understanding of how our organizations work and outline new managerial development paths that highlight innovation limitless creativity boldness and emotional intelligence Notably we see this in the management models of companies in Silicon Valley that are increasingly discussed and that spotlight the spirit of innovation and risk-taking where imagination stands alongside large-scale industrial and financial projects This is true for both the
xiv The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
success of small start-ups that transform into titanic structures like Elon Muskrsquos SpaceX company that offers private spacecraft launches or the great monsters of GAFA (Google Amazon Facebook Apple) that are headed for world domination in their sectors Sometimes insignificant in their infancy these companies have succeeded in adapting and developing by relying on their human capital To do this many factors were necessary including the consideration of emotional intelligence as a participative process of management The role of emotions in companies is beginning to be felt in many organizations First studied from a psychological angle in the 1980s the consideration of emotions quickly became an essential and necessary element in the management of human capital in companies
In practice many HR managers address this question by trying to implement innovative approaches that allow them to develop and work on what some call ldquoemotional competencerdquo in order to make the most of it in the daily managerial practices of our colleagues All the same the concept is difficult and it is not so easy to integrate the management of emotions into the managerial best practices that an organization needs to optimize its performance French university research in management sciences is only just beginning in this field and there are many ways to approach it Of course there are several methods of working on emotions in managerial practices but what about their long-term effectiveness HR practitioners today need precise methodological and conceptual foundations based on serious experimental research that has been proven in order to benefit from a real expertise on the subject to provide clarity in a field that is still very abstract and to be guided through this type of approach
This is exactly the aim of Delphine van Hoorebekersquos book which based on several years of research about managing emotions brilliantly proposes a meticulous argument showing that emotions are found in most management innovation and decision-making processes in large companies Emotions have long been underestimated in companies Here the author shows how managerial practices are connected to managing emotions whether it is at the level of decision-making conflict management or emotional contagion Her work highlights the important role of emotions in life
Foreword by Claude Berghmans xv
skills and the professional interactions that we observe in the daily life of our organizations Too long studied and perceived as a thinking machine employees are emotional beings who need to thrive and use the emotional potential that they possess in order to optimize their individual and collective performances within their organization Developing our emotional intelligence to optimize our managerial practices is becoming a necessity at the start of the 21st Century where the dynamics of change are numerous and continue to accelerate The future of our companies will need colleagues who can consider a larger facet of our cognitive potential and base themselves on what optimal emotional management can contribute to our daily work Not accounting for emotions within companies is nonsensical From now on we must equip ourselves with solid and precise foundations for comprehension that allow practitioners in organizations to implement the use of this concept and provide pragmatic approaches that are adapted to the needs of organizations
This book offers a new vision of management where emotions play an important role at both the individual and collective levels Using a clear and didactic approach the author offers us the possibility of constructing a precise understanding of emotional management and its implications at the level of individual and collective management processes that are necessary to all successful organizations It is an innovative and indispensable tool for anyone who wishes to reflect on the matter and optimize the management practices of their companies in order to equip themselves with tools and especially specific frameworks that underscore the necessity of developing the emotional aspects of our modes of management that often still respond to the cold logic of past organizational models The consideration of emotions in our managerial practices is now a necessity for responding to todayrsquos growing performance requirements
Claude BERGHMANS HR Manager
Eurofoil Luxembourg SA
Preface
Management is in the process of restructuring In an era of remote collaborative work (where cooperation is both inter-cultural and asynchronous) the social responsibility of companies (where a collaboration is envisioned between the stakeholders in a company) and uberization (where every person becomes their own employer subject to the opinions of clients and harsh market forces) the management of people in the workplace requires some adjustment in order to consider the neurological psychological and psychobiological aspects of human beings in both their ways of managing and of being managed and in the consequences of their management for themselves and others Faced with technologies management must rediscover its humanity to secure its position This expression of the ldquohumanizationrdquo of the human is based on the fact that in companies until now humans have only very rarely and exceptionally been considered as a whole often they were considered to be only robots (bodies) brains (heads) and above all beings without emotions which are often viewed as sentimentality at work (hearts) However the soft skills that are so sought-after in management today are based on a combination of these three pillars
The many behavioral issues and reactions of a group which often explain the failure or success of a given project depend on this consideration and a holistic understanding of the human at work This necessity is all the more fundamental because the current problem is
xviii The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
part of a radical change in our society with no one arguing the need for a new economic paradigm The new order of the economy in the making prompts us to change the reasoning and model of human relations
Driven by social networks and societal economic and environmental evolutions human relations are led to change Here one element takes a position that was unexpected until now disrupting several accepted meanings the heart
ldquoThe increase in hearts in the production process will shake up companies and society1 [hellip] The power of the heart the capacity to work together to establish trust beyond a simple transactionrdquo becomes an essential commodity in the economy that lies ahead in the coming years ldquoWe have reached a time when the rational manager model and its basic premise the rational actor are exhaustedrdquo explained Chanlat [CHA 03] in 2003 in his article ldquoEacutemotions organisation et management une critique sur la notion drsquointelligence eacutemotionnellerdquo in the journal Travailler
Although the term ldquomanagementrdquo was originally used to indicate a way to ride a horse (managere to guide by hand) the emotional aspect has long been removed from it However horse riding is renowned for a specific feature the respect of the animal and of the humanndashanimal relationship This situation is related to the confrontation between emotion and rationality Philosophers have often extolled the virtues of rationality through for example Descartesrsquo famous phrase ldquoI think therefore I amrdquo [DEC 37] Emotion was therefore perceived as a deviance Yet thanks to the developments and advancements of research the place of emotion in management is becoming increasingly clear and verified Its role as a relational decisional tool even as a support for rationality has granted it an important place in the development of decision-making and collaborative work software tools If software makes it possible to follow an entirely ldquorationalrdquo logic managers and their teams need
1 For more details see httpswwwlesechosfridees-debatseditos-analyses0216206 97193-quand-les-entreprises-embaucheront-des-coeurs-1192532phpdOb8GWQrZ m5v90vD99
Preface xix
human contacts to decide collaborate innovatehellip Without privileging the new types of practices of a future increasingly digital management this book seeks to show that emotion is already present at all of these levels In addition the new practices already seem to be driving forces that will accelerate the different processes established and amplify emotional relationships To understand the emerging management it is essential to understand todayrsquos management through this aspect that is too often ignored even rejected despite being an explanatory factor in many problems
To do this by discussing emo-management and the management of people this text seeks to show how management is already predominantly composed of what we call ldquoe-motionsrdquo to emphasize their etymological significance put into motion It is a question of testing describing and illustrating the connections between management practices and psychological sociological and neurological components of e-motion Therefore its objective is to understand how emotion with its three pillars that are already in place can become essential in the future In a context where collaborative work is increasingly happening remotely supported by software tools management becomes a true tool of group coaching mediating instructing and a factor of managerial innovation According to a great deal of research in this type of collaboration of social responsibility a group needs a physical marker to avoid chaos and ensure that it performs well This is the future role of the manager that is emerging Through two elements the management of individuals and the management of a group this book describes the intervention of e-motion at each level from the client relationship to group management passing through the process approach and individual and collective decision-making
The body of this text reveals the presence of two factors playing on paradoxes e-motion and its contagion At the individual level e-motion supports the good relationships but can also be the source of bad relationships especially when it is inauthentic E-motion both encourages well-being and yet can provoke health problems It supports decision-making but it can demonstrate a decisional bias At the collective level it can help with collaborative work and also play
xx The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
a central role in amplifying group idiosyncrasies (jealousy for example) Its contagion is also at the origin of genuine positive competition in the group and genuine collective self-destruction Management cannot escape these dimensions Faced with a future of homo collectivum where the social aspect is central emo-management assumes its full importance
Delphine VAN HOOREBEKE May 2018
Introduction
ldquoAnyone who uses violence knocks over beer or pronounces offensive language will be reprimandedhelliprdquo states the French register of the association of baker apprentices in 1904 In 2012 the baker apprentice handbook1 specifies ldquoProfessional attitudes and behaviors punctuality personal hygiene [hellip] sense of responsibilities industriousness teamwork attention to detailhelliprdquo The management of workplace behavior is not new and it has evolved a great deal If at the start the goal was to avoid intense emotions we now find more moderate terms Have they become independent of all emotion
If in the Middle Ages lower class gatherings were dominated by rowdiness and confusion whilst the behavior of the elite in the European courts was restrained and refined [ELI 94] In the 15th and 16th Centuries emerging associations of merchants and artisans attempted to regulate mutual interactions Among the regulations established by these associations we find the foundations of our current meeting procedures In the 17th Century a Spanish priest [GRA 05a] developed strategic refinement The advice that his book Oraculo manual y arte de prudencia (The Art of Worldly Wisdom) [GRA 05a] offers does not only recommend specific rules of behavior
1 Available online at httpcsmocaorgpdfcarnetapprentissageboulangerjuin 2012pdf
xxii The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
but also outlines the goal of developing a position of power In this book we find an undeniable emotional aspect
ndash ldquoThe passions are the gates of the soul The most practical knowledge consists of disguising themrdquo (p 98)
ndash ldquoDo and be seen doing Things do not pass for what they are but for what they seem To be of use and to know how to show yourself of use is to be twice as usefulrdquo (p 130)
ndash ldquoThe art of getting into a passion [hellip] The first step towards getting into a passion is to announce that you are in a passion By this means you begin the conflict with command over your temper for one has to regulate onersquos passion to the exact point that it is necessary and no further This is the art of arts in falling into and getting out of a ragerdquo (p 155)
ndash ldquoDo not pass for a Hypocrite [hellip] Sincerity should not degenerate into simplicity nor sagacity into cunningrdquo (p 219)
ndash ldquoAnticipate injuries and turn them into Favors [hellip] for he leaves no time for injuries that fills it up with gratituderdquo (p 259)
These different premises form the foundation of contemporary rules of conduct This advice is very indicative of the place of emotions and the management that they require in order not to fall into non-conformity Today at the intersection of production policies business collaborative work and uberization more and more individuals in our society have adopted them
This has not always been the case In the first industrial organizations only the directors of companies and their immediate environment enjoyed this type of consideration The employees were required to follow rules that notably resembled those of the registers of associations in the 15th Century Today the image of the organization as a pyramid of command and control is no longer compatible with the modern design of the company that is increasingly turning toward units in a network Exchange and horizontal coordination are in order Employees must have the ability to cooperate calmly and to adjust their behavior upon request In this
Introduction xxiii
context hierarchical conduct of superiority becomes incompatible Expressing a robust confidence keeping onersquos composure and directing others strategically are no longer the issue Interdependency requires reducing modeled behaviors and increasing more informal mannerisms These informal mannerisms require interlocutors to test themselves and test the other person in the relationship Because of this the individual must only rely on their own judgment and manage their own emotions [ELI 94]
To simplify two types of emotions appear in companies negative and positive Concerning the negative emotions jealousy disappointment anger gossip and power struggles constantly occupy individuals at work According to the website of Thibodeau2 a human resources consultant an emotion is a tool to reach a previously decided goal ldquoYou should not use a screwdriver if you want to drive in some nails you should choose a hammerrdquo According to this author the same thing applies to emotions Certain emotions seek to control others in order to obtain something For example people use anger as a way to get others to obey them Others use hate to get back at someonehellip Does this work Not always and when it does the results are only temporary In the medium- and long-term the use of anger grudges resentment criticism blame intimidation threats shaming and other emotions of the same type to manipulate or control others or to get something from them degenerates into major conflicts and sometimes a distressing failure Other emotions can plague us and prevent us from getting what we want They are presented in the form of fears that can generate various blockages
However there are also emotions like enthusiasm joy love passion and pleasure These emotions facilitate good relationships with others The rationalization of interaction in our modern organizations calls for taking charge managing the ldquoirrationalityrdquo of emotions and notably the so-called ldquonegativerdquo emotions Employees are encouraged to seek to express themselves authentically They learn to be more direct and also more respectful and flexible as evidenced
2 Available online at http wwwpsycho-ressourcesombibliemotions-et-croya nceshtml
xxiv The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
by articles found in the mainstream press In the French newspaper Les Eacutechos an article called ldquoLes eacutemotions dans lrsquoentrepriserdquo [BAT 02] tells us ldquoThe hour no longer belongs to the docile employee who is never responsible or guiltyrdquo The difficulty of managing emotions that are considered negative often leads to greater stress For Arriveacute [ARR 01] not expressing anything aside from the suffering that this conduct induces cuts us off from all real relationships and creates aggressive attitudes related to the frustration The most destructive ways of reducing this stress such as gossip insinuations cynicism paranoia and disagreements can drive the organization to a breaking point The pressure of growing interdependencies and the capacity to manage it are so precarious that a dynamic of increasing friction is very likely to develop For proof an article in the French newspaper Libeacuteration entitled ldquoDeacutemunis face aux tensionsrdquo [DAU 99] features an interview with the sociologist Vincent Dubois [DUB 08] who recounts the case of tellers for family allowance funds in his book La vie au guichet ldquoI have seen agents break down on several occasions they let themselves boil over they are no longer able to separate the personal from the professional [hellip] All this creates tensions and an uncomfortable situationrdquo (p 3) Humans must be able to manage this type of situation that they may encounter to overcome this frustration They must be able to express themselves and liberate their emotions
Faced with this first shift managers are not spared either Now they must decide on a rational and optimal way of managing their emotions and those of others by demonstrating emotional intelligence showing that they are responsible and ensuring well-being This has become so important that in the article ldquoThe happiness machine how Google became such a great place to workrdquo (2013) Farhad Manjoo wrote ldquo[hellip] there was the happiness problem Google monitors its employeesrsquo well-being to a degree that can seem absurd to those who work outside Mountain Viewrdquo [MAN 13] Yet if the concept of emotion evokes something for everyone then we must be able to understand it and pinpoint it even more so when it comes to managers This is what we hope to accomplish with this book understanding this kind of ldquoliving beingrdquo in order to manage more responsibly
Introduction xxv
In fact currently and parallel to an exacerbated collectivism accountability emerges The organization and its management modify their vision of things their way of operating and gain responsibility A change in how they operate or how they view their operations In this context managing in contemporary companies requires specific skills that make it possible to
1) create rapport that is based on a common identity
2) generate a social cohesion between different talents in the company
3) but also make good decisions very quickly
4) establish well-being in the workplace
5) secure the acceptance of changes that are indispensable for the flexibility of the organization faced with a market that is constantly evolving
6) be accountable
In our view future management depends on a collective intelligence a governance a responsible dimension that considers people in the workplace (managers and employees) to be an overall entity one complete and complex being that is both cognitive and intuitive physical and emotional
At this level the complexity of management takes on its full meaning To ensure a thoughtful integration of the new management on the horizon for companies the latter must consider people in the workplace in all their complexity This leads us to move beyond the studies that have already been conducted for more than 20 years to move past divisions and to show that management should be considered holistically In our opinion the current management on the ground has an unfortunate tendency to limit itself by acting on elements that are too specific Far be it from us to say that points of detail should be neglected but they remain restrictive Acting on an ad hoc basis is more conducive to being reactive than proactive Emo-management advocates understanding the quality of life the quality of human relations the quality of work relations and the quality of choices made
xxvi The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
The other particularity of emo-management is that it takes into consideration the stakeholders in the company These stakeholders are not restricted to only contractual parties but constitute a much larger set including ldquoany group or individual that can affect or be affected by the decisions and the realization of an organizationrsquos objectivesrdquo [FRE 84 p 48] and that ldquovoluntarily or involuntarily assumes a risk because of the companyrdquo [CLA 95] In the context of these theories the sought-after rule is cooperative balance [CAP 07] This means that the success of a strategy requires considering the interests of all stakeholders as emphasized by Jones and Wicks [JON 99] in order to be effective [FRE 99] However Vatteville [VAT 03] underscored the difficulty of governing stakeholders because they often have different or even competing objectives As noted by Capron and Quairel-Lanoizeleacutee [CAP 07] the issues at stake require implementing mediation and compromises that satisfy the majority of the parties concerned The new managerial rules based on collectivism (the search for a quantitative and qualitative collective wealth) [ASS 09] once again assign great importance to e-motion
To unlock the mysteries of this new and more complex vision of management which aims to manage a variety of stakeholders and an increase in individual interests using collective intelligence it is indispensable to conduct a study and analysis of human behavior through emotions which are seen as a natural biological psycho-cognitive psycho-sociological and neurological element
Historically after even the idea of the existence of emotions in animals had been rejected by scientific research Charles Darwin the founder of the theory of evolution in 1872 defined emotion as the ability of the living organism to adapt and survive He saw it as innate universal and communicative It is only in the last 20 years that emotions have been studied in social contexts In fact not long ago there was still a concerted effort in psychology to dismiss emotion from research emotions were considered ldquoan unscientific concept characterized by subjectivismrdquo [LAZ 91] an epiphenomenon From a behavioral point of view emotion was ultimately perceived as a
Introduction xxvii
ldquomotivatorrdquo something that influences the choice of an individual in response to an internal or external stimulus It is recognized that an emotion exists in both the personal and individual dimensions of a person It forms this ability to adapt and change a link that establishes our relationships and allows us to interact with the other Recent studies (in particular the many studies by OrsquoRegan in the 2000s) in cognitive research have demonstrated that emotions are a combination of several biochemical sociocultural and neurological factors They are translated by specific reactions motor (muscle tone shaking etc) behavioral (inability to move agitation escape aggression etc) and physiological (pallor flushing pulse acceleration palpitations sense of discomfort etc) These have become integral parts of human beings and their daily life Everyone manages their emotions daily and in doing so as noted by Hochschild [HOC 83] the management of emotions becomes a dominant aspect of social life with a capital ldquoSrdquo Emotions are at present considered to be a central concept and theories have multiplied As proof many disciplines study emotions The life sciences study the role of emotions in mental processes disorders and neural mechanisms such as psychiatry and psychology and also linguistics and education (concerning the role of emotions in learning) The social sciences often examine emotions for the role that they play in human culture and social interactions through anthropology ethology criminology law political science communication philosophy and even history where the discipline examines documents and other sources to interpret and analyze activities in the past and speculate about the emotional state of the authors of historical documents as a tool of interpretation In addition two facets of research that could seem contradictory to the irrational aspect attributed to emotions have been developed In the field of economics micro-economics examines production distribution and the consumption of goods and services in order to evaluate the role of emotions in the perception of decision-making and purchasing risk In the field that this text belongs to management science the intervention of emotions in companies is studied in the decisions of directors the behavior of employees and even customers
xxviii The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
The enthusiasm for emotions in these varied types of research corroborates the interest in their study in all areas of life including at work and in people management Supporting our position McAllister [MCA 95] explained that research in management recognizes that a large part of managerial work is accomplished through interpersonal interaction and that the nature of the relations between managers and their peers can determine their capacity to accomplish their work In this sense in its biological neurological and psychological aspects the contribution of emotion to modern management in daily life seems undeniable However at a time when work is becoming increasingly collaborative when we ask managers to listen to colleagues to show humility to know how to recognize their errors and to demonstrate empathy and when research on the subject is extensive and has been for several years now [ASH 17] can we consider that management can and must contemplate their intervention in a more in-depth way To answer this question after establishing a quick synopsis of the original definitions and concepts of emotion the goal is to show the role of emotions in decision-making change management authority and social relations between and within companies through a theoretical analysis and review of recent literature in management neurology and psychology
Starting from its original definition the term ldquomanagementrdquo comes from the French word ldquomeacutenagementrdquo borrowed by the English and later reintroduced into French in a somewhat modified form It is commonly defined by consensus as a set of techniques aiming to optimize the use of resources in an organization (company administration or even association) in order to realize an objective Based on these origins the management of teams and resources requires a capacity to know how to handle them (as in the adage ldquoslow and steady wins the racerdquo) According to Le Littreacute the term ldquomanagementrdquo describes this discipline as an art ldquothe art of directing steering handling motivatinghellip even the action of regulating effectively administering wellrdquo The history of management shows both the novelty of the discipline and the rapid evolution of mentalities in this area from Taylor with his scientific organization of
Introduction xxix
labor that was attuned to precision and rationality passing through Fayol with his functional approach to a management that was predictive organizing decisive coordinating and controlling to Weber with what some call the ldquotechno-scientific knowledgerdquo in management sciences knowledge resulting from combinations of different areas of research to improve the organization
Management (managing by hand) and ldquoemo-managementrdquo (managing emotions) Guiding by hand and managing emotions are two systems that may seem incompatible However the management of a horse by hand presumes trust from the animal Managing the emotions of a human presumes trust and an art of action and behavior
In its historical context management has undergone several theoretical and practical advancements in every area related to it and notably recently in terms of the social responsibility of companies ethics and governance In this regard Lewin [LEW 51] introduced the individual actor at the center of the organization by showing that a grouprsquos behavior is prompted by the manager According to Mercier [MER 99] managers have social influence and determine the spirit and values of companies a term that is commonly used in management [FRA 10] and their actions serve as a reference for the desired conduct The ethics of managers also have a direct influence on workplace behaviors according to Hiregravech3 Through interpersonal trust created by the perception of the ethical behavior of a manager and procedural justice a concept that encourages the assessment of manager ethics the employee will develop organizational citizenship
We believe that emo-management is inherently connected to the ldquointelligentrdquo understanding integration and regulation of emotions and this is what this text suggests Whether it is at the individual or collective level management cannot simply withdraw and omit emotions since they are an integral part of what humans do in all areas of life After establishing a description of what emotion is to
3 Available online at httpsbasepubdauphinefrbitstreamhandle1234567892883 Hireche_Loreapdfsequence=2
xxx The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
complete our demonstration we will consider Le Littreacutersquos definition of management broken down into two parts the individual level and the collective level
In these parts several management approaches are described based on the intervention of emotions
ndash The first approach concerns ldquocustomer focusrdquo or the art of establishing an authentic relationship with clients it has one principle efficient client relations Companies depend on their clients and count on their managers to lead a team that will take good care of them It is therefore important that its members understand their present and future needs meet their demands and strive to exceed their expectations To reach this goal the customer focus must be experienced and authentic Customer relations can be subject to organizational and occupational standards which can lead to emotional cognitive or conative dissonances The objective is through a literal analysis of a rating scale of these dissonances to attempt to limit them and in doing so minimize their negative effects such as ldquoinappropriaterdquo and inauthentic behavior that should be avoided in customer relations and causes distrust in the relationship This objective can in this context prove to be an invaluable aid for management
ndash The second approach ldquothe art of motivating commitment and satisfactionrdquo indicates that some studies have shown or demonstrated the interrelations between commitment and emotion in the workplace In this sense effective and intentional commitment cannot anchor certain practices within a company if it is imposed inhibited falsified or simulated
ndash The third approach ldquothe art of administering well the process approach a sustainable and proactive methodrdquo describes the process of creating workplace behaviors The description of this process based on a global approach (biological psychological cognitive and emotional) encourages managers to consider how they themselves function internally as well as how their colleagues operate and indicates existing management mechanisms to them
Introduction xxxi
ndash The fourth approach is based on ldquothe art of assessing workplace health and safety well-being at workrdquo It must be considered that responsible management cannot overlook the consideration of health and safety in the workplace This section describes the emotional aspect and its biological effects related to psychosocial risks at work
ndash The fifth approach concerns ldquothe factual approach for effective decision-making understanding the irrational decision processrdquo This approach develops in detail the process of decision-making elaborated by Berthoz [BER 03] and Damasio [DAM 94] This biological process describes the impact of emotions and the limbic system on decision-making in neurological terms In our view knowledge of how this works is more than essential for management to integrate the systems and factors that lead to a good or bad decision in its individual or collective aspects
ndash The sixth approach describes ldquothe art of leading authentic leadership and emotional intelligencerdquo This shows that leadership which can lead to responsible management according to Le Bas [LEB 04] is generated by authentic expression Studies on the subject go so far as to demonstrate that even anger when appropriate and expressed according to certain rules of decorum corresponds to an expectation of employees
ndash The seventh approach ldquothe art of reconciling the present to the future a pure principle of continuous improvementrdquo highlights the acceptance of change necessary for prospective actions and the continuity of the company which is compelled to adapt to market developments and imposed standards In this regard employees play a crucial role with their acceptance of change The latter depends on a connection of established and lasting trust to avoid having to confront conflicts refusals and resistance (voluntary or not) to the process of change implemented
ndash The eighth approach indicates that management is the art of bringing people together based on one principle mutually beneficial relations with others The art of bringing people together cannot happen without a leaderrsquos charisma Nevertheless in addition to this
xxxii The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
important factor this section presents the role of contagion and the contagious aspect of one or more individuals leading the group team or meeting whether it consists of colleagues suppliers clients or any other stakeholder An organization and its suppliers are interdependent and mutually beneficial relations increase joint capacities to create value Contagion cannot be established without a relationship of trust like the effect that a crowd movement can have on social interaction group cohesion cooperative exchanges and social inclusion or isolation
ndash The ninth approach ldquothe art of managing diversity learning and creating collectivelyrdquo highlights the effect of insights and emotions on activities for groups with multiple diversities Diversity is no longer sought in a single logic of equality but also in a logic of learning about difference and performance Managing diversity requires not only managing cognitive conflicts but also and especially more complex affective conflicts In this regard positive emotional contagion can prove to be a mechanism for cohesion and collective learning regardless of the heterogeneity and diversity of individuals and encourage performance
ndash The final approach focuses on a point that recurs in the other approaches emotional contagion a critical point of a group contagion a new collective ldquointelligencerdquo management tool Like the effect that a strike can have on social cohesion and cooperation contagion is present at all levels of the company internally and externally This can foster support as much as defiance conflict and dissolution Contagion resulting from emotion is purely innate to human beings As social beings since our origins we often seek activity in groups imitate our peers through mimicry to affirm our belonging and our real desire and ability to act like others The objective is not to be marginalized or excluded from the group
As specified earlier these different approaches are divided into two large sections managing individuals and managing a collective The future of management is no longer in individualism but in the collective and so particular emphasis is placed on the collective
Introduction xxxiii
Paradoxically on this point this text is in agreement with Descartes famous for his phrase ldquocogito ergo sumrdquo According to him the individual can be considered as a means to assess individual talents to construct a viable collective organization a social intelligence In 1649 in his book The Passions of the Soul he wrote the following in article 156 [DES 49]
ldquoThose who are Generous in this way are naturally inclined to do great things and yet to undertake nothing they do not feel themselves capable of And because they esteem nothing more highly than doing good to other men and for this reason scorning their own interest they are always perfectly courteous affable and of service to everyone And along with this they are entirely masters of their Passions ndash particularly Desires Jealousy and Envy because there is nothing whose acquisition does not depend on them which they think is worth enough to deserve being greatly wished forrdquo4
In fact to ensure efficient lasting and responsible collective management individuals cannot be considered as single entities in a group They are in this book at all times perceived as a distinctive being equipped with reason and emotion In a collective individuals must be able to obtain personal recognition and self-esteem fulfill their own needs and feel satisfied about being committed in a continuous fashion in their company and its projects It is notably this paradox of collectivismindividualism that makes this new vision of management sophisticated especially when we understand that it is based on a non-negligible emotional aspect emo-management
4 Translation taken from the 1989 English edition translated by Stephen Voss and published by Hackett Publishing Company
1
Emotion
11 Emotion a complex concept
Mr Baume just got a telephone call from a dishonest customer He hung up in anger and left to smoke a cigarette A commercial manager must not show his emotions Ms Nathaly is thrilled about her performance She thinks she will get a bonus Can she show her joy Some people will be happy for her but others will be disappointed that they did not do as well These are specific examples of emotions in companies Why are they so complex to manage
First to understand them well a detailed definition of the term ldquoemotionrdquo is necessary This immediately poses a problem however as emotion remains a notion that is vague and difficult to define [ALV 02] because it is idiosyncratic that is specific and unique to each individual creating several definitions and roles Etymologically speaking emotion comes from the Latin ex (exterior) and movere (motion movement) In his book Esquisse drsquoune theacuteorie des eacutemotions (Sketch for a Theory of the Emotions) Sartre [SAR 38 p 62] defines emotion as ldquoan abrupt drop of consciousness into magic We have seen how during an emotion the consciousness abases itself and abruptly transmutes the determinist work in which we live into a magical worldrdquo1 This idea of a magical world shows
1 Translation taken from the 1994 English edition translated by Philip Mairet and published by Routledge
The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management First Edition Delphine van Hoorebeke copy ISTE Ltd 2018 Published by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley amp Sons Inc
2 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
how closely tied emotions are to a spiritual realm that is difficult to discern
Emotions have in fact been categorized by several studies For example Shaver et al [SHA 87] established a hierarchical typology on a sample of 213 students starting from Averillrsquos [AVE 75] A Semantic Atlas of Emotional Concepts which contains 558 words with emotional connotations At the base of this typology they define five or six basic categories of emotions love joy surprise anger sadness and fear
Emotion is also distinguished from other concepts like mood and impression by several differentiating criteria although Ledoux [LED 98] and Damasio [DAM 94] do not agree on the subject One advocates for similarity and the other for differentiation
We will base this section on the writings of Derbaix [DER 87] which are more widely accepted According to him the affective includes emotions impressions humors [DER 87] and motivations [BAT 86] Derbaix and Pham [DER 89] distinguished these seven affective types through the intermediary of
1) the degree of specificity of the intended target or the stimulus provoking the reaction (emotion unlike preference depends more on the person than the stimulus)
2) the somatic and autonomic intensity (emotions are more intense than mood and are associated with a higher level of alertness)
3) the frequency of somatic and autonomic experiences (emotions are always accompanied by such experiences)
4) durability (feelings are more lasting than emotions)
5) the desire to control a facial or bodily expression the possibility of controlling the expression (an emotion is more difficult to control than a judgment)
6) the probability of a fundamental subjective experience (the probability of the awareness of emotions is high)
Emotion 3
7) the importance of cognitive antecedents and cognitive processes afterwards
Derbaix and Pham [DER 89] summarized several conceptions and organized emotion which they prefer to call ldquothe affectiverdquo into seven categories
1) Shock emotion (eg surprise) which is the most affective of reactions it translates into violent but brief psychological reactions such as laughter sobbing rage and neuro-vegetative phenomena palpitations tightness in the throat momentary paralysis even fainting as in fear
2) Impression emotion (eg pride) less anarchical more lasting and also spontaneous such as the aesthetic emotion produced by musical execution moral indignation at the spectacle of a revolting act etc
3) Mood [GAR 85] (eg melancholy) must be distinguished from emotion [FRA 94] because it is considered to be less severe more invasive and more ephemeral than felt emotions [BAT 86] In addition the psychological urgency of emotion its motivational potential and its situational specificity are comparatively greater [WES 91]
4) Temperament more related to the personality of the individual
5) Preference (eg the ranking of brands) also related to the personality of the individual
6) Attitude (eg an opinion)
7) Appreciation (eg evaluation of alternatives) corresponds to the most cognitive reaction
To this typology Vincent [VIN 86] added passion which has the primitive sense of ldquosufferingrdquo indicating a passive character as opposed to the notion of movement in emotions ldquoguided actionsrdquo It is defined as a ldquoviolent state of feelings that bring us toward another person (passionate love) or toward another object that consumes our mind (passion for gambling for example)rdquo (p 19)
4 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
Plutchik [PLU 80] established a circumplex model of emotions2 (Figure 11)
Figure 11 The wheel of emotions (source Plutchik [PLU 80]) For a color version of this figure see wwwistecoukvanhoorebekemanagementzip
Plutchikrsquos wheel of emotions has the advantage of displaying words that are easily comprehensible and distinguish the degree of the perception Although the words make it possible to discern the degree does their experimentation allow it as easily This is where Peter and Olson [PET 96] suggested distinguishing the emotion based on the
2 Available online at httpmassilia-coachingcomwp-contentuploads201310roue-des-eacutemotionspng
Emotion 5
degree of physiological excitation and the intensity of the perception (see Table 11)
Type of affective response
Degree of physiological
excitation
Intensity or strength of perception
Examples
Emotions Strong degree of
excitation and activation
Very strong Joy love fear
guilt anger
Specific perceptions
Appreciation satisfaction
warmth disgust sadness
Mood Alert relaxed
calm indifferent tired
Evaluations Weak degree of excitation and
activation Very weak
Good favorable appreciated bad
unfavorable
Table 11 Differentiation based on the degree of excitation (source Peter and Olson [PET 96 p 50])
These researchers concluded that emotions reflect psychological reactions and experiences They realized that an essential part of experiencing emotions is emotional expression through various forms of interpersonal communication In fact individuals are naturally inclined to share their emotions with others Even when these emotions are not intentionally communicated they are often revealed through spontaneous non-verbal manifestations that are difficult to manage In addition modern society has created a new role for emotional communication According to Stearns [STE 93 p 24] ldquothe importance of managing emotions through talking rather than active expression has become a dominant themerdquo3 When individuals fail to express a traumatic event verbally they fail to come to terms with it
3 Translation taken from the 3rd edition edited by Michael Lewis Jeannette M Haviland-Jones and Lisa Feldman Barret published in 2008 by The Guildford Press
6 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
12 Expression
Above we wondered about the perception of the degree of emotion felt based on the degree of excitation If discernment becomes more complex what about perception by others
These emotions depending on their degree of perception are in fact expressed Perhaps only specialists in psychology are able to identify micro-expressions (expressions so fleeting and tiny that they are difficult to distinguish) but apart from a few specific cases the majority of individuals are capable of identifying an emotion from its expression Ekman and Oster [EKM 79] studied this and noted that they are also universal Figure 12 shows some examples of expressions of ldquobasicrdquo emotions With expressions ranging from anger to joy passing through aggressiveness disapproval sadness regret and disappointment this image shows that some emotions are clearly more perceptible than others further complexifying their precise definition I leave it to you to try the exercise
Figure 12 Examples of facial expressions of emotions (source Ekman and Oster [EKM 79 p 77])
Emotion 7
Emotions can certainly exist outside of interpersonal interactions Looking at the sun can produce joy Hurting yourself can provoke anger Nevertheless these are most often exceptions to the rule More typically emotions result from social interactions [AND 96] According to Ekman and Oster [EKM 79] emotions result from social interactions whether they are real remembered anticipated or imagined Some are particularly socially dependent like jealousy shame guilt embarrassment and pride According to Laborit [LAB 94] the nervous system is used to acting but this action occurs in a space or spaces that contain objects and beings If the same space is occupied by other individuals each person seeks to find the means to please themselves and preserve a nervous balance which creates competition between the parties in question The objective is to dominate the other in order to have the pleasure of freely expressing your emotions
Because it reveals emotion expression can also represent a way of dealing with or ldquofacingrdquo a situation in the interest of adapting to the environment The emotional response is therefore used as a process of adjustment to the environment The adaptation corresponds to the individualrsquos search for balance in relation to his environment This balance is sought through an adjustment process in response to an event [JAM 89] Perception makes it possible to structure individual behaviors in a normal way to fit the circumstances Motivation directs them toward goals that are likely to obtain satisfaction for the individual Learning ensures the acquisition and modification of behavior to improve the personrsquos effectiveness in accomplishing projects and thriving in the environment
Discerning emotions can sometimes prove complex but the objective of the emotional response is not limited to communicating with others as we have seen It is also a tool of adaptation through the signals that it sends
8 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
13 An adjustment tool
According to McCrae [MCC 84] emotional response is an adjustment tool that follows a process
ndash confrontation (holding fast and fighting for what I want trying to find the person responsible to change his mind etc)
ndash detachment (continuing as if nothing happened not letting the problem affect me refusing to think too much about it etc)
ndash self-control (trying to keep my emotions to myself preventing others from learning how bad this problem is etc)
ndash seeking out social support (talking to someone who can do something concrete to solve the problem accepting someonersquos sympathy and understanding etc)
ndash accepting responsibility (self-criticizing or lecturing myself realizing that I created the problem etc)
ndash evasive action (wanting the situation to go away or to be rid of it in some way trying to make myself feel better by eating drinking smoking taking drugs or medication etc)
ndash planning the solution to the problem (knowing what must be done and increasing my efforts so that it works having an action plan and following it etc)
ndash positive re-evaluation (changing for the better or maturing finding a faith etc)
Andersen and Guerrero [AND 96] explained that every social rule of behavior leads to modifying the expression of spontaneous emotions to be socially normal through simulation inhibition intensification de-intensification or substitution
ndash simulation involves feigning an emotion when the individual does not really feel it
ndash inhibition or neutralization entails the inverse process of simulation giving the impression of not feeling any emotion while the individual really does feel an emotion
Emotion 9
ndash intensification or maximization makes it possible to pretend to feel an intense emotion without really experiencing it
ndash de-intensification or minimization follows the same process as intensification but to express a less intense emotion than what is felt
ndash substitution involves expressing a totally different emotion from the one actually experienced
The individual has the power to act on his emotions when they are not of too great an intensity [GOL 97] Based on interactionist theories Drever [DRE 52] described the emotional process followed to adapt in three elements First the strong impulse to act in a certain way such as attacking or expressing affection for someone Then a model of physical change paired with this inclination to act which is generally accompanied by a mobilization in the interest of a final adaptation
Scherer [SCH 94] described four components of the emotional experience as a result of the processes detailed above
ndash the cognitive component that refers to the interpretation of the event that caused the emotion or the stimulus and to all changes that resulted based on individual perceptions and beliefs
ndash the willingness to act that corresponds to the increase or decrease in the desire of the individual to act Frijda [FRI 86] considered that this willingness to act can result in expressing an emotion or controlling it
ndash sensations which correspond to the valence of the emotion that is the pleasurepain dimension caused by the emotion experienced
ndash the physiological change that corresponds to the increase or decrease in the level of excitation and physiological reactions like sweaty palms or blushing
It should be noted that the presence of only one of these components is not sufficient to identify an emotional experience
10 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
Earlier Burgoon [BUR 93] showed for example that physiological change is not synonymous with emotional experience as physiological changes can occur due to physical exercise increased attention or a false movement which are non-emotional stimuli Supporting this interactionist theory this procedural aspect is also perceived in neurology
14 A neurological system
I think therefore I amI tremble therefore I am afraid Emotion is not incompatible with cognition but at the cerebral level it follows a process and activates very specific regions Cultural heritage has long opposed cognition and emotion the brain and the mind Emotions were therefore reserved for the domain of psychology and mental illness [LOS 02]
For more than a century however we have eagerly searched for the cerebral structures that could be responsible for emotions According to Dale [DAL 47] this began with Walter Cannon who studied subjects who suffered from brain lesions incapable of feeling certain emotions He deduced that the hypothalamus was a cerebral center of emotions In 1937 the anatomist James Papez went further He showed that the emotions experienced were related to the action of a circuit relating the hypothalamus to the medial cortex In 1952 Paul MacLean used the expression ldquolimbic systemrdquo for the first time This term was introduced in 1861 by the French anatomist Paul Broca famous for the Brocarsquos area to designate the ring shape of the medial part of the cortex (from the Latin limbus edge) [MON 05] The limbic system designates the affective brain of the rhinencephalon (the most ancient part of the cortex) which is the locus of emotions According to MacLeanrsquos theory this system is integrated It includes the amygdala the septum and the prefrontal cortex
MacLeanrsquos theory may seem basic today The brain and its emotional areas have since been widely examined Several emotions have been studied with precision thanks to new medical technologies like MRIs
Emotion 11
The current idea is that each emotion corresponds to a cerebral network [LED 97] At present neurologists agree on recognizing the absence of a single locus of emotions like reason motor function vision or language There are ldquosystems of interrelationsrdquo between several cerebral units
Some results have made it possible to emphasize the important advancements that are usable and accessible in management In his theory from 1977 Ledoux showed that when information is emotional patients cannot describe the object but can say what they feel His theory indicated that emotion passes through different circuits He is particularly interested in the emotion of anger [GAZ 78] He wrote a book The Emotional Brain which describes how it functions in an accessible way
In the same way in 1994 Damasio [DAM 94] published one of his most famous books Descartesrsquo Error He explains his experience with the case of Phineas Gage deprived of emotions following a stroke The results of his analysis show that decision-making cannot occur without emotions
Far from wanting to detail the function of the brain ndash with its synapses its 100 billion neurons its glial cells4 that are 10ndash50 times more numerous than the neurons its zones its four ventricles its lobes5 its gray6 and white matter its myelin7 ndash one thing is certain emotions occupy a significant place in the system of cerebral interrelations They follow neuronal and then hormonal processes in order to influence the soma (body) From a more psychological point of view emotions are also described from the perspective of a system of adaptation to the environment deepening the process of adjustment described above
4 These cells surround the neurons represent about 50 of the brainrsquos volume and produce myelin 5 Frontal parietal occipital and temporal lobes 6 The most superficial part of the brain 7 Extension of neurons a sheath around the axons of neurons
12 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
15 A complex system
As we have seen emotions follow a process This process is complex on both the neurological and psychological levels and in addition to their utility as an adjustment tool they form a whole system of adaptation to the environment This is where Lazarus [LAZ 91] explained the process based on the emotional reactions that correspond to a process of adapting to the environment
1) Inclination toward action which is non-observable because it refers to impulses that may or not be active
2) Subjective emotional experiences (often considered affective) that are non-observable
3) Personndashenvironment relations a connection between two complex sub-systems the states resulting from these sub-systems are interpretive
4) Adjustment processes which are often experienced by actions or thoughts that probably influence emotions
5) Assessment processes constituting the center of the cognitive-motivational-relational theory of emotions Individuals gauge their emotions based on the goals that they pursue their relation to the environment and what they know to be good or bad for them
6) A frustration which is derived from the inability to follow the goals that the individual set and can lead to a blockage and aggression after various negative affective responses
Weiss and Cropanzano [WEI 96] illustrated this emotional process using the example of the process concerning happiness and sadness without considering this structure for all kinds of emotions (Figure 13)
Emotion 13
Figure 13 Process of assessment for happiness and sadness (source Weiss and Cropanzano [WEI 96 p 35])
The latter process shows the different steps that emotions cover to reach expression Through this process and the descriptions we can see that emotion does not act alone but in interconnection with cognition
16 Subject to dissonance and inhibition
Dissonance in opposition to consonance is a difference that can exist between two elements Festinger [FES 57] discussed cognitive dissonance to define the cognitive difference that can exist between what the individual knows and what they actually experience
14 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
Middleton [MID 89] and Hochschild [HOC 83] referred to emotional dissonance to define the difference that can exist between what is felt by the individual and what he knows he must express These two types of dissonance are seen as psychological states that are difficult to bear by the individual
Biological studies go even further To summarize this research described in more detail in section 24 (ldquoan art of ensuring health and safety in the workplacerdquo) conducted by Friedman and Booth-Kewley [FRI 87] Laborit [LAB 94] and Quirk and Beer [QUI 06] among others it is proven that inhibition corresponds to a resistance to respond to an increase in adrenaline This resistance provokes the secretion of hormones resulting from negative emotions This secretion repeated and accumulated over time can weaken some organs forced to repeat the response to hormonal messages that are being sent incessantly by the brain These hormones resulting from what we call e-motions (a biological process that sets in motion) intervene internally in the human body
17 Contagion
Hatfield et al [HAT 94] defined emotional contagion as an automatic unintentional and generally unrecognized tendency to imitate and synchronize facial expressions body movements and vocalizations during meetings with other individuals In addition when the same characteristics are synchronized with another individual we are capable of feeling them through the emotions of the other person that is feeling the same or complementary emotions This emotional contagion can lead to the crowd effects and mass hysteria described by Le Bon [LEB 63] Emotions can in fact be synchronized or imitated and become contagious The synchronization appears when two individuals express similar behaviors or when one person responds to the behavioral changes of the other by adopting the same behavioral changes [AND 96]
Emotion 15
Emotional contagion is a phenomenon that is both behavioral [HAT 94] and neurological [IAC 05] This contagion is influenced by three cognitive emotional and neurological processes (mirror neurons insular cortex of the brain and the cortex) Sometimes these three processes coincide but sometimes the central nervous system directly controls mimicking emotional contagion and empathy through mirror neurons [IAC 05] According to some researchers the transmission mechanism is cognitive and related to conscious reasoning analysis and imagination justified by this transmission close to empathy Individuals imagine what they would feel in the otherrsquos place (empathy) and thereby share their emotions Another theory involves imitation and feedback According to this mechanism
1) Individuals tend to imitate and synchronize their movements automatically and unconsciously to the facial expressions voices postures muscles rhythm and behavior of others
2) This imitation is dependent on all reactions from the other In this order the individual tends to seize upon the emotion of others in order to reach several objectives not being marginalized identifying with the other through contemplation attempting to feel what the other feels in a situation and detaching from the other Some people consider that mirror neurons play a role in human evolution They allow humans to reproduce consciously (imitation) or not (mimicry) and adapt to both the other emotions and the situation
It can also be perceived as negative Le Bonrsquos theory [LEB 63] described a mental contagion among individuals leading them to find a mental unity a single mode of thinking for a group of individuals Sometimes this mental contagion leads to collective hallucination In this context Le Bon cites the example of the Belle Poule frigate8 This boat was searching in daylight for a cruiser9 from which it had been separated by a storm When a ship
8 Small escort boat 9 High-seas escort ship
16 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
in distress was signaled the entire crew alarmed described a raft loaded with waving castaways In the end the raft was nothing but a mass of tree branches
In conclusion this chapter has made it possible to highlight the fact that emotion follows a complex process is distinguished from other concepts such as sentiment affect and mood varies depending on degrees is essentially expressed in a bodily way and is endowed with contagion However emotion has several factors that remain complex or even indiscernible This does not help its deep understanding and management Nevertheless although emotion in the workplace is not always considered favorably its presence is undeniable The individual cannot let go at work even if they can feign it At the collective level it is all the more significant especially since it acts as an adjustment tool within the construction or deconstruction of interindividual relations The next two chapters describe how emotion intervenes first in management at the individual level and then at the collective level Management viewed at the individual level cannot be totally separated from the relation to the other because the managerial world almost never allows for being alone or totally cutting oneself off from the other regardless of the profession accountant computer engineer etc Individuals must often regulate their emotions alone especially when they are in contact with clients as explained by Hochschild [HOC 83] It is at this time that the individuals must be able to self-regulate their emotions know how to understand them know what is expected of them and how they can harmful or on the contrary beneficial The role of management is in this case to set the frameworks while leaving a wide margin to maneuver to establish an authentic relationship all while striving to follow and enforce the established standards This is shown by the different descriptions of emotions in psychology research an emotionndashcognition balance Quite the paradox
Emotion 17
On the Website of the ManpowerGroup10 a temporary employment agency
we can read ldquoIn 1994 the neuropsychologist Antonio Damasio showed that
lsquohuman beings need emotions to make decisions when their futures are at stake
and particularly when they are uncertainhellip It is irrational to think that these
decisions are made rationallyrsquordquo11
An interview with Franccediloise Gri (President of ManpowerGroup for southern
Europe and Manpower France) is also presented on the site ldquoUsing emotions
effectively allows the company and its key players to succeed [They] can become
formidable performance drivers when they are personally assumed by the
manager and shared constructively with his colleaguesrdquo
Emotion to unite teams
Franccediloise Gri believes that regardless of their hierarchical level the key
players in a company ldquoknow how to use their emotions as performance drivers
with a desire to succeed and sharerdquo They know how to celebrate ldquoa teamrsquos
victory a complex project to convince a client with shared joy tears and shoutsrdquo
But accepting emotion ldquoalso means bearing the difficult momentsrdquo in front of
their teams
Listening and daring to confront
Within reason practically this consists of ldquoprompting an emotional state []
by questioning an interlocutor with tact and pertinence and listening to oneself
and the otherrdquo Listening to the other person does not only mean paying attention
to his words ndash because the body also expresses emotions It also means venturing
to confront the other person when necessary However it is important to know
how to use emotion with discretion ldquoThere is no need for emotion everywhere
Find a balance Everything in moderationrdquo
Sharing emotions a ldquotipping pointrdquo
The article underscores that ldquosharing emotions can become a tipping point a
pertinent driving force uniting simplicity and emotionrdquo
Case Study 11 Specific example of considering emotion in companies
10 Available online at httpwwwmanpowergroupfrlemotion-au-service-du-management 11 Translation from the French
2
Managing Individuals
Managing individuals well involves not only knowing how to listen to them but also being able to understand them Lacking expertise in psychology managers must demonstrate empathy be sincere establish trust identify any seeds of discontent in the workplace and decide wisely There is a solution to mitigate the lack of psychological expertise understanding onersquos own functioning in order to be better able to understand the other person Chapter 1 showed how many studies notably in psychology have had difficulty in completely identifying emotions and the number of roles they can have especially in the many processes of adjusting and adapting to the environment These elements are assets for managers and their teams but it is still necessary to use the right tools and implement the right mechanisms With this in mind this chapter sets out to address individual management under the aegis of Le Littreacute and the different arts that make up management The art of managing customer focus motivating administering well ensuring health and safety and decision-making is depicted based on the role played by e-motions For a deeper understanding the three pillars (psychological sociological and neurological) are considered
21 The art of managing customer focus the relations dependent on monitoring and margins to maneuver
Organizations depend on their clients and so it is important that they understand their present and future needs satisfy their
The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management First Edition Delphine van Hoorebeke copy ISTE Ltd 2018 Published by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley amp Sons Inc
20 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
requirements and endeavor to go above and beyond their expectations Today in order to ensure that good quality service is provided to the customer base organizations train new employees after a period of socialization that teaches the rules and customs The existence of implicit or explicit behavioral norms caused Sutton and Rafaeli [SUT 90] to argue that employees are compelled by the hierarchy to express ldquonormative emotionsrdquo that help employees to gain control over others in a way that promotes the objectives of the organization [SUT 91]
In this respect the measure of the effectiveness of organizational behavioral norms cannot be limited to the strict adherence of the employees to formal rules of workplace behavior In fact employees must not only follow these rules but also other informal norms like the organizationrsquos values In addition the demands of the company and its management regarding contact with the customer go further than simply following the norms It requires authenticity in the behaviors expressed to the customer However this authenticity cannot exist without adhering to the norms and emotional perception [VAN 08b] Human behavior inevitably derives from experiencing emotions When employees do not feel this emotion but know that they should feel it to respond to the norms they simulate it like an actor wearing a mask or modify their emotion Research in the domain of emotions in the workplace calls this ldquosurface acting and deep actingrdquo [HOC 83] According to this author surface acting consists of feigning and wearing a mask while deep acting corresponds to expressing what the individual feels In the second case the individual conducts a ldquodeeprdquo work to try to perceive what he must express according to the norm According to Hochschild the first emotion felt really can be modified
The next problem posed for management concerns the effectiveness of the norms taught Are they accepted by the employees meaning will they be respected Could they be the cause of an ldquoabnormalrdquo or ldquoinappropriaterdquo behavior for the situation of a real inauthenticity (perceived by the customer) and of various negative consequences The act of imposing organizational norms can lead to an undeniable and unavoidable robotization when the
Managing Individuals 21
employee is forced to repeat this ldquoemotional laborrdquo in a redundant and incessant way [HOC 83] The employee rendered inauthentic experiences a dissonance which is intolerable over the long term
To manage this problem the first step is to take stock of the norms imposed at work and then list their probable negative consequences for the organization Then a tool can be used to manage them measuring the effectiveness of the norms in the context of a quest for authenticity and sincerity According to the philosopher Sartre [SAR 38] authenticity surpasses sincerity and is morally superior to it For Taylor the ideal of an individualrsquos authenticity supposes that he expresses beyond all social conformity his ldquointerior truthrdquo to which he must be faithful
211 Organizational norms
Rafaeli and Sutton [RAF 89] outline the existence of two types of behavioral norms that employees must follow at work These are in addition to societal norms that all individuals follow in private life occupational norms related to the role held by the individual and organizational norms unique to each company
ndash The first type corresponds logically to the expectations of the customer Rafaeli and Sutton [RAF 89] cite the example of bailiffs and bouncers who are paid to express hostility while undertakers must express sadness In contrast the expression of kindness and a positive attitude is expected for service jobs such as servers and salespeople They add that other roles call for suppressing emotion for example the Budget Minister must express neutrality especially when announcing the annual budget
ndash Organizational norms specify the companyrsquos expectations in matters of conduct based on the culture of the company They are sometimes disseminated through the book (the bible) in which they make reference to moral values
ndash Occupational norms are directly related to the position occupied and the behaviors that this position requires According to Rafaeli and Sutton [RAF 89] occupational and organizational norms are the primary influences on the expression of emotions at work The authors
22 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
do not separate them in their article claiming their difficult distinction They provide the example of doctors who must learn professional maintenance during their studies in medicine and must express this maintenance in the different hospitals where they practice In our view this example typically describes an occupational norm because it does not differ depending on the hospitals and instead depends on the role held
A study [VAN 08c] analyzes the impact of three levers (two preventative and one curative) that could make it possible to facilitate emotional labor (uniforms scripts and emotionalized areas) The results establish a significant relationship between the item ldquostarting to feel joy if we pretend to be happy when we help clientsrdquo and the variable ldquopresence of a formal normrdquo (script) This link indicates not only that the fact of imposing behavioral norms can lead to feeling them as Hochschild [HOC 83] indicates but also offers a crucial element to ensure the leverage effect described above the fact of conducting emotional labor leads to emotional experience The quantitative results of the analysis also indicate that uniforms have a greater impact on surface acting than on deep acting They also show that if norms do not have a significant impact on the emotional labor of surface acting they do have a direct and significant connection with deep acting
A second study was conducted by analyzing the content of a dress code at an international bank operating in Switzerland This dress code stirred up multiple controversies due to certain things that it demanded of employees it went so far as to specify the undergarments that the staff must wear
Combined with the qualitative data these results support normalizing emotions in the workplace to allow employees to feel the emotion expressed This result supports Hochschildrsquos text [HOC 83] about the internal regulation of emotions experienced based on the emotions expressed Despite this as our results show the process of passing from appearance to feeling which can reinforce the feeling of ldquowell-beingrdquo hoped for by the company regarding the authenticity of the behaviors expressed is not systematic if normalization is too implicit Here are a few examples verbatim ldquoyou will feel better and improve your performance at workrdquo ldquothere are established connections between following this guide and lsquowell-beingrsquo at workrdquo ldquo[following this guide is] essential for pleasing others and yourself and also contributes decisively to your well-beingrdquo ldquofor aesthetic and hygienic reasons as well as for questions of general well-beingrdquo and ldquoan impeccable appearance can prompt inner peace and a feeling of securityrdquo
This is prescribed emotion as described by Ashforth and Humphrey [ASH 95] and critiqued by Watzlawick [WAT 80] for paradoxical injunctions like ldquobe spontaneousrdquo
Managing Individuals 23
The results obtained by these two interrelated analyses indicate that the managerial
levers put in place are not sufficient to ensure the expected emotional labor
influencing customer satisfaction nor even to guarantee the positive image of the
company The case studied is typical It shows that the company benefitted from a
great deal of publicity and articles about its approach to dress codes Nevertheless
international articles were very critical of the gesture made by the company even if
it was conducted totally legally What created the buzz was one detail of the dress
code requiring cream-colored undergarments This detail is a distinctive element of
the very directive aspect of the dress code described by this Swiss bank as a factor
in better performance Despite the efforts of the latter to indicate the recommended
or suggested nature of the guide it is significant that this variable seems far from
being sufficient to ensure authentic customer contact as a result of commitment and
a factor in customer satisfaction1
Case Study 21 Analysis of an internal dress code document
212 Dissonances
This type of managerial practice can cause a dissonance to appear between the inhibitory normalization of emotions and feeling
The perception of various somatic hormonal reactions is allowed through bodily expression This is how our research led us to evoke the notions of conative and behavioral dissonances downstream These two dissonances indicate the difference between the attitude and the behavior expressed by the individual and the attitude and the behavior that he knows is expected The company may hope for specific behaviors but the individual may want to express his emotion in spite of everything or may not be able to prevent himself from doing so depending on the case Goleman [GOL 97] discusses emotional takeovers
The objective is to avoid the likely effects of these dissonances (cognitive emotional and conative or behavioral) that are difficult to bear The latter are experienced and induced by imposed norms 1 Available online at httparchiveslesechosfrarchivescercle20120419cercle_45946html
24 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
[FES 57 HOC 83] and will inevitably lead to inauthentic or even ldquoabnormalrdquo conduct by the individual It seems necessary that the manager be able to recognize the origin of these problems to fix them For the manager to clearly perceive the type of action to implement it is helpful to unpack the three types of dissonances that can occur (emotional conative behavioral) The following diagrams present summaries of these dissonances and suggest a way to measure them (see Figures 21 and 22)
Figure 21 Measure of the difference between organizational behavioral norms and the expressions actually expressed in the workplace by the mediation of emotions No-Ex mediating variable of normative effectiveness No-Em cognitive dissonance Em-Ex emotional dissonance No-Ex conative dissonance
Figure 22 Measure of the conative dissonance (difference between the expected behaviors and the
actual employee behaviors) (source [VAN 08b])
Emotional dissonance conflict between what is felt andwhat is expected by the organization
Norms (No)
Emoon (Em) Expression (Ex)
DifferenceCognitive dissonanceconflict betweenpersonal norms andorganizational norms
Conative dissonanceconflict between the behavior ofemployees and the behaviorexpected by the company
Expected expression Emotion felt Expression emitted
Cognitive dissonance Emotional dissonance
Organizationaloccupational norms
Dissonance of normsexpressions really emitted (conative)
Managing Individuals 25
According to these diagrams the conative dissonance axis (in this case inauthentic or abnormal behavior) corresponds to the addition of two dissonances emotional dissonance and cognitive dissonance
Managers cannot act directly on the conative difference because on the one hand it seems impossible to predict what individuals will express and on the other hand they are unable to impose a feeling [WAT 80] That is why in order to reduce the difference between the expression expected by the organizational behavioral norms and the expression manifested by the employee management will have to attempt to correct one of the following three options
1) the difference between the organizational behavioral norms and societal and personal norms by bringing them closer together or by selecting individuals whose personal norms are in line with the companyrsquos norms
2) the difference between what is felt by the individual and what he expresses through different levers like uniforms or emotionalized areas [VAN 03a] These levers make it possible to limit the difference by acting on the accumulation of emotional dissonance
In their study Nelson and Bowen [NEL 00] show that the first lever uniforms affects not only the attitudes of employees (attitudes about work performance work satisfaction etc) but also their capacity to serve guests In addition they reveal that wearing a uniform has a significant positive impact on all employees and not just employees in contact with customers Uniforms not only have psychological and behavioral implications for the wearer but also positive effects that extend beyond contact with customers During contact even in frustrating interactions with the customer the uniform can help the employees to feel good about their work This can be explained by what Goffman [GOF 59] calls ldquoactingrdquo At work the individual becomes an actor playing a role According to Hochschildrsquos theory [HOC 83] by playing this role deeply by regulating their emotions individuals can experience the emotions that they express
According to Fineman [FIN 00] the second lever the emotionalized area facilitates deep emotional labor To do this the
26 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
company must create a variety of places where employees can express their negative emotions or take a break This makes it possible to avoid negative effects thanks to the availability of a place to release emotions that are inhibited during work
3) both differences at the same time We have all seen the behavior of cashiers who sigh or proceed mechanically in their way of saying hello asking for your loyalty card and saying goodbye This type of behavior if it is defined and corresponds to norms reveals the dissonances experienced by the cashier The expressions of the employee are in this example the result of a mechanization a Taylorization of emotions This conduct which corresponds to the norms expected by the company does not respond to the customerrsquos expectations The measure of the conative dissonance makes it possible to gain a comprehensive understanding of the feeling compared by the individual to what he knows about the imposed norm and not just of the employeersquos expression which is just the tip of the iceberg
During a study of managerial practices at McDonaldrsquos and Walt Disney Bilts [BIL 95] shows that we teach new employees through a handbook what expressions are required toward the customer ldquoFirst we practice a friendly smile at all times with our guests and ourselves Second we use friendly and courteous phrases lsquoCan I help yoursquo lsquoThank yoursquo and lsquoHave a good dayrsquo [hellip] or any other similar expressions throughout [our] work dayrdquo This script taught to employees calls for authenticity that the latter will not be able to experience at all times
Another example is the company Favi a company that has no hierarchy which specifies in one of its publications about its management style that employees must demonstrate sincerity toward the client2
Case Study 22 Examples of expected authenticity in a company
Sincerity is therefore what the company and its management seek To be able to respond to this expectation the employee must feel committed to the company To ensure full and complete commitment management must provide satisfaction
2 Available online at httpwwwfavicommanagement
Managing Individuals 27
22 The art of motivating commitment and satisfaction
Commitment and satisfaction at work are anchoring points for the engagement of members of the company
221 Different types of commitment
Currently according to Autissier and Wacheux [AUT 06] work affected by a crisis of pessimism calls for a return to meaning to foster commitment Could lack of commitment be due to a crisis of pessimism and negative emotions According to Allen and Meyer [ALL 97] commitment is a psychological state resulting from the employeersquos desires will obligations and interests and the organizationrsquos intended action Commitment is based on three dimensions an affective category that corresponds to the individualrsquos identification of the organizationrsquos goals and values a calculated category that can be defined as the intention to leave an organization or not and a normative category that corresponds to the individualrsquos engagement because he thinks that it is his obligation to do so Calculated commitment is associated with avoiding costs normative commitment is characterized by moral obligation and affective commitment is marked by desire
Theacutevenet [THEacute 92] argues that there are three dimensions of commitment attitudinal or behavioral moral or calculating and active or passive
ndash Attitudinal or behavioral Attitudinal commitment concerns the identification and engagement of the individual with the organization that employs him while behavioral commitment consists of a permanent cycle of behaviors (or actions) that reinforce attitudinal commitment in return
ndash Moral or calculating Commitment is moral because it refers to deep mechanisms of identification and it presupposes a strong similarity of goals and values between the individual and the organization The ldquocalculatingrdquo approach describes commitment as an attachment resulting from a calculation of costs associated with
28 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
leaving In this situation the desire to invest effort must be legitimately compensated by a gain
ndash Active or passive Commitment sometimes evokes passive adherence to the goals and values of the organization or even their complacent acceptance However authors generally address active commitment which is to say the desire to act to ldquomake an effortrdquo to take it upon ourselves to move in the direction of these goals and values
To support the interest of this active commitment an exploratory study of employees in companies in various industries argues that employee engagement in certain company practices in this case sustainable development is based on a certain number of commitment factors (Figure 23)
Case Study 23 Exploratory study of commitment
Figure 23 Employee commitment factors and consequences (source Leroux and van Hoorebeke [LER 11]) For a color version of this figure see wwwistecoukvanhoorebekemanagementzip
Emo-management must therefore consider employee satisfaction commitment (namely the desire to continue to be a part of the organization as indicated by the research) as well as beliefs and a
Managing Individuals 29
certain positive attitude toward the companyrsquos managerial practices and notably according to the results an affective attitude
222 Commitmentndashsatisfactionndashe-motion
The management of emotions can influence an employeersquos commitment to work and an individualrsquos satisfaction According to Herrbach and Leacuterat-Pytlak [HER 04] individualsrsquo emotions at work and the different kinds of commitment can be considered to be the consequences of their experiences at work In addition emotions are regulators of commitment to work [THEacute 00]
Since modes of management can allow expression or on the contrary forbid it through the restrictions of the job and the choices of the company these modes of functioning remain at the base of positive and negative emotions experienced in the workplace They provide the possibility of doing what we love on a daily basis a major factor of internal motivation In this sense it has been shown that affective or emotional commitment is negatively related to uncertain relations [KRY 08] weighing on the management and expressions of the leader Emotions require more appropriate management especially given that besides commitment emotions influence individual satisfaction The valence of emotion (positivenegative) is seen by many psychologists to be related to the satisfaction of individual interest According to Lazarus [LAZ 91] emotion depends on a combination of motivationndashinterestndashenvironment Everyone has his or her own interests and personal values This authorrsquos analysis supports one of the complex aspects of personnel satisfaction given the multiplication of individual interests provided
Just as many marketing studies have largely demonstrated the impact of emotions on customer satisfaction [LAD 07] human resources are no exception Satisfaction at work can be defined as the agreeable or positive affective response of the person regarding their work environment In this respect the data collected by Adelmann [ADE 95] reveals that employees in positions that require a great deal of emotional management have less satisfaction at work lower self-esteem more symptoms of depression and weaker health
30 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
Weiss and Cropanzano [WEI 96] and Morris and Feldman [MOR 97] support these results revealing that emotions are preliminary even predictive of satisfaction at work More recently Fisher [FIS 00] has noted connections between the moods and emotions measured in real time and the standard measures of commitment and satisfaction at work Although certain authors have shown that emotion and satisfaction constitute two perfectly related theoretical constructs Westbrook and Oliver [WES 91] report that certain categories of emotional responses can be preliminary and coexist with the judgment of satisfaction In addition studies conducted by Russell [RUS 79] and Plutchik [PLU 80] reveal that the state of strong satisfaction is accompanied by unequivocal emotional connotations like ldquohappyrdquo and ldquocontentrdquo that are only models of satisfaction [WES 91] Since interactions between individuals become more predictive emotional management favors avoiding intense conflicts and preserving each personrsquos emotional balance [ASH 93] fostering satisfaction at work Several authors have developed the subject Colle et al [COL 05] Herrbach and Leacuterat-Pytlak [HER 04] and Theacutevenet [THEacute 00]
In addition to these two criteria ndash commitment and satisfaction ndash Theacutevenet [THEacute 00] argues that in addition to having a certain effect on efficiency at work on the condition of a precise definition of the term emotions also affect happiness at work Lazarus [LAZ 91] highlights the impact of positive emotions on facilitating performance and social functioning He cites the example of research that experimentally created good moods in various individuals by triggering positive emotions by listening to soothing music reading emotionally positive scenarios watching happy movies experiencing joy having successful experiences etc
The consequences of this experimentation are pro-social behavior such as helping others and quality performance (better performance much less tense cognitive activity) When individuals have positive experiences they feel more confident assured expressive satisfied committed and simply better at work [ZAP 02]
A study conducted by Maes et al [MAE 10] about the implementation of a tool to
continuously evaluate the quality of nurse care shows that satisfaction at work and
affective commitment are crucial for nurses The results indicate that
Managing Individuals 31
responsibilities recognition and the feeling of belonging to a group are positive
incentives and allow organizational objectives to be realized
Although the affective commitment of staff who care for patients may appear to be
a cause for concern in the sense that it does not allow for the detachment necessary
for this type of profession in certain circumstances affective commitment to the
institution fosters not only a good environment but also good results
Case Study 24 Study of commitment in nurses
Feeling good at work due to positive emotions is a process that can seem complex and naive However according to the studies in the fields of neuropsychology and management which will be described later this is less true than it may seem Remember that emotions are a basic function for many living beings Management cannot and does not seem to hide it but generally this consideration of emotions at work remains unconscious and too often unexpressed However the quality of life at work is part of the three pillars of responsible management under its social dimension
23 The art of administering well the process approach a proactive and sustainable method
The inhibition that we mentioned earlier in section 212 about dissonances can have negative consequences The art of administering well which is to say organizing well and preparing to ensure responsible management follows a process Most often the process approach in a company is part of the context of a quality approach It consists of making the major company processes more apt to satisfy the end customers at the best cost by making the different actors in the process participate in this objective Considering ldquoprocessrdquo in management comes down to being proactive because it consists of seeking to act upstream as much as downstream In our view the process approach to management can be based on the fact that since the 1960s many researchers (described in Chapter 1) have shown that emotions follow a process that makes it possible to manage their positive and negative effects at work In fact many theories have
32 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
attempted to describe it in everyday life (Darwin [DAR 72] Jamesrsquo peripheral theory [JAM 84] Freudrsquos discourse of psychoanalysis [FRE 02] Izardrsquos theory of differential emotions [IZA 77] Ekman and Osterrsquos neuro-cultural theory [EKM 79] Goffmanrsquos schematic theories including social constructivism and acting theory [GOF 59] resulting from the variability of emotions)
231 Emo-management a process that concerns everyone
Whatever it may be this process starts with a stimulus and ends with consequences When this process is negative the consequences that can result from it have a strong probability of being negative [LAZ 91] This process is similar to labor although Hochschild [HOC 83 p 7] determines what she calls emotional labor in the public sphere by distinguishing it from emotion work or management which she uses to refer to the same acts in the private sphere The latter could also be termed ldquoemotional taskrdquo What she calls ldquoemotional laborrdquo is the management of emotions in order to create a publicly observable facial or bodily expression [HOC 83] Before detailing this process it is important to specify that it consists of a process that only occurs when emotions or affective experiences [WEI 96] do not have an extreme intensity According to Goleman [GOL 97] the intensity of the emotion felt directly influences the behavior During an intense emotion the left neocortex the thinking brain does not have time to choose the best-suited reaction and only the amygdala of the right brain which commands emotions acts It is because of this process that emotions sometimes ldquotake overrdquo become uncontrollable and cause so-called automatic behaviors which is to say involuntary without effort and cognitively inert
A study was conducted over a period of nine months with three months of
participatory observation in a subordinate role followed by six months of weekly visits
and then regular visits for the next two years The site observed was a unit of
office workers a mathematics research laboratory in the CNRS composed of 72
researchers and seven administrators This study examined a situation that showcased
Managing Individuals 33
emotions in the workplace because it required managing intense emotions an open
relational conflict3 [HOC 83] This observation of nine cases of the most revealing
emotional situations was conducted using an ethnogram during a situation that was deemed
problematic or stressful [LAZ 91] The nine cases included a case of insults in the
workplace a case of insults in an anonymous email several cases of disputes between
colleagues related to misunderstandings or diverging interests and a case of collective
laughter in the breakroom This study observed the behaviors of individual actors to
identify the emotions felt whether they were expressed or not which were confirmed
with in-depth interviews carried out in real time or just after the problematic event [VAN
03a VAN 03b] This study made it possible to reveal an emotional process (see Figure
24) summarized in the case study below
Case Study 25 Study of the emotional process at work context
In summary when an event occurs (stimulus) it can create emotional dissonance
(discussed in the first approach) in employees if what they feel about the event is
incompatible with the organizationrsquos behavioral norms a rationalndashemotional
discordance [MID 89] If aware of this dissonance the individual will after
reflecting carry out emotional labor to reduce the tension caused by the unbearable
dissonance [FES 57] There are two solutions deep acting which means recalling an
experience with a normal expression or surface acting and gesturally simulating the
expected expression [HOC 83] If deep acting fails employees reveal an abnormal
expression or use surface acting to feign a normal expression In the first case they
continue to experience a dissonance resulting from the choice they made expressing
what they feel because this feeling is incompatible with the organizational norms In
the second case the dissonance remains because they only feigned an expression on
the surface In order for the dissonance to disappear the individual must be able to
modify one of the two dimensions [FES 57] As stated by Hochschild [HOC 83]
because norms are fixed and imposed in the workplace individuals generally modify
their emotions This process described by participatory observation shows that not
only does a dissonance precede emotional labor but it also results in a ldquoresidualrdquo
emotional dissonance due to the failure of deep acting or surface acting The
accumulation of the residual dissonance can be at the origin of many issues from
demotivation and intent to leave to psychological and physical issues [VAN 04]
Case Study 26 Emotional process observed at work
3 This open relational conflict was particularly revealing because the emotions were extremely intense to the point of clearly showing inappropriate behavior (anonymous insult letters) detrimental consequences for service isolated and rejected people and a constant deep-rooted preoccupation for the actors
34 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
Figu
re 2
4 P
roce
ss e
xper
ien
ced
at w
ork
and
its m
ana
ge
men
t m
echa
nism
s
Managing Individuals 35
On the site petite-entreprisenet it says ldquoWhen managers feel anger bubbling up 4
inside of them at their place of work or if they have not managed to do away with the feeling before it boils over they must avoid at all costs offloading on the first person to cross their paths or on all of their colleagues Acting impulsively is never recommended because the harm caused by unfair or hurtful comments is often difficult to repair and can lead to poor relations between managers and colleagues which will inevitably have repercussions on the teamrsquos performance On the contrary the right attitude consists of isolating oneself in onersquos office in silence for a few minutes and trying to calm downrdquo Managers must be able to take the time necessary to manage and regulate their emotions But what about employees How can they proceed in the workplace A study conducted by van Hoorebeke [VAN 03b] in the field shows that employees who do not have a personal space to collect themselves use washrooms stairwells and walking outside of the company to regulate their strong emotions Any type of emotion can be disruptive depending on the situation Even joy despite being a positive emotion is not necessarily simple to demonstrate Managers may be afraid to show their appreciation at the risk of receiving requests for raises or be afraid to get excited about their promotions as they are worried about jealousy etc The emotional process makes it possible to better understand emotions to better manage them and avoid unexpected setbacks
Case Study 27 A process with surprising consequences
232 A multitude of effects in the workplace
The emotional process has many effects in the organization (Figure 24) Research shows that the consequences of this emotional labor extend from inauthenticity to emotional exhaustion and physical symptoms [MOR 97 SCH 00]
ndash Concerning authenticity deep acting can destroy the emotional reactions that help all individuals to sense the situation and make connections with others [DAR 72] and in this respect can hinder someonersquos authenticity [ASH 00a] In addition according to Grandey et al [GRA 05b] authenticity has a direct impact on customer satisfaction and customer relations as detailed in the first approach
4 Available online at httpswwwpetite-entreprisenetP-2857-81-G1-comment-mettre-a-profit-ses-emotions-au-travailhtml
36 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
ndash Emotional exhaustion corresponds to a reaction related to stress considered to be a key component in the process of burnout or physical exhaustion Maslach [MAS 82] reports that staff whose positions require a great deal of emotional labor are more likely to experience emotional exhaustion The results obtained by Morris and Feldman [MOR 97] demonstrate that the probability of experiencing this mental exhaustion increases based on the frequency and duration of the emotional labor required and the dissonance felt and experienced Totterdell and Holman [TOT 03] show that it is surface acting that causes emotional exhaustion through a sense of numbness and fatigue felt by the people interviewed
ndash Contrary to the frequency of the interactions that require emotional labor the duration of the emotional labor increases the internalization of the role This variable refers to the way in which the individual integrates his personal identity with organizational demands [MOR 97]
van Hoorebeke [VAN 03a VAN 03b] lists the likely effects of the different steps in the emotional process or emotional management in the workplace including the concepts of emotional labor emotional dissonance and the expression of emotions at work In view of the results obtained the negative consequences of managing emotions in the workplace affect three levels of the unit the individual (health performance enhancement task execution) the group (cohesion collaboration) and the organization (strategic management of human resources image absenteeism) The positive consequences also affect the levels of the individual the group and the organization (normal expression well-being satisfaction at work and relief after liberating oneself from an abnormal expression)
Three categories of variables that influence these effects appear in the literature
1) disposition variables related to the individualrsquos characteristics (the individualrsquos gender with women doing more emotional labor than men ndash Grandey [GRA 03] Hochschild [HOC 83] Kruml and Geddes [KRU 00]) emotional adaptability the positivenegative affective feature that is a character trait of individuals related to their
Managing Individuals 37
capacity to be enthusiastic anxious or guilty [SCH 00] situation variables (the type of event) the gender of the interlocutor (less emotional effort is made toward women ndash Sutton and Rafaeli [SUT 90]) hierarchical respect and organizational characteristics
2) characteristics of the position (face-to-face contact ndash Diefendorff and Gosserand [DIE 03a] Hochschild [HOC 83] Morris and Feldman [MOR 96] Schaubroeck and Jones [SCH 00]) the frequency of interactions [LEE 15 MOR 97 TOT 03] the duration of interactions [DIE 03b GRA 03 MOR 97] and the demands of the supervisor
3) the norms imposed by the organization as well as by the manager or the supervisor according to various degrees of requirements [DIE 03b] behavioral rules that are formally imposed and often written [MOR 96] positivenegative rules meaning rules regarding the suppression of negative emotions or rules requesting positive emotions [DIE 03a] autonomy at work [MOR 96 MOR 97] routine tasks [MOR 96 MOR 97] social support the presence of the individual often an attentive colleague [TOT 03] guides and training about the expressions expected at work [DIE 03a]
To summarize the effects of this emotional process in the workplace can be negative or positive Previous studies and the field study show that a negative process can produce individual and collective effects ranging from demotivation and a desire to leave the company to the performance of individuals and their colleagues These effects do not depend solely on management Certain personal characteristics can foster a negative process as can the type of normalization and the position occupied depending on management Administering well requires management to consider these characteristics to limit the harmful effects of the negative process upstream and support the positive ones Fortunately when the process is set in motion these characteristics must be supported by the management levers of this process The field study made it possible to identify several management levers of the negative process Here are the details
38 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
233 Levers for managing
Most of these variables can prove to be organizational or managerial levers or in other words a tool to facilitate the emotional management and emotional labor of employees (subordinates and managers) in the workplace According to the perception of employees in twenty different kinds of professions from nurses and secretaries to business managers and undertakers management can intervene in the ldquosometimes negativerdquo emotional process in the workplace using preventative or curative levers [VAN 03a VAN 03b]
1) Preventative levers upstream the variables integral to work (interest autonomy responsibility trust sufficient staff good material etc) and to its environment (setting atmosphere etc) limit the existence of daily conflicts and tensions that influence emotions The variables that influence the cognitive aspects (norms) knowing what we must do to do it well influence normal expression Most preventative levers correspond to the influence variables of several concepts such as satisfaction at work well-being etc Coaching autonomy motivation and career management and fairness are some of the most-studied levers in these areas Other levers can intervene in the process [VAN 03b] For example some companies play on the setting with research about decor colors or wearing a uniform These levers directly influence the emotions in a climate that is conducive to normal expression The demands of training notably in psychology and personal development allow the employees to get to know themselves better and understand others better in ldquorole-playing gamesrdquo It encourages training with appropriate behaviors Le Scanff [LES 98] discusses intensive training with tasks to complete in conditions that are similar to those encountered in a real environment to acquire an automatic response and consequently an increased sense of control Unfortunately this lever could lead to a kind of robotization of the human stripped of emotion and reproduce the bad through the desire to do good
Managing Individuals 39
2) Curative levers downstream places to express emotions physical and mental activities and discussion groups are needed and would limit the accumulation of emotional dissonance by liberating tension The need for social support would facilitate deep acting and help individuals to assess their emotion (listening leader psychologist) These would influence abnormal expression
When they exist these levers are often too under-used or poorly used in companies to have a real and effective impact
In a qualitative study conducted with 22 people in different professions including office employee undertaker naval firefighter independent artisan plumber university lecturer administrative executive business executive employment agent high-school teacher nursery-school assistant accountant executive secretary manager store salesperson pharmacist and home-care nurse van Hoorebeke [VAN 03a] lists managerial practices for managing emotions
Thanks to these different levers to counteract the negative process the consideration of the basic conditions necessary for administering well positive processes should be encouraged through well-being in the workplace The example of PepsiCo shows that the company is capable of going further engaging the manager in the search for well-being which is seen as the main driving force for growth
As indicated by the process illustrated earlier (see Figure 24) one category of effects is negative and can totally disrupt this search for well-being These negative effects create health problems sometimes serious in individuals who inhibit their emotions In order to better capture the operation the next section focuses on exploring it in more depth through different areas of study
40 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
Method Neutralizing
emotions Isolating emotions
Prescribing emotions
Reducing emotional dissonance
Standardization procedure
Control logic
Norms of rationality
Control logicControl logic
Rules of conduct
No control logic
Support logic
Action on the organizational
climate setting fairness training
Actions on the perception of injustice and
obligation better self-knowledge
emotional expression
Diffusion
Rigorous structuring of
roles relations and
language
Internal regulation
Implicit norms
Diffusion through scripts
Teaching through training
Joint regulation
Control Punishment Punishment Punishment and
autonomy Between control and
autonomy
Objectives
No expression of
emotions
Good performance
of role
Prevention against the expressions
of inappropriate
emotions
Masking inappropriate expressions
Good performance
of role
Showing appropriate
expressions in all situations
Regulation of norms and emotions
Reducing the difference between the emotion felt and
the expression revealed
Decreasing inappropriate expressions
Avoiding consequences on
health performance and relations with others (conflicts)
Table 21 Managerial practices in the management of emotions (source van Hoorebeke [VAN 03a])
Managing Individuals 41
Steacutephane Saba (PepsiCo) stated that ldquoWell-being in the workplace is the primary driving force of our growthrdquo
Florence Davy with the journal Personnel5 explained
ldquoWhat is well-being in the workplace at PepsiCo and what are its main components
ldquoWell-being in the workplace at PepsiCo is a commitment of HR but also and especially of management This commitment is at the core of our managerial strategy around three major pillars
1) the relationship of trust that managers must establish with their colleagues the quality of this relationship is one of the key levers of well-being at work If our colleagues are happy to go to work it is because they have managers that listen to them and nurture them These elements are measured in our surveys on social climate and by Great Place To Work When we leave a company we are often leaving a manager because the relationship is complicated We make a point to ensure that managerial quality is experienced by our colleagues every day as a factor in motivation and development
2) the personal and professional fulfillment of every person notably through the search for balance between private and professional life For example we do everything we can to be able to offer our colleagues the possibility of remote working regardless of their position
3) conviviality At PepsiCo we have a tradition of conviviality in both our products and our managerial operations We celebrate successes and incorporate conviviality into professional relations with all our colleagues
ldquoHow are these principles represented in your practices and operating procedures
ldquoTo help managers develop relationships based on trust we invest heavily in training Independently of the classic tools we have implemented a section about the management of emotions that provides an infusion of soul that is very appreciated by everyone Besides that to help us to continuously move this relationship forward each year we conduct a survey on managerial quality that allows colleagues to assess their manager on a certain number of criteria sending a strong message about the way they are managed throughout the year
ldquoRegarding the worklife balance beyond remote working we have implemented
many initiatives related to well-being including access to gyms to a company
nutritionist and to care or specific concierge services The conviviality
component is explored through a certain number of ways of doing things
notably by recognition through awards but also and especially through 5 Available online at httpsbusinesslesechosfrdirections-ressources-humaines ressources-humainesbien-etre-au-travailstephane-saba-pepsico-le-bien-etre-au-travail-est-le-levier-principal-de-notre-croissance-60773php
42 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
fun events to celebrate the successes of our colleagues This year PepsiCo France
celebrated its 20th anniversary From a conviviality point of view we did
something fairly exceptional for this occasion We organized a music contest
involving all the companyrsquos teams It was a rather spectacular event and very good
for team-buildingrdquo
Case Study 28 Example of managing the process toward well-being at work
24 The art of ensuring health and safety in the workplace well-being at work
One question remains how can emotions disrupt psychological and physical health Since the start of the 1900s a theory was established on an organic model that defined emotion as a biological process For Freud [FRE 02] emotion was a libidinal release which is to say a liberation of instinctual psychic energy For Darwin [DAR 72] it corresponds to an instinct and for James [JAM 84] it corresponds to the perception of a psychological process From these premises neuroscience has been developing the concept for a few years now Neuroscience has a two-fold approach psychobiological which researches the biological bases of behaviors and psychological which studies mental function (the psyche) Among them many current research projects in behavioral neuroscience focus on emotions and explain their biological operation [DAM 94 LAB 94 VIN 86] This part describes the foundations in a succinct and accessible way without denying the extreme complexity of this organ that has yet to reveal all of its secrets and from a specific point of view that of the famous surgeon Professor Laborit
According to Laborit [LAB 94] the brain a regulated system is composed of three systems (1) a reward system (2) a punishment system and (3) an inhibition of action system (balancing system) Hormonal bundles join these different brains [OLD 54] and intervene in the accumulation of experiences and the choice of behavior
1) One of these bundles called the Medial Forebrain Bundle (MFB) which is the reward bundle is involved when an action gratifies us when what we do keeps us in a state of pleasure
Managing Individuals 43
biological equilibrium We know the chemical mediators or hormones the catecholamines
2) Another bundle the Periventricular System (PVS) corresponds to the punishment bundle [LAB 94] These two bundles trigger action or expression When we are kicked we have two options fight or flight If the behavior chosen during the first experience is effective we will repeat this behavior because we avoided punishment and gave ourselves pleasure
3) Then there is a system that inhibits action studied by Laborit [LAB 94] among others This system functions when we cannot choose between fight or flight it consists of not acting of restraining ourselves
Based on the situation the brain makes the hormonal decision to convey a given expression in order to avoid punishment According to Vincent in nerve mechanisms ldquoit is almost always a question of two centres (one inhibiting the other exciting) to manage the same functionrdquo [VIN 86 p 160] The reward bundle activated by pleasure and the intuitive punishment bundle both trigger action Inversely the third bundle corresponds to a system that inhibits action Because the first two trigger action (gratification fight or flight) they are liberating Because it hinders action the third does not allow us to feel pleasure fight or flee This inhibition is the most problematic state
First of all we must summarize the interconnections of the different systems of reward punishment and inhibition
241 A neurobiological process
Following an event an emotion is felt When it is a positive emotion the system of gratification is set in motion ndash this action triggers pleasure ndash and catecholamine hormones are secreted When this happens the action-inhibiting system is inactive because it is unnecessary without the signal of an alarm
When a negative emotion is felt the punishment (fight or flight) system is initiated Hormones (peptides analgesics) are secreted by
44 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
the hypothalamus At the same time the action-inhibiting system activates because an alarm system is initiated by the pituitary gland and its hormone corticotrophin (ACTH) The activation of the inhibitory system acts as a safeguard or precautionary principle because the pituitary gland allows for faster and more effective action
If fight or flight is successful then there is no more reason for the pituitary gland to intervene The system is re-established and returns to the gratification system once the alarm or danger has passed Inversely if the action is ineffective and the danger remains the brain inhibits the action and the pituitary gland commands the adrenal glands to secrete glucocorticoids anti-inflammatory hormones similar to cortisone Unfortunately at this time it is impossible to get out of the inhibition system to return to the reward system Over time the glucocorticoid hormones (asymp cortisol7) secreted by the adrenal glands can destroy the thymus (immune protection) and thereby allow some microbial cells even cancerous ones hosted by the individual to multiply This hormone often attacks the stomachrsquos protective lining (mucus) which can lead to stomach ulcers and perforated ulcers Secreted by the adrenal glands they also alter REM sleep (hypertension) given that protein synthesis in the brain also controls restorative sleep
242 Reasons to become ill
If the inhibition of action can be harmful to us why do we restrain our actions Individuals inhibit their emotions for several reasons
ndash according to Freud [FRE 02] inhibition reveals an impulse that is impossible to satisfy Inhibition can reveal an informational deficit or an imaginary impetus of anxiety
ndash according to Laborit [LAB 94] it is the dominant-dominated relationship that compels one of the individuals present to inhibit his or behaviors in order to avoid punishment
ndash according to Traue and Michael [TRA 93] the expression of emotion leads to an act of controlling the environment In doing so inhibition is part of the set of emotional conduct
Managing Individuals 45
ndash according to MacLean [MAC 75] this inhibition or ldquoschizophysiologyrdquo of the limbic system and the neocortex originates from the conflict between what our neo-mammalian (cognitive) brain knows and what our paleo-mammalian (affective) brain feels
Some [HOC 83 MID 89 VAN 03a VAN 03b] call this ldquoemotional dissonancerdquo
Norms are not everything in a company Companies are like hives or anthills and human interactions are not always simple and to conform to the majority individuals will hold back their emotions
243 Real consequences
The following studies explain and demonstrate the impact of this inhibition According to Laborit [LAB 94] the inhibitory system is triggered by glucocorticoid hormones when the individual is compelled to restrain his behavior or action This conclusion is the result of various experiments conducted on rats In one study he compares the results obtained with two dominant rats enclosed for eight days in a cage with an electrified floor and one single rat in the same situation for the same period In the end despite receiving multiple electrical shocks the first two rats were eating well and had a smooth coat of fur The single rat however had persistent hypertension For a month after the experience his stomach was ulcerated to the point of causing death The difference between these two experiments is action On the one hand the two rats acted and always continued to fight despite the electrical shocks while on the other hand the single rat remained inactive curled up fur dishevelled inhibited It had no behavior According to Traue and Michael [TRA 93] inhibition is the self-control of behavior related to restraint or repression of an emotion Their study demonstrated that holding back anger tested on migraine sufferers resulted in short-term headaches related to high muscular tension and muscle hyperactivity due to an inhibition of emotion
This inhibition of behavior or the underlying emotion is the source of several pathological issues Bischoff and Traue [BIS 83] state that
46 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
ldquoan individual develops myogenic pain [headaches] in a particular muscular system when the muscles have an increased activity [related to inhibition] up to a critical point during a certain timerdquo Several researchers have discovered that the degree of inhibition is associated with compromised immune function and cancer [MOR 81]
The suppression of anger is usually correlated with a high rate of immunoglobulin A in the blood Immunoglobulin A is also associated with the propagation of metastases in breast cancers The inhibition of anger is not the only example Friedman and Booth-Kewley [FRI 87] indicate that other negative emotions measured are also connected with health problems including asthma ulcers headaches immune disorders etc In addition to physical pathologies many researchers in psychobiology and medicine have demonstrated the link between emotions and mental health or ldquobrain healthrdquo whether it is in chronic pathologies (schizophrenia autism etc) or not The biological descriptions of depression (a mental disorder if ever there was one because it can lead to suicide nine times out of ten suicide is related to a form of mental disorder generally severe depression) stress and anxiety indicate that emotions (affective part of the brain) intervene and weaken the different regions of the cortex (rational part of the brain) During the process of the mental disorder emotions ldquotake overrdquo through neurotransmitters and hormones They biologically disrupt the cortex that can no longer remember to act to inhibit the negative emotions and to lead the individual to think about something else (the individuals focus on the problem that was marked by a longer-term emotional process [QUI 06]) As emphasized by Kishi and Elmquist [KIS 05] the bodyrsquos whole process of homeostasis (equilibrium) is affected for a large number of patients with mental disorders
ldquoNo matter what emotion we feel there are consequences for the bodyrdquo explains
Henrique Sequeira professor in affective neuroscience at the University of Lille (I
and II) ldquoEmotions are a true interface between the brain and the body They cause
muscular hormonal neurological and immune reactions These are the links
explored by psychosomatic medicine according to which repeated emotions can
in certain predisposed individuals have effects that are positive (faster recovery
from cancer) or negative (cardiovascular vulnerability asthma) on health by
Managing Individuals 47
repeatedly and unnecessarily striking the same organrdquo he adds Now for each
ldquoemotional maprdquo it remains to define the precise physiological indicators that can
be measured objectively and be used to identify potential emotional dysfunction
The first body map of emotions is illustrated in Figure 25 Finnish researchers
detailed the physical effects of happiness fear sadness and other sentiments
Case Study 29 Effects of emotions at the soma level
Figure 25 The first body map of emotions by Pauline Freacuteour published 01062014 (source lefigarofr) For a color version of this figure see wwwistecoukvanhoorebekemanagementzip
In light of this clinical research any doubts about the bodyemotion relationship and especially the emotion inhibitionhealth relationship can no longer be challenged but confirmed and specified Nevertheless given the various reasons for the inhibition of action (containing onersquos behavior or emotion) it seems likely that inhibition will be increased in an organizational context
48 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
244 A schema like this in business
A variety of research in management describes the phenomenon in the workplace Ashforth and Humphrey [ASH 93] report that the inhibition of emotions in the workplace can provoke emotional exhaustion psychological discontent frustration and stress [SCH 00]
The organizational context seems at first glance to present notable differences from private life ndash complexity repetitive professional relations tasks to accomplish with performance etc ndash yet the organization is a real standardized and regulated emotional arena where several reasons listed as action-inhibiting are perfectly normal Different elements support this perspective
First Rafaeli and Sutton [RAF 89] argue for the addition of two types of behavioral norms that employees must follow at work in comparison to an individualrsquos private life regulated by societal norms occupational norms related to the role held by the individual and organizational norms unique to each company described in section 21
Second the company seeks through its practices what can be called ldquoemotional rationalityrdquo broken down into types depending on the companyrsquos profile and operation
1) The neutralization or total inhibition of emotions prevents the emergence of intense negative emotions with the very strict structuring of roles and interpersonal relations [ASH 95]
2) The system of isolating emotions requires the non-expression of inappropriate emotions without forcing the employee to use particular behaviors [ASH 95] In this context although the individuals are not compelled to express specific dictated emotions the prevention and inhibition of abnormal expressions are no less imposed and sanctioned
3) The prescription of emotions [ASH 95] which tries to control both normal and abnormal expressions of employees is based on the employeersquos adherence to good conduct Individuals must not only follow behavior scripts learn to manage their stress and inhibit certain emotions but most importantly they are asked to thrive
Managing Individuals 49
4) The normalization of emotion has the goal of rationalizing emotions that occur inappropriately It takes the form of making excuses using humor or expressing regret on the part of the employee who said it
Third the organization is the site of diverse social interactions between employees and each other employees and clients employees and managers etc The duration and frequency of these interactions can vary greatly depending on their nature
According to Hochschild [HOC 83] workplace situations that require the regulation of emotions (emotional demands) have three characteristics
1) they require vocal or facial contact with the public
2) they ask the employee to produce an emotional state or reaction from the consumer
3) they provide the employer with the opportunity to control the employeersquos emotional activities
In a company the inhibition of action thus demanded of employees corresponds to a request to hold back their emotions when they do not correspond to the behavioral norms expected by managers among others As we specified in the first approach this request creates the so-called emotional dissonance [HOC 83] in the individual that as with cognitive dissonance [FES 57] generates an unbearable psychological and physical tension related to this restraint inhibition of the emotion that if it is accumulated can have consequences on the mental or biological health of the individual
It has been proven that burnout is just as connected to psychological and affective variables [CHE 92 LEE 93] as to organizational consequences such as turnover the intent to leave negative attitudes in the workplace and decreased performance [LEE 96] especially because these issues have proven to be contagious [BAK 05] In this respect the manager can intervene to limit the effects considering the procedural aspect of emotions in the workplace described earlier and their management levers
50 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
This process is of great interest to management in order to mitigate absenteeism and the direct and indirect costs that absenteeism generates but it cannot negate emotional contagion The risk of the contagion of stress and anxiety has been demonstrated by psychologists and sociologists [BEH 94 GUM 97 PFE 98] To our knowledge only a few studies [BAK 01 BAK 05 GRO 92] have demonstrated the existence of the contagion of burnout and physical exhaustion resulting from emotional exhaustion [SHI 03] However these few studies are specialized in clinical psychology in the professions of a specific domain medical care and in this instance doctors and nurses While Bakker et al [BAK 01] demonstrates that burnout like other mental disorders is not automatically connected to a process of contagion research about depression does demonstrate the existence of a connection [HOW 85]
An important point should be noted Like the role played by pain emotion remains a somatic and psychological signal that reveals several factors including managerial failures From a positive point of view emotions have the ability to foster well-being at work The emotional intelligence and competence of a leader are particularly important
The company Google measures well-being at work This evaluation is part of an
annual evaluation of every employee According to directors Eric Schmidt and
Jonathan Rosenberg in their book How Google Works the Google culture does not
think it is acceptable for employees to feel bad in their place of work Google is also
perceived as a company where people have a good time ldquohave funrdquo The directors
specify that it is not about having fun for funrsquos sake but indeed to intensify
creativity and increase the irresistible desire to work find solutions advance create
and work together [SCH 14]
The online journal Innovation Manageacuteriale6 features an article with the title
ldquolsquoChoose a job you love and you will never have to work a day in your lifersquo
(Confucius)rdquo Although 64 of French people consider themselves satisfied with
their work the percentage drops to 20 when asked if they ldquoget pleasure from
workingrdquo according to a 2014 Ipsos study
The 2016 barometer of well-being in the workplace relies on 10 items grouped into 6 Available online at httpwwwinnovationmanagerialecomconceptsde-la-gestion-du-savoir-faire-au-management-de-laimer-faire
Managing Individuals 51
three essential pillars (see Figure 24) work environment emotion and attention
The work environment corresponds to equipment and the balance between private
and professional life Attention corresponds to the consideration on the part of the
hierarchy and the management of skills Well-being also depends on the consideration
that the manager gives to employees Emotion corresponds to the pleasure of coming
to work in the morning the interest in onersquos work or its stimulating aspect What the
employee feels on a daily basis is also considered7
One particular example is this in England a company had the idea to implement an
uncommon and extremely practical type of leave for employees If they drink too
much on a night out employees at the British online ticket agency DICE can now
ask for ldquohangoverrdquo leave According to the founder of the London-based company
Phil Hutcherson this measure allows colleagues to ldquoembracerdquo the company culture
Employees are expected to attend concerts and festivals regularly and this type of
leave allows them to take advantage of the events without feeling worried about a
difficult day after To set up their day employees only need to follow one extremely
simple step They must send a WhatsApp message to their boss containing the
ldquomusicrdquo ldquobeerrdquo and ldquosickrdquo emojis Regarding this new kind of leave Phil
Hutcherson said ldquoOur whole team lives for music and some of the best
opportunities in the industry happen after a concert We trust each other and we
want people to be open if they are going to see live music No need to pretend to be
sickrdquo On average employees have each asked for four ldquohangoverrdquo leaves since the
measure was implemented Phil Hutcherson says he is delighted with the trust and
transparency that this has created within DICE8
Case Study 210 Emotion and well-being at work an indisputable link
These examples are clearly indicative of the fact that modern management cannot not react faced with the consequences of the poor management of e-motions In addition emo-management can have consequences on health and penalize a company through the costs that it represents something that was unthinkable until about ten years ago Emo-management plays a role in rational decision-making
7 Available online at httpmipsosfrengager-ses-equipes-et-conduire-changement 2016-05-26-barometre-edenred-ipsos-2016-quels-sont-piliers-pour-comprendre-et-agir-sur-bien-etre-au-travail 8 Available online at httpwwwohmymagcominsolitecette-entreprise-propose-des-conges-gueule-de-bois-a-ses-employes_art112460html
52 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
25 A factual approach for effective decision-making knowledge of the emotional decision-making process
Apart from the impact on work emotion has influences that have long been unimaginable Decision-making has been demonstrated to be dependent on emotion a stunning breakthrough
251 Decision and emotion
In fact it is only in the past few years that emotions have been a subject of interest for research about decision-making although some authors anticipated it According to Simon [SIM 59] organizations do not automatically follow the maximization of profits but rather a result deemed satisfactory relative to a level of aspiration Until recently the decision-maker was addressed as a being someone who acted according to rational and distinctly formulated principles Since Plato Kant and Descartes it has been considered that proper logic purely rational and mathematical stripped of all affective considerations can lead to a solution regardless of the problem According to these theories a decision is inspired by sensory data events facts and documents or principles based on which it is enough to correctly deduce only truth from truth [DES 37 KAN 98] If the premises of an emotional intervention in decision-making are already discernable in Darwinrsquos principle of anti-thesis9 [DAR 72] or the research of Lazarus [LAZ 91] it was only in 1994 that Damasio clearly affirmed that emotions are necessary for decision-making According to his theory about somatic indicators or the perception of the secondary emotions of foreseeable consequences ([DAM 94 p 240]) this neurologist explains not only the process of making decisions but especially the time that it takes our brains to decide from a few fractions of a second to a few minutes depending on the case According to him pure or mathematical reasoning requires a memory with an unlimited capacity to retain the multitude of probable
9 Principle of expressions of opposite emotions highlighting the mechanisms implemented during opposite choices A hostile and aggressive dog will walk stiffly head held high tail up ears directed to the front A dog greeting his master will hold its body low tail and ears directed backward The two expressions and postures are opposite and ldquoantitheticalrdquo
Managing Individuals 53
combinations to predict the consequences of any given decision ndash a capacity that humans do not have This is why memory is supported by various emotional indicators A decision that is perceived by emotion as negative and automatically associated with an unpleasant sensation in the body (soma) is then immediately rejected in order to restrict the choice to fewer foreseeable alternatives to better decide When the emotion experienced is positive the alternative is ldquomarkedrdquo and preserved This theory was partially demonstrated by Bechara et al [BEC 98]
Neurologically speaking making a decision is very fast much less than a second when it consists of reacting to an immediate danger and emotion is therefore predominant When the decision is established as a cognitive process with time for reflection where the consequence is a choice between various solutions emotion intervenes without predominating Do we not say ldquoI lsquofeelrsquo that I did not make the right decisionrdquo At that point emotion presents itself as an unconscious signal of the effectiveness of our choice [LAZ 91] In addition at first glance as a process of adjustment and evaluation it plays a moderating role in the control of rational decisions [GRA 00] Emotion is an integral part of decisional complexity
252 Decision and emotion at the origin a rejection
To understand this complexity let us examine how emotions were rejected from the domain of research in decision-making then how they came to be included in it From the start Plato (427 BCE) rejected the world of the senses because it posed too many various obstacles to understanding Instead he dedicated himself to reason and pure understanding In the same sense Kant [KAN 98 p 36] in his Critique of Pure Reason says ldquoEncouraged by such a proof of the power of reason the drive for expansion sees no boundsrdquo10 Similarly Descartes in his Discourse on Method [DES 37] considers that it is reason that makes us human and so we should cultivate our own intelligence According to Berthoz [BER 03] regarding these theories
10 Translation taken from the 1998 English edition translated and edited by Paul Guyer and Allen W Wood and published by Cambridge University Press
54 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
and various other original normative descriptive and prescriptive theories of decision-making it remains ideally rational and essentially cognitive In this context normative currents with numerous variations indicate the way in which to proceed to make a decision descriptive theories detail the process prescriptive theories seek to improve the relevance of the choices made Each field of research has its own perspective and method of measuring cerebral function during decision-making Nevertheless one point remains common to all of them calculation or evaluation It is also this evaluation that is at the heart of the discourse on research about decision-making through emotions
In fact evaluation speculation and even betting are recurrent themes in cognitive research about decision-making The distinctions that are allocated to it in cognitivist research have more to do with its function than with its foundation No matter what the choice to be made is the individual considers predicts and bets on the possible consequences or on the preference that he gives it Based on these currents this estimate depends on three major paradigms
1) The utility function (mathematical formula) [BER 13 VON 44] where decision-making is based on the beliefs and values of the individual and the expected results The ldquosure thing principlerdquo an approach suggested by Savage [SAV 54] revising the utility function considers the choice as dependent on the preferences and beliefs of the individual despite the consequences Finally the theory of the prospect is a mathematical prediction function combining a function of the values and a function of the subjective probabilities [KAH 73]
2) Limited rationality showing that the human limits and deviations of prediction cannot be reproduced by theoretical models An economical person can in fact content themselves with a solution that is satisfying in their eyes without it being proven to be the optimal solution [SIM 59]
3) The algebraic process in the form of equations and weighted means is the aggregate calculation of the judgment
Far from being able to be considered as divergent cognitive processes the differentiation of these three currents summarized by
Managing Individuals 55
Berthoz [BER 03] mainly concerns the role of this evaluation and the strategies undertaken to determine it Evaluation remains an iterative term to such a point that cognitivist approaches and emotional approaches are compatible
As noted earlier already in 1872 in his observations Darwin remarked that decision-making was accompanied by a furrowing of the brow indicating a difficulty in the mind and an emotion expressed before the action Then several theories suggested the predictive aspect of emotions These theories were established by Ribot [RIB 30] for whom an idea that is not felt is nothing and then Sartre [SAR 38] according to whom the emotional conscience is the conscience of the world and finally Schachter [SCH 71] who said that the existence of a cognition associated with physiological activation is indicative of the very nature of emotion It was over the course of the development of these various foundational approaches that emotion was considered to be a real tool of evaluation because of its predictive character Scherer [SCH 89] examined emotion as constituting an affective mechanism of evaluation that intervened between the cognitive evaluation of a situation and human action In his view emotions cause a decoupling of the behavior and the stimuli rendering the individual capable of substituting more flexible kinds of behaviors for reflexive instinctive or usual responses in a given situation Next came the perspective of Lazarus [LAZ 91] according to whom emotions have several functions such as informing people about the quality of what they are experiencing here and now helping them to evaluate situations in which they find themselves and the effectiveness of their conduct (satisfaction or dissatisfaction) giving meaning and value to their experience facilitating the communication of intentions stimulating reflection and the development of thought etc Finally in the 1990s the neurologist Damasio [DAM 94] posed and tested the clearly defined hypothesis that emotion plays a biological role in reasoning and decision-making First he noted that over the course of several experiments using the measurement of certain biological parameters11 there was a strange connection 11 Modification of the resistance of the skin to the electrical current and positron emission tomographer in order to film the brainrsquos reactions
56 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
between the absence of emotions and the disruption of reasoning In short emotions are 100 indispensable for reasoning It was through his questioning of the case of Phineas Gage who was stripped of emotions and unable to make decisions following a brain injury that Damasio suggested in his book Descartesrsquo Error that ldquomechanisms making it possible to express and feel emotions [hellip] all play a role in the faculty of reasoningrdquo12 ([DAM 94 p 10]) In fact while Gage had preserved all of his aptitudes for reasoning he had lost his ability to reason To solve this mystery Damasio studied a patient (Elliot) whom had had a tumor on his meninges removed Although Elliot could reflect talk count and remember he was unable to make good decisions manage his time or execute tasks in several steps An experiment showed that he felt no emotion when presented with shocking photos Because it consisted uniquely of sang-froid Damasiorsquos conclusion was that the faculty of reasoning was affected by the emotional deficit the loss of the ability to experience emotions could be the source of irrational behavior According to him the brain would therefore be a series of loops and infinite cross-referencing between the intellect and the affect
His next studies conducted in collaboration with other researchers [BEC 98 BEC 99] demonstrate that decision-making is a process that is dependent on emotion Some of his studies prove that damage to the ventromedial prefrontal cortex prevents the ability to use the emotions necessary to guide decisions in an advantageous direction In the anatomical analysis of 10 subjects with damaged brains and 16 normal subjects the results demonstrate that damage to the amygdala of the brain the locus of emotions disrupts decision-making
To support this perspective according to Berthoz [BER 03] throughout human
history there seem to be several examples that demonstrate the influence of
emotions on decision-making For example between 1978 and 1980 Stansfield
Turner director of the CIA decided not to order the destruction of a foreign
plane declared to be transporting nuclear missiles on American territory
Despite the imminent danger he did not make the decision to act The events that
followed would prove he was right as the information that had been
communicated to him was false and related to a simple technical error in
12 Translation from French
Managing Individuals 57
transmission Why did he react this way faced with a crucial danger putting in
danger his life and the lives of millions of people Had he considered that it could
be an error Did he evaluate his decision based on his values his representations
No one knows not even him
Case Study 211 Example of an ldquoirrationalrdquo decision
253 Decision and the neurobiological process
In order to better understand and visualize it below is a short overview of the anatomy of the nervous system based on descriptions by Vincent [VIN 86] Damasio [DAM 94] Laborit [LAB 94] and Berthoz [BER 03]
The brain has central parts and peripheral parts
ndash the central system is composed of a right hemisphere and a left hemisphere united
by the corpus callosum ventromedial regions (a set of connective fibers
convergence zone and white matter)
ndash the central nervous system including the diencephalon contains the thalamus and
the hypothalamus placed respectively at the center and under the hemispheres as
well as the midbrain brainstem cerebellum spinal cord and others
In the central nervous system the arrangement of the gray matter provides
information about its role
ndash in layers this corresponds to the cortex which forms the outer layer covering the
hemispheres the most recently evolved part of the cortex is called the neocortex
generally associated with cognition
ndash arranged like nuts gray matter corresponds to different nodes buried in each
hemisphere such as the amygdala (almond-shaped) it is the least recent part in
terms of evolution the limbic cortex associated with emotion
These two systems are interrelated by electrical currents diffusing from neurons (cell
bodies) to the points of contact (synapses) by conductors (axons) The synapses can
then release the neurotransmitters chemical messengers that will carry the message
through the spinal cord and the peripheral nervous system (corporeal) to the next
neuron and to different organs or glands in order to trigger action (or not) and
transmit information about the result back to the brain To put it simply depending
on the situation some parts of the brain (an electrical factory) send through
neurons messages (neurotransmitters) to a point of contact (synapse) that will in
turn send the message to another point of contact and so on until the message
arrives at its destination the body (a chemical factory) At the time of the
58 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
last point of contact the message is decoded (the electrical message becomes a
chemical message) so that it can be read by the receptor
In the context of decision-making both systems (central and peripheral) play a role
[BEC 98 BEC 99 BEC 00 BER 03] More precisely it is the ventromedial regions
notably the prefrontal cortex and the amygdala that come into play The
ventromedial zone located in the prefrontal cortex is where representations that the
individual constructs of a situation are stored This is where the information is
classified based on the experience of the individual and where scenarios describing
the likely consequences of a decision can be found This zone is also directly related
to the so-called primary regions of the cortex such as the motor region certain
ganglions or the amygdala As a central receptor for information the latter is
according to the metaphor used by Damasio ldquothe Bureau of Standards and
Measuresrdquo [DAM 94 p 250] In this sense experiencing an emotion activates the
amygdala of the brain which triggers among other things the ventromedial cortex
The latter sends signals to the motor system so that the muscles create the
expression of emotions on the face and specific postures in the body and activate
endocrine and nervous system hormone secretors (chemical neurotransmitters)
inducing changes in the state of the body and the brain Each of these actions allows the
individual to perceive a corporeal and mental state This is what provides him or her
with information about the choice to make
In a decision-making situation the cognitive brain and the limbic system (emotions)
send messages concurrently The cognitive brain makes an inventory of the
consequences of each probable choice It sends each scenario to the limbic brain
which acts like a customs checkpoint The latter selects the best scenarios or the most
relevant messages For each message received it sends a message directly to the part
of the brain that triggers bodily movements starting from the feeling of the individual
in a given scenario This allows the individual to quickly and distinctly perceive the
message Finally it stores the best scenarios which are the ones that correspond best to
the values interests and experiences of the individual a work that is always carried out
together by the parts of the brain The process continues in this way until there is only
one choice left the best one according to the individualrsquos perception
Case Study 212 Description of the neurological functioning of a decision
The studies by Bechara et al [BEC 98 BEC 99 BEC 00] and Damasio [DAM 94] demonstrate that when making a decision the so-called secondary emotions because they result from representations and images related to scenarios with probable
Managing Individuals 59
consequences for the decision to be made intervene and activate the amygdala and the ventromedial systems One of the results of their latest study [BEC 99 BEC 00] showed that more bad decisions were made by patients with damage to the ventromedial cortex and the amygdala compared to patients with damage to the hypothalamus or who are totally normal These individuals reiterated their poor decisions despite the repetition of experience because the emotion emulating the action could not be inhibited by the prefrontal cortex according to Berthozrsquos theory [BER 03]
Lazarus [LAZ 91] argues that the emotionndashdecision relation is clear Decisions depend on values that revolve around our humanity religion politics loyalty righteousness justice compassion or even trust and personal interest In that respect the maximization of utility by a purely cognitive decision presupposes that each person knows and is aware of his or her own interest Yet according to the economists we only know it when we are wrong
Berthoz [BER 03] indicates that concerning the cognitionndashemotion debate [IZA 84 LAZ 91] emotion has a role that is essential but not consciously perceived in the pre-categorization of stimuli that guide cognitive assessment As confirmation according to the computational approach emotion ldquoalerts the consciousness to evaluate the situation identify what triggered this activity and reorganize the action plansrdquo [BER 03 p 67] Gratch [GRA 00] provides us with an example by establishing a computer program to monitor decision-making in the context of military aviation plans Starting from the observation that the current programs are limited by their incapacity to model different moderators influencing the performance of troops on the ground such as stress emotions and individual differences he mathematically models the way in which individuals evaluate events emotionally and the influence of this evaluation on decision-making Another case supports this argument decisions made under the influence of anger Lerner and Tiedens [LER 06] present the fact that this emotion disrupts the objectivity and rationality that is useful for decision-making When angry individuals experience excessive confidence and optimism which encourages rash risk-taking
60 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
The objective of these descriptions is to show that the intervention of emotions in decision-making is not only effective but also shared by all human beings regardless of the context (private or professional life) status or hierarchical level of the individual confronted with making a decision Probable distinctions are located in the essential and crucial aspect of the consequences of this or in other words in the type of decision to make Research shows that emotions guide us throughout our daily life Whether they are negative or positive they are meaningful for our decisions
254 Decision and emo-management
In a context like the one in an organization decision-making is especially perceived as a rational process because it is anchored in an essentially economic domain However the decisional rationality of managers is also subject to emotions just like each member of the organization Faced with fierce competition the company and its decision-makers must make fast and effective strategic decisions In order to make the best decisions conventional theories which assume that the decision-makers maximize their expected utility through a complete rational analysis of the information are opposed to neo-classical theories that argue that decision-makers have limited capacities to dissect and assess this information The difficulty that these conventional theories encounter in their study of the behavior of economic and rational individuals is that each partially or totally irrational behavior must be randomized and excluded because it is deviant [AKE 82] Since then some studies have considered intuition and irrationality in decision-making [FRA 03 HEI 88 SIM 87] This intuition or irrationality is considered to be a predictor in the context of decision-making with a lack of information or partial information In 2003 in the section of his article entitled ldquoLa dimension strateacutegique du recours agrave lrsquoexternalisation les contributions anteacuterieuresrdquo (p 27) Fimbel [FIM 03] explained ldquoIn the decision-making phase the issues are the subject of an assessment in which the degree of rationality is limited these concerns can be understood as a set of gains or losses that the operation in question will produce Finally in the duration the
Managing Individuals 61
operational phase will reveal the qualitative and quantitative intensity of the real strategic effects which is to say the intensity of the gains andor losses observedrdquo
In addition the concept of cognitive dissonance [FES 57] notably used in organizational strategy indicates that individuals have a tendency to persist in their convictions when faced with contradictory evidence Whatrsquos more this contradiction is perceived as a confirmation of their first conviction This approach leads to considering that companies react in the same way and show themselves to be resistant to change due to their certainty when faced with an opposite or divergent approach Individuals place more importance on the state of their situation compared to a level of reference rather than on ldquoabsoluterdquo characteristics [HEL 64] This established fact suggests that companies do not imitate simply to copy but out of interest In addition to this definition the cognitive dissonance described by Festinger [FES 57] has another aspect that is as much cognitive as it is emotional One of the reasons for this imitation is not to be marginalized and to ensure positive relationships with different actors surrounding the company The contagion that companies can demonstrate as shown in studies about in-progress bankruptcies and the influence of negotiation [ALE 01] is a considerable driving force for the implementation of a new paradigm of practices and managerial perspectives According to these studies contagion can occur extremely quickly (avalanche theory [ALE 01]) However it can be managed if the decision-maker is aware of the many decisional biases that affect decisions and the psychological neurological and sociological processes that the decision follows
The European Helicopter Safety Analysis Team (EHSAT) in its analysis of
helicopter accidents between 2000 and 2005 indicated in its final 2010 report that
ldquoWe observed that most of the fatal crashes were due to errors in judgment rather
than errors in perception or execution Many incidents were also connected to errors
in decision-making These could translate into accidents if the situation was not
rectified in time Although we cannot eliminate human error an in-depth
understanding of the principles of human factors can lead to appropriate strategies
62 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
methods and practical tools in order to prevent most errors better detect and
manage them and limit their negative impact on air safetyrdquo13
Case Study 213 Example of decisional bias
Therefore managing an individual requires an emo-management that
ndash views the individual as a being gifted in the strategy of adjustment and adaptation capable of limiting dissonances and responding to the companyrsquos needs
ndash considers emotions as a limiting factor of discontent in the workplace
ndash considers the impact of emotions on well-being in the workplace which is very meaningful in an era when some companies are leading by example and reaping substantial benefits
ndash considers the rational to which the manager has been subject for several years under its emotional aspect Damasio [DAM 94] specifies that emotion precedes cognition The decision cannot be made without emotion
In this regard emo-management gives the individual the opportunity to be successful
255 Decision emo-management and contagion
Loewenstein and Lerner [LOE 03] outline a theory of the contagion of decisions through emotions They use the example of an investor confronted with the choice of a risky investment To make his decision the individual attempts to predict the probabilities of different consequences earning or losing money The immediate emotion when he makes his decision anxiety can either discourage him or cause him to dismiss his regrets if it proves to be a bad choice To limit the risk the choice of the investor can also be to imitate
13 Translation from French Available online at httpswwwecologique-solidairegouvfrsitesdefaultfilesSymposium2012_HE4pdf
Managing Individuals 63
others and make similar decisions The image of the stock market crash can be used to illustrate this situation If human decision-making depends on an emotional process then a decision can be dependent on its contagion an emo-decisional contagion Because in an organization getting all actors to accept a decision is vital the emotional aspect of the decision can prove to be a powerful tool [VAN 08a] According to Lazarus [LAZ 91] emotion induces the individualization of the decision Every person has his or her own interests and personal values which lead notably in the context of an organization to a multiplication of decisions and individual choices that complexify effective successful management We find ourselves once again in an issue of decisional individualism versus collectivism This raises several questions
Since it has been shown that decision-making is dependent on emotion and contagion what about collective decisions It has also been proven that human relations depend on emotions that have allowed the human species to survive since its very beginning through the social instinct that resulted from it Does this precious combination favor more rational judgment
3
Managing a Collective
31 An evidence-based approach for effective collective decision-making understanding the process of emo-decisional contagion
The decisional processes described for many years in the research seem to have similar foundations at first glance regardless of whether they are individual or collective decisions aside from the negotiation or discussion aspect that is involved However some of the studies that focus on game theory and decision-making analyze different types of imitation dynamics based on which agents are more inclined to adopt popular andor winning strategies [FUD 05] ndash decisions that were a success or that the majority can appreciate In a group and especially in a crowd individuals more easily become fierce imitators (such as via herd mentality mimicry) They tend to lose their own reference frame to share common beliefs and to communicate their collective emotion between themselves acting in the same way even to the point of engaging in excesses Greed fear admiration enthusiasm contempt hatred and many other emotions influence the action of investors This causes the stock market to fluctuate rapidly It has often been suggested in the literature that competitors in an oligopolistic market can be guided more by imitation than by calculations of profitability Following a suggestion by Todt [TOD 70 TOD 71 TOD 81 TOD 96] in the analysis of an experimental study of investment decisions and price fixing Goyal and Vega-Redondo [GOY 07] Rhode and Stegeman [RHO 01] Schlag [SCH 98] and Vega-Redondo [VEG 97] describe the process of imitation as a
The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management First Edition Delphine van Hoorebeke copy ISTE Ltd 2018 Published by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley amp Sons Inc
66 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
factor in decision-making faced with competition in the context of game theory
In the same way however in the context of the theories of natural selection and evolution there is a presumption that competition excludes irrational entities Although according to these models group behavior seems more rational than individual behavior it can be supposed that a company viewed as a decision-making group occasionally feigns its rationality It seems reasonable to assume the opposite far from being the exception these models assume these irrational behaviors (and supposed anomalies) are the norm in decision-making Based on comparative studies of individual and collective decisions there does not appear to be a real consensus on the predominance of one or the other regardless of the domain of study (see Table 31) However there is a consensus within organizations the decision-making process cannot be understood in terms of one single actor in an individual way The decision-making process is collective and sequential in organizations [ALL 71] Decision-making processes in organizations generally involve several actors interacting with one another [SMO 02]
Decision-making
Risk-taking Participants take significantly fewer risks when they are in a group [MAS 09]
Trust According to Kugler et al [KUG 12] the group has a similar level of trust as the individuals have between themselves
Information Information has more influence on a decision when it is shared than when it is not [STA 89]
Framing effect
ndash Is reduced when making decisions in a group [NEA 86] ndash Is greater for decisions in homogenous groups [PAE 93] ndash Is not significantly increased or decreased when making decisions in a group [WEB 09] ndash Is amplified by the group [YAN 11]
Rationality The group members mutually correct their errors and pool complementary resources [STA 01]
Similar choices Advantages
Collaborative decision-making makes it possible to better discern and better understand problems [TUR 01]
Table 31 Comparative studies of collectiveindividual decision-making
Managing a Collective 67
Although there is not a complete consensus on the concepts in Table 31 it is still undeniable and taken for granted that there are a multitude of individual and collective biases involved in decision-making
If the individual biases are extremely numerous a review of collective biases interacting with decisional rationality also supports the involvement of emotion in individual and collective biases From an individual perspective according to the results of the neurological study by De Martino et al [DEM 06] the decisional bias of the framing effect or the effect of manipulating the formulation of choices is limited when emotion is managed Their study reveals specific activation in areas of the brain that are not active during decision-making without manipulation The activation of the emotional zone ndash the brainrsquos amygdala in this case ndash is significantly more intense when individuals choose the positive formulation ldquochance of winningrdquo The authors conclude ldquoOur data raise an intriguing possibility that more lsquorationalrsquo individuals have a better and more refined representation of their own emotional biases that enables them to modify their behavior in appropriate circumstancesrdquo [DEM 06 p 686]
The framing effect was revealed [TVE 80] through an experiment that revolved around a hypothetical epidemic threatening the USA The number of victims was estimated at 600 people Two programs were proposed to fight it If program A was adopted 200 people would be saved if program B was chosen there was one chance in three that the 600 people would be saved and a probability of two out of three that no one would be saved The choice 72 of participants chose program A and 28 chose program B
The researchers then reproduced the same experiment with other participants This time they presented not the number of people that would be saved but the number of people who would not survive It was explained to the subjects that if program A was chosen 400 people would die and if program B was chosen there was a probability of 1 out of 3 that no one would die and a probability of 2 out of 3 that 600 people would die These program results are exactly equivalent to the previous ones but the presentation is different a positive aspect as opposed to a negative aspect They are framed differently In the second experiment 78 of participants chose program B and only 22 chose program A
The two authors concluded that human beings have a tendency to refuse to take risks when they think of the potential gains (as in the first phase of the experiment) and accept to take them when they think of the potential losses (as in the second phase of the experiment) The framing effect reveals that opinions may differ when messages about the same subject are presented in different lights causing individuals to evaluate them based on different considerations
Case Study 31 The framing effect
68 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
There is no consensus to privilege the collective over the individual in decision-making but there is a consensus about the fact that the collective like the individual has its own biases An analysis of the literature points out that emotional bias is significant in collective decision-making (see Table 32)
Collective bias Definition Terms related to the emotion
Groupthink [JAN 82] Conformism effort to establish a consensus at the expense of a realistic evaluation of alternatives
Conformism
Halo effect [THO 20 ASC 55]
Effect of contamination Selective interpretation and perception of information in line with a first impression that we try to confirm
Contamination
Sunflower management [BOO 05]
Tendency to align with the leaderrsquos vision
Social influence by the vision of the leadership
Champion bias [LEF 06]
Evaluation based on the experience of a person rather than on facts
Social influence
Emo-decisional contagion [VAN 08a]
Effect of contagion of emotions experienced and expressed
Contagion unconscious mimicry
Table 32 Biases related to emotion
The surveys conducted by Alvesson and Spicer [ALV 15] regarding the paradox of stupidity revealed several examples of situations where reasonable decisions were ignored ldquoTop executives who rely on consultantsrsquo PowerPoint shows rather than careful analysis [hellip] IT analysts who prefer to ignore problems so as not to undermine the upbeat tone of their workplace [hellip] Marketing managers who are obsessed with their brand strategy while the only thing that should have mattered was the price Companies capable of spending millions on lsquorebranding exercisesrsquo and that in case of failure start again and again Senior figures in the armed forces who prefer to run rebranding exercises rather than military exercisesrdquo The positive impact of these different decisions favoring group cohesion and limiting disruptive questions which the authors call the paradox of stupidity
Case Study 32 Examples of stupid or biased decision-making
Managing a Collective 69
Table 32 highlights the emotional aspects perceptible in each of the collective biases listed It indicates that if the group is connected to emotion in order to create interpersonal relationships then unfortunately through a boomerang effect the same is true for biases
Faced with the observation that emotion is disruptive for decision-making in the form of a bias we should not neglect the fact that it can also prove to be a tool for rationalization In fact in his theory of somatic indicators Damasio [DAM 94] considers it to be an antecedent and a necessity for rational decision-making Another point that recurs in Table 32 can remedy this problem Collective decision-making is not only subject to group biases but also to the managerrsquos influence Managers must be aware that their attitudes and behaviors influence the group and collective judgment In this respect the emo-manager by ethical principle does not wield this power inappropriately Emotion can prove to be a harmful tool Nevertheless it is important not to forget the authenticity described in section 11 Emotion cannot be based on calculating and manipulative strategies at the risk of destroying its advantages for the group and the company If emo-managers must know how to be charismatic leaders who can consciously and unconsciously influence a group they must also know how to lead by example avoid excessively emotion-driven decisions as shown in the previous example and have the honesty to alert the group to biases that it may confront
32 The art of leading authentic leadership and emotional intelligence
To influence human behavior in the workplace the leadership of a manager is qualified as ldquotransformationalrdquo by Burns [BUR 78] or as charismatic leadership [BAS 99] Koestenbaum [KOE 87] dedicates his first reflections on leadership by trying to relate it to the ethical dimension considering that management and leadership are catalysts for commitment [PET 83] According to Le Bas [LEB 04] current thinking revolves around reflections about leadership and ethics in companies as a state of mind Leadership comes from the Anglo-Saxon verb ldquoto leadrdquo Here again we find the concepts of leading and guiding close to the term of managing What is the difference It is assumed that
70 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
a manager is not necessarily a leader A leader is seen as a personality and has political psychological and social influence over an individual or a group Leaders have personal skills that make them different and allow them to be listened to and followed by a group of people Managers manage things Leaders manage people [KOT 90]
Leaders work with people and must try in spite of this to ensure decisional autonomy Unfortunately according to Koestenbaum [KOE 87] the traditional scheme hopes for and relies on absolute control which does not ensure the subjectrsquos emancipation A companyrsquos staff do not often have any other option than to submit to authority It is with this in mind that this section attempts to understand how what some people call ldquofreely consenting to submitrdquo can be a totally legitimate and natural reaction
To understand this let us return to the details of how emotions work In everyonersquos daily lives including in organizations emotions are integral to the phenomenon of expression which is to say to behavior [AND 96] Nevertheless the natural condition of emotion is to be expressed interpersonally Emotive expression includes actions that occur in private (such as grimacing and swearing if we hit our hand with a hammer) spontaneous emotive expressions (such as smiling automatically in response to someone elsersquos smile) and strategic communication (such as telling someone that we love them before critiquing them) Humans can also express (or not) emotion using rules of expression that involve their emotive expression in a logical and strategic manner based on their personal objectives or the rules of social norms [GUE 98]
321 The manager and emotions
To re-establish the link with the managerrsquos and leaderrsquos behavior Fitness [FIT 00] indicates that several people interviewed in his study said that they had feigned anger in order to intimidate their subordinates In this context the emotion of anger is used as an intimidation tactic [OAK 96] Angry individuals are more often perceived as ldquodominantrdquo [CLA 97 VAN 07b] In addition this study indicates that anger from a hierarchical superior far from being
Managing a Collective 71
shocking is expected by employees Another study analyzes the place of emotional work and emotional power in the workplace for care staff It shows that emotional labor is an integral part of the task of nurses and considers that we should understand emotion as a source of power [TRE 96] On this topic Lazarus [LAZ 91] like Hochschild [HOC 83] discusses social influence and compares the power and status of hierarchical superiors to those of parents According to this point of view several or even all types of emotions play a role in the superiorndashsubordinate relationship [KEM 78] Kemper [KEM 78] defines power as an individual possessing the capacity to command others Some feel safe holding power over other people while others feel awkward The first group can feel anxious or sad when they do not benefit from this power sufficiently or at all while the second group considers it unfair that they benefit from it and feel guilty
The study by Dasborough and Ashkanasy [DAS 02] shows that leadership is an inherently emotional process in which leaders express emotions and tend to cause emotions to be felt in others Humphrey [HUM 02] supports this view specifying that in certain circumstances the expression of emotions has more impact on the perception of the leader than on the content of the leaderrsquos message and that one of the keys to leadership is to manage the emotions of the group In this context studies have demonstrated that the ability of managers to manage their own emotions and influence those of others has an impact on results and performance Although in this case leaders play an important role (namely bringing out the best in others) the results of another study [BON 07] demonstrate that leaders influence employees in different ways Employees whose supervisors express more positive emotions demonstrate that they experience positive emotions in their interactions with their leader The employees experience these positive emotions throughout their workday including in their interactions with colleagues and clients and feel more satisfaction at work and less stress
322 The manager and emotional intelligence
According to Goleman [GOL 97] leaders require a certain emotional intelligence and certain skills in the art of managing other
72 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
peoplersquos emotions but also in managing their own emotions as well as the ability to reward themselves and others to understand control and redirect emotions and to feel personal and social emotions With this in mind Goleman created a typology in four categories based on personal competence social competence recognition of emotions and regulation of emotions self-awareness social awareness self-management and relationship-management Self-awareness combines personal competence and recognition of emotions while social awareness includes social competence and the recognition of emotions
George [GEO 90] specifies that dynamic enthusiastic and energetic managers are likely to stimulate their subordinates and similarly managers who feel anxious and aggressive will probably have a negative effect on their subordinates For example given that managers who display sadness seem less effective [LEW 00] their subordinates will seem less enthusiastic and motivated through contact with them The importance of emotions is used as a directive tool in leadership styles that encourage the charismatic aspect of the manager Consequently managers are charismatic [HOU 77] primal [GOL 02] and transformational to the extent that the charismatic style is a part of the transformational leadership style [BAS 85] using emotions to motivate employees communicate ideas and prompt interest from employees to attain strategic long-term ideals and objectives [BER 01] Transformational managers must not only be receptive to the needs of their subordinates and pay attention to each one of them or at least give the impression of doing so (a task that requires getting involved on an emotional level) but must also feel and display optimism [ASH 00b]
There is no doubt that these leadership styles can have a great deal of success However recommending the use of emotions as a management tool does have a certain number of risks [ZER 08] First managers who strategically use their emotions risk having to regularly ldquocreaterdquo the emotions necessary to reach a particular objective In addition the success of transformational or charismatic leadership lies on the impression of authenticity that emerges from the managerrsquos emotions More precisely emotional behaviors used simply as management tools can prove to be ineffective or even produce unexpected harmful effects Employees react negatively to managers
Managing a Collective 73
whose tone betrays their words ndash a typical clash over simulated interest and sympathy [NEW 02] In addition managers who try in vain to hide negative emotions can be perceived to be manipulative and calculating [DAS 02] It is therefore important that transformational and charismatic leaders be masters of regulating emotions which is truly a considerable challenge Although emotions are universal [EKM 79] expressions depend on culture personality gender and other factors For these reasons people do not express emotions in the same way a fact that is increasingly important in multicultural company environments In fact the same emotion transmitted by a man a woman or a member of a different ethnic group is not perceived in the same way which has been demonstrated in the case of women occupying management positions [LEW 00 MOR 96 ROB 97]
323 Is everyone capable of emo-managing
Although some specific examples suggest that all hierarchical superiors have the ability to hold the position of manager nothing proves that they have the personality of a leader which is just as requested by most companies Is it essential
An example of so-called ldquoliberatedrdquo companies where every employee is seen as responsible shows that everyone can become a manager The company Favi is one of the companies that share its management method The title of a book about this company called The Company that Believes that Man is Good [FAV 06] advocates for the art of managing by leaving all autonomy to the operators This case is a counter-example In most companies it is expected that managers be leaders gifted with emotional intelligence to better manage the emotions of colleagues
In his article about what makes a leader in the Harvard Business Review in 2004 Daniel Goleman gives a specific example of emotional intelligence ldquoImagine an executive who has just watched a team of his employees present a botched analysis to the companyrsquos board of directors In the gloom that follows the executive might find himself tempted to pound on the table in anger or kick over a chair He could leap up and scream at the group Or he might maintain a grim silence glaring at everyone before stalking off But if he had a gift for self-regulation he would choose a different approach He would pick his words carefully acknowledging the teamrsquos poor performance without rushing to any hasty judgment He would then step back to consider the reasons for the failure Are they personal ndash a lack of effort Are there any mitigating factors What was his role in the debaclerdquo [GOL 04]
Case Study 33 Are we all leaders
74 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
Golemanrsquos text indicates that individual emotional intelligence is seen as a true performance According to Goleman et al [GOL 02] the most effective managers according to employees are those who listen are attentive to what goes on in the workplace and are capable of regulating their emotions
Although some articles note that emotional intelligence can be used for nefarious purposes the majority of studies about emotional intelligence praise it extensively and consider it to be an indispensable skill for todayrsquos managers When the terms ldquoemotional intelligencerdquo are searched on the Internet a plethora of training courses tools guides and tests comes up This is because in todayrsquos competitive commercial climate organizations need leaders with technical skills and with people skills to maintain a competitive advantage
To return to the somewhat contradictory example of the liberated company note that a new form of emotional intelligence is now taking precedence group emotional intelligence It is a movement that is based on the involvement of a set of intelligences to construct a collective intelligence ldquoGroup intelligence [hellip] depends on emotional intelligencerdquo [GOL 14 p 234]
An exploratory quantitative study analyzes the invention of group emotional intelligence on collaborative remote work [DEB 16] Although it has not been studied extensively collaborative remote working is an effective concept for work now and in the future In the goal of better understanding the inner workings to improve management this study focuses on managementrsquos direct impact on group creativity and performance The concept of mediated collaborative work is described as another type of group work These so-called virtual teams are groups of people who collaborate to execute a specific project They are dispersed in time and space without this distance being an obstacle for their collaboration They communicate thanks to modern technologies managed by computer [LEE 03] Virtual teams offer several advantages over traditional teams However their flexibility also faces challenges due to their own integral characteristics Given the separation in time and space some factors can negatively affect communication between members by creating a conflict The concept of group emotional intelligence is seen as a dimension of collective intelligence It is assessed for its role as a moderator of connections between the collaborative work performance and creativity of the group Since Tannenbaum et al [TAN 92] show that group performance is influenced by the characteristics process and structure of the group emotional intelligence is seen as a characteristic of the group as in Jordan and Lawrence [JOR 09] where the area studied is a professional and amateur collaborative discussion site about botany with the goal of completing
Managing a Collective 75
international projects The first results obtained were drawn from 40 usable questionnaires Thanks to these results it is possible to assume that collective work by mediation is indeed marked by creativity and group performance seen through its ldquoproblem-solvingrdquo aspect Group emotional intelligence takes on its full meaning there demonstrating a very significant relation between emotional intelligence and collaborative remote working
Case Study 34 Study of the influence of emotional intelligence on the performance and creativity of a remote group
Has group leadership become the new key to a collective emotional intelligence In any case in companies it is unfortunately not enough for the manager and the team to demonstrate charisma and emotional intelligence it is also necessary to anticipate the future and focus on maintaining quality even improving over time with continuous improvement This improvement can prompt regular changes and modifications and these changes must be accepted by each member of the company
33 The art of reconciling the present with the future the principle of continuous improvement
Continuous improvement in a company can effectively lead to constant regulatory and economic changes Resulting from updating the standards or a prospective strategy this improvement considers the employeesrsquo acceptance of change This factor is essential for implementing any process Because of this there is a lot of research investigating the concepts of resistance to change change management and the adoption of organizational change According to Guilhon [GUI 98] organizational change is generally defined as ldquoa process of radical or marginal transformation of the structures and skills that punctuate an organizationrsquos evolutionary processrdquo A change is a passage from state 1 to state 2 This change can meet with success or failure One of the criteria of success is the acceptance and then appropriation of the project by the relevant actors
76 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
331 Change and emotion
Most research highlights the cognitive aspect of the adoption of change It proposes tools such as various forms of information training or influence by leaders or champions [GRI 03] capable of leading the majority to adhere to the change through rational persuasion tactics (raising awareness about the targets with oral communication articulating the alignment of a project with the target priorities directly convincing the targets through speech) However according to some researchers including Le Bon [LEB 63] Durkheim [DUR 67] and Hatfield et al [HAT 94] this ignores an important human factor the emotional aspect which can be contagious One research current in particular about the intervention of emotion in organizational change has been gradually growing for a few years Liu and Perreweacute [LIU 05] suggest a procedural model describing the role of emotions in organizational change According to the authors during the period of change ambiguity and uncertainty gradually appear and evaluation of gains andor losses for the individual or the organization also surfaces Until the period of change comes to an end emotions of varying intensity and content are experienced prompting various attitudes and behaviors Howard [HOW 06] argues that in the context of organizational change positive emotion facilitates the individual intention to change A study by Zid [ZID 06] complements these findings and demonstrates that organizational change has an effect on emotions during changes employees feel emotions that are both positive (50) and negative (50) and the explanation and comprehension of changes has positive effects on certain emotions In his case study Huy [HUY 02] analyzes the effect of emotional engagement in middle managers on the adaptation to change through learning an engagement that has been shown to be key Regardless emotion cannot be absent from a period of change because it serves at all times as a safeguard as it is described by research in psychology and psychobiology Changes in the organizational values of the collective in the workplace that we notice during strategy changes company takeovers reorganizations privatizations etc are often experienced by the people concerned as serious breaches of the psychological contract with the company these breaches cause strong negative and painful emotions which can even be similar to a grieving
Managing a Collective 77
process and can translate into de-motivation and rejecting or resisting the change [ROU 03]
A paper written by Zouhaoui Boisard-Castelluccia and van Hoorebeke [ZOU 16] studies this resistance It has been the subject of a lot of research notably in its cognitive aspect Nevertheless one element remains little-studied the role of emotions That was the objective of this study Through participant observation over about two years at an international service company facing a change in computer software the role of the balance necessary between emotions and cognitions was revealed The results obtained included
ndash a series of resignations including by people involved in the change project
ndash staff reluctance or blocking faced with the gradual but imposed change
ndash categorical rejection of the tool by 13 of users
ndash the change provoked by this project not only concerned the work methods of the actors but also the content of their missions
ndash constant pressure from the manager on the team to finish training and tests related to the new software despite the teamrsquos work load
ndash the attitude of the manager forced the team not to share real impressions but to use simulated behaviors that were appropriate to expectations
Faced with this failure management decided to entrust this process to a team of external experts
In this context the emotions experienced are negative and lead to emotional exhaustion They remain hidden and inhibited but behaviors allow them to be perceived (demotivation lack of enthusiasm etc) revealing a real cognitionndashemotion conflict The team does not get involved and suffers in silence forcing the manager who is compelled to follow the change process to the result expected by management to request external intervention
Case Study 35 Analysis of an organizational change and the emotioncognition influence
This example shows not only to what point the change is connected to emotional impressions ndash inhibited in this case ndash but also to what point the psychological contract established between managers and employees is fragile In fact regarding the acceptance of change one factor is key in this psychological contract (perceived to be breached in this case) and it is a factor that organizations attempt to preserve trust [MOR 02] Although the reputation of partners and the perception of honesty and integrity are evaluated by each actor freely the emergence of implicit and explicit rules obliges them to follow the
78 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
choice enforced by the organization Paradoxically the employee is forced to have spontaneous trust
How can we invite an actor to adopt and even appreciate a change if the trust that they feel is forced Is it necessary for each actor to have immediate trust in order to commit
332 Change = trust = emotion
In fact actors can commit without trust through simulation [CAS 98] leaving the door open to power relations There are many examples that illustrate this idea Thus some employees who do not trust their hierarchical superior still execute their tasks and follow instructions but in a routine fashion Nevertheless the degree of cooperation that management can expect from these employees remains limited [BAB 99] The concept of emotional dissonance [MID 89] also takes on its full meaning here Imposing instructions forces the individual to behave in a certain way which also reveals the existence of a dissonance between feeling and expression identified by the individual given the imposed norms
No research seems to deny that emotions are an element that influences behavior when facing a change In addition although Baumard and Benvenuti [BAU 98] identify four types of trust the literature resulting from research in sociopsychology supports a distinction between only two forms of trust Johnson-George and Swap [JOH 82] distinguish and test two dimensions of trust reliability and emotional trust Similarly Rempel et al [REM 85] makes a distinction between security and faith as unique forms of trust Finally McAllister [MCA 95] reveals one dimension based on the cognitive and another dimension based on the affective which are interconnected
Cognitive trust is positioned from a rational point of view and considers competence responsibility integrity credibility and consistency [SCO 80] It is said to be based on the cognitive because the individual chooses who to trust according to what criteria and in what circumstances This choice is based on ldquogood reasonsrdquo that serve
Managing a Collective 79
as foundations for trust decisions It is especially necessary for affective trust in fact a certain level of cognitive trust is necessary for its development [MCA 95]
Like emotion is distinguished from rationality so affective trust is distinguished from cognitive trust [DAM 94] Affective trust has an emotional connotation It is based on care altruism involvement commitment mutual respect the ability to listen and understand and a belief in reciprocity of feelings [SCO 80] The affective foundations of trust correspond to the emotional ties that exist between individuals Individuals make emotional investments in trust relationships express care feel concerned about others and believe in the virtue of these relationships and that their feelings are mutual [MCA 95] The results of McAllisterrsquos study [MCA 95] demonstrate the importance of relationships built on affective trust and the expressive qualities of interpersonal behavior In particular he specifies that research in management recognizes that a large part of managerial work is accomplished through interpersonal action and that the nature of the relationships between managers and their peers can determine their capacity to accomplish their work and accept change
Definitively affective trust is a prerequisite for accepting change It is also intangible and difficult to control given its emotional character and thus remains a preoccupying problem for organizations The intangibility and the difficulty of controlling affective trust stems from the fact that it is the result of an emotional evaluation of the situation carried out by all actors concerned by a change As highlighted by Baba [BAB 99] its complexity comes from its existence at all levels of the organization ndash micro- meso- and macroscopic ndash and in relationships with international suppliers or with stakeholders closer to home colleagues
In order to promote affective trust between two or more parties managers must understand how individuals feel trust toward another person group or organization and how this trust evolves over time It is necessary to study it psychologically before identifying the essential
80 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
issue of the company leading an internal actor to feel real trust to accept and adopt the change and be flexible
Trust is a complex multidimensional mechanism whose affective dimension interacts with emotions In specific and general ways emotions act on several levels of trust which is to say upstream and downstream
First of all individuals often decide to trust someone after examining the emotions that they feel toward this person [JON 98] The step preceding the decision to trust corresponds to an evaluation of the emotion felt A positive emotion leads to trust while a negative emotion causes distrust
Second the emotional process that follows the traditional schema (emotion evaluation adaptation [LAZ 91]) is primarily based on experience This means that the way in which individuals will judge the interlocutor worthy of trust also depends on their affective experience with them Having experienced positive emotions causes individuals to perceive the situation of a solicitation of trust more positively More generally we talk about faith in human nature [GOU 71] As a concrete example we say things like ldquoI donrsquot feel connected to himrdquo
Third emotion is an expectation of human beings regarding trust If these expectations are not satisfied the emotions we feel warn us about a violation of trust [FRI 88] Emotions are a warning signal for a trust relationship In this sense they evolve over time in order to signal changes perceived in the experience of trust At each point of exchange emotions affect the experience and significance of the relationship
Finally it is the expression of the emotions experienced in the context of an experience of trust that will be consistent or not with the behavior expected by the organization and more specifically managers In fact it increases the probability that the parties will develop shared schemas entering into a collaborative relationship more quickly by adjusting to the other person and learning about one another
Managing a Collective 81
333 Change a shared emotional acceptance
Therefore a companyrsquos problem is partly due to affective trust because this causes publicly visible behaviors [FRI 00] and because it is the result of emotions that in the context of implementing change can go as far as to cause a project to fail [JEN 00] In fact a contagion-like effect gives emotions the ability to propagate rapidly between individuals in a social group [HAT 94] ldquoNegativerdquo emotions felt by certain actors can through this process spread to all levels and in doing so hinder all cooperation
A positive emotional contagion can lead to mass acceptance of an organizational change through the phenomenon of imitation The simplest case of contagion between individuals includes a minimum of two people one individual who has not yet adopted a change called ldquoegordquo by Burt [BUR 87] in contact with another individual called ldquoalterrdquo who has already adopted it The more similar the relations of ldquoegordquo and ldquoalterrdquo with other people are the more the alter that can be substituted for ego in relations with others If alter adopts before ego there is a good chance that they will become a source of more attractive relations than ego which pushes ego to adopt the change quickly and contributes to creating a feeling of competition between alter and ego Despite this vision of the adoption of change only the minority of research tends to demonstrate the impact of the affective in the context of adopting change notably with new technologies [GAG 03] Rogers [ROG 95] is one of the pillars in this domain with his description of the adoption of new products by consumers ndash he does not hide in any way the intervention of irrationality in a decision to purchase supporting the concept of imitation in behavior models This model of adoption that Bass [BAS 69] drew up and his mathematical formulation have been taken up by Vas [VAS 05] concerning the adoption of organizational change
Finally one question remains given the possible existence of an emotional contagion how can an internal andor an external actor be convinced that the strategic approach followed by the organization is
82 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
beneficial so that the actor feels and spreads the emotions perceived and authentically experienced as ldquopositiverdquo
334 Lever for the acceptance of change through emo-management
One proposed solution in addition to other more cognitive ones is based on research in sociology and more recently in information and communication sciences through the perceived critical mass effect [LOU 00] The authors argue that it is essential to create a critical mass of users or to reach a certain number of supporters in the first steps of implementing an internal network for it to be accepted by the majority This highlights the influence of the group on individuals The critical mass effect is based on the principle of adoption by imitation where innovators or early adopters adopt new technologies and influence late adopters who imitate them Of course it is important to underscore that this solution is not perfect because in the case of information technologies the interdependence between the two types of adopters is mutual [LOU 00] Thus an early adopter can also be influenced by a late adopter For instance if the late adopter is not inclined to accept a technology after a certain period the innovator may decide to reject it However Lou et alrsquos study [LOU 00] demonstrates the positive effect of perceived critical mass on the intention to use the perception of ease of use and the perceived utility
Given the influence of the critical mass on the group previously revealed by Maffesoli [MAF 96] among others the emotion that is then spread between individuals would be positive This would make it possible to promote affective trust and simultaneously promote the adoption of change [MOR 02] This is why companies must encourage emotional communication by individuals who have a specific aptitude in the matter [HAT 94] a relevant decisional message emotionally speaking With their emotions individuals imitate one another through emotional contagion in order to avoid any marginalization The message transmitted must then convince the majority of the group such that it adheres to the decision presented [BER 03] The use of these tools may appear simple at first glance
Managing a Collective 83
but their opportune use cannot be realized without the existence of organizational ethics and evidence of the existence of real trust between managers and employees
Continuous improvement is the hallmark of quality management Some companies have noticed that it is not only found at the level of customer relations or logistics It is also based on managerial innovation and good interpersonal relations In their book The Heart of Change Kotter and Cohen [KOT 02] indicate several steps to successfully implement a change based on an analysis of 100 company cases The first two are
1) to create a sense of urgency the example given is a company that played a video showing customers who were dissatisfied with the services provided by the company in order to prompt the employees to feel that it was high time to act
2) to consider that it is a story of heart members of the project team must become a source of inspiration through their optimism devotion credibility ability and networking
The Sciences Humaines website provides an evidentiary and constructed example of the role of emotion in change ldquoMichel is on a winter sports vacation with his friends This morning he let himself be dragged to the top of the ski hill As a beginner skier he is not comfortable on the black diamond slope Snowplowing is not ideal His friend Bertrand advises him to turn on the moguls by sliding his skis parallel like he did yesterday on the blue slopes But Michel clings to the technique that he knows the best For the moment taking the risk of falling on this steep slope is out of the question Michel adopts the behaviors that is most reassuring in the immediate even though he knows that this is not the best method to proceedrdquo1
Case Study 36 Change and emotion
This concern for control over emotion in the short term is a frequent obstacle for the progression of learning and change in companies Companies must try to find out the emotional level that the change elicits from their employees
In the same vein it should not be forgotten that the adherence of all members is essential to avoid the ldquoemotional plaguerdquo [REI 45] of a defiant majority or a possible outbreak of panic In this respect mutually beneficial relations and the climate of established trust detailed earlier become major assets
1 Available online at httpwwwscienceshumainescomle-role-des-emotions_fr_ 12036html
84 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
34 The art of bringing people together mutually beneficial relations with others and the social aspect of managerial responsibility
In a context subject to irrationality and imitation one of the other roles of managers is to ensure mutually beneficial relations internally in their teams Studies show that the closer the individuals are the faster the contagion and diffusion that occurs [ROG 95] In effect understanding social processes in work groups becomes an essential managerial focus given the organizational tendency to move toward high-performing and dynamic work team relationships
This focus shared between a company and an employee still faces existing conflicts between the economic and the social Owing to the struggle between the rational and emotional within an organization relations cannot be established there and even less in the sincere and authentic way that the company is looking for
Along the same lines research in management has put particular emphasis on the cognitive aspect of interpersonal relations exploring the cognitive method and process of sharing ideas memories and constructs While understanding the sharing of cognition contributes to discerning the group dynamic it does not represent the complete picture Only the affective and especially the emotional aspect make it possible to distinguish the quality of intragroup and intergroup interactions According to Barsade [BAR 02] one of the reasons for a company to consider group emotions would be to encourage the social cohesion of its employees
On the one hand according to Oketch [OKE 04] companies require social cohesion of their employees as a strategy to increase their profits and face periods of economic and budgetary restrictions On the other hand in some new technology and information organizations the concept of a community at work plays an important role
In the context of the concept of social capital or the management of company talent the existence of social cohesion is essential to the very function of the organization In this regard it consists of
Managing a Collective 85
fostering the group dynamic and establishing relationships between individuals Yet the diffusion of emotions in a group is a characteristic that is integral to the existence of the group [SAN 93 p 445] In fact as described in Chapter 1 emotions can be synchronized or imitated and become contagious Imitation corresponds to a step in the learning and socialization processes One of the explanations of these processes is emotional contagion even if it remains unexplained by research More than a process of synchronization and unintentional imitation when the same characteristics are synchronized with another individual we are capable of feeling them through the emotions of the other person which is to say feeling the same emotions or complementary emotions
341 Collective emotion arsenal of emo-management
This is why managers must pay particular attention to collective emotion a concept studied notably in the analysis of organizational behaviors such as the social cohesion of a group sharing of values and organizational culture [TIC 87] Emotionrsquos capacity for contagion can prove to be a considerable driving force for communication and emulation Through the cohesion that it can amplify it encourages performance through emulation and cooperation of teams spontaneity and trust [GEO 89 GEO 07b JON 98 WEI 93] Texts by George [GEO 89 GEO 90] demonstrate the influence of the grouprsquos mood on pro-social behavior in relation to colleagues and customers as well as performance and absenteeism Finally Barsade [BAR 02] demonstrates that group emotion dependent on emotional contagion influences the group dynamic and performance results corroborated by van Hoorebeke [VAN 07a] From another perspective an observational study ndash a case of participatory observation during a six-month strike in Canada ndash outlined the development of interprofessional relationships the creation of social interactions cohesion or even disconnections caused by negative emotional contagion [VAN 06]
86 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
During the six-month strike including three months where there were daily protests in the street group connections were solidified The objective of the study after observing the links created between individuals was to analyze the strength of the relations established The observation indicated that following the strike strong connections proved to be rarer than relations of work or courtesy According to the analysis of the observations gathered the social cohesion established during the strike appeared fragile There are several explanations for this First these people were brought together by a negative situation This situation highlighted a social interaction that appeared by definition between individuals in a relationship or not and referring to an event Second the negative and positive emotions felt remained fleeting and highly variable reinforcing their transient nature Third the ephemeral aspect of this one-off situation could lead to a social rapprochement whose importance tended to fade way over time Nevertheless research in psychology proves that an emotion that is felt and experienced remains etched on the affective memory consciously or unconsciously This fact contributes to extending the social rapprochement
Observed in the field ldquosolidrdquo connections were indeed created from this situation leading some individuals to discover common work interests for example After the strike the organizational climate was perceived as healthier and more relaxed by the majority of members Only one group of individuals was isolated indicating that the disconnections resulting from the negative emotions experienced at a certain time can continue but in their own terms in a situation that they voluntarily sought out In the six months following the strike a new confrontation arose between this group and the union regarding an increase in union dues The objective of this increase was to replenish the union coffers in two years while the group argued that the union had enough money coming from its investments However this observation shows that the members of the respective groups continued to communicate for professional reasons and that these confrontations did not negatively affect working relationships
Case Study 37 Emotion a factor in social connections and disconnections
342 A paradoxical arsenal positive and negative effects
The results obtained in the study described above clearly demonstrate the paradoxical effect of emotional contagion on interpersonal relations creating both cohesion and disconnection because the collective spirit is subject to individual differences [WEI 93]
This example points out that in spite of this emotions are factors of authenticity in relationships [GRA 05b VAN 08b] and promote lasting relationships when they are experienced and not feigned In a company managers seek out authenticity in their subordinates notably those in contact with customers or in work teams and aim to
Managing a Collective 87
inspire it ndash which seems to be a waste of time since emotions are not manipulable and normalizing them can only be paradoxical as in ldquobe spontaneousrdquo [WAT 80] Real social cohesion requires a synchronicity euphony and eurhythmy2 between actors [LEacuteP 05] According to The Standing Committee on Social Affairs3 social cohesion refers to a situation where everyone has the opportunity to establish basic social relations in society in the context of work family and social or political activities The affective contagion on which this is based is not moral We do not consider the value and the quality of othersrsquo feelings Form prevails over content Therefore the idea of the social contract presented by Rousseau (ldquoThere are a thousand ways of assembling men and only one of uniting themrdquo) shows that the establishment of a fundamental social pact is essential [MAL 96] This pact formed by the community of interests and the awareness of these interests is based on the absence of control restrictions and obligations ldquoEvery man submits his will to the general will and in doing so becomes free These operating conditions sanctify the contract and sustain itrdquo
To understand the concept of social cohesion it is necessary to distinguish the social connections that result from it individual interactions According to Reis [REI 01] cohesion refers to a lasting association between individuals Its existence implies that these people established connections with one another and that this link had specific properties such as a story or an awareness of the nature of this relationship that influenced the thoughts feelings and behaviors of each protagonist In contrast interaction appears between individuals whether or not they are in a relationship and refers to an event The common factor in these two types of human relations is emotions In interaction emotion is expressed ndash or rather simulated ndash whether it is felt or not and in cohesion emotion is experienced and then expressed hence the perception of authenticity [ASH 00a] Emotional reactions help all individuals to be aware of the situation and make connections with others [DAR 72] Simulation can destroy these
2 Euphony and eurhythmy harmony of sound and rhythms without wrong notes or breaks 3 Available online at httpslopparlcacontentlopresearchPublicationsprb0756-ehtml
88 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
reactions and impede someonersquos authenticity [ASH 00a] and the foundation of a sincere and engaged relationship established on effective trust In this respect only social linkage can help to form social cohesion
The Journal du Net gives us three examples of companies that innovated to emphasize the trust and dynamics required for interpersonal relations within the company
In France at Mars Chocolat CEO Thierry Gaillard organizes one 30-minute meeting every six weeks called ldquoCcedila se discuterdquo (ldquoThatrsquos debatablerdquo) where he answers any questions from his colleagues This practice is all the more intriguing since we know that employees have much less trust in their directors than in their direct managers
In India at HCL Technologies employees can express their doubts and questions on an internal forum called UampI (ldquoyou and Irdquo) to members of management (CEO included) who commit to answering them even if it is just to say that they do not know To establish trust management must take a step that is essential but not always pleasant for them authorizing the expression of doubts concerns and criticism It is better to channel these expressions than to let them spread through the halls around the coffee machine or with clients
In California the software publisher Intuit organizes what it calls ldquocelebrating failurerdquo to recognize failures in such a way as to ldquocollectively turn the pagerdquo and learn from mistakes To err is human so why deny it It is better to accept failures and make good use of them than to deny them and allow them to darken the mood and affect trust4
Case Study 38 Establishing trust examples
Consequently to achieve a true social cohesion formed from constructive links between all of the participants emotions must be synchronized or imitated and also felt by the parties as part of an established trust In this context it is the fact of feeling emotions that introduces a depth to the exchanges The individual is not faking they are authentic and sincere This solidifies the connection
According to Weick and Roberts [WEI 93] managers can only encourage the homogeneity of teams that facilitate the depth of connection However the time has come for managing cultural
4 Available online at httpwwwjournaldunetcommanagementexpert58679les-pratiques-manageriales-les-plus-innovantes-du-mondeshtml
Managing a Collective 89
diversity and group heterogeneity This requires not only regulating group emotions and building a climate of trust but also managing the diversity of individuals in order to create and learn together
35 The art of managing diversity learning and creating collectively
There has been an increasing interest in diversity management over the past 15 years related to the consideration of the ldquolearningrdquo dimension Diversity management no longer only consists of increasing the representation of different minorities in the workplace It is now built on a new paradigm of learning and efficiency [THO 96a] that no longer only considers individuals based on their appearance or background but according to the different knowledge and perspectives they can provide In other words diversity is no longer sought only in terms of equality but also in terms of learning about difference [BOI 10]
The literature in management sciences retraces 50 years of research on the effects of demographic diversity on a work team and its performance Although it does support the argument that the demographic diversity of a group has a certain influence on its processes and performance it does not clearly establish whether diversity is a source of performance Demographic diversity (or heterogeneity) corresponds to the degree to which a unit (a managing team work team or organization) is heterogeneous in terms of demographic characteristics age sex nationality seniority and the functional area in which individuals apply their training and finally family status [EIS 99]
Field studies over the past 50 years have shown that variations in group composition can have significant effects on performance [WIL 98] Demographic heterogeneity in terms of seniority sex and nationality could have negative effects on behavior in the workplace and on performance [CHA 98 SMI 94] Inversely increased demographic homogeneity could have positive effects on appreciation satisfaction commitment seniority and performance and reduce turnover [ELF 07] Authors like Earley and Mosakowski [EAR 00]
90 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
and Murray [MUR 89] have highlighted an intermediary approach based on which homogeneity and heterogeneity could both be sources of performance Heterogenous groups would be more effective in a changing environment while homogenous groups would be more effective in stable and competitive environments [MUR 89] For a team to benefit from its diversity and be effective it must manage to collectively learn ndash that is to create a common mental model or even a consensus characterized by the values beliefs and representations shared its members among other things [FIO 94] The creation of this common representation becomes a necessary condition for the teamrsquos performance
However the demographic diversity of a team creates situations where members have mental representations that are not totally compatible A mental representation is ldquothe product and process of a mental activity through which an individual or a group reconstructs the reality that it confronts and attributes a specific signification to itrdquo [ABR 89] The representation is then an organized set of opinions attitudes beliefs and information that refers to an object or a situation Conflict between the mental representations of different team members can stir up intragroup conflicts that are cognitive which can be a source of creativity Yet cognitive conflicts cannot emerge without the parallel appearance of another type of intragroup conflict affective conflicts which leech off the benefits of the cognitive conflict and affect the teamrsquos capacity to create a common mental model and thereby affect its performance
How then can we guarantee benefits from demographic diversity Could emotional contagion reduce the harmful effects of affective conflicts while preserving the compelling properties of cognitive conflicts
351 Diversity between conflicts and group work
Traditionally organization theorists assumed that conflict was harmful for the organization In the past few years hypotheses about organizational conflict have radically changed It is now considered inevitable and even a positive indicator of an organizationrsquos good
Managing a Collective 91
management It is generally accepted that conflict is both functional and dysfunctional for an organization It is functional when it provides better solutions to problems or when it makes it possible to reach the objectives of the individual the group and the organization It is essential to study the conflicts that take place within groups given that today individuals interact daily more and more often Conflict management is an important part of a teamrsquos efficiency To be effective teams must be able to manage the conflicts that are naturally part of their environment
The literature distinguishes two types of intragroup conflicts cognitive conflict and affective conflict Cognitive conflict involves opposing ideas within a group or a disagreement over content or task completion It is born out of differences in judgment or confrontations between different individual representations This type of disagreement is a natural part of a teamrsquos proper functioning It is natural in the sense that when members get together to make important decisions they all bring ideas opinions and perspectives that are different and representative of each personrsquos environment
Taken in isolation cognitive conflict appears when members examine compare and reconcile their differences This process is very important because it makes it possible to reach high-quality decisions that are understood and accepted by all This conflict is beneficial because it requires the engagement of the team in activities that are essential to its efficiency By facilitating open communication and making good use of the membersrsquo diversity (meaning their different gifts and skills) this type of conflict produces understanding and engagement in objectives and decisions The result is not only a better decision but a decision that can be applied more effectively To the extent that cognitive conflict is the result of confrontation between individual representations we can deduce that it elicits an internal conflict in the individual that is expressed in the form of cognitive dissonance [FES 57] By eliciting cognitive dissonance cognitive conflict will trigger individual learning within the person The learning individual modifies or radically changes their mental representations thereby creating something new We can then talk about creativity which is itself a source of performance Neurologists have described the process
92 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
of creativity This process is according to their analyses the result of several concurrent cognitive processes that include unfocused attention cognitive flexibility cognitive control and several cognitive constructs [DIE 04] Thanks to the cognitive dissonance that it creates group diversity allows for the reconstruction of mental representations This internal conflict makes it possible to break with inhibitions and open up to different perspectives
Within a diversified group cognitive and affective conflicts are necessarily born together as we cannot appear without the other When members have different perspectives there is often cognitive disagreement As this disagreement is frequently misinterpreted and perceived as a personal criticism affective conflict necessarily emerges in parallel It seems that an affective conflict situation is very harmful
To explain this consider that even if conceptually the affective is distinguished from emotion their link is such that they are often seen as more than indissociable since emotion is considered by some to be a dimension of the affective However emotions not only have specific characteristics that can harm human relations but they also have the particularity of not always being manageable
Consider these two conflictual configurations [BOI 10]
ndash The level of the cognitive conflict (CC) exceeds that of the affective conflict
(CA) CC gt CA In this case the team benefits fully from its diversity and the debate
of opinions that it elicits The negative effect of the affective conflict is neutralized
The emotions of the group are manageable
ndash Inversely the level of the affective conflict is greater than or equal to that of
the cognitive conflict CA ge CC The team is then overwhelmed by its affective
conflicts and cannot benefit fully from the wealth of its diversity Debates over
opinions become sterile and can be likened to settling accounts The emotions of group
members have taken over
Case Study 39 Analysis to limit an affective conflict that is problematic for the group
Managing a Collective 93
However only statistical studies examine this issue deeply which involve considering the group at only one moment t These studies have shown that affective conflict is detrimental to the performance of individuals and whole groups to the satisfaction of its members and to the probability that individuals involved in this group will work again in the future [JEH 95] The anxiety created by interpersonal animosity is likely to inhibit cognitive work and distract members from their tasks Owing to this they work less efficiently and produce sub-optimal results Inversely moderate levels of cognitive conflict are beneficial to group performance for certain types of tasks [JEH 95 JEH 97]
In our view effectively managing the demographic diversity of a team comes down to guaranteeing a type 1 conflict configuration which is a situation in which cognitive conflict exceeds affective conflict
352 Managing diversity with emo-management
In the specific work context striving for diversity management there is a solution to foster positive emotions and affect in a group positive emotional contagion as a catalyst and cohesive force for conflicts Barsade [BAR 02] demonstrates with experiments that not only is group emotion influenced by the dynamic and performance of the group it is also dependent on a contagion
An experimental study on 223 individuals broken down in to 29 teams demonstrated that positive contagion influenced group performance through the action of an actor who was involved in the experiment [VAN 07a] This accomplice selected for his contagion based on the scale presented in Hatfield et al [HAT 94] propagated a negative or positive emotion through acting The accomplice played the role of an evaluator who was satisfied or disappointed by the grouprsquos work According to the groups and during the execution of their work the actor spread a positive or negative contagion The results obtained confirm those obtained by Barsade [BAR 02] and show that teams performed better when group emotional contagion was provoked and judged positive
Case Study 310 Emotional contagion a factor in group performance
94 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
Annual reports for publicly traded companies indicate that cultural diversity is an asset in the context of globalization and in terms of image a point that is essential for the good operation of a new management system in both the context of NorthndashSouth relations and from a socio-global angle In this respect studies show that when well-managed diversity is a real competitive advantage in favor of performance and creativity Unfortunately the existence of affective conflicts can lead to demotivation resulting in the counter-performance of a team if it is poorly managed
Recruitment firms propose candidates based on a diversity that corresponds perfectly to the profile requested by the company which makes the ultimate decision However ldquothis does not fix everythingrdquo says Mariam Khattab a recruiter and adviser at the firm Mozaiumlk Nevertheless diversity has several advantages for companies opening up the diversity of customers and backers accentuating creativity and creating a dialogue between stakeholders with different backgrounds5
Case Study 311 Diversity several advantages
353 Emo-management a factor in diversity
Despite the cognitive and affective differences that can create conflicts heterogenous groups encourage not only high-quality group work and synergy but most of all creativity [CHA 01 TOL 02] Heterogeneity limits the effect of conformism which is reduced because differences within the group are affirmed Nevertheless as is the case early in the life of a group heterogeneity can give way to individual affinities that can favor conformism in the long term In fact when a group is created the group composition is an important initial factor that can have permanent effects on its affective and cognitive processes When a work group meets for the first time the social identity [TAJ 04] and self-categorization theory [TUR 87] require that members define their social categories within the group When individuals are familiar with the differences that exist between members they can favor those who they consider similar to themselves and isolate themselves from those who they perceive to be
5 Available online at httpswwwzamanfrancefrarticlemanagement-diversit-atout-entreprises
Managing a Collective 95
different Heterogeneity can then only be temporary If emotion fosters inter-individual connections does it encourage heterogeneity a factor in creativity
Creativity is defined as the use of knowledge to form new ideas [DRU 93] Social relations and the emotions connected to them play a significant role in this process [KOG 92] From a neurological point of view researchers describe a biological process arguing that creativity is not the result of one cognitive process but several cognitive processes including unfocused attention cognitive flexibility cognitive control and other cognitive constructions [DIE 04] The production of something new seems to depend in part on the neuronal processes of disinhibition within a central network of neurons Creative cognition is similar to other types of cognition but is more specialized in its direction [MAC 00] Creative cognition can be simulated in a network of regions in the brain dedicated to thoughts unrelated to the task (experimental thoughts and futures that are unrelated to the project)
Creativity as an individual construction is defined as the creation of ideas products processes or solutions [AMA 83] This construction can include creative solutions to problems the company faces The study of creativity is traditionally related to psychology and typically includes research geared toward understanding why some individuals are more creative than others Owing to this researchers know little about the social context and how it affects individuals when producing ideas or solutions According to Dietrich [DIE 04] there are four types of creativity based on their emotional or cognitive aspects emotional or deliberate cognitive creativity and emotional or spontaneous cognitive creativity These four types indicate different neurocognitive processes of creativity The author tends to show by these processes that creativity is accessible to all It is also known that stress is detrimental to creativity The first studies showed a decrease in the creative process associated with an increase in stress-induced stimulation [KRO 69] especially social stress [LIN 65] The production of something new depends on in part an uninhibited process According to Chrysikou [CHR 14] performance in creativity requires the perception of filters at low levels This filtration is related
96 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
to the prefrontal cortex that regulates perceptual data However group creativity involves a collection of individuals [PIR 04] Like group performance it appears when a group of individuals work interdependently toward the common goal [HAC 92] of developing ideas that are both new and useful [AMA 83] Unfortunately this community can inhibit creativity in order to correspond to imposed norms The famous concept of conformity can intervene to incite individuals to conform not only to the norms described in approach 1 (societal organizational and occupational norms) but also implicit group norms Here critical thinking is in favor of creativity [HOW 15] According to certain conclusions the so-called creative personalities assign a particular role to intuition and have rightly an aversion to norms which makes it difficult for them to face others (inhibition stress) However other studies show that collaborative work reinforces individual learning and creativity [PAU 03] Previous studies have shown a connection between social network parameters and individual creativity [FLE 07 PER 06] As suggested by Hansen [HAN 02] this research was established on a study of knowledge networks and the complex networks that workers confront
We can then question whether groups encourage creativity and because an essential function of emotion is the coordination of social interactions [LAZ 91] whether emotional contagion can be a lever for creativity or a multiplying factor of conformism within a group
Two studies were conducted on the contagion of mood and emotion in work groups As we saw earlier the first study [GEO 90] shows that a perfect emotional agreement can exist within a group of salespeople The second study [TOT 98] reveals that the average mood of one member can predict the mood of a group at a given moment t In this sense the effect of contagion is often associated with a convergence of moods and attitudes in the workplace [MAS 02] However according to Barsade [BAR 02] a single member of the group can have a negative effect and lead the entire group to reject creative ideas Inversely Isen [ISE 02] shows that positive emotions are associated with individual and collective creativity
To our knowledge there are few studies about the impact of emotional contagion on group creativity [FLE 06] so one was
Managing a Collective 97
conducted to test the effect of emotional contagion on group creativity [VAN 16]
A quantitative study conducted with young professionals in training sought to examine the link between social cohesion emotional contagion and creativity According to the literature emotional contagion remains fleeting and only produces a temporary mental unity If this contagion leads to a social interaction it does not necessarily lead to the social cohesion of a group which requires simultaneity euphony (harmony) and eurythmy between actors [LEacuteP 05] Group cohesion is strong when members appreciate one another make the most of group objectives adopt group values and are convinced that adherence is crucial to obtain their personal interests Emotion and its contagion are seen as moderating factors because they are the basis for positive and negative human relations In this respect this study tests whether emotional contagion can improve the relation of group cohesion and influence group performance and creativity
The study experiment conducted three times focused on a general sample of 223 young managers in training within a ldquocommunity of practicerdquo in the context of a management simulation The sample was arranged into 29 different teams by way of three groups of around 70 people Positive or negative emotional contagion was measured in a binary way its presenceabsence based on observations made through the management simulation Group cohesion was measured by a team evaluation based on the scale from Beal et al [BEA 03] according to five elements (group efficiency fairness in task sharing similarity of objectives pursued collective decision-making team member involvement) on a five-point semantic scale Group performance was measured based on the results gathered in each team report and their efficiency that is the teamrsquos results in terms of sales in the last period of the game on a ranking function based on the market and the net profit of all of the teams over four periods The ranking was binary based on an evaluation on a five-point semantic scale with 2 = good profits (mark 5 and 4) and 1 = poor profits (3 2 1) Creativity was measured based on the degree of effort provided by the team for creative exercises (according to observations) and the final result of the creativity in the game The coding of creative thought was based on Weisburgrsquos description [WEI 88] of creativity as the act of solving new problems or generating ideas and real solutions The coding schema defined creative thinking as
1) a discovery or an idea 2) the action of searching for an idea or solution to create or solve a problem The evaluation was made on a five-point scale that was part of the overall
grade on the final report The results indicated that if group cohesion positively affects performance it does not directly affect creativity These results contradict the results reported in some earlier studies Nevertheless the results provide additional clarification that the moderating effect of emotional contagion improves the relation between group cohesion and performance but it does not have any significant impact on the relation between group cohesion and creativity These results highlight the paradox revealed in the literature about creativity
Case Study 312 Effect of emotional contagion on group performance
98 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
Emotion and its contagion must be considered in a group during an exercise in creativity However the idea that it can encourage group conformity or creative enthusiasm has not yet been demonstrated Emotional contagion definitely has a role to play but other more specific studies need to be conducted to better understand how this contagion is involved and how it can provide levers to promote group creativity and encourage innovation whether it is ordinary or not in management However the results [VAN 16] also show that the key to understanding the neuroscience of creativity and the ldquoconstruction of dynamic mental simulationsrdquo is based on different modes of neural activation and deactivation at different steps in the creative process Since emotional contagion is related to synchronization it can both hinder creativity and support it According to Brand [BRA 98] creative organizations have a tendency to be flexible and grant a great deal of independence Our analysis agrees with this revealing that it is sometimes useful for neurological networks to work together and that sometimes this cooperation can impede the creative process due to the behaviors that are subject to the norms of the group Creativity requires specific conditions
To better understand the above we will turn to neurology Creativity is predicated on a lack of inhibition Norms create neural inhibitions related to a dissonance between the emotions experienced and the expressions expected by a group or an organization [FES 57] Fortunately the psychological distress associated with dissonance can be quickly resolved thanks to a change in attitude [JAR 04] The change in attitude resolves this internal conflict but can also lead to a re-evaluation of the process and such a re-evaluation is often associated with a stimulation of the neurological zone of inhibition [TAB 08] Unfortunately these processes of inhibition can in turn impede creativity To solve this conflict it is essential to limit the dissonance from the start Amabile [AMA 96] advocates for good relationships between group members that make it possible to act freely and spontaneously All the same when members are not free to act as they wish and in a creative climate ensured by positive emotions and creative cohesion a lever is necessary an area to liberate instinct to connect these cognitive behaviors [PEC 03] free of inhibitions and open to creativity
Managing a Collective 99
Ubisoft like other high-technology companies is a good example At Ubisoft the offices have large panels to allow for the flow of traffic within the company which also act as expression spaces where collaborators can present their creations There are also spaces dedicated to relaxation In these spaces there are game consoles foosball tables newspapers comics etc The human resources manager and Yann Beauvinon who is responsible for buildings and arrangements at Ubisoft go further and affirm wanting some offices because creators must have their own universe tools and space to be able to isolate themselves and be creative6
Case Study 313 Freedom and creativity
36 A common point an essential element for collective intelligence emotional contagion
Two recurring elements must be managed in emo-management Emotional dissonance intervenes in management repeatedly at the individual level and emotional contagion intervenes repeatedly at the collective level Emotional dissonance can appear within a group and harm the whole group dynamic because it is subject to contagion like emotion It is impossible not to consider this contagion in collective and collaborative management
It is because of these effects that in their book Emotional Contagion [HAT 94] Hatfield et al suggest that ldquothe power of contagion gives us a realistic perception as to how much we can expect to influence social situationsrdquo [HAT 94 p 193] One question remains are emotions the friends or enemies of collective intelligence in companies
Emotions make it possible to synchronize with others and share decisions as well as attitudes and behaviors They are gifted with contagion When a manager makes a good decision they feel that they are headed for success The emotions experienced are positive when the decision appears favorable to them They comforted The decision maker then only needs to communicate consciously or unconsciously their feeling to others to better convince them of the good choice So how can a manager convince others to follow
6 2015 Ubisoft annual report
100 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
Through the contagion conferred by their emotions a manager can inspire enthusiasm Not everyone knows how to transmit these emotions however According to Hatfield et al [HAT 94] some people have a greater ability to contaminate others and ldquoseducerdquo others more easily Through the margin of maneuver and the freedom that a manager imparts to their colleagues they can unleash creativity On this topic the directors at Google [SCH 14] advocate for the right to express objections and divergences In this respect contagion must avoid replacing normative restrictions and conformity
Since emotions are an integral part of the mechanism of collective sharing their contagion helps to convince to share decisions behaviors and attitudes and to integrate and involve the team in managerial practices Managers and directors of a large or small company can no longer ignore emotions and argue that pure rationality and pragmatism are necessary to lead a company and team projects Emotions are a pillar of this rationality and its diffusion and acceptance in ldquocollective intelligencerdquo by the team or partners
Nevertheless contagion must be a characteristic that makes it possible to ldquolive and play togetherrdquo Unconscious it must not conform but group in a temporary and fleeting way It must be corroborated by a group cohesion that authorizes divergence in an intelligent way
Studies have shown that some emotions are more collective than others Cardon et al [CAR 17] and Fehr et al [FEH 17] studied collective emotions shared between members of a group Collective emotions do not only reflect a homogenous group at the emotional level Some emotions are shared more easily For example 70 of the group members reported feeling negative emotions whereas only 30 reported positive ones
Unfortunately these results highlight that contagion is more prevalent when negative emotions occur This is all the more problematic since contagion is a phenomenon that remains little understood and can be hard to manage as shown by stock market crashes crowd movements or waves of insults and ridicule on the Internet One of the objectives for research in areas
Managing a Collective 101
such as psychology finance economy sociology epidemiology and neuro-economics is therefore to model the contagion to better understand it endeavoring to rationalize it and find ways to deal with it With this in mind several studies have sought to measure contagion
361 Emo-management dealing with emotional contagion
The first model of social contagion was proposed by Mansfield [MAN 61] His mathematical model makes reference to models of contagion originating in epidemiology Different determinist or stochastic models of social contagion are used to describe decisions made by individuals about adopting an innovation [BAN 92 BAS 69 BIK 92 BRO 01 GRA 78 SCH 73 WAT 02]
Aleksiejuk and Holyst [ALE 01] discuss avalanche theory to describe a contagion of bank failures Like network theory their model shows that networks between banks can lead to a contagion of bankruptcies Later Adamatzky [ADA 02] models emotional interactions based on the paradigm of artificial chemistry This author considers four emotional states as molecules that make up an affective liquid Dodds and Watts [DOD 05] use different existing models and combine them Their model considers an individualrsquos memory of exposure to a contagious entity (mood or illness) the magnitude of the exposure (doses size) the degree of susceptibility of the individual to be contaminated and an individual emerging from a contagion becoming susceptible to being contaminated again immediately
362 Mathematical and economic tools to better manage emotional contagion
Through a digital interpretation of an observation in vivo Samet and van Hoorebeke [SAM 06] measure how contagion works between individuals This text establishes a measurement scale deduced from the observed process and the scale presented by Hatfield et al [HAT 94]
102 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
This study was conducted over a period of four months and more specifically given the fleeting nature of emotions and especially emotional contagion two three-hour observations The site observed was a class of 193 students in two groups (101 in group A and 92 students in group B) at an American university The contagion observed during a course resulted from the accumulation of several negative events (a teachersrsquo strike the risk of losing a semester if the strike continued a class exercise that had technical issues an exam where the majority of grades were not the results expected) According to the observation the emotional contagion appeared over a period of only 20 min A model of the observation conducted is presented in Figure 31 Like Dodds and Watts [DOD 05] it was attributed measurements that qualify the different degrees of the transmission of emotion in the group observed
Case Study 314 Measuring emotional contagion a study in vivo
Figure 31 Graphical representation of emotional contagion (EC) For a color version of this figure see wwwistecoukvanhoorebekemanagementzip
According to the results emotional contagion characterized by its fleeting and temporary nature is not at the origin of a social contagion but is rather a sudden crowd effect It is at a given moment t that emotional contagion takes on its full meaning According to the observation at this precise moment contagious individuals have the highest degree of emotional feeling and other individuals as described in Hatfield et al [HAT 94] follow them unconsciously through what we could call irrational imitation or mimicry Based on the observation to create emotional contagion a measure of group emotional feeling is necessary This dose according to the dose scale can only be attained by an accumulation of high doses of emotional feelings ndash in this case four consecutive events and a minimum of one individual to contaminate ten people
Case Study 315 Measuring emotional contagion results
Managing a Collective 103
Another way of modeling contagion is experimentation in a laboratory by reconstructing a situation of managerial decision-making under control by isolating the elements of individual decision-making to the maximum7 Repeating the experiment makes it possible to draw meaningful conclusions
Below a description of the study reveals its inner workings
In this experiment conducted with 70 players divided into five groups each member of the group (14 members who do not know each other) must choose between 14 similar managerial choices8 After reading a document that provides some information (partial and complex) about each choice the individuals must adjudicate based on their strategy belief analysis and choice perceived by the other players (unconscious perception communication prohibited) Only one choice is the winner and is awarded a prize a decision that is drawn beforehand at random by the experimenter
The initial analyses of the results of this study indicate that 41 of players recognize having copied the decisions of other players when they noted that these other players always selected the same decision Watching video tapes of the experiment indicates that the majority of winners displaying expressions of satisfaction and contentment (discreet for some but perceptible) caused players who had lost up to that point to make a greater effort to win While some recognized having discreetly scanned the decisions written by other players others confessed to having quickly understood the rules of the game and coping knowingly Several participants denied having copied the results of others totally omitting this explanation of their correct choice (random trial-and-error) although the videos and the results noted on their decision sheet indicated the opposite Their results indicate that they followed the results of their neighbor when the neighbor changed his behavior (grinning indication of assurance relaxing in his seat and speed of responding nonchalantly) Although in the end there was a tie between conscious imitation and unconscious mimicry the results indicate that only the mimicry (emotional contagion) made it possible to accelerate making the right decision More advanced results indicate that emo-decisional contagion can prove to be a bias that causes individuals who lack information and time to ldquoimitaterdquo decisions made by other individuals simply by seeing the emotions they express
Case Study 316 Emo-decisional contagion a study in vitro
These two studies clearly show that emotional contagion can be grasped because it is perceptible and measurable In this respect it 7 Unpublished study realized in 2008 8 Based on our statistical and probabilistic calculations
104 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
could prove to be a management lever that is indispensable for decision-making and group management Group emotion can also prove to be positive and encourage the establishment of this new vision of management through emotional involvement Of course collective intelligence cannot always rely on emotion to guide or decide Information and the rational are important The new manager must strike a balance between the rational and the emotional
NEGATIVE EXAMPLEndash ldquoLe burnout un syndrome contagieuxrdquo (ldquoBurnout Is it contagiousrdquo) is the title of an article from May 25 2005 on the site activrsquo assistante9 ldquoWhen a symptom gradually contaminates the professional areas in a society including assistant positions observing it is no longer enough We must fight the evil at the source With Pascale Venara president of the Institut de preacutevention du burn out discover how to recognize it and act before the curtain falls on burnt out colleaguesrdquo POSITIVE EXAMPLEndash The focus was on happiness at the regional council reception of the Ordre des Experts-Comptables on Friday January 30 For the occasion the president Jacques Maureau invited Rodolphe Carle to debate about the happiness of entrepreneurship along with Bernard Jacquand The CEO of Babilou discussed accepting the social dimension of onersquos company today in that it takes on a ldquouseful dimension for the companyrdquo and contributes to ldquoliving well togetherrdquo ldquoThis usefulness is part of our DNA and our values Values that are shared by all of our employees Because we must never forget that a company is not built alone A company is first and foremost the men and women who come together around a project with meaning united around common values driven by the same energy and the same desire to work together The sense of entrepreneurship must be contagious shared communicated within a grouprdquo [ROU 15]
Case Study 317 Examples of contagion in the workplace
The underlying question we faced at the start of our reflection was how can we envision a new style of management that would foster complete responsibility marked by authentic commitment that is favorable for individuals and the collective in a company Our work suggests that the first step is for the company to consider humans in a holistic way (cognitively rationally biologically emotionally) to better draw a common benefit if the relationship is balanced marked by trust and in particular deep understanding To put it simply and metaphorically how can we make a machine work if we do not 9 Available online at httpwwwactivassistantecomvie-pro-persomissions-proefficacite-prole-burn-out-un-syndrome-contagieux
Managing a Collective 105
understand the basic inner mechanisms How can we consider human behavior if we only think of a person as a simple android the main responsibility of the company How can we make people stick with changes or projects without affecting their deep emotions and galvanizing feelings To get them involved it is essential to ensure an individual well-being that is unique to them and an economic efficiency The company is confronted by the same issues to respond to the requirements and challenges that the future holds with emo-management changing a short-term perspective or perception for a long-term challenge
Conclusion
To summarize the contribution of this text and address our goal of describing and demonstrating the role of emotions in management the progression of our text made it possible to situate the intervention of emotions at all levels of management at both the individual and collective levels Supported by research analyses and concrete examples this text shows that management and emotions are one and the same Management must manage humans in their relations in person or at a distance Currently humans are recognized as psychological biological and emotional Future management of these beings must adapt to this
Emo-management completes the traditional exogenous approach to management based on people by proposing an endogenous approach to management for and by people It considers humans in a holistic way as beings gifted with rationality and irrationality psychobiological and emotional beings Traditional management where the objective is to make profit for profitrsquos sake is evolving toward searching out advances for the collective interest The fundamental distinction compared to classic management is how we view people in the workplace whether they are managers or employees Managers must understand how they themselves work (biologically rationally and emotionally) and how their colleagues work Managers must advocate for and respect values leading in all probability to sharing them
The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management First Edition Delphine van Hoorebeke copy ISTE Ltd 2018 Published by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley amp Sons Inc
108 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
This leads to a ldquocollective intelligencerdquo in favor of these values Some historical authors (Fayol Mayo etc) would be surprised to find that their theories are still current and that despite our extremely rapid developments no new vision has yet really gained ground in companies where hierarchy remains necessary
Emo-management the new vision of management must not only perceive individuals as single entities but also as a chain in a real collective ldquointelligencerdquo ndash the quotation marks underscore that this type of intelligence can only occur with a balance between cognition and emotion [DAM 00] Some talk about returning to the source Companies see that humans as social beings need to return to their intuitions and emotions and re-learn how to understand and experience them
To summarize this approach to management originating in fields as varied as psychology sociology management and even neurobiology allows us to propose a new idea of management a more global vision that considers the different realities and resources of human beings To the basic definition of management proposed in Le Littreacute (that is the art of the possible ldquothe art of directing steering handling motivatinghellip even the action of regulating effectively administering wellrdquo) we can add the definition of a modern management that is capable of reconciling the present to the future solving daily problems while predicting future problems and that has the primary role of knowing managing onersquos own emotions and those of others which we call a savoir faire-faire (or the skill of directing) It is an economic performance that is individual and also collective composed of different pieces of knowledge described by Picard [PIC 95] that notably includes e-motions through the knowledge and skills necessary to ensure them and ensure management
The basic elements are similar including a set of capacities
ndash the capacity to do at least what is necessary this individual economic performance considers measurable and tangible results
Conclusion 109
through a temporary vision Some call this type of performance ldquoproductivity at workrdquo ensured by the individualrsquos cognitive aspect
ndash the capacity to do what is necessary in a responsible way this socio-economic performance combines a concern for short-term cost-effectiveness with long-term flexibility It consists of the managersrsquo capacity to take on their part of the responsibilities and adapt their actions The ability of managers to engage in economic objectives factors of organizational flexibility is determined by their ability to manage skills knowing the needs and expectations of each person
ndash a capacity to do things well this consists of addressing situations better or differently with knowledge and learning Picard [PIC 95 p 5] called this type of individual economic performance ldquoefficiencyrdquo This corresponds to a mastery of ldquothe good methods of progressive people management [and] holding positions of power appropriatelyrdquo This capacity can be applied to the collective level as well Doing things better consists then of doing things in complementarity and with good understanding
ndash and finally a capacity for collective sharing
Relying on several studies in psychology Rimeacute [RIM 05] indicated in his book about the social sharing of emotions that the expression of emotions is not a source of emotional recovery notably in the case of post-traumatic stress Nevertheless social sharing and debriefing are according to the participants in a multitude of experiments on the topic a tool for satisfaction in that they provide a feeling of having been helped Without needing to become experts in psychology in our view each actor (manager and group members) involved in collective sharing helps to initiate the bringing together of the individual and the collective
For this the capacities of the manager include several other kinds of knowledge aside from savoir-faire (technical skills)
ndash Savoir-ecirctre (social or interpersonal skills) the management of behaviors Managers must have an emotional adaptability and a capacity to make an effort to manage their emotions and do emotional
110 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
labor [HOC 83] They must also develop the capacity to be aware of their behavior and to acquire ldquobody techniquesrdquo [TYL 01] Faced with new market conditions more and more companies want to evaluate the performances of their managers in terms of soft skills to close the gap between actual and expected behaviors This faculty requires acting whether it is a performance of theatrically simulating expressions or intensively working on managing behaviors [GOF 59] Levers help to foster this emotional work without triggering harmful inhibitions
ndash Savoir-vivre (life management skills) having the capacity to master the right processes improve coordination optimize customer relations and in all cases detect difficulties as soon as they arise It is added to social skills as an indispensable element for a manager and staff in contact with the public Life management skills literally correspond to ldquothe art of conducting onersquos life well civilityrdquo It is considered here as the art of managing relations with others through the management of onersquos own e-motions and those of others Amherdt [AMH 05] suggested five recommendations to ensure optimal operations for team members According to this author this type of manager has very clear expectations displays real interest for his team is a good decision maker inspires confidence knows how to overcome challenges and present them to his team and knows how to show a leaderrsquos charisma In its ideal form this management of self and others is sincere and authentic In the 2005 seminar called ldquoLrsquoadoption drsquoune attitude socialement responsable et ses fondements psychologiques Un point de vue Aristiteacutelicienrdquo (ldquoThe adoption of a socially responsible attitude and its psychological foundations an Aristotelian perspectiverdquo) Pellissier-Tanon [PEL 05] stated ldquoThe famous definition of power as the capacity of making someone do something that they would not have done themselves suggests that management to the extent that it consists in the exercise of a power of adherence borders on manipulation We may also be tempted to extend to management the suspicion that weighs on manipulation donrsquot managers risk abusing their power of adherencerdquo
Sincerity and authenticity are two keywords that can mark the difference of a modern manager considering the knowledge and recognition of the intervention of several factors in his behavior
Conclusion 111
decisions managerial processes team cohesion the well-being of his subordinates and colleagues and his tolerance of diverging opinions
ndash The final savoir the skill of deciphering and internalizing emotions knowing how to empathize through experiencing emotions similar to those of the interlocutor so that emotions are felt on both sides and knowing how to encourage a positive emotional contagion coming out of a debriefing Far from standing apart from emotional intelligence this type of knowledge goes deeper and prompts the notion of integration Although individuals are particularly contagious according to Hatfield et al [HAT 94] and emotionally intelligent [GOL 97] our various experiments have shown that everyone can become contagious just as everyone can be susceptible to contamination With this skill the manager can integrate the power and function of emotions The key to collective sharing the manager subscribes not only to developing the aforementioned skills personally but also developing them in the members of his team The emo-manager seeks mutual integration1 accommodation2 [PIA 37] and the expression of critical thinking
This vision of management advocates a management in movement (like the original definition of e-motion) an emo-management that is appropriate for the current context of flexibility speed and collectivity
Thus future management involves a referential change in time and space The strategies must be designed for the long term and for a global space Emo-management totally fits because the common point of all managerial tasks is contagion which does not only account for the quantitative dimension (such as growth) but also introduces reflection at a qualitative and even emotional level of analysis that undeniably exists in management especially collaborative management This concept renounces the accumulation of wealth by
1 Process by which each scheme becomes capable of integrating the domain of the other (coordination between vision and prehension) 2 Mechanism that modifies schemes to adjust them to new data
112 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
ldquoindividual egoismrdquo [SMI 76] which even if there is no need to renounce individual interests seems not to be unique in the very origins of humanity in favor of the search for mutual survival that is collectively intelligent because it is aware of human behavior The ultimate objective of implementing a new vision of management which must know how to combine the adherence of every person with knowledge (understanding and integration) is to encourage a deep change in mentality As Calvez [CAL 10] states in his article ldquoEacutethique morale deacuteontologie proches et diffeacuterentes lrsquoeacutethique en peacuteriode de criserdquo (ldquoEthics Morality Deontology Similar and Different Ethics in Times of Crisisrdquo) from 2010 ldquoJust like in the ideas of a Charles Maurras of yore politics being lsquophysicalrsquo there was no place for a debate about politics and ethics [hellip] In most economic realities and the measures taken to enact them we are indeed obliged [hellip] to consider the thoughts desires and needs of people as well as their intolerances and their prejudices And we must also consider their specific history family choices health demographic with these realities being certainly likely to be understood to some extent in a statistical wayrdquo Thus the future of management requires a ldquocollective intelligencerdquo that is not fleeting based on a simple passing fad and this collective intelligence is a panacea of current and future society as well as the developing economy Because of this emo-management which is not only an evolutive vision but also fundamental to current management essentially advocates for knowing and understanding human foundations for a ldquoreasonedrdquo management and as far as possible basic human reactions to ensure movement
Knowledge of human ldquoemotionsrdquo and ldquothe heuristics of fearrdquo as specified by Jonas can also unfortunately encourage acceptance by submission and resignation in the face of certain events In this respect these e-motions can also paralyze and restrict some types of management ldquoTo ldquoreform thoughtrdquo If the obligation cannot be deduced from knowledge the obligation needs knowledge The moral conscience cannot be deduced from the intellectual conscience But it needs the intellectual conscience that is thought and reflection Good intention risks leading to bad actions and moral will can have immoral consequencesrdquo Like Edgar Morin in Eacutethique [MOR 06] we believe
Conclusion 113
that it is indeed through the knowledge of the various modes of operation evoked in this book that human beings can evolve while responding to the social economic and environmental needs to which the future economy will subject us This economy will be based on the ldquoheart and the collectiverdquo but despite the speed of its development knowledge sharing and globalization it must not neglect the search for balance between cognition and emotion to conserve its homeostasis and ethics
According to the writings of Ashkanasy et al [ASH 17] the manager must acquire an ldquoemotional sophisticationrdquo to win in opposition to the robots Emo-management buoyed by the skills to engage motivate and create emulation in a sustainable group inimitable by any robot to date must understand the strengths and weaknesses of emotion Emo-management is not content to ldquosimulaterdquo emotional enthusiasm nor to provoke it This management must know how to tame it moderate it or guide it in full awareness
Bibliography
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[ADA 02] ADAMATZKY A ldquoOn dynamics of affective liquidsrdquo Dynamical Psychology available at httpwwwgoertzelorgdynapsyc2002 emot2708html 2002
[ADE 95] ADELMANN PK ldquoEmotional labor as a potential source of job stressrdquo in SAUTER SL MURPHY LR (eds) Organizational Risk Factors for Job Stress American Psychological Association Washington DC 1995
[AKE 82] AKERLOF G DICKENS W ldquoThe economic consequence of cognitive dissonancerdquo American Economic Review vol 72 no 3 pp 307ndash319 1982
[ALE 01] ALEKSIEJUK A HOŁYST JA ldquoA simple model of bank bankruptciesrdquo Physica A vol 299 nos 1ndash2 pp 198ndash204 2001
[ALL 71] ALLISON GT Essence of Decision Explaining the Cuban Missile Crisis Little Brown Boston 1971
[ALL 97] ALLEN NJ MEYER JP Commitment in the Workplace Theory Research and Application Sage Publications Thousand Oaks 1997
[ALV 02] ALVARADO N ADAMS S BURBECK S The role of emotion in an architecture of mind IBM available at httpspdfssemanticscholarorg c9f698270d71811742cf7f17a36d9a11f1735b35pdf 2002
[ALV 15] ALVESSON M SPICER A The Stupidity Paradox The Power and Pitfalls of Functional Stupidity at Work Profile Books London 2015
The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management First Edition Delphine van Hoorebeke copy ISTE Ltd 2018 Published by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley amp Sons Inc
116 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
[AMA 83] AMABILE TM ldquoThe social psychology of creativity a componential conceptualizationrdquo Journal of Personality and Social Psychology vol 45 pp 357ndash377 1983
[AMA 96] AMABILE TM CONTI R COON H et al ldquoAssessing the work environment for creativityrdquo Academy of Management Journal vol 39 no 5 pp 1154ndash1184 1996
[AMH 05] AMHERDT C-H La santeacute eacutemotionnelle au travail Demos Eacuteditions Paris 2005
[AND 96] ANDERSEN P-A GUERRERO LK ldquoPrinciples of communication and emotion in social interactionrdquo in ANDERSEN P-A GUERRERO LK (eds) Handbook of Communication and Emotion Research Theory Applications and Contents Academic Press San Diego CA 1996
[ARR 01] ARRIVE JY Savoir vivre ses eacutemotions Retz Paris 2001
[ASC 55] ASCH SE ldquoOpinions and social pressurerdquo Scientific American vol 193 no 5 pp 31ndash35 1955
[ASH 93] ASHFORTH BE HUMPHREY RH ldquoEmotional labor in service roles the influence of identityrdquo Academy of Management Review vol 18 no 1 pp 88ndash115 1993
[ASH 95] ASHFORTH BE HUMPHREY RH ldquoEmotion in the workplace a reappraisalrdquo Human Relations vol 48 no 2 pp 97ndash125 1995
[ASH 00a] ASHFORTH BE TOMIUK MA ldquoEmotional labour and authenticity views from the service agentsrdquo in FINEMAN S (ed) Emotion in Organizations Sage Publications London 2000
[ASH 00b] ASHKANASY NM TSE B ldquoTransformational leadership as management of emotion a conceptual reviewrdquo in ASHKANASY N HARTEL C ZERBE W (eds) Emotions in the Workplace Developments in the Study of the Managed Heart Quorum Books Westport CT 2000
[ASH 07] ASHLEY COOPER A (EARL OF SHAFTESBURY) An Inquiry Concerning Virtue or Merit The Internet Archive available at httpsarchiveorgstreaminquiryconcernin00shafuoftpagen0 mode2up 2007
[ASH 17] ASHKANASY NM HUMPHREY RH HUY QN ldquoIntegrating emotions and affect in theories of managementrdquo Academy of Management Review vol 42 no 2 pp 175ndash189 2017
Bibliography 117
[ASS 09] ASSELINEAU A PIRE-LECHALARD P ldquoLe deacuteveloppement durable un paradigme geacuteneacuterateur drsquoune rupture drsquoinnovationrdquo Management et Avenir Lrsquoorganisation revisiteacutee au travers du deacuteveloppement durable une approche multidisciplinaire Special edition no 26 2009
[AUT 06] AUTISSIER D WACHEUX F Manager par le sens les cleacutes de lrsquoimplication au travail Eyrolles Paris 2006
[AVE 75] AVERILL JR ldquoA semantic atlas of emotional conceptsrdquo JSAS Catalogue of Selected Documents in Psychology vol 5 p 330 1975
[BAB 99] BABA ML ldquoDangerous liaisons trust distrust and information technology in American work organizationsrdquo Human Organization vol 58 no 3 pp 331ndash346 1999
[BAK 01] BAKKER AB SIXMA HJ BOSVELD W ldquoBurnout contagion among general practionersrdquo Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology vol 20 no 1 p 82698 2001
[BAK 05] BAKKER AB LEBLANC PM SCHAUFELI WB ldquoBurnout contagion among intensive care nursesrdquo Nursing Theory and Concept Development or Analysis vol 51 no 3 pp 276ndash287 2005
[BAN 92] BANERJEE AV ldquoA simple model of herd behaviorrdquo The Quarterly Journal of Economics vol CVII no 3 pp 797ndash817 1992
[BAR 02] BARSADE SG ldquoThe Ripple effect emotional contagion and its influence on group behaviourrdquo Administrative Science Quarterly vol 47 pp 647ndash675 2002
[BAS 69] BASS F ldquoA new product growth model for consumer durablesrdquo Management Science vol 15 pp 215ndash227 1969
[BAS 85] BASS BM Leadership and Performance Beyond Expectation Free Press New York NY 1985
[BAS 99] BASS BM ldquoEthics character and authentic transformational leadership behaviourrdquo Leadership Quarterly vol 10 no 2 p 81 1999
[BAT 86] BATRA R RAY ML ldquoAffective responses mediating acceptance of advertisingrdquo Journal of Consumer Research vol 13 no 2 pp 234ndash249 1986
[BAT 02] BATLLE A ldquoLrsquoeacutemotion dans lrsquoentrepriserdquo Les Eacutechos February 2002 Available at httpswwwlesechosfr26022002LesEchos 18602-118-ECH_l-emotion-dans-l-entreprisehtm
118 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
[BAU 98] BAUMARD P BENVENUTI J-A Compeacutetitiviteacute et systegravemes drsquoinformation De lrsquooutil drsquoanalyse au management strateacutegique InterEditions Paris 1998
[BEA 03] BEAL DJ COHEN RR BURKE MJ et al ldquoCohesion and performance in groups a meta-analytic clarification of construct relationsrdquo Journal of Applied Psychology vol 88 no 6 pp 989ndash1004 2003
[BEC 98] BECHARA A DAMASIO H TRANEL D et al ldquoDissociation of working memory from decision making within the human prefrontal cortexrdquo Journal of Neurosciences vol 18 pp 428ndash437 1998
[BEC 99] BECHARA A DAMASIO H DAMASIO AR et al ldquoDifferent contributions of the human amygdala and ventromedial prefrontal cortex to decision-makingrdquo The Journal of Neuroscience vol 19 no 13 pp 5473ndash5481 1999
[BEC 00] BECHARA A DAMASIO H DAMASIO AR ldquoEmotion decision-making and orbitofrontal cortexrdquo Cerebral Cortex vol 10 no 3 pp 295ndash307 2000
[BEH 94] BEHNKE PR SAWYER CR KING P-E ldquoContagion theory and the communication of public speaking state anxietyrdquo Communication Education vol 43 pp 246ndash251 1994
[BER 13] BERNOULLI J Ars conjectandi opus posthumum Accedit Tractatus de seriebus infinitis et epistola galliceacute scripta de ludo pilae reticularis Thurneysen Brothers Basel 1713
[BER 01] BERSON Y ldquoThe relationship between vision strength leadership style and contextrdquo Leadership Quarterly vol 12 no 1 pp 53ndash74 2001
[BER 03] BERTHOZ A La deacutecision Odile Jacob Paris 2003
[BIK 92] BIKHCHANDANI S HIRSHLEIFER D WELCH I ldquoA theory of fads fashion custom and cultural change as informational cascadesrdquo Journal of Politics and Economics vol 100 pp 992ndash1026 1992
[BIL 95] BILTS R Walt Disney The Dreamer the Realist and the Critic Dynamic Learning Publications Library of Congress Catalog in Publications Data Washington 1995
[BIS 83] BISCHOFF C TRAUE HC ldquoMyogenic headacherdquo in HOLROYD KA SCHLOTE B ZENZ H (eds) Perspectives in Research on Headache Levinston New York NY Hogrefe and Huber Publishers Toronto 1983
Bibliography 119
[BOI 10] BOISARD-CASTELLUCCIA S VAN HOOREBEKE D ldquoLe management de la diversiteacute des eacutequipes par la contagion eacutemotionnelle au cœur de la performance de grouperdquo Revue Management et Avenir vol 8 no 38 pp 240ndash256 2010
[BON 07] BONO J JACKSON-FOLDES H VINSON G et al ldquoWorkplace emotional regulation the role of supervision and leadershiprdquo Journal of Applied Psychology vol 9 no 5 p 1357 2007
[BOO 05] BOOT AWA THAKOR V MILBOURN TT ldquoSunflower management and capital budgetingrdquo The Journal of Business vol 78 no 2 pp 501ndash527 2005
[BRA 98] BRAND A ldquoKnowledge management and innovation at 3Mrdquo Journal of Knowledge Management vol 2 no 1 pp 17ndash22 1998
[BRO 61] BROCA P Bulletin de la socieacuteteacute franccedilaise drsquoanthropologie no 1 April 1861
[BRO 01] BROCK WA DURLAUF SN ldquoDiscrete choice with social interactionsrdquo Revue of Economics Studies vol 68 pp 235ndash260 2001
[BUR 78] BURNS JM Leadership Harper and Row New York NY 1978
[BUR 87] BURT RS ldquoSocial contagion and innovation cohesion versus structural equivalencerdquo American Journal of Sociology vol 92 pp 1287ndash1335 1987
[BUR 93] BURGOON JK ldquoInterpersonal expectations expectancy violations and emotional communicationrdquo Journal of Language and Social Psychology vol 12 pp 30ndash48 1993
[CAL 10] CALVEZ JY ldquoEacutethique morale deacuteontologie proches et diffeacuterentes lrsquoeacutethique en peacuteriode de criserdquo Revue franccedilaise du marketing vol 226 pp 1ndash5 2010
[CAP 07] CAPRON M QUAIREL F La responsabiliteacute sociale drsquoentreprise La Deacutecouverte Paris 2007
[CAR 17] CARDON MS POST C FORSTER WR ldquoTeam entrepreneurial passion its emergence and influence in new venture teamsrdquo Academy of Management Review vol 42 pp 283ndash305 2017
[CAS 98] CASTRO JL GUERIN F LAURIOL J ldquoLe modegravele des 3C en questionrdquo Revue Franccedilaise de Gestion vol 118 pp 75ndash89 1998
[CHA 90] CHANLAT J-F (ed) Lrsquoindividu dans lrsquoorganisation les dimensions oublieacutees Eska Paris 1990
120 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
[CHA 98] CHATMAN JA POLZER JT BARSADE SG et al ldquoBeing different yet feeling similar the influence of demographic composition and organizational culture on work processes and outcomesrdquo Administrative Science Quarterly vol 43 no 4 pp 749ndash780 1998
[CHA 01] CHATMAN JA FLYNN FJ ldquoThe influence of demographic heterogeneity on the emergence and consequences of cooperative norms in work teamsrdquo Academy of Management Journal vol 44 no 5 pp 956ndash974 2001
[CHA 03] CHANLAT J-F ldquoEacutemotions organisation et management une reacuteflexion sur la notion drsquointelligence eacutemotionnellerdquo Travailler vol 1 no 9 pp 113ndash132 2003
[CHE 92] CHERNISS C ldquoLong term consequences of burn out an exploratory studyrdquo Journal of Organic Behavior vol 13 pp 1ndash11 1992
[CHR 14] CHRYSIKOU EG WEBER MJ THOMPSON-SCHILL SL ldquoA matched filter hypothesis for cognitive controlrdquo Neuropsychologia vol 62 pp 341ndash365 2014
[CLA 95] CLARKSON MBE ldquoA stakeholder framework for analysing and evaluating corporate social performancerdquo Academy of Management Review vol 20 no 1 pp 92ndash117 1995
[CLA 97] CLARK CE CAVANAUGH NC BROWN CV et al ldquoBuilding change-readiness capabilities in the IS organization insights from the bell Atlantic experiencerdquo MIS Quarterly vol 21 no 4 pp 425ndash455 1997
[COL 05] COLLE R PERETTI J-M CERDIN J-L ldquoLa fideacutelisation des salarieacutes par lrsquoentreprise agrave la carterdquo Revue de Gestion des Ressources Humaines vol 55 pp 2ndash21 2005
[DAL 47] DALE HH ldquoWalter Bradford Cannon 1871ndash1945rdquo Obituary Notices of Fellows of the Royal Society vol 5 no 15 pp 407ndash426 1947
[DAM 94] DAMASIO AR Lrsquoerreur de Descartes la raison des eacutemotions Odile Jacob Paris 1994
[DAM 00] DAMASIO AR ldquoA second chance for emotionrdquo in RICHARD DR LANE L NADEL GL et al (eds) Cognitive Neuroscience of Emotion Oxford University Press Oxford 2000
[DAR 72] DARWIN C The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animal John Murray London 1872
Bibliography 121
[DAR 95] DARWALL S The British Moralists and the Internal ldquoOughtrdquo Cambridge University Press Cambridge 1995
[DAS 02] DASBOROUGH MT ASHKANASY NM ldquoEmotion and attribution of intentionality in leader-member relationshipsrdquo The Leadership Quarterly vol 13 no 5 pp 615ndash634 2002
[DAU 99] DAUMAS C ldquoDeacutemunis face aux tensionsrdquo Libeacuteration available at httpwwwliberationfrcahier-special19991018vincent-dubois-sociologue-a-passe-six-mois-aux-guichets-des-allocations-familiales-demunis-face-aux-_286563 October 1999
[DEB 16] DEBBAH S VAN HOOREBEKE D ldquoTravail collaboratif agrave distance lrsquoinfluence de lrsquointelligence eacutemotionnelle une eacutetude exploratoirerdquo XXIe Congregraves de lrsquoAssociation Information et Management Lille May 2016
[DEM 06] DE MARTINO B KUMARAN D SEYMOUR B et al ldquoFrames biases and rational decision-makingrdquo Human Brain Science vol 313 no 5787 pp 684ndash687 2006
[DER 87] DERBAIX C ldquoLe comportement de lrsquoacheteur voies drsquoeacutetudes pour les anneacutees agrave venirrdquo Recherche et Applications Marketing vol 2 no 2 pp 81ndash92 1987
[DER 89] DERBAIX C PHAM M ldquoPour un deacuteveloppement des mesures de lrsquoaffectif en marketing synthegravese des preacute-requisrdquo Recherche et Applications Marketing vol 4 no 4 pp 71ndash87 1989
[DES 37] DESCARTES R Discours de la meacutethode Flammarion Paris 1637
[DES 49] DESCARTES R Les Passions de lrsquoacircme Henry le Gras Paris 1649
[DIE 03a] DIEFENDORFF JM GOSSERAND RH ldquoUnderstanding the emotional labor process a control theory perspectiverdquo Journal of Organizational Behavior vol 24 no 8 pp 945ndash959 2003
[DIE 03b] DIEFENDORFF JM RICHARD EM ldquoAntecedents and consequences of emotional display rule perceptionsrdquo Journal of Applied Psychology vol 88 pp 284ndash294 2003
[DIE 04] DIETRICH A ldquoNeurocognitive mechanisms underlying the experience of flowrdquo Consciousness and Cognition vol 13 no 4 pp 746ndash761 2004
[DOD 05] DODDS PS WATTS DJ ldquoA generalized model of social and biological contagionrdquo Journal of Theoritical Biology vol 232 no 4 pp 587ndash604 2005
122 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
[DRE 52] DREVER J A Dictionary of Psychology Penguin London 1952
[DRU 93] DRUCKER PF Post-capitalist Society HarperCollins New York NY 1993
[DUB 08] DUBOIS V La vie au guichet Relation administrative et traitement de la misegravere Economica Paris 2008
[DUR 67] DURKHEIM E Le suicide Eacutetude de sociologie 2nd edition PUF Paris 1967
[EAR 00] EARLEY PC MOSAKOWSKI E ldquoCreating hybrid teams culture an empirical test of transnational team functioningrdquo Academy of Management Journal vol 43 no 1 pp 26ndash49 2000
[EIS 99] EISENHARDT KM HOPE PELLED L XIN KR ldquoExploring the black box an analysis of work group diversity conflict and performancerdquo Administrative Science Quarterly vol 44 pp 1ndash28 1999
[EKM 79] EKMAN P OSTER H ldquoFacial expressions of emotionrdquo Annual Review of Psychology vol 30 pp 527ndash554 1979
[ELF 07] ELFENBEIN HA OrsquoREILLY CA ldquoFitting in the effects of relational demography and person-organization fit on group process and performancerdquo Group and Organization Management vol 32 no 1 pp 109ndash142 2007
[ELI 94] ELIAS N The Civilizing Processes 1 and 2 Blackwell Oxford 1994
[FAV 06] FAVI The story of FAVI The company that believes that man is good Paper available at httpukukwoneuFile20Storage 5160692_7_The-story-of-favipdf 2006
[FEH 17] FEHR R FULMER A AWTREY E et al ldquoThe grateful workplace a multilevel model of gratitude in organizationsrdquo Academy of Management Review vol 42 pp 361ndash381 2017
[FES 57] FESTINGER L A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance Stanford University Press Stanford CA 1957
[FIM 03] FIMBEL E ldquoNature et enjeux strateacutegiques de lrsquoexternalisationrdquo Revue franccedilaise de gestion vol 143 no 2 pp 27ndash42 2003
[FIN 00] FINEMAN S ldquoEmotional arenas revisitedrdquo in FINEMAN S (ed) Emotions in Organisations Sage Publications London 2000
Bibliography 123
[FIO 94] FIOL CM ldquoConsensus diversity and learning in organizationsrdquo Organization Science vol 5 no 3 pp 403ndash420 1994
[FIS 00] FISHER CD ldquoMood and emotions while working missing pieces of job satisfactionrdquo Journal of Organizational Behavior vol 21 pp 185ndash202 2000
[FIT 00] FITNESS J ldquoAnger in the workplace an emotion script approach to anger episodes between workers and their superiors co-workers and subordinatesrdquo Journal of Organizational Behavior vol 21 pp 147ndash162 2000
[FLE 06] FLEMING L MARX M ldquoManaging creativity in small worldsrdquo California Management Review vol 48 no 4 pp 6ndash27 2006
[FLE 07] FLEMING L MINGO S CHEN D ldquoCollaborative brokerage generative creativity and creative successrdquo Administrative Science Quarterly vol 52 pp 443ndash475 2007
[FRA 94] FRANCE KR SHAH RH PARK CW ldquoThe impact of emotional valence and intensity on Ad evaluation and memoryrdquo in ALLEN C ROEDDER-JOHN D (eds) Advances in Consumer Research 21 Association for Consumer Research Duluth MN 1994
[FRA 03] FRANK J ldquoNatural selection rational economic behavior and alternative outcomes of the evolutionary processrdquo Journal of Socio-Economics vol 32 pp 601ndash622 2003
[FRA 10] FRAY AM SOPARNOT R ldquoLe manager responsablerdquo in DE BRY F IGALENS J PERETTI J-M (eds) Eacutethique et Responsabiliteacute Sociale EMS Eacuteditions Paris 2010
[FRE 84] FREEMAN RE (ed) ldquoStrategic management framework and philosophyrdquo Strategic Management A Stakeholder Approach Pittman Marshfield WI 1984
[FRE 99] FREEMAN RE ldquoDivergent stakeholder theoryrdquo The Academy of Management Review vol 24 no 2 pp 233ndash236 1999
[FRE 02] FREUD E Œuvres complegravetes vol 15 PUF Paris 2002
[FRI 86] FRIJDA NH The Emotions Cambridge University Press Cambridge MA 1986
[FRI 87] FRIEDMAN HS BOOTH-KEWLEY S ldquoThe disease-prone personality a meta-analytic view of the constructrdquo American Psychologist vol 42 pp 539ndash555 1987
124 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
[FRI 88] FRIJDA NH ldquoThe laws of emotionrdquo American Psychologist vol 43 no 5 pp 349ndash358 1988
[FRI 00] FRISOU J ldquoConfiance interpersonnelle et engagement une reacuteorientation beacutehavioristerdquo Recherche et Applications en Marketing vol 15 pp 63ndash80 2000
[FUD 05] FUDENBERG LA IMHOF D NOWAK MA ldquoEvolutionary cycles of cooperation and defectionrdquo Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences vol 102 pp 10797ndash10800 2005
[GAG 03] GAGNON MP GODIN G GAGNEacute C et al ldquoEvolutionary cycles of cooperation an adaptation of the theory of interpersonal behaviour to the study of telemedicine adoption by physiciansrdquo International Journal of Medical Informatics vol 71 no 3 pp 103ndash115 2003
[GAR 85] GARDNER MP ldquoMood states and consumer behavior a critical reviewrdquo Journal of Consumer Research vol 12 no 3 pp 281ndash300 1985
[GAZ 78] GAZZANIGA MS LEDOUX JE The Integrated Mind Plenum New York NY 1978
[GEO 89] GEORGE JM ldquoConflict and performance in mood and absencerdquo Journal of Applied Psychology vol 74 pp 317ndash324 1989
[GEO 90] GEORGE JM ldquoPersonality affect and behavior in groupsrdquo Journal of Applied Psychology vol 75 pp 107ndash116 1990
[GEO 07a] GEORGE JM ldquoEmotions and leadership the role of emotional intelligencerdquo in MANSTEAD A (ed) Psychology of Emotions vol 2 Sage Publications London 2007
[GEO 07b] GEORGE JM BRIEF AP ldquoFeeling good-doing good a conceptual analysis of the mood at work ndash organizational spontaneity relationshiprdquo in ANDERSON N (ed) Fundamentals of HRM vol 3 Sage Publications London 2007
[GOF 59] GOFFMAN E The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life Doubleday Anchor New York NY 1959
[GOL 97] GOLEMAN D Lrsquointelligence eacutemotionnelle Robert Laffont Paris 1997
[GOL 02] GOLEMAN D BOYATZIS R MACKEE A Primal Leadership Harvard Business School Press New York NY 2002
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[GOL 04] GOLEMAN D ldquoWhat Makes a Leaderrdquo Harvard Business Review available at httpswwwthebraudisgroupcomwp-content uploads201605What-Makes-A-Leader-_-1pdf 2004
[GOL 14] GOLEMAN D Lrsquointelligence eacutemotionnelle analyser et controcircler ses sentiments et ceux des autres Jrsquoai lu Paris 2014
[GOU 71] GOUAUX C ldquoInduced affective states and interpersonal attractionrdquo Journal of Personality and Social Psychology vol 20 pp 37ndash43 1971
[GOY 07] GOYAL S VEGA-REDONDO F ldquoStructural holes in social networksrdquo Journal of Economic Theory vol 137 pp 460ndash492 2007
[GRA 78] GRANOVETTER M ldquoThreshold models of collective behaviourrdquo American Journal of Sociology vol 83 pp 1420ndash1443 1978
[GRA 00] GRATCH J ldquoModelling the interplay between emotion and decision-makingrdquo 9th Conference on Computer Generated Forces and Behavioral Representation Orlando FL 2000
[GRA 03] GRANDEY A ldquoWhen lsquothe show must go onrsquo surface and deep acting as predictors of emotional exhaustion and service deliveryrdquo Academy of Management Journal vol 46 no 1 pp 86ndash96 2003
[GRA 05a] GRACIAacuteN B Oraculo manual y arte de prudencia Translated from Spanish by Joseph Jacobs Andrew Burke 2005
[GRA 05b] GRANDEY AA FISKA GM MATTILAB AS et al ldquoIs lsquoservice with a smilersquo enough Authenticity of positive displays during service encountersrdquo Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes vol 96 pp 38ndash55 2005
[GRI 03] GRIMA F TREPO G ldquoInitier une innovation organisationnelle tactiques drsquoinfluence et processus de persuasion mis en œuvre par les championsrdquo Revue de gestion des ressources humaines vol 50 p 23 2003
[GRO 92] GROENESTIJN E BUUNK BP SCHAUFELI WB ldquoThe danger of burnout contagion the role of social comparison processesrdquo in BUUNK M VAN LANGE V (eds) Sociale Psychologie De Boek The Hague 1992
126 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
[GUE 98] GUERRERO LK ANDERSEN PA TROST MR ldquoCommunication and emotion basic concepts and approachesrdquo in ANDERSEN PA GUERRERO LK (eds) Handbook of Communication and Emotion Research Theory Applications and Contents Academic Press San Diego CA 1998
[GUI 98] GUILHON A ldquoLe changement est un apprentissagerdquo Revue Franccedilaise de Gestion vol 120 pp 98ndash107 1998
[GUM 97] GUMP BB KULIK JA ldquoStress affiliation and emotional contagionrdquo Journal of Personality and Social Psychology vol 722 pp 305ndash319 1997
[HAC 92] HACKMAN JR ldquoGroup influences on individuals in organizationsrdquo in DUNNETTE MD HOUGH LM (eds) Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology Consulting Psychologists Press Palo Alto CA 1992
[HAN 02] HANSEN MT ldquoKnowledge networks explaining effective knowledge sharing in multiunit companiesrdquo Organization Science vol 13 pp 232ndash248 2002
[HAT 94] HATFIELD E CACIOPPO JT RAPSON RL Emotional Contagion Cambridge University Press Paris 1994
[HEI 88] HEINER R ldquoImperfected decisions and routinized production implication for evolutionary modelling and inertial technical changerdquo in DOSI G (ed) Technical Change and Economic Theory Pinter Publishers London 1988
[HEL 64] HELSON H Adaptation-level Theory Harper and Row New York NY 1964
[HER 04] HERRBACH O LERAT-PYTLAK J ldquoImplication et eacutemotions au travail une eacutetude empiriquerdquo 15e congregraves de lrsquoAssociation francophone de gestion des ressources humaines ESG UQAM Montreal 2004
[HOC 83] HOCHSCHILD AR The Managed Heart Commercialization of Human Feeling University of California Press Los Angeles CA 1983
[HOU 77] HOUSE RJ ldquoA 1976 theory of charismatic leadershiprdquo in HUNT JG LARSON LL (eds) Leadership The Cutting Edge SIUP Carbondale IL 1977
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[HOW 85] HOWES MJ HOKANSON JE LOWENSTEIN DA ldquoIntroduction of depressive affect after prolonged exposure to a mildly depressed individualrdquo Journal of Personality and Social Psychology vol 49 pp 1110ndash1113 1985
[HOW 06] HOWARD A ldquoPositive and negative emotional attractors and intentional changerdquo Journal of Management Development vol 25 no 7 pp 657ndash670 2006
[HOW 15] HOWARD LW LI-PING TANG T AUSTIN MJ ldquoTeaching critical thinking skills ability motivation intervention and the Pygmalion effectrdquo Journal of Business Ethics vol 128 no 1 pp 133ndash147 2015
[HUM 02] HUMPHREY H ldquoThe many faces of emotional leadershiprdquo The Leadership Quarterly vol 13 no 5 pp 493ndash504 2002
[HUY 02] HUY QN ldquoEmotional balancing of organizational continuity and radical change the contribution of middle managersrdquo Administrative Science Quarterly vol 47 pp 31ndash69 2002
[IAC 05] IACOBINI M ldquoNeural mechanisms of imitationrdquo Current Opinion in Neurobiology vol 15 no 6 pp 632ndash637 2005
[ISE 02] ISEN AM ldquoMissing in action in the AIM positive affectrsquos facilitation of cognitive flexibility innovation and problem solvingrdquo Psychological Inquiry vol 13 no 1 pp 57ndash65 2002
[IZA 77] IZARD CE Human Emotions Plenum Press New York NY 1977
[IZA 84] IZARD CE KAGAN J ZAJONC R (eds) Emotions Cognition and Behaviour Cambridge University Press Cambridge MA 1984
[JAM 84] JAMES W ldquoWhat is an emotionrdquo Mind vol 9 pp 188ndash205 1884
[JAM 89] JAMES N ldquoEmotional labour skill and work in the social regulation of feelingsrdquo Sociological Review vol 37 pp 15ndash32 1989
[JAN 82] JANIS IL Victims of Groupthink Houghton Mifflin Boston MA 1982
[JAR 04] JARCHO JM BERKMAN ET LIEBERMAN MD ldquoThe neural basis of rationalization cognitive dissonance reduction during decision-makingrdquo Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience vol 6 no 4 pp 460ndash467 2004
128 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
[JEH 95] JEHN KA ldquoA multimethod examination of the benefits and detriments of intragroup conflictrdquo Administrative Science Quarterly vol 42 pp 530ndash557 1995
[JEH 97] JEHN KA SHAH P ldquoInterpersonal relationship and task performance an examination of mediating processes in friendship and acquaintance groupsrdquo Journal of Personality and Social Psychology vol 72 pp 775ndash790 1997
[JEN 00] JENNINGS DF ARTZ K GILLIN LM et al ldquoDeterminants of trust in global strategic alliances Amrad and the Australian biomedical industryrdquo Competitiveness Review vol 10 no 1 pp 25ndash44 2000
[JOH 82] JOHNSON-GEORGE CE SWAP WC ldquoMeasurement of specific interpersonal trust construction and validation of scale to assess trust in specific otherrdquo Journal of Personality and Social Psychology vol 43 pp 1306ndash1317 1982
[JON 98] JONES GR GEORGE JM ldquoThe experience and evolution of trust implications for cooperation and teamworkrdquo Academy of Management Review vol 23 no 3 pp 531ndash546 1998
[JON 99] JONES TM WICKS AC ldquoConvergent stakeholder theoryrdquo Academy of Management Review vol 24 pp 206ndash221 1999
[JOR 09] JORDAN PJ LAWRENCE SA ldquoEmotional intelligence in teams development and initial validation of the short version of the workgroup emotional intelligence profile (WEIP-S)rdquo Journal of Management and Organization vol 15 pp 452ndash469 2009
[KAH 73] KAHNEMAN D TVERSKY A ldquoOn the psychology of predictionrdquo Psychological Review vol 80 no 4 pp 237ndash251 1973
[KAN 98] KANT I Critique of Pure Reason Cambridge University Press New York NY 1998
[KEM 78] KEMPER TD A Social Interactional Theory of Emotions Wiley New York NY 1978
[KIS 05] KISHI T ELMQUIST JK ldquoBody weight is regulated by the brain a link between feeding and emotionrdquo Molecular Psychiatry vol 10 pp 132ndash146 2005
[KOE 87] KOESTENBAUM P The Heart of Business Ethics Power and Philosophy Saybrook Publishing San Francisco CA 1987
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[KOG 92] KOGUT B ZANDER U ldquoKnowledge of the firm combinative capabilities and the replication of technologyrdquo Organization Science vol 3 no 3 pp 383ndash397 1992
[KOT 90] KOTTER JP A Force for Change How Leadership Differs from Management The Free Press New York NY 1990
[KOT 02] KOTTER JP COHEN DS The Heart of Change Harvard Business School Press Boston MA 2002
[KRO 69] KROP HD ALEGRE CE WILLIAMS CD ldquoEffect of induced stress on convergent and divergent thinkingrdquo Psychological Reports vol 24 pp 895ndash898 1969
[KRU 00] KRUML JR GEDDES D ldquoExploring the dimensions of emotional labourrdquo Management Communication Quarterly vol 14 no 1 pp 8ndash49 2000
[KRY 08] KRYSTYNA G ldquoThe role of affect in developing communicative and cultural competence in ESPrdquo English Education and English for Specific Purposes Crane Publishing Co Taipei 2008
[KUG 12] KUGLER T KAUSER EE MARTIN G et al Are groups more rational than individuals A review of interactive decision making in groups Document no 3701 CESifo January 2012
[LAB 94] LABORIT H Les bases biologiques des comportements sociaux Fides Montreal 1994
[LAD 07] LADHARI R ldquoThe movie experience a revised approach to determinants of satisfactionrdquo Journal of Business Research vol 60 no 5 pp 454ndash462 2007
[LAZ 91] LAZARUS RS Emotion and Adaptation Oxford University Press Oxford 1991
[LEB 63] LE BON G Psychologie des foules PUF Paris 1963
[LEB 04] LE BAS C ldquoManagement responsable et neacutecessaire reacutegulation globalerdquo Eacuteconomie et Humanisme no 370 pp 58ndash59 2004
[LED 97] LEDOUX JE MULLER J ldquoEmotional memory and psychopathologyrdquo Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society vol 352 pp 1719ndash1726 1997
[LED 98] LEDOUX JE The Emotional Brain Weidenfeld and Nicolson London 1998
130 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
[LEE 93] LEE RT ASHFORTH BE ldquoA longitudinal study of burnout among supervisors and managers comparisons between the Leiter and Maslach (1988) and Golembiewski et al (1986) modelsrdquo Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes vol 54 pp 369ndash398 1993
[LEE 96] LEE RT ASHFORTH BE ldquoA meta-analystic examination of the correlates of the three dimensions of job burnoutrdquo Journal of Applied Psychology vol 81 pp 123ndash133 1996
[LEE 03] LEENDERS RTAJ VAN ENGELEN JML KRATZER J ldquoVirtuality communication and new product team creativity a social network perspectiverdquo Journal of Engineering and Technology Management vol 20 no 1 pp 69ndash92 2003
[LEE 15] LEE C AN M NOH Y ldquoThe effects of emotional display rules on flight attendantsrsquo emotional labor strategy job burnout and performancerdquo Service Business vol 9 no 3 pp 409ndash425 2015
[LEF 06] LEFLEY F ldquoCan a project champion bias project selection and if so how can we avoid itrdquo Management Research News vol 29 no 4 pp 174ndash183 2006
[LEacuteP 05] LEacutePINEUX F ldquoStakeholder theory society and social cohesionrdquo Corporate Governance vol 5 no 2 pp 99ndash110 2005
[LER 06] LERNER JS TIEDENS LZ ldquoPortrait of the angry decision maker how appraisal tendencies shape angerrsquos influence on cognitionrdquo Journal of Behavioral Decision Making vol 19 pp 115ndash137 2006
[LER 11] LEROUX E VAN HOOREBEKE D ldquoSI eacuteco-responsables et innovation les pratiques des salarieacutes dans les PMErdquo Gestion 2000 vol 28 no 4 pp 119ndash135 2011
[LES 98] LE SCANFF C ldquoLa preacuteparation-entraicircnement psychologique pour des situations extrecircmes application au sport de haut niveaurdquo Bulletin de Psychologie vol 51 no 6 pp 765ndash781 1998
[LEW 51] LEWIN K Field Theory in Social Science Selected Theoretical Papers Harper and Row New York NY 1951
[LEW 00] LEWIS KM ldquoWhen leaders display emotion how followers respond to negative emotional expression of male and female leadersrdquo Journal of Organizational Behavior vol 21 pp 221ndash234 2000
[LIN 65] LINDGREN HC LINDGREN F ldquoCreativity brainstorming and orneriness a cross-cultural studyrdquo Journal of Sociology and Psychology vol 67 pp 23ndash30 1965
Bibliography 131
[LIU 05] LIU Y PERREWEacute PL ldquoAnother look at the role of emotion in the organizational change a process modelrdquo Human Resource Management Review vol 15 pp 263ndash280 2005
[LOE 03] LOEWENSTEIN G LERNER JS ldquoThe role of affect in decision makingrdquo in DAVIDSON RJ et al (eds) Handbook of Affective Science Oxford University Press Oxford 2003
[LOS 02] LOSTRA F ldquoLe cerveau eacutemotionnel ou la neuroanatomie des eacutemotionsrdquo Cahiers critiques de theacuterapie familiale et de pratiques de reacuteseaux vol 29 no 2 pp 73ndash86 2002
[LOU 00] LOU H LUO W STRONG D ldquoPerceived critical mass effect on groupware acceptancerdquo European Journal of Information Systems vol 9 pp 91ndash103 2000
[MAC 75] MACLEAN PD ldquoSensory and perspective factors in emotional functions of the trinue brainrdquo in LEVI L (ed) Emotions Their Parameters and Measurement Raven New York NY pp 71ndash92 1975
[MAC 00] MACDONALD AW COHEN JD STENGER VA et al ldquoDissociating the role of the dorsolateral prefrontal and anterior cingulate cortex in cognitive controlrdquo Science vol 288 pp 1835ndash1838 2000
[MAE 10] MAES B FONTANAUD N PRONOST A-M ldquoEffet de la mise en place drsquoun instrument drsquoeacutevaluation continue de la qualiteacute des soins infirmiers sur la satisfaction au travail des soignants et sur leur implication affectiverdquo Recherche en soins infirmiers vol 102 no 3 pp 42ndash49 2010
[MAF 96] MAFFESOLI M Eacuteloge de la raison sensible Grasset Paris 1996
[MAL 96] MALVILLE P Leccedilons litteacuteraires sur les lsquoConfessionsrsquo de Jean-Jacques Rousseau PUF Paris 1996
[MAN 61] MANSFIELD E ldquoTechnical change and the rate of imitationrdquo Econometrica vol 29 no 4 pp 741ndash766 1961
[MAN 13] MANJOO F ldquoThe happiness machine how Google became such a great place to workrdquo Slate Magazine available at httpwwwslatecom articlestechnologytechnology201301google_people_operations_the_secrets_of_the_world_s_most_scientific_humanhtml January 2013
[MAS 82] MASLACH C Burnout The Cost of Caring Englewood Cliffs New York NY 1982
132 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
[MAS 02] MASON CM GRIFFIN MA ldquoGroup task satisfaction applying the construct of job satisfaction to groupsrdquo Small Group Research vol 33 no 3 pp 271ndash312 2002
[MAS 09] MASCLET D COLOMBIER N DENANT-BOEMONT L et al ldquoGroup and individual risk preferences a lottery-choice experiment with self-employed and salaried workersrdquo Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization vol 70 no 3 pp 470ndash484 2009
[MCA 95] MCALLISTER DJ ldquoAffect- and cognition-based trust as foundations for interpersonal cooperation in organizationsrdquo Academy of Management Journal vol 38 no 1 pp 24ndash60 1995
[MCC 84] MCCRAE RR ldquoSituational determinants of coping responses loss threat and challengerdquo Journal of Personality and Social Psychology vol 46 no 4 pp 919ndash928 1984
[MER 99] MERCIER S Lrsquoeacutethique dans les entreprises La Deacutecouverte Paris 1999
[MID 89] MIDDLETON DR ldquoEmotional style the cultural ordering of emotionsrdquo Ethos vol 17 pp 187ndash201 1989
[MON 05] MONOD-BROCA P Paul Broca un geacuteant du XIXe siegravecle Vuibert Paris 2005
[MOR 81] MORRIS T GREER S PETTINGALE KW et al ldquoPattern of expression of anger and their psychological correlates in women with breast cancerrdquo Journal of Psychosomatic Research vol 25 pp 111ndash117 1981
[MOR 96] MORRIS JA FELDMAN DC ldquoThe dimensions antecedents and consequences of emotion laborrdquo The Academy of Management Review vol 21 no 4 pp 986ndash1010 1996
[MOR 97] MORRIS JA FELDMAN DC ldquoManaging emotions in the workplacerdquo Journal of Managerial Issues vol 9 no 3 pp 257ndash274 1997
[MOR 02] MORANA J VAN HOOREBEKE D ldquoLe facteur humain au cœur du supply chain managementrdquo Gestion 2000 vol 6 pp 131ndash141 2002
[MOR 06] MORIN E Eacutethique vol 6 Le Seuil Paris 2006
[MUR 89] MURRAY AI ldquoTop management group heterogeneity and firm performancerdquo Strategic Management Journal vol 10 pp 125ndash141 1989
Bibliography 133
[NEA 86] NEALE MA BAZERMAN MH NORTHCRAFT GB et al ldquoChoice shift effects in group decisions a decision bias perspectiverdquo International Journal of Small Group Research vol 23 pp 33ndash42 1986
[NEL 00] NELSON K BOWEN J ldquoThe effect of employee uniforms on employee satisfaction the Cornell Hotel and Restaurantrdquo Administration Quarterly vol 41 no 2 pp 86ndash95 2000
[NEW 02] NEWCOMBE MJ ASHKANASY NM ldquoThe role of affect and affective congruence in perceptions of leaders an experimental studyrdquo Leadership Quarterly vol 13 pp 601ndash614 2002
[OAK 96] OAKLAND S OSTELL A ldquoMeasuring coping a review and critiquerdquo Human Relations vol 49 no 2 p 133 1996
[OKE 04] OKETCH M ldquoThe corporate stake in social cohesionrdquo Corporate Governance vol 4 no 3 pp 5ndash19 2004
[OLD 54] OLDS J MILNER PM ldquoPositive reinforcement produced by electrical stimulation of the septal area and the other regions of the rat brainrdquo Journal of Comparative and Psychological Psychology vol 47 pp 419ndash427 1954
[PAE 93] PAESE PW BIESER M TUBBS ME ldquoFraming effects and choice shifts in group decision makingrdquo Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes vol 56 pp 149ndash165 1993
[PAP 37] PAPEZ JP ldquoA proposed mechanism of emotionrdquo Archives of Neurology amp Psychiatry vol 38 pp 725ndash743 1937
[PAU 03] PAULUS P NIJSTAD B Group Creativity Innovation through Collaboration Oxford University Press New York NY 2003
[PEC 03] PECH RJ ldquoMemes and cognitive hardwiring why are some memes more successful than othersrdquo European Journal of Innovation Management vol 6 no 3 pp 173ndash181 2003
[PEL 05] PELLISSIER-TANNON A ldquoLrsquoadoption drsquoune attitude socialement responsable et ses fondements psychologiques un point de vue aristoteacutelicienrdquo Congregraves International de lrsquoADERSE Lyon October 2005
[PER 06] PERRY-SMITH JE ldquoSocial yet creative the role of social relationships in facilitating individual creativityrdquo Academy of Management Journal vol 49 pp 85ndash101 2006
[PET 83] PETERS T WATERMAN R Le prix de lrsquoexcellence InterEacuteditions Paris 1983
134 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
[PET 96] PETER JP OLSON JC Consumer Behavior and Marketing Strategy Irwin Chicago IL 1996
[PFE 98] PFEFFERBAUM B PFEFFERBAUM RL ldquoContagion in stress ndash an infectious disease model for post-traumatic stress in childrenrdquo Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America vol 7 p 183 1998
[PIA 37] PIAGET J La construction du reacuteel chez lrsquoenfant Delachaux et Niestleacute Paris 1937
[PIC 95] PICARD D ldquoRecherche performance humaine deacutesespeacutereacutement la contribution de cabinets de conseilrdquo Cahier de recherche du Gregor no 10 1995
[PIR 04] PIROLA-MERLO A MANN L ldquoThe relationship between individual creativity and team creativity aggregating across people and timerdquo Journal of Organizational Behavior vol 25 pp 235ndash257 2004
[PLU 80] PLUTCHIK R Emotion A Psychoevolutionary Synthesis Harper and Row New York NY 1980
[QUI 06] QUIRK J BEER JS ldquoPrefrontal involvement in the regulation of emotion convergence of rat and human studiesrdquo Current Opinion in Neurobiology vol 16 pp 723ndash727 2006
[RAF 89] RAFAELI A SUTTON RI ldquoThe expression of emotion in organizational liferdquo Research in Organizational Behavior vol 11 pp 1ndash42 1989
[REI 45] REICH W ldquoLa peste eacutemotionnellerdquo in REICH W (ed) Lrsquoanalyse caracteacuterielle Petite Bibliothegraveque Payot Paris 1945
[REI 01] REIS HT ldquoRelationship experiences and emotional well-beingrdquo in RYFF CD SINGER BH (eds) Emotion Social Relationship and Health Oxford University Press Oxford 2001
[REM 85] REMPEL JK HOLMES JG ZANNA MD ldquoTrust in close relationshipsrdquo Journal of Personality and Social Psychology vol 49 pp 95ndash112 1985
[RHO 01] RHODE P STEGEMAN M ldquoNon-Nash equilibria of Darwinian dynamics with applications to duopolyrdquo International Journal of Industrial Organization vol 19 pp 415ndash453 2001
[RIB 30] RIBOT T La psychologie des sentiments Alcan Paris 1930
[RIM 05] RIME B Le partage social des eacutemotions PUF Paris 2005
Bibliography 135
[ROB 97] ROBINSON MD JOHNSON JT ldquoIs it emotion or is it stress Gender stereotypes and the perception of subjective experiencerdquo Sex Roles vol 36 pp 235ndash258 1997
[ROG 95] ROGERS E The Diffusion of Innovations The Free Press New York NY 1995
[ROU 03] ROUSSILLON S Les eacutemotions dans le travail Research paper no 200312 EMLYON Business School December 2003
[ROU 15] ROUSSEAU N ldquoEn entreprise le bonheur est contagieuxrdquo La Tribune available at httpacteursdeleconomielatribunefrdebats conferences2015-02-04en-entreprise-le-bonheur-est-contagieuxhtml February 2015
[RUS 79] RUSSELL JA ldquoAffective space is bipolarrdquo Journal of Personality and Social Psychology vol 37 no 3 pp 345ndash356 1979
[SAM 06] SAMET R VAN HOOREBEKE D ldquoLa contagion eacutemotionnelle de groupe interpreacutetation numeacuterique du processus observeacute au travailrdquo Confeacuterence ACFAS Montreal 2006
[SAN 93] SANDELANDS L ST CLAIR L ldquoToward an empirical concept of grouprdquo Journal for the Theory of Social Behavior vol 23 pp 423ndash458 1993
[SAR 38] SARTRE J-P Esquisse drsquoune theacuteorie des eacutemotions Hermann Paris 1938
[SAV 54] SAVAGE L The Foundations of Statistics Dover Publications New York NY 1954
[SCH 71] SCHACHTER S Emotion Obesity and Crime Academic Press New York NY 1971
[SCH 73] SCHELLING TC ldquoHockey helmets concealed weapons and daylight saving a study of binary choices with externalitiesrdquo Journal of Conflict Resolution vol 17 pp 381ndash428 1973
[SCH 89] SCHERER KR ldquoVocal correlates of emotional arousal and affective disturbancerdquo in WAGNER H MANSTEAD A (eds) Handbook of Social Psychophysiology John Wiley amp Sons New York NY 1989
[SCH 94] SCHERER KR ldquoAffect burstsrdquo in VAN GOOZEN HM VAN DE POLL NE SERGEANT JA (eds) Emotions Essays on Emotion Theory Lawrence Erlbaum Hillsdale 1994
136 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
[SCH 98] SCHLAG K ldquoWhy imitate and if so how A boundedly rational approach to multi-armed banditsrdquo Journal of Economic Theory vol 78 no 1 pp 130ndash156 1998
[SCH 00] SCHAUBROECK J JONES JR ldquoAntecedents of workplace emotional labor dimensions and moderators of their effects on physical symptomsrdquo Journal of Organizational Behavior vol 21 pp 163ndash183 2000
[SCH 14] SCHMIDT E ROSENBERG J How Google Works John Murray London 2014
[SCO 80] SCOTT CLldquoInterpersonnel trust a comparison of attitudinal and situational factorsrdquo Human Relations vol 33 pp 805ndash812 1980
[SHA 87] SHAVER P SCHWARTZ J KIRSON D et al ldquoEmotion knowledge further exploration of a prototype approachrdquo Journal of Personality and Social Psychology vol 52 pp 1061ndash1086 1987
[SHI 03] SHIROM A ldquoJob related burnout a reviewrdquo in QUICK JC TETRICK LE (eds) Handbook of Occupational Health Psychology American Psychological Association Washington DC 2003
[SIM 59] SIMON HA ldquoTheories of decision-making in economics and behavioral sciencerdquo The American Economic Review vol 49 no 3 pp 253ndash283 1959
[SIM 87] SIMON HA ldquoMaking management decisions the role of intuition and emotionrdquo Academy of Management Executive vol 1 no 1 pp 57ndash64 1987
[SMI 76] SMITH VL ldquoExperimental economics induced value theoryrdquo American Economic Review Papers and Proceedings vol 66 no 2 pp 274ndash279 1976
[SMI 94] SMITH KG SMITH KA OLIAN JD et al ldquoTop management team demography and process the role of social integration and communicationrdquo Administrative Science Quarterly vol 39 pp 412ndash438 1994
[SMO 02] SMOLIAR SW SPRAGUE R ldquoCommunication and understanding for decision supportrdquo Proceedings of International Conference IFIP TC8WG83 Cork pp 107ndash119 2002
[SOL 98] SOLOMON RC ldquoThe politics of emotionrdquo Midwest Studies in Philosophy vol 22 no 1 pp 1ndash20 1998
Bibliography 137
[STA 89] STASSER G TAYLOR LA HANNA C ldquoInformation sampling in structured discussions of three- and six-person groupsrdquo Journal of Personality and Social Psychology vol 57 pp 57ndash67 1989
[STA 01] STASSER G DIETZ-UHLER B ldquoCollective choice judgment and problem solvingrdquo in HOGG MA TINDALE RS (eds) Handbook of Social Psychology Group Processes Blackwell Publishers Hoboken NJ 2001
[STE 93] STEARNS PN ldquoHistory of emotions the issue of changerdquo in
LEWIS M HAVILAND JM (eds) Handbook of Emotions Guilford New York NY 1993
[SUT 90] SUTTON RJ RAFAELI A ldquoBusy stores and demanding customers how do they affect the display of positive emotionrdquo Academy of Management Journal vol 33 no 3 pp 623ndash637 1990
[SUT 91] SUTTON RI ldquoMaintaining norms about expressed emotions the case of bill collectorsrdquo Administrative Science Quarterly vol 36 pp 245ndash268 1991
[TAB 08] TABIBNIA G SATPUTE AB LIEBERMAN MD ldquoThe sunny side of fairness preference for fairness activates reward circuitry (and disregarding unfairness activates self-control circuitry)rdquo Psychological Science vol 19 pp 339ndash347 2008
[TAJ 04] TAJFEL H TURNER JC ldquoThe social identity theory of intergroup behaviorrdquo in JOST TJ SIDANIUS J (eds) Political Psychology Psychology Press New York NY 2004
[TAN 92] TANNENBAUM SI BEARD RL SALAS E ldquoTeam building and its influence on team effectiveness an examination of conceptual and empirical developmentsrdquo in KELLEY K (ed) Issues Theory and Research in IndustrialOrganizational Psychology North Holland New York NY 1992
[THEacute 00] THEacuteVENET M Le plaisir de travailler favoriser lrsquoimplication des personnes Eacuteditions drsquoOrganisation Paris 2000
[THEacute 92] THEacuteVENET M Impliquer les personnes dans lrsquoentreprise Eacuteditions Liaisons Paris 1992
[THO 20] THORNDIKE EL ldquoA constant error in psychological ratingrdquo Journal of Applied Psychology vol 4 pp 25ndash29 1920
138 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
[THO 96a] THOMAS D ELY R ldquoMaking differences matter a new paradigm for managing diversityrdquo Harvard Business Review vol 74 no 5 pp 79ndash92 1996
[THO 96b] THOMASSET A Paul Ricœur une poeacutetique de la morale University Press Leuven 1996
[TIC 87] TICKLE-DEGNEN L ROSENTHAL R ldquoGroup rapport and nonverbal behaviourrdquo in HENDRICK C et al (eds) Group Processes and Intergroup Relations Review of Personality and Social Psychology vol 9 Sage Publications Beverly Hills CA 1987
[TOD 70] TODT D ldquoZur ordnung im gesang der nachtigall (Luscinia megarhynchos)rdquo Verhandlungen der Deutschen Zoologischen Gesellschaft vol 64 pp 249ndash252 1970
[TOD 71] TODT D ldquoAumlquivalente und konvalente gesangliche Reaktionen einer extrem regelmaumlssig singenden Nachtigall (Luscinia megarhynchos B)rdquo Zeitschrift fuumlr vergeichende Physiologie vol 71 pp 262ndash285 1971
[TOD 81] TODT D ldquoOn functions of vocal matching effect of counter-replies on song-post choice and singingrdquo Zeitschrift fuumlr Tierpsychologie vol 57 pp 73ndash93 1981
[TOD 96] TODT D HULTSCH H ldquoAcquisition and performance of repertoires ways of coping with diversity and versatilityrdquo in KROODSMA DE MILLER EH (eds) Ecology and Evolution of Communication Cornell University Press Ithaca 1996
[TOL 02] TOLBERT AS MCLEAN GN MYERS RC ldquoCreating the global learning organization (GLO)rdquo International Journal of Intercultural Relations vol 26 pp 462ndash472 2002
[TOT 98] TOTTERDELL P KELLETT S TEUCHMANN K et al ldquoEvidence of mood linkage in work groupsrdquo Journal of Personality and Social Psychology vol 74 pp 1504ndash1515 1998
[TOT 03] TOTTERDELL P HOLMAN D ldquoEmotion regulation in customer service roles testing a model of emotional laborrdquo Journal of Occupational Health Psychology vol 8 no 1 pp 55ndash73 2003
[TRA 93] TRAUE HC MICHAEL AM ldquoBehavioral and emotional inhibition in head painrdquo in TRAUE HC PENNEBAKER JW (eds) Emotion Inhibition and Health Hogrefe and Huber Publishers Seattle DC 1993
Bibliography 139
[TRE 96] TREWEEK P ldquoComparing interfaces should we assume that ease of use influences users preferencerdquo OzChirsquo96 Conference Proceedings IEEE Computer Society Press Hamilton 1996
[TUR 87] TURNER JC HOGG MA OAKES PJ et al Rediscovering the Social Group A Self-Categorization Theory Blackwell Oxford 1987
[TUR 01] TURBAN E ARONSON JE LIANG T-P Decision Support Systems and Intelligent Systems Prentice-Hall International Upper Saddle River NJ 2001
[TVE 80] TVERSKY A KAHNEMAN D ldquoCausal schemas in judgments under uncertaintyrdquo in FISHBEIN M (ed) Progress in Social Psychology Erlbaum Hillsdale MI 1980
[TYL 01] TYLER M HANCOCK P ldquoFlight attendants and the management of gendered lsquoOrganizational Bodiesrsquordquo in BACKETT-MILBURN K MCKIE L (eds) Constructing Gendered Bodies Explorations in Sociology Palgrave Macmillan London 2001
[VAN 03a] VAN HOOREBEKE D ldquoLe management des eacutemotions au travail une reconsideacuteration des pratiques organisationnellesrdquo Revue de Gestion des Ressources Humaines vol 49 2003
[VAN 03b] VAN HOOREBEKE D Les eacutemotions au travail processus conseacutequences et leviers de gestion PhD Thesis Universiteacute Aix-Marseille III 2003
[VAN 04] VAN HOOREBEKE D ldquoLa dissonance eacutemotionnelle au travail une approche ethnomeacutethodologiquerdquo Management et Avenir vol 3 pp 62ndash81 2004
[VAN 06] VAN HOOREBEKE D ldquoLa contagion eacutemotionnelle problegraveme ou ressource pour les relations interpersonnelles dans lrsquoorganisation rdquo Humanisme et Entreprise vol 279 pp 23ndash42 2006
[VAN 07a] VAN HOOREBEKE D ldquoContagion eacutemotionnelle facteur modeacuterateur de creacuteativiteacute et de performance de groupe au travail rdquo 9e Universiteacute de printemps de lrsquoIAS Moscow May 2007
[VAN 07b] VAN KLEEF GA COcircTEacute S ldquoExpressing anger in conflict when it helps and when it hurtsrdquo Journal of Applied Psychology vol 92 pp 1557ndash1569 2007
[VAN 08a] VAN HOOREBEKE D ldquoLrsquoeacutemotion et la prise de deacutecisionrdquo Revue Franccedilaise de Gestion vol 2 no 182 pp 33ndash44 2008
140 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
[VAN 08b] VAN HOOREBEKE D ldquoProposition de mesure de la performance des normes de comportements organisationnelles agrave lrsquoatteinte drsquoun service agrave la clientegravele authentiquerdquo Revue des Sciences de Gestion vol 1 no 229 pp 11ndash27 2008
[VAN 08c] VAN HOOREBEKE D BRASSEUR M ldquoEntre tradition et innovation la gestion des eacutemotions au travail eacutetude des leviers de gestionrdquo 15e congregraves de psychologie du travail et des organisations entre tradition et innovation comment transformons-nous lrsquounivers du travail Laval Quebec August 2008
[VAN 16] VAN HOOREBEKE D ldquoThe process of sharing ideas within a group while maintaining individual creativity a management leverrdquo International Review of Social Sciences vol 3 pp 34ndash45 2016
[VAS 05] VAS A ldquoLa vitesse de lrsquoadoption du changement au sein des grandes organisationsrdquo Revue Franccedilaise de Gestion no 155 pp 135ndash151 2005
[VAT 03] VATTEVILLE E Management strateacutegique de lrsquoemploi EMS Eacuteditions Paris 2003
[VEG 97] VEGA-REDONDO F ldquoThe evolution of Walrasian behaviorrdquo Econometrica vol 65 no 3 pp 375ndash384 1997
[VIN 86] VINCENT JD Biologie des passions Odile Jacob Paris 1986
[VON 44] VON NEUMANN J MORGENSTERN O Theory of Games and Economic Behavior Princeton University Press Princeton NJ 1944
[WAT 80] WATZLAWICK P Le langage du changement eacuteleacutements de communication theacuterapeutique Le Seuil Paris 1980
[WAT 02] WATTS DJ DODDS PS NEWMAN MEJ ldquoIdentity and search in social networksrdquo Science vol 296 pp 1302ndash1305 2002
[WEB 09] WEBER EU JOHNSON EJ ldquoMindful judgment and decision makingrdquo Annual Review of Psychology vol 60 pp 53ndash85 2009
[WEI 88] WEISBERG RW ldquoProblem solving and creativityrdquo in STERNBERG RJ (ed) The Nature of Creativity Contemporary Psychological Perspectives Cambridge University Press Cambridge 1988
[WEI 93] WEICK KE ROBERTS KH ldquoCollective mind in organizations heedful interrelating on flight decksrdquo Administrative Science Quarterly vol 38 pp 357ndash381 1993
Bibliography 141
[WEI 96] WEISS HM CROPANZANO R ldquoAffective events theory a theoretical discussion of the structure causes and consequences of affective experiences at workrdquo Research in Organizational Behavior vol 18 pp 1ndash74 1996
[WES 91] WESTBROOK RA OLIVER RL ldquoThe dimensionality of consumption emotion patterns and consumer satisfactionrdquo Journal of Consumer Research vol 18 no 1 pp 84ndash91 1991
[WIL 98] WILLIAMS KW OrsquoREILLY CA ldquoDemography and diversity in organizations a review of 40 years of researchrdquo Research in Organizational Behavior vol 20 pp 77ndash140 1998
[YAN 11] YANIV I ldquoGroup diversity and decision quality amplification and attenuation of the framing effectrdquo International Journal of Forecasting vol 27 pp 41ndash49 2011
[ZAP 02] ZAPF D ldquoEmotion work and psychological well-being a review of the literature and some conceptual considerationsrdquo Human Resource Management Review vol 12 pp 237ndash268 2002
[ZER 08] ZERBE WJ HAumlRTEL CEJ ASHKANASY NM (eds) Research on Emotion in Organizations vol 4 Emerald Group Publications Bingley 2008
[ZID 06] ZID R Comprendre le changement organisationnel agrave travers les eacutemotions Working paper University of Quebec Montreal 2006
[ZOU 16] ZOUHAOUI F BOISARD-CASTELLUCCIA S VAN HOOREBEKE D ldquoLa reacutesistance au changement expliqueacutee par le respect de lrsquoeacutequilibre cognition-eacutemotion le cas de lrsquoimplantation drsquoun nouveau logiciel dans une entreprise internationale de servicerdquo 6e colloque de lrsquoIseor avec divisions lsquoDeacuteveloppement Organisationnel et Changementrsquo et lsquoManagement Consultingrsquo de lrsquoAcademy of Management Lyon June 2016
Index
A B C
acting deep 20 33 35 39 surface 20 33 36
adjustment 8 adoption 82 affective 2 anger 6 authentic 84 balance 108 behavior 15 bias
champion 68 decisional 67
capacity 108 categories of emotions 2 change 98 cognition 13 16 55 62 77 95
108 113 cognitive 12 13 15 38 45 53
57 59 76ndash78 84 90ndash93 95 104 109
cohesion 85 collective 16 complex 96 conflict 90
contagion 15 50 61 68 81 82 85 87 90 93 96ndash99 101ndash103 111 emo-decisional 63 65 emotional 14
creativity 95
D E G
decision 11 dissonance
cognitive 13 49 61 91 emotional 14 25 33 36 39
40 45 78 99 divergence 100 diversity 89 e-motion 14 29 51 110ndash112 emotion 1ndash4 6ndash9 12 13 15ndash17
20ndash23 29 32 33 35 38ndash40 42ndash47 49 50 52 53 55ndash57 59 62 63 65 67ndash70 73 76ndash80 82 83 85ndash87 92 93 95ndash99 102 104 113
emotional plague 83 experimentation 103 expression 6 group 89 groupthink 68
The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management First Edition Delphine van Hoorebeke copy ISTE Ltd 2018 Published by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley amp Sons Inc
144 The Management of Living Beings or Emo-management
H I J
heterogeneity 94 hormones 14 43ndash46 57 imitation 15 impression 3 inhibition 8 13 14 31 43ndash49
96 98 intelligence 100
emotional 71 73ndash75 intensity 5 joy 6
K L M N
knowing 16 limbic 10 management 5
sunflower 68 mimicry 15 84 model 101 mood 3 negative 100 nervous system 7 norms 96
P R S T
perception 6 positive 100 process 3 7ndash9 12ndash16 19 22
31ndash33 35ndash39 42 46 50 52ndash54 56 57 60 61 63 65 66 71 74 75 77 80 81 84 85 89ndash91 94 95 98 101 111
rational 104 sadness 6 satisfaction 30 share 5 social influence 71 task-unrelated thoughts 95 temperament 3
V W
ventromedial regions 57 work
collaborative 96 collaborative remote 74 emotional 20 22 25 32 33
35 36 38 71 110
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WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENTGo to wwwwileycomgoeula to access Wileyrsquos ebook EULA
- Cover
- Half-Title Page
- Title Page
- Copyright Page
- Contents
- Foreword by Martine Brasseur
- Foreword by Claude Berghmans
- Preface
- Introduction
- 1 Emotion
-
- 11 Emotion a complex concept
- 12 Expression
- 13 An adjustment tool
- 14 A neurological system
- 15 A complex system
- 16 Subject to dissonance and inhibition
- 17 Contagion
-
- 2 Managing Individuals
-
- 21 The art of managing customer focus the relations dependent on monitoring and margins to maneuver
-
- 211 Organizational norms
- 212 Dissonances
-
- 22 The art of motivating commitment and satisfaction
-
- 221 Different types of commitment
- 222 Commitmentndashsatisfactionndashe-motion
-
- 23 The art of administering well the process approach a proactive and sustainable method
-
- 231 Emo-management a process that concerns everyone
- 232 A multitude of effects in the workplace
- 233 Levers for managing
-
- 24 The art of ensuring health and safety in the workplace well-being at work
-
- 241 A neurobiological process
- 242 Reasons to become ill
- 243 Real consequences
- 244 A schema like this in business
-
- 25 A factual approach for effective decision-making knowledge of the emotional decision-making process
-
- 251 Decision and emotion
- 252 Decision and emotion at the origin a rejection
- 253 Decision and the neurobiological process
- 254 Decision and emo-management
- 255 Decision emo-management and contagion
-
- 3 Managing a Collective
-
- 31 An evidence-based approach for effective collective
- 32 The art of leading authentic leadership and emotional intelligence
-
- 321 The manager and emotions
- 322 The manager and emotional intelligence
- 323 Is everyone capable of emo-managing
-
- 33 The art of reconciling the present with the future the principle of continuous improvement
-
- 331 Change and emotion
- 332 Change = trust = emotion
- 333 Change a shared emotional acceptance
- 334 Lever for the acceptance of change through
-
- 34 The art of bringing people together mutually beneficial relations with others and the social aspect of managerial responsibility
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- 341 Collective emotion arsenal of emo-management
- 342 A paradoxical arsenal positive and negative effects
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- 35 The art of managing diversity learning and creating collectively
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- 351 Diversity between conflicts and group work
- 352 Managing diversity with emo-management
- 353 Emo-management a factor in diversity
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- 36 A common point an essential element for collective intelligence emotional contagion
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- 361 Emo-management dealing with emotional contagion
- 362 Mathematical and economic tools to better manage emotional contagion
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- Conclusion
- Bibliography
- Index
- Other titles from iSTE in Innovation Entrepreneurship and Management
- EULA
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