the influence of mindfulness on ethical leadership: a
TRANSCRIPT
THE INFLUENCE OF MINDFULNESS ON ETHICAL LEADERSHIP:
A STUDY OF BUDDHIST MINDFULNESS PRACTICES AMONG
ORGANISATIONAL LEADERS IN THAILAND
A thesis submitted to The University of Manchester for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
in the Faculty of Humanities
2021
KUNKANIT SUTAMCHAI
SCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENT, EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT
Global Development Institute
2
LIST OF CONTENTS
LIST OF CONTENTS 2
LIST OF TABLES 8
LIST OF FIGURES 11
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 12
ABSTRACT 13
DECLARATION 14
COPYRIGHT STATEMENT 15
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 16
DEDICATION 17
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 18
1.1 Research Background and Rationale ................................................... 18
1.2 Thailand as the Research Context ........................................................ 25
1.3 Scope of the Research ......................................................................... 29
1.4 Research Aim ...................................................................................... 31
1.5 Research Objectives ............................................................................ 32
1.6 Research Questions ............................................................................ 32
1.7 Research Methodology ....................................................................... 33
1.8 Significance of the Study ..................................................................... 33
1.9 Organisation of the Study ................................................................... 35
CHAPTER 2: THEORETICAL OVERVIEW 38
Part 1: Ethical Leadership ............................................................................... 38
2.1 Ethical Leadership Concept ................................................................. 38
3
2.2 Ethical Leadership Theory ................................................................... 40
2.3 Cross-cultural Approach to Ethical Leadership ..................................... 42
2.4 Ethical Values in Thai Society .............................................................. 47
2.5 Synthesis of Ethical Leadership Dimensions ......................................... 48
2.6 Ethical Leadership Development: A Critical Issue ................................. 52
Part 2: Mindfulness ........................................................................................ 55
2.7 Origin and Definitions of Mindfulness ................................................. 55
2.7.1 A historical perspective of mindfulness concepts ............................... 55
2.7.2 The three strands of mindfulness concepts ......................................... 55
2.8 Modern Mindfulness Approach ........................................................... 59
2.9 Modern Mindfulness in Organisations ................................................. 61
2.10 Criticisms towards Modern Mindfulness in Organisations.................... 65
2.11 Modern Mindfulness and Ethical Behaviour ........................................ 68
2.12 Buddhist Mindfulness and Ethical Behaviour ....................................... 72
2.13 Buddhist Approaches to Mindfulness .................................................. 74
2.13.1 Principles underpinning the mindfulness concept in Buddhism ......... 74
2.13.2 Buddhist meditations ........................................................................... 83
2.13.3 Summary of the principles related to Buddhist approaches to
mindfulness ........................................................................................................ 88
2.14 Criticisms towards Buddhist Approaches to Mindfulness ..................... 89
2.15 A Summary of Gaps in the Literature ................................................... 92
2.16 Chapter Summary ............................................................................... 95
CHAPTER 3: ENGAGED BUDDHISM AND MINDFULNESS PRACTICES IN THAILAND 96
3.1 Engaged Buddhism in Thailand ............................................................ 96
4
3.1.1 Background of Buddhism ..................................................................... 96
3.1.2 Buddhism and Thai culture .................................................................. 97
3.2 Mindfulness Practices in Thailand ....................................................... 98
3.3 Challenges of Buddhist Practices in Thailand ..................................... 101
3.4 Extant Research on Mindfulness in Organisations in Thailand ............ 103
3.5 Chapter Summary ............................................................................. 104
CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 105
4.1 Research Questions .......................................................................... 105
4.2 Research Conceptual Framework ...................................................... 107
4.3 Research Philosophy ......................................................................... 109
4.3.1 Key concepts and background of research philosophy ..................... 109
4.3.2 Philosophical assumption of the research ......................................... 111
4.3.3 Approaches to theory development: Abductive approach ............... 113
4.4 Research Methodology: Mixed Methods Approach ........................... 115
4.4.1 The rationale for the use of a mixed methods approach .................. 115
4.4.2 Research strategy: Convergent mixed methods ................................ 117
4.5 Data Collection Methods ................................................................... 120
4.5.1 Semi-structured interviews ................................................................ 120
4.5.2 The questionnaire .............................................................................. 128
4.6 Pilot Study ........................................................................................ 132
4.7 Data Analysis .................................................................................... 135
4.7.1 Analysis of qualitative data ................................................................ 135
4.7.2 Analysis of quantitative data ............................................................. 136
4.8 Quality of the Research ..................................................................... 138
5
4.9 Ethical Considerations ....................................................................... 140
4.10 Chapter Summary ............................................................................. 142
CHAPTER 5: UNDERSTANDING AND APPLICATION OF THE PRINCIPLES UNDERLYING BUDDHIST MINDFULNESS PRACTICES 144
5.1 Interviewees’ Mindfulness Practice Experience ................................. 145
5.2 Concepts and Principles Underpinning BM Practices .......................... 147
5.2.1 The Four Noble Truths ....................................................................... 147
5.2.2 The Noble Eightfold Path and “Right Mindfulness” ........................... 148
5.2.3 The Threefold Training ....................................................................... 152
5.3 Chapter summary ............................................................................. 168
CHAPTER 6: THE INFLUENCE OF BUDDHIST MINDFULNESS ON ETHICAL VALUES AND BEHAVIOUR 170
6.1 Compassion and Empathy ................................................................. 171
6.2 Humility and Equal Respect for Others .............................................. 178
6.3 Emotion Regulation .......................................................................... 180
6.4 Sufficiency ........................................................................................ 183
6.5 Honesty ............................................................................................ 187
6.6 Justice and Fairness .......................................................................... 191
6.7 Pro-Social Behaviour ......................................................................... 193
6.8 Discipline and Role Model ................................................................. 196
6.9 Chapter Summary ............................................................................. 199
CHAPTER 7: QUANTITATIVE FINDINGS 201
7.1 Demographic Data of the Questionnaire Respondents ...................... 203
7.1.1 Descriptive demographics of the respondents .................................. 203
7.1.2 Response rate ..................................................................................... 204
6
7.2 Descriptive Statistics ......................................................................... 205
7.2.1 Summary of the descriptive statistics of the questionnaire results .. 205
7.2.2 Questionnaire results by EL dimension.............................................. 207
7.3 Analysis of the Correlations .............................................................. 219
7.3.1 Correlations between the five precepts of Buddhism and other EL
dimensions ....................................................................................................... 220
7.3.2 Correlation between leaders’ mindfulness experience and EL ......... 221
7.4 Analysis of the Relationship between Demographic Variables and EL 222
7.4.1 Organisation sector ............................................................................ 222
7.4.2 Working experience of the respondents with their leaders .............. 226
7.4.3 Gender of the leaders ........................................................................ 229
7.4.4 Gender of the respondents ................................................................ 230
7.5 Chapter Summary ............................................................................. 232
CHAPTER 8: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION 235
8.1 General Overview of the Thesis ......................................................... 235
8.2 Discussion and Summary of the Key Findings .................................... 238
8.2.1 Objective 1: To examine the understanding and application of the core
principles underlying Buddhist mindfulness among Thai organisational
executive leaders who practise mindfulness in the Thai Buddhist context .... 241
8.2.2 Objective 2: To explore the extent to which Buddhist mindfulness
principles and practices influence Thai organisational executive leaders’ ethical
values and behaviours ..................................................................................... 246
8.2.3 Objective 3: To propose prospective implications for ethical leadership
development through mindfulness interventions ........................................... 260
8.3 Implications of the Findings .............................................................. 268
7
8.3.1 Theoretical implications and contribution to knowledge .................. 268
8.3.2 Practical Implications ......................................................................... 272
8.4 Limitations and Recommendations for Future Research .................... 275
8.5 Conclusion ........................................................................................ 278
8.6 Personal Reflection ........................................................................... 281
BIBLIOGRAPHY 284
APPENDICES 323
Appendix 1: Guideline for Interview Questions ............................................. 323
Appendix 2: Research Questionnaire Items .................................................. 325
Appendix 3: Participant Information Sheet ................................................... 331
Appendix 4: Consent Form ........................................................................... 336
Word count: 75,868
8
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1: Eisenbeiss' (2012) Four Central Ethical Orientations ................................ 46
Table 2.2: Four ethical values endorsed by the government in Thai society ............ 48
Table 2.3: Synthesis of ethical dimensions from various key studies ........................ 49
Table 2.4: Key findings for MM outcomes in the workplace from previous studies . 62
Table 2.5: Elements of the Noble Eightfold Path ....................................................... 80
Table 2.6: The Four Foundations of Mindfulness ...................................................... 87
Table 4.1: Research objectives and research questions .......................................... 106
Table 4.2: An overview of research strategies for each type of research approach
.................................................................................................................................. 118
Table 4.3: Criteria for selecting the interview informants ....................................... 122
Table 4.4: Summary of the interview participants .................................................. 124
Table 4.5: Summary of demographic data of the interviewees............................... 126
Table 4.6: Sample size for different sizes of target population at a 95 per cent
confidence level ....................................................................................................... 130
Table 4.7: Reliability statistics for the research instruments (Cronbach’s alpha scores
for the pilot questionnaire) ...................................................................................... 134
Table 4.8: Summary of the research questions and methods for data collection .. 143
Table 5.1: The first research question and the related research objective and key
interview question ................................................................................................... 144
9
Table 5.2: Interviewees’ years of experience of mindfulness practices .................. 146
Table 5.3: Interviewees’ mindfulness practice frequency ....................................... 146
Table 6.1: The second and third research questions and the related research
objectives, and key interview questions .................................................................. 170
Table 7.1: The fourth research question and the related research objective ......... 201
Table 7.2: Summary of demographics data of the questionnaire respondents ...... 203
Table 7.3: Questionnaire response rates by organisation sector with cross-reference
to the number of interviewed leaders ..................................................................... 204
Table 7.4: Summary of average results for each ethical leadership dimension (n = 176)
.................................................................................................................................. 206
Table 7.5: Descriptive results for the “ethical leadership scale (ELS)” (n = 176) ..... 207
Table 7.6: Descriptive results for the “Humane” dimension (n = 176) .................... 210
Table 7.7: Descriptive results for the “Justice” dimension (n = 176) ....................... 211
Table 7.8: Descriptive results for the “Responsibility and Sustainability” dimension (n
= 176)........................................................................................................................ 213
Table 7.9: Descriptive results for the “Moderation” dimension (n = 176) .............. 214
Table 7.10: Descriptive results for the “Discipline” dimension (n = 176) ................ 215
Table 7.11: Descriptive results for the “Honesty” dimension (n = 176) .................. 217
Table 7.12: Descriptive results for “the five precepts of Buddhism” (n = 176) ....... 218
Table 7.13: Correlations between the five precepts of Buddhism and other EL
dimensions (n = 176) ................................................................................................ 220
10
Table 7.14: Correlations between the length of experience (years) in BM practices
and EL ....................................................................................................................... 221
Table 7.15: Descriptive statistics by organisation sector ......................................... 223
Table 7.16: ANOVA results for the relationship between organisation sector and EL
.................................................................................................................................. 224
Table 7.17: Multiple comparisons table for organisation sector and the ‘humane’ EL
dimension using the Tukey HSD post-hoc test ........................................................ 225
Table 7.18: Descriptive statistics for respondents’ years of work experience with their
leaders in relation to the EL dimensions .................................................................. 226
Table 7.19: ANOVA results for the relationship between respondents’ years of work
experience with their leaders and EL ....................................................................... 228
Table 7.20: Descriptive statistics for leader gender in relation to EL dimensions... 229
Table 7.21: T-test results for leader gender in relation to EL dimensions ............... 230
Table 7.22: Descriptive statistics for respondent gender in relation to EL dimensions
.................................................................................................................................. 231
Table 7.23: T-test results for respondent gender in relation to EL dimensions ...... 232
Table 8.1: Integrative discussion of the key findings with reference to the research
objectives and research questions ........................................................................... 239
Table 8.2: The contribution of mindfulness as practised in the Thai Buddhist context
to EL .......................................................................................................................... 250
11
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1: Map of Thailand ....................................................................................... 26
Figure 2.1: The 4-V Model of Ethical Leadership ....................................................... 43
Figure 2.2: The Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path .............................. 76
Figure 2.3: The relationship of the principles underlying BM ................................... 88
Figure 4.1: Conceptual framework of the research ................................................. 107
Figure 4.2: The philosophical foundation of social research ................................... 111
Figure 4.3: Convergent parallel mixed methods design with qualitative priority ... 119
Figure 8.1: Mapping EL dimensions from the interview findings and the research
conceptual framework ............................................................................................. 247
Figure 8.2: Mapping EL dimensions to the EL questionnaire results (M and s.d.) .. 256
Figure 8.3: Proposed model for EL development through mindfulness .................. 263
12
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
BM Buddhist mindfulness
EL Ethical leadership
ELS Ethical leadership scale
FMI Freiburg Mindfulness Inventory
FNTs The Four Noble Truths
MAAS Mindfulness Attention and Awareness Scale
MBCT Mindfulness-based Cognitive Therapy
MBI Mindfulness-Based intervention
MBSR Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction
MM Modern mindfulness
NEP The Noble Eightfold Path
NGO Non-governmental Organisation
NSO The National Statistical Office (Thailand)
UK United Kingdom
US United States
13
ABSTRACT
This research aims to augment empirical understanding of mindfulness practices in
the Eastern Buddhist context, with a particular focus on the extent to which Buddhist
mindfulness (BM) can influence leaders’ ethical values and behaviour, through the
examination of mindfulness practices among Thai organisational executive leaders in
the Thai Buddhist context. Although ethical leadership (EL) has become one of the
most critical topics in organisational and ethics studies in recent years, and the
importance of EL has been relatively well-researched, little research has focused on
how EL can be developed. Recently, there has been an emerging call for more
research to study mindfulness from a traditional Buddhist perspective, which would
provide an explicit emphasis on the role of mindfulness and ethical behaviour.
Against this backdrop, this research has selected Thailand as the context for study
due to its predominant Buddhist cultural context. The study employs mixed methods,
which include semi-structured interviews with 41 executive leaders from various Thai
organisations who are BM practitioners, to examine the understanding and
application of the core principles underlying BM and explore the extent to which BM
principles and practices influence their ethical values and behaviours. In parallel, 176
questionnaires were gathered from direct employees of the interviewed leaders to
examine the extent to which the leaders are perceived as ethical by their employees.
The findings reveal that eight EL dimensions appear to be fostered by BM practices,
including: 1) compassion and empathy; 2) humility and equal respect for others; 3)
emotion regulation; 4) sufficiency; 5) honesty; 6) justice; 7) pro-social behaviour; and
8) discipline and role model. These eight EL dimensions are aligned with common
ethical dimensions across different cultures. Based on the questionnaire results, the
leaders were also perceived to be ethical leaders by their direct employees. The
interview data suggests that the ethics underpinning BM practices seem to be the
key feature that leads to the reinforcement of Thai leaders’ ethical values and
behaviour. Notably, the leader participants in this study have had a long-term
commitment to the study of Buddhism and practice of BM. The preliminary findings
from this research also found positive relationships between the leaders’ years of BM
experience and various EL dimensions. However, more research is needed to
particularly investigate and confirm such correlations in more detail. Finally, it is still
highly controversial to apply the whole BM framework in secular contexts or contexts
which are heavily dominated by non-Buddhist-based spiritual and religious
philosophies. This research proposes prospective implications for EL development
through mindfulness interventions that may be possible to apply in different
contexts.
14
DECLARATION
No portion of the work referred to in the thesis has been submitted in support of an application for another degree or qualification of this or any other university or other institute of learning.
15
COPYRIGHT STATEMENT
i. The author of this thesis (including any appendices and/or schedules to this thesis) owns certain copyright or related rights in it (the “Copyright”) and s/he has given The University of Manchester certain rights to use such Copyright, including for administrative purposes.
ii. Copies of this thesis, either in full or in extracts and whether in hard or electronic copy, may be made only in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 (as amended) and regulations issued under it or, where appropriate, in accordance with licensing agreements which the University has from time to time. This page must form part of any such copies made.
iii. The ownership of certain Copyright, patents, designs, trademarks and other intellectual property (the “Intellectual Property”) and any reproductions of copyright works in the thesis, for example graphs and tables (“Reproductions”), which may be described in this thesis, may not be owned by the author and may be owned by third parties. Such Intellectual Property and Reproductions cannot and must not be made available for use without the prior written permission of the owner(s) of the relevant Intellectual Property and/or Reproductions.
iv. Further information on the conditions under which disclosure, publication and commercialisation of this thesis, the Copyright and any Intellectual Property and/or Reproductions described in it may take place is available in the University IP Policy (see http://documents.manchester.ac.uk/DocuInfo.aspx?DocID=24420), in any relevant Thesis restriction declarations deposited in the University Library, The University Library’s regulations (see http://www.library.manchester.ac.uk/about/regulations/) and in The University’s policy on Presentation of Theses
16
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First and foremost, I would like to express my profound gratitude to my main
supervisor, Dr. Kate Rowlands, whose guidance, support, and patience has been
invaluable. I am greatly indebted for her genuine concern, understanding,
encouragement and sense of humour that have kept me focused and motivated
whenever I encountered difficulties and hard times during my PhD journey. I am also
grateful to my second supervisor, Dr. Christopher Rees, who has been a great source
of support, positivity, and wisdom for me. This thesis could not have been completed
without the ongoing support and guidance from both of my supervisors.
My deep appreciation goes to the MGD cluster academics: Prof. Aminu Mamman,
Dr. Farhad Hossain, Mr. Paul Barry, Mr. Derek Eldridge, and Dr. Lujia Feng, as well as
Dr. Admos Chimhowu and the SEED PGR-office staff for their friendliness, assistance,
and support in diverse ways over the course of my PhD.
I would like to express my highest respect and gratitude to Luangta Tawee Katapunyo
and Ajahn Rattawee Thitaviro for dhamma wisdom. I also appreciate the kindness
from everyone at Wat Pa Kok Saton. My sincere appreciation to Assoc.Prof.Dr.
Chulanee Thianthai for her kindness and continuing support in many aspects since
before I started my PhD up until now. My special thanks to Assoc.Prof.Dr. Teerayuth
Wattanasupachoke, Assis.Prof.Dr. Pattamawadee Jongruck, Dr. Analaya Nansaior
and Dr. Piyawadee Rohitarachoon-Haas for their kind support and advice during my
initial work, and to Mr. Titinan Pewnil and Ms. Nitchakarn Kaewbuadee for their
advice on quantitative analysis. My gratitude extends to all participants in my study
and everybody who helped me contact them.
My heartfelt gratitude goes to Mr. Andy Turner, who has been my adoptive father
for nearly ten years and has always helped me improve my written English. A special
thanks to Dr. Steven Stanley, who invited me to join the mindfulness workshop and
seminar in Cardiff, where I met many wonderful researchers in mindfulness area. I
also thank my friends and colleagues: Daniel, Johanna, Thanh, Dr. Connie, Dr. Hana,
Kinga, and Barbara, who have been amiable and encouraging. In particular, a
heartfelt thanks to Xi, who has always supported me in times of need.
I am especially grateful for the friendship through my ups and downs from my Thai
friends in the UK: Dr. Sasiporn and her husband Mr. Pipatpong (Keng), Dr. Yuttachai
(Gong), Dr. Soontorn (Big), Tawan, Pattrapa (Ta), and Dr. Charika (Bo). Also, thank
you to my friends in Thailand: Thosaphon (Book), Nantanit (Forth), my dhamma
friends – Maruphong (Bank) and Buntita (Fon), my IR and Bodycombat groups.
Last but not least, my lifelong indebtedness and deepest gratitude goes to my
beloved parents for their love and ultimate support for me in every aspect of my life.
17
DEDICATION
This thesis is dedicated to my parents, Mr. Pinit and Mrs. Panita Sutamchai, who are
“the wind beneath my wings.” They have always encouraged me to fulfil my
educational goal. Their unconditional love, uncountable support, and most of all,
their faith in me, have helped me get through the difficulties of completing my
doctoral degree. They truly are the cornerstone of my PhD accomplishment. There
will never be a day that I am not grateful to them.
18
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
This chapter introduces the research background, rationale for the research, which
is based on the gaps identified in the literature, and the context in which the research
is situated. Moreover, the scope of the research is discussed, including justification
for selecting ethical leadership and Buddhist mindfulness as the theoretical
underpinnings, as well as the rationale for choosing Thailand as the context of study.
Following that, the research aim, objectives, research questions, and research
methodology are presented. The chapter also highlights the significance and
intended contribution of the research. Finally, the organisation of the entire thesis is
outlined.
1.1 Research Background and Rationale
Organisational and business ethics has increasingly become an important topic in the
past few decades due to frequent and well-publicised scandals in both public and
private sector organisations (Al Halbusi et al., 2020; Hossain et al., 2020; Keck et al.,
2020; Kumasey et al., 2017; Shakeel et al., 2019). Unethical behaviours can
significantly undermine employees and organisational performance. In most cases,
when organisations are under scrutiny for improper or unethical conduct, this is the
consequence of either ethical failure or mismanagement by the leadership (Treviño
& Brown, 2014). Ethical behaviour at the top can impact the ethical organisational
climate as a whole, since ethicality of leaders can have a trickle-down effect to all
levels within an organisation (Kuenzi et al., 2020; O’Keefe et al., 2020). Hence, leaders
and those in management positions are responsible for the ethical problems in
organisations and they are expected to drive ethical climates in those organisations
(Al Halbusi et al., 2020; Downe et al., 2016; Robbins et al., 2010).
19
Due to the important role of leadership for organisational ethics, the volume of
research on ethical leadership (hereafter ‘EL’) has begun to proliferate in recent
years. However, little research has focused on EL development. A considerable
number of studies, particularly in the West, have attempted to determine the ‘what’
of EL, for instance the attributes of ethical leaders, what constitutes EL, and how
leaders ought to act (Brown et al., 2005; Ciulla, 2014; Keck et al., 2020; Treviño et al.,
2003). Furthermore, numerous studies have constantly reported the positive
outcomes of EL for both employees and organisations (Bedi et al., 2016; Mostafa &
Abed El-Motalib, 2020; Wei et al., 2020). Given the evidence for the positive
outcomes of EL, it seems that organisations should put more effort into developing
ethical leaders. Yet, the issue regarding ‘how’ EL can be developed remains one of
the most critical questions in the field that needs more attention (Brown & Treviño,
2006; Sharma et al., 2019; Treviño & Brown, 2014).
The primary mechanism for promoting ethics that is most commonly adopted by
organisations is the use of compliance-based approaches, which develop a formal
ethics programmes, such as codes of ethics in the form of a written framework
(Downe et al., 2016; Pelletier & Bligh, 2006), and conventional ethics training
programmes, including teaching an ethical code of conduct and communicating an
organisation’s ethical values (Adam & Rachman-Moore, 2004; Harris, 2014; Ponemon
& Felo, 1996; Sekerka, 2009). However, it is apparent that even though governments
and organisations have installed formal systems and structures aiming to ameliorate
unethical behaviour, such malpractice still persists, especially in developing and
transitional countries (Hossain et al., 2020). Consequently, scholars have raised
concerns about the overall impact of compliance and conventional ethics training in
organisations, since they seem to be insufficient and ineffective (Stevulak & Brown,
2011). Unethical issues may not come from a lack of rules or from leaders’ knowledge
of ethics, since leaders seem to learn a lot about integrity and ethics, but the problem
is that they tend not to live by such ethics (Goldman Schuyler, 2010).
20
As a result, a growing number of academics have attempted to seek other
approaches to complement the compliance mechanisms approach to ethics and have
turned their attention to a value-based approach. The value-based approach is also
known as the integrity-oriented or self-regulatory approach, and places an emphasis
on individual awareness, personal ethical responsibilities, self-governance, self-
control and internalised ethical values, rather than on external authority and control
(Brewer et al., 2015; Tanner et al., 2019; Tremblay et al., 2017). In fact, Martineau et
al. (2017) suggest that in order to develop effective ethics programmes, a pluralistic
approach to organisational ethics programmes is needed. Such an approach should
combine different components and practices, including experiential ethical
development practices, and training workshops using meditation, contemplation,
and various types of spiritual practices. Unfortunately, when it comes to the actual
ethics programmes currently implemented in organisations, spiritual practices, such
as mindfulness and meditation, and their benefits in terms of ethical development
have been overlooked. Recent research has shown that, among ethics programmes
of different types or orientations in organisations, experiential orientation, which
includes spiritual practices, is the least undertaken type of programme (Martineau et
al., 2017). In terms of academic research, only a small number of previous studies
have focused on this type of ethics development. The dearth of research in this area
is even worse in developing countries, as research reveals that studies on ethics,
values, and spirituality rarely exist in developing countries (Hossain et al., 2020).
Given the scarcity of research on alternative ways to develop ethical leaders,
particularly in developing counties, this research explores the aspect of mindfulness
practices in Thailand to examine the way in which mindfulness can potentially be
applied to develop ethical behaviour for organisational leaders. The main reason is
that mindfulness has not only been regarded as a practice for spiritual development
in the Thai context (Surinrut et al., 2016), but scholars have also indicated that
awareness, a heightened state of consciousness, and mindfulness are known
antecedents of ethical behaviour (Guillén & Fontrodona, 2017; Orazi et al., 2019;
Ruedy & Schweitzer, 2010). Only recently has interest been shown in the role of
21
mindfulness and ethical behaviour. This line of research can be divided into two
approaches to mindfulness studies: first, the traditional Buddhist approaches to
mindfulness; and second, the adaptation of Buddhist mindfulness practices for use
in a modern secular way. For the purpose of providing a clear distinction between
the two approaches, the terms used throughout this thesis are Buddhist mindfulness
(BM) and modern mindfulness (MM).
Research on mindfulness has been expanding and the practice of mindfulness has
also become popular over the past few decades (Alberts & Hülsheger, 2015; Baer,
2003; Kang & Whittingham, 2010; Stanley et al., 2018). A current interest in
mindfulness is the influence of the Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR)
programme, developed by Kabat-Zinn (1982). The MBSR programme was initially
developed with the primary intention of applying Buddhist meditative practices as a
vehicle to help patients who coping with a wide range of chronic pain and stress-
related disorders as a complement to their medical treatments (Kabat-Zinn, 2003).
Due to the specific intention to use BM practices in the clinical context, the MBSR
programme was designed by selecting techniques from Buddhist practices and
concepts that could be useful and could be applied where appropriate in isolation
from Buddhist traditions. Kabat-Zinn (2011, p. 282) explains that he bent over
backwards to structure MBSR and to purposefully find ways to avoid the risk of it
being perceived as Buddhist ‘New Age.’
Since the introduction of MBSR, the amount of academic research on mindfulness
has grown drastically (Lomas & Jnanavaca, 2015). The definition of mindfulness
provided by Kabat-Zinn (1994, p. 4), as “[p]aying attention in a particular way: on
purpose, in the present moment, and non-judgementally”, is considered one of the
first contemporary definitions of mindfulness, and is probably the most cited in
current mindfulness research (Baer, 2011; Chiesa, 2013; Khoury et al., 2017). The
MBSR plays an important role in bringing mindfulness practice to the field of
psychology and medicine, which has resulted in further adaptation of MBSR into a
variety of later forms of modern secular mindfulness-based interventions (MBIs)
22
(Rapgay & Bystrisky, 2009). Overall, the modern approach to mindfulness is based on
the meditative practices and concepts derived particularly from Buddhism (Hede,
2010; Ie et al., 2014; Krägeloh, 2016; Weick & Putnam, 2006), but they are blended
with other approaches, such as yoga and modern psychological techniques, and are
practised in a secular manner (Chiesa & Malinowski, 2011; Choi & Leroy, 2015;
Dryden & Still, 2006). Consequently, the modern approach to mindfulness has meant
that its practice and application have undergone considerable transformations in its
introduction into Western culture. The MM approach has been widely accepted due
to its integration of psychological and meditative elements, with a growing number
of scientific and empirical studies examining the health outcomes of mindfulness
meditation practices (Ie et al., 2014).
In terms of the organisational and management fields, there has been a dramatic
increase in interest in mindfulness among both scholars and practitioners (Glomb et
al., 2011; Hyland et al., 2015; Reb & Choi, 2014). However, the study of mindfulness
within the organisational context, particularly within leadership research, is still in a
nascent stage (Schuh et al., 2017). Reb et al. (2018) suggest that research on
mindfulness in organisations has been limited in two significant areas.
First, there has been a paucity of research on interpersonal benefits of mindfulness
in an organisational context, since the majority of existing studies have primarily
focused on intrapersonal benefits. Due to a considerable number of clinical and
scientific research findings regarding the benefits of MM on physical and mental
health, the adoption of mindfulness programmes for use in the workplace is mainly
to facilitate stress relief and for purposes of work performance (Glomb et al., 2011;
Good et al., 2016). These positive outcomes are seen as being individually gained only
by the mindfulness practitioners themselves, rather than as extending the benefits
to others.
Second, there has been a major criticism that academic research on mindfulness in
the workplace, as well as on the practical use of MM interventions in organisations,
has neglected the interlinkage between mindfulness and ethics that is a prominent
23
feature in Buddhist approaches to mindfulness (Reb et al., 2018), even though the
MM approach is largely derived from Buddhist traditions. Recently, scholars have
criticised the concepts and practices of MM for being diluted and de-contextualised
from their Buddhist origins. It is argued that mindfulness operating within a modern
Western context has been mostly oriented towards therapeutic purposes,
subjectivity-self-fulfilment, and self-functioning enhancement (Ditrich, 2016; Purser
& Milillo, 2015; Sun, 2014). In particular, when mindfulness practices are used within
a modern organisational context, scholars have expressed their concerns that they
have been mostly oriented towards productivity, competitiveness, and profit (Purser
& Milillo, 2015). The main criticism of MM is that Buddhist approaches to
mindfulness are explicitly and purposefully taught to facilitate moral behaviour
development; nevertheless, this purpose is largely overlooked by workplace
mindfulness researchers and practitioners (Grossman, 2011; Grossman & Van Dam,
2011; Qiu & Rooney, 2017; Reb et al., 2018). Although recent MM research has
started to provide empirical evidence that modern MBIs may help practitioners
develop ethical behaviour (Krägeloh, 2016), it is still ambiguous as to whether or not
the way mindfulness is taught in terms of modern MBIs is directly linked to ethics
(Chen & Jordan, 2020; Karelaia & Reb, 2015; Pless et al., 2017).
Based on this criticism of MM, there has been an emerging interest among both
organisational theorists and practitioners in studying mindfulness directly within a
traditional Buddhist approach. It has been suggested that the ethical principles
underpinning BM may contribute to greater outcomes than stress reduction and
improved work performance (Ditrich, 2016; Purser & Milillo, 2015; Stanley, 2013;
Sun, 2014). Yet, many of the prior studies in this line of research merely acknowledge
the Buddhist ethical foundation of mindfulness at a theoretical or conceptual level.
Little is known as to whether or not mindfulness practitioners in actual Buddhist
settings acknowledge those underlying principles when they practice mindfulness. It
has been observed that a limited number of studies have provided empirical
evidence on how mindfulness is conceptualised and practised in Eastern countries
(Charoensukmongkol, 2014; Krägeloh, 2019; Surinrut et al., 2016).
24
Despite a call for more attention to Buddhist approaches to mindfulness, there has
been an ongoing debate among scholars about whether or not MM should align with
the traditional Buddhist approach and whether or not Buddhist ethics should be
included, either implicitly or explicitly, in MM interventions (Baer, 2015; Lindahl,
2015; Monteiro et al., 2015). To apply the whole Buddhist framework of mindfulness
practice widely in different contexts could be highly controversial as it may not be
acceptable in non-Buddhist contexts. Nevertheless, the issue regarding the extent to
which the BM approach and ethical framework can be applied in different contexts
is still underexplored.
Against this backdrop, this research empirically explores the extent to which the
Buddhist ethical foundation of mindfulness can be translated into practice, especially
among leaders who play a pivotal role in organisational ethics. On this basis, Thailand
has been selected as the context of study due to it having a predominantly Buddhist
society and culture, which allows the researcher the opportunity to empirically
explore the phenomenon. The rationale for conducting this research is to address the
call for research on mindfulness from the traditional Eastern Buddhist perspective.
The research also links mindfulness to the ethical behaviour of organisational
leaders. The underlying reason for studying mindfulness and EL is that the findings
on how mindfulness practices can influence ethical values and behaviour of
organisational leaders may potentially contribute to the search for more alternative
ways to complement the compliance-based approach to ethics to develop EL in
organisational contexts. The study also investigates the elements of the BM approach
and ethical framework that may be useful to apply in mindfulness interventions in
secular contexts for the purpose of EL development. All in all, the outcomes from EL
lead to benefits that go beyond individual outcomes, given that numerous studies
indicate positive impacts of ethical leaders on employees, as well as at the
organisational and societal levels (Bedi et al., 2016; Neves et al., 2018; Treviño &
Brown, 2014).
25
1.2 Thailand as the Research Context
Geographically, Thailand, or the Kingdom of Thailand, is located in South East Asia at
the heart of the Indochina peninsula. It is one of the ten members of the ASEAN
community. As illustrated in Figure 1.1, Thailand is bordered on the west and
northwest by Myanmar, on the northeast and east by Laos, Vietnam, and Cambodia,
and on the south by the Gulf of Thailand, Malaysia and the Andaman Sea. Thailand has
a land area of 513,115 sq. km. (Chariyaphan, 2012). The capital city of the country is
Bangkok, which is the most economically developed area (Yiengprugsawan et al.,
2010). The country comprises 77 provinces, including Bangkok (BOI, 2020).
Thailand is a country with a population of approximately 69 million as of 2019 (UN,
2019). The official language is Thai; however, English could be considered as the
unofficial second language, as many Thais also speak and understand English,
especially in Bangkok and the major tourist areas (Tourism Authority of Thailand,
2020).
26
Figure 1.1: Map of Thailand
Source: UN (2012)
Thai culture and values have been nurtured and diversified via various concepts and
ideologies throughout a long-term historical background (Jones, 2013). Many Asian
cultural values can be found in Thailand (Nguyen & Tran, 2016). According to
Hofstede's study of cultural dimensions (Hofstede, 1980), Thailand is classified as a
collectivist, feminine society that has high degrees of uncertainty avoidance and power
distance (Yukongdi, 2010). Generally, Thai people are characteristically observed to be
hospitable, friendly, polite, and generous (Nguyen & Tran, 2016).
27
The traditional and cultural values of Thailand are largely influenced by religiosity and
religious practices (Leelavanichkul et al., 2018). Thailand is considered a strong
Buddhist society (Koonmee et al., 2010; Sagarik et al., 2018; Singhapakdi et al., 2000),
in which 94.6 percent of the population are Buddhist (National Statistical Office,
2015). For many centuries, Theravada Buddhism has been the national religion
(Runglertkrengkrai & Engkaninan, 1987; Wongtes, 2000). Therefore, Buddhist
practices and values have been integrated into the Thai way of life, attitudes,
philosophy, social norms, traditions and culture (Disayavanish & Disayavanish, 2007;
Hughes et al., 2008; Leelavanichkul et al., 2018; Runglertkrengkrai & Engkaninan,
1987; Wongtes, 2000).
The concept of mindfulness and the practice of meditation, which have deep roots in
Buddhism, are quite commonly known to Thai people, given that a number of Thais
may have been introduced to mindfulness practices since childhood (Wongtongkam
et al., 2018), such as in schools that offer Buddhist studies (Srinivasan, 2011).
Moreover, meditation training is widely offered in various temples and institutions
in the country (Van Den Muyzenberg, 2014).
Nevertheless, even though most Thai people identify themselves as being Buddhists
and Thai people in general are familiar with the terms or practices of mindfulness
and meditation, it is crucial to highlight that this does not necessarily mean that all
Thai Buddhists actually practise Buddhism in their daily lives. In fact, Thai Buddhists
have different levels of understanding of Buddhism, and the degree to which they
are involved in Buddhist practices, including mindfulness practices, can be varied
(Boyce et al., 2009; Winzer & Gray, 2018).
In particular, present-day Thai society has passed through various cultural, economic,
and social changes over time, and Buddhist practices and values in Thailand have also
been affected by these changes. To survive in today’s fast-paced and competitive
world, many Thais seem to focus more on how to serve practical needs, rather than
spiritual needs. According to a study by Ariyabuddhiphongs (2007), money
consciousness (concerns and worries over finance and money) could influence the
28
tendency of Thai Buddhists to violate the five precepts of Buddhism – these include
refraining from taking the life of any living being, taking what is not given, sexual
misconduct, false and idle speech, and intoxicant consumption. Their survey results
showed that Thai Buddhists would accept a job that required them to violate the five
precepts in exchange for a large sum of money.
Additionally, Hughes et al. (2008) argue that many aspects of Buddhist values in Thai
society have been eroded since the introduction of Western scientific ideas and views
of the world in the 19th century. Involvement in globalisation and capitalism has also
affected many aspects of Buddhist values and practices among Thai people (Boyce et
al., 2009; Chamratrithirong et al., 2013). For instance, the need for short-term gain
has often undermined Buddhist thinking in terms of wisdom, compassion and upright
behaviour (Boyce et al., 2009). This may be the reason as to why corruption has been
one of the most significant ethical issues in Thailand for decades (Chat-uthai &
McLean, 2003; Mutebi, 2008; Potipiroon & Ford, 2017). According to the recent
Corruption Perception Index (CPI) report, which measures and indicates the
perceived levels of public sector corruption in 180 countries around the world,
Thailand was ranked the 101st (Transparency International, 2020). This ranking has
been worsening over the past decade since Thailand was ranked 80th in 2008
(Sivaraks, 2011).
Concurrently, there has been an emerging interest among mindfulness scholars in
studying mindfulness directly from the Buddhist approach, with the primary
emphasis on the ethical framework underpinning BM. Nonetheless, to the author’s
best knowledge, no research in the Thai context has linked BM practices to ethical
behaviour. A review of literature has found that prior mindfulness research in
Thailand has focused on other benefits of mindfulness in organisational settings, such
as lower job burnout (Charoensukmongkol, 2013), increased organisational
citizenship behaviour (Ariyabuddhiphongs & Pratchawittayagorn, 2014), less
resistance to change in merger and acquisition scenarios (Charoensukmongkol, 2016,
2017), and greater employee engagement (Petchsawang & McLean, 2017). Little is
29
known about whether or not Thai Buddhists, particularly Thai organisational leaders
who practise BM, would engage in ethical behaviour and about how BM could be
related to ethical behaviour in practice. Hence, this research studies in particular the
influence of BM on ethical values and behaviour among Thai organisational executive
leaders who actually practice mindfulness in their routines.
The justification for why Thailand has been selected as the research context is also
discussed in the following section.
1.3 Scope of the Research
The scope and emphasis of the current research is placed on BM and its relevance to
EL in the Thai Buddhist context. This research examines the understanding and
application of the core principles underlying BM among executive leaders who
practise mindfulness in the Thai Buddhist context, as well as exploring the extent to
which BM principles and practices influence Thai executive leaders’ ethical values
and behaviours. In this regard, the theoretical underpinnings of this research are also
based on two streams of literature, namely ethical leadership (EL) and mindfulness,
which includes modern mindfulness (MM) and Buddhist mindfulness (BM).
The justification for choosing EL (Brown et al., 2005) over other leadership theories
is because EL theory is considered, from an academic perspective, as a separate
leadership model in its own right that specifically emphasises ethical behaviour of
leaders (Engelbrecht et al., 2017). Hence, EL provides a suitable theoretical
framework for this study that specifically focuses on ethical values and behaviour of
organisational leaders.
In terms of the emphasis on Buddhist approaches to mindfulness, while the
researcher acknowledges that meditative practices are found in various traditions
and religions, such as ancient Greek philosophy, Christianity, Hinduism and other
religions (Brown et al., 2007; Dhiman, 2009; Dryden & Still, 2006; Krägeloh, 2019),
30
this current research elects to study Buddhist approaches to mindfulness, because
Buddhist-derived meditation practices are currently being employed as popular
forms of mindfulness-based interventions (MBIs) (Chen & Jordan, 2020; Lee, 2018;
Lindahl et al., 2017; Palitsky & Kaplan, 2019). Most mindfulness scholars have
explicitly acknowledged that modern MBIs are Buddhist-derived (Gilpin, 2008;
Krägeloh, 2019; Lee, 2018; Lindahl et al., 2017; Shonin, Van Gordon, & Griffiths,
2014). It is not an intention of the researcher to privilege Buddhism over other
religions. Rather, this research seeks to provide new insights regarding how BM
practices can fundamentally influence leaders’ ethical behaviour, given that rich
Eastern traditions have remained underexplored in contemporary mindfulness
literature (Vallabh & Singhal, 2014).
In this regard, the scope of this study also covers the Thai Buddhist context. The Thai
context is significant to the study because Thailand is one of a few countries in the
world that is a predominantly Buddhist society. In particular, Theravada Buddhism,
which is the longest enduring school of Buddhist tradition, shows great adherence to
the original Buddhist teachings. This school is prevalent only in some countries in the
world, and Thailand is one of them (Shonin, Van Gordon, & Griffiths, 2014).
Theravada Buddhism is a well-established part of Thai culture, tradition, and social
systems. Hence, Thailand provides a suitable context for the researcher to conduct
empirical research on mindfulness in a natural Buddhist setting. In terms of the scope
of sampling, due to time and financial limitations, the study only focuses on Thai
executive leaders who have been practising BM, because this sample tends to
provide valuable insights and in-depth information from their direct experience in
BM practices.
It is important to note that the researcher is fully aware that her close association
with Buddhism and her Thai background may cause personal biases. However,
through her understanding of the role of a researcher engaged in qualitative
research, the researcher has employed mechanisms to reduce her personal biases
and to counterbalance her idealistic thinking around Buddhism. Furthermore,
31
conducting the research under the guidance of two non-Buddhist supervisors has
immensely assisted the researcher in gaining a broader and balanced perspective in
dealing with her research design and primary questions for the interviews.
Although this research highlights the purpose of mindfulness practices for ethical
development, the position of this research is not opposed to those who attempt to
apply mindfulness for therapeutic purposes, for example in the clinical and
psychology fields. Similarly, this study does not seek to argue that organisations
should not provide mindfulness intervention for the enhancement of employee well-
being, work performance and organisational effectiveness. However, the research
attempts to address the possible risks from the use of mindfulness in organisations
without concern for ethical issues. Also, while it is well-established by research that
MM practices have led to various mental health and cognitive ability benefits, the
application of mindfulness practices for secular ends should not be limited to this
type of intrapersonal benefit only. Instead, scholars have suggested that some
elements or ideas from Buddhist approaches to mindfulness may be adapted and
added to MM interventions, which may contribute various benefits (Lomas, 2017).
Hence, this research seeks to provide further insight into this area of study.
1.4 Research Aim
The research aims to augment empirical understanding of mindfulness practices in
the Eastern Buddhist context, with a particular focus on the extent to which Buddhist
mindfulness can influence leaders’ ethical values and behaviour, through the
examination of mindfulness practices among Thai organisational executive leaders in
the Thai Buddhist context.
32
1.5 Research Objectives
1. To examine the understanding and application of the core principles underlying
Buddhist mindfulness among Thai organisational executive leaders who practise
mindfulness in the Thai Buddhist context.
2. To explore the extent to which Buddhist mindfulness principles and practices
influence Thai organisational executive leaders’ ethical values and behaviours.
3. To propose prospective implications of ethical leadership development through
mindfulness interventions.
1.6 Research Questions
1. What are the core principles underlying Buddhist mindfulness as understood by
Thai organisational executive leaders who practise mindfulness in the Thai Buddhist
context, and how do they apply those principles in their mindfulness practices?
2. What ethical values and behaviours are perceived by Thai organisational executive
leaders to be crucial for ethical leadership?
3. How does Buddhist mindfulness influence ethical values and behaviours of Thai
organisational executive leaders who are Buddhist mindfulness practitioners?
4. To what extent are Thai organisational executive leaders who practise Buddhist
mindfulness perceived as ethical leaders by their direct employees?
5. What are the potential implications of the findings for the development of ethical
leadership in organisations?
33
1.7 Research Methodology
To address the research objectives, this research has used both quantitative and
qualitative methods. The quantitative method is the questionnaire, whereas the
qualitative approach is a set of semi-structured interviews.
In order to gain in-depth data, semi-structured interviews are conducted with Thai
organisational executive leaders to explore how they practise BM. Moreover, the
interviews seek to examine the extent to which they understand the core elements
of Buddhist ethical principles underlying mindfulness, as well as how their
mindfulness practices play a role in reinforcing their ethical values and behaviour. In
addition, the questionnaires are used to investigate the degree to which the leaders
interviewed in this study are perceived to be ethical by their direct employees. The
questionnaires are helpful in triangulating the data received from the leaders’
interviews. The research design, methodology used, and data collection are
discussed and presented in more detail in Chapter Four of the thesis.
1.8 Significance of the Study
The significance of this research is twofold, in accordance with the two research
disciplines that it is situated within. First, in relation to contributions to mindfulness
research in the organisational and management disciplines, the literature review has
demonstrated that research on MM is largely focused on intrapersonal benefits,
mostly on stress reduction and performance enhancement. Scholars and
practitioners have rarely been interested in the ethical and moral development
dimensions of mindfulness. Although there is a growing body of literature that
recognises this issue, and although researchers have started to take the BM approach
into account, much of this research remains based on theoretical perspectives and is
mostly discussed in terms of the differences between the MM and BM concepts.
Hence, the present research is one of the first empirical investigations to examine
34
the influence of BM concepts in organisations, with a specific focus on the aspect of
leaders’ ethical behaviour. Additionally, given that most mindfulness research is
based upon the MM approach, which is currently popular in Western contexts, little
is known about the Buddhist form of mindfulness practice, which is more prevalent
in Eastern contexts. Eastern countries such as Thailand, where ironically the concept
and practice of mindfulness have been recognised for centuries, have only received
limited research attention to date. Thus, there appears to be a clear opportunity to
address this gap in the literature.
Furthermore, a review of the extant literature has revealed that a growing body of
research in the last decade has been preoccupied with findings around correlations
of mindfulness with certain attributes, capabilities, and other positive effects on
employees in organisations through the methodological tools of the medical sciences
and psychology, which have frequently applied quantitative methods (Ditrich, 2016).
Yet, there has been little discussion about how and why such impacts and effects
occur. Indeed, there has been a temptation for researchers to expand the breadth of
the existing methodologies to incorporate alternatives, such as qualitative
approaches in order to capture the complexity and depth of the application of
mindfulness in the workplace (Choi & Leroy, 2015; Grossman & Van Dam, 2011).
Therefore, this research employs a mixed methods approach, with a priority on
qualitative methods to study mindfulness in order to gain insightful data regarding
BM practices among Thai organisational executive leaders and how they apply BM in
their EL practices.
Secondly, this study contributes to EL research. Whilst EL has been an important
concern for generations, current EL studies have predominantly been developed
from a Western perspective with Western ideas of moral philosophy and ethics.
Hence, there has been a call for more cross-cultural research on EL. This research
addresses this gap by contributing to the understanding of EL in Thai culture.
Furthermore, given that this research seeks to provide new insights into the influence
of BM on ethical behaviours in leaders, the knowledge and findings from the research
35
can contribute to the current and future study of ethical behaviour development for
organisational leaders, which is still limited in the current literature.
1.9 Organisation of the Study
This research is structured into and is composed of eight chapters. A summary of
each of the chapters is given below:
Chapter 1: Introduction
The first chapter provides the essential background for the research. It explains the
rationale behind the research, which is driven by the gaps in the literature. The
chapter then provides a summary of Thailand as the context for the study. It also
discusses the scope of the research. Following that, the research aim, research
objectives, research questions, and a concise research methodology are presented.
Finally, the significance of the research is addressed.
Chapter 2: Theoretical Overview
This chapter presents a critical review of the relevant literature categorised into two
parts. Firstly, the chapter focuses on EL theory as well as cross-cultural EL studies.
The second part is devoted to the conceptualisation of mindfulness, with a particular
focus on the two main approaches to mindfulness, MM and BM. It also includes a
review of mindfulness research in organisational studies. The chapter presents the
discussion regarding mindfulness and ethical behaviour and reviews prior research
that has linked mindfulness to ethical behaviour within both approaches to
mindfulness. Moreover, this chapter also critically discusses the controversial issues
and debates regarding the application of both types of mindfulness, MM and BM.
Finally, gaps in the literature are also identified.
36
Chapter 3: Engaged Buddhism and Mindfulness Practices in Thailand
The Thai sociocultural background is presented in much detail in this chapter. The
chapter delves into Thai culture and values that have been influenced by Theravada
Buddhism. Moreover, it also covers the way mindfulness is practised in the Thai
context and the challenges regarding Buddhist and mindfulness practices at the
current time in Thailand. Lastly, the chapter concludes with a review of literature and
prior research on mindfulness in the Thai organisational context.
Chapter 4: Research Design and Methodology
This chapter describes the research design, epistemology standpoint and
methodology adopted for the research. It explains the rationale for the choice of
research philosophy within the context of this study. It presents the research
framework and the research questions derived from the literature reviewed. It also
describes the data collection methods, ethical considerations and data analysis
processes used by the researcher.
Chapter 5: Understanding and Application of the Principles Underlying Buddhist
Mindfulness Practices
This chapter addresses the results of the study relating to the first research question,
which is related to the extent to which Thai executive leaders who practise BM
understand the principles underlying BM, and to how they apply those principles in
their mindfulness practices. Specifically, the chapter distils the findings from the
interviews and also discusses the findings in relation to the existing literature.
Chapter 6: The Influence of Buddhist Mindfulness on Ethical Values and Behaviour
This chapter presents and discusses the findings from the interview data that aim to
answer the second and third research questions, which explore what ethical values
and behaviours are perceived by Thai executive leaders to be crucial for EL, and how
BM can influence ethical values and behaviours of Thai organisational executive
37
leaders who are BM practitioners. The chapter analyses the interview findings and
discusses the results in parallel.
Chapter 7: Quantitative Research Findings
This chapter reports the study’s findings derived from the quantitative analysis. The
questionnaire results are reported to determine the degree to which the executive
leaders who practise BM are perceived as ethical by their direct employees. The
findings in this chapter address the fourth research question of the thesis.
Chapter 8: Discussion and Conclusion
This chapter critically discusses the results derived from both the qualitative and
quantitative methods in accordance with the research objectives. Moreover, the key
findings from this research are compared to previous research to identify its new
insights. The chapter highlights major contributions of the study, implications of the
research both theoretically and practically, the limitations of the research, as well as
recommendations for future research. It provides a synthesis of all the key findings
and a summary of the discussion which concludes the study as a whole. Finally, the
personal reflections of the researcher on the PhD research are presented.
38
CHAPTER 2: THEORETICAL OVERVIEW
This chapter presents a critical review of the relevant literature, which is divided into
two main parts. The first part emphasises the literature on ethical leadership (EL).
The EL theory is presented as well as the shortcomings and criticisms of the theory.
Cross-cultural EL literature is then further reviewed to provide a holistic view of EL.
The second part of this chapter focuses on the historical perspective and
conceptualisation of mindfulness from different approaches, with a particular
emphasis on the two main streams of mindfulness approaches, namely modern
mindfulness (MM) and Buddhist mindfulness (BM). It then examines existing
mindfulness research in organisational studies and prior research that has linked
mindfulness to ethical behaviour. The criticisms made against both MM and BM
approaches are also discussed within this chapter.
Part 1: Ethical Leadership
2.1 Ethical Leadership Concept
Although early research on leadership was majorly concerned with leadership
effectiveness and performance in achieving desired goals and profits, these days
there is increased interest in leadership concepts that encompass ethical aspects of
leadership (Ko et al., 2018). Leadership studies in the twenty-first century seem to be
moving towards the goodness of leaders, given that ethical scandals across
organisational domains around the world have raised more an important role for
ethical conduct in leadership (Al Halbusi et al., 2020; Keck et al., 2020; Kumasey et
al., 2017; Shakeel et al., 2019). Over the years, various researchers and scholars have
agreed that the essence of good leadership is ethical behaviour (Brown et al., 2005;
Brown & Treviño, 2006; Burns, 1978; Ciulla, 2014; Maak, 2007; Maak & Pless, 2006).
39
However, the concept of EL is difficult to precisely define. Various authors have
attempted to identify the construct of EL, which has resulted in numerous definitions
of EL and different instruments to measure ethical leadership (Banks et al., 2020; Ko
et al., 2018; Shakeel et al., 2019).
In the EL literature, scholars tend to define EL from two standpoints, namely the
normative and descriptive (social scientific) approaches. In the normative approach,
EL is rooted in the field of philosophy and is concerned with prescribing how leaders
"ought to" or "should" behave in the workplace (Brown & Mitchell, 2010). Within the
normative approach to EL, Northouse (2015) develops five principles of EL, which
suggest that ethical leaders should “respect others, serve others, show justice,
manifest honesty, and build community” (p. 311). This model is underpinned by the
classic works of major philosophers, such as Aristotle and Immanuel Kant. Other
prominent normative EL scholars, such as Rost (1995), Gini (1997), Bass and
Steidlmeier (1999) and Ciulla (2014), examine ethical decision making within
particular philosophical frameworks, and evaluated the ethicality of particular
leaders or certain styles of leadership (Brown & Mitchell, 2010; Treviño et al., 2003).
On the other hand, the descriptive or social scientific approach to EL is rooted in
disciplines such as psychology, sociology, and organisation science. It attempts to
understand how people perceive EL and investigates the antecedents and outcomes,
of ethical leaders (Brown & Mitchell, 2010). This approach focuses on different
questions from the normative approaches; for instance, the descriptive EL scholars
are interested in finding what EL is (Brown et al., 2005; Treviño et al., 2003) and the
individual traits that are likely to influence EL (Walumbwa & Schaubroeck, 2009).
In the beginning, early research in EL was grounded in philosophical perspectives. A
significant number of EL studies have been endorsed, based on the normative
approach, with regard to how leaders should behave (Brown et al., 2005; Brown &
Treviño, 2006; Treviño & Brown, 2014). However, in the past decade, a descriptive
or social scientific approach to EL, which seeks to understand what EL actually is
(Brown & Treviño, 2006), has gained more interest within scholarly research.
40
Currently, the most popular EL definition that has been commonly cited in EL studies
is the definition developed by Brown et al. (2005), who have been at the forefront of
the social scientific approach to EL studies. The next section further explores and
discusses Brown et al.’s (2005) EL theory.
2.2 Ethical Leadership Theory
Before expanding on EL theory in more detail, it is worth noting that there have been
other leadership theories prior to the emergence of EL theory that address ethical,
moral, and humanistic aspects of leadership, for instance transformational
leadership (Burns, 1978), servant leadership (Greenleaf, 1977), authentic leadership
(Avolio & Gardner, 2005), and spiritual leadership (Fry, 2003). These leadership
theories have been described as containing, to a certain degree, an ethical
component of leadership (Bedi et al., 2016; Downe et al., 2016; Kalshoven et al.,
2011; Treviño & Brown, 2014).
However, EL has been considered as a separate leadership model in its own right
through the work of Brown and colleagues in the 1990s (Brown & Treviño, 2006). EL
differs from the other positive leadership theories mentioned above because it
explicitly focuses on the ethical aspect of leadership rather than including ethics
merely as a supplementary component of a leadership style (Mostafa & Abed El-
Motalib, 2020; Wang & Xu, 2019). Since the development of EL theory, scholars have
distinguished EL from other leadership theories or constructs and have considered
ethics to be a set of behaviours as a separate leadership style in itself (Hansen et al.,
2013; Kalshoven et al., 2011). Moreover, Brown et al.’s (2005) definition of EL has
been the most widely and frequently cited to date (Cullen, 2020; Huang & Paterson,
2017).
Brown et al. (2005, p. 120) propose a formal definition of EL as “the demonstration
of normatively appropriate conduct through personal actions and interpersonal
41
relationships, and the promotion of such conduct to followers through two-way
communication, reinforcement, and decision-making”. Regarding this definition,
Brown et al. (2005) further explain that the constituents of EL behaviour could be
divided into two components. Firstly, “the demonstration of normatively appropriate
conduct through personal actions and interpersonal relationships” (p. 120), which
means that ethical leaders act as role models for employees by explicitly
demonstrating ethical behaviours, for example making fair decisions, and doing what
is deemed to be appropriate in their particular context. They are also legitimately
perceived to be role models by employees, such as being seen as honest,
trustworthy, fair, and caring (Brown et al., 2005; Jordan et al., 2013; Stouten et al.,
2013). The second component of the definition is “the promotion of such conduct to
followers through two-way communication, reinforcement, and decision-making”
(Brown et al., 2005, p. 120), which suggests that ethical leaders actively encourage
employees to behave in an ethical manner by explicitly talking to followers about it,
and reinforce ethical conduct through reward and punishment systems (Brown et al.,
2005; Jordan et al., 2013; Stouten et al., 2013).
Brown et al. (2005) conceptualise EL based on Bandura’s social learning theory
(Bandura, 1977, 1986) which suggests that individuals learn through both direct
experience and observation of others’ behaviour and its consequences. Drawing
from this theory, Brown et al. (2005) argue that leaders influence the ethical
behaviour of followers via modelling. If leaders are to be viewed as credible and
legitimate role models, they need to engage in appropriate behaviours and make
ethical messages salient by explicitly communicating the importance of ethics and
using available tools to reinforce ethical messages. They further explained that the
social learning process is particularly important when the target is ethical behaviour
in the workplace, because employees can learn what behaviour is expected,
rewarded, and punished.
In addition, Brown and Treviño (2006, p. 597) summarise the perceived
characteristics of ethical leaders as “honest, caring, and principled individuals who
42
make fair and balanced decisions”. However, it is questionable whether or not EL
characteristics are necessarily as described in different cultures, contexts, or settings.
Even though Brown and colleagues’ EL construct is considered the most widely
accepted, it is subject to the criticism that the theory is grounded on the Western
paradigm (Eisenbeiss, 2012; Eisenbeiß & Brodbeck, 2014; Resick et al., 2011). In fact,
Brown and colleagues (2005) admit that one of the key limitations of their work is
the lack of cross-cultural EL validity as their empirical research was based on an
American perspective on EL (Brown et al., 2005; Brown & Treviño, 2006).
Given that this research studies EL in organisations across different sectors in the Thai
cultural context, it is important to consider a more holistic picture of the EL
framework that, in addition to perception in Eastern culture, also includes how EL is
perceived in sectors other than the private sector. Therefore, this research develops
the EL framework in terms of cross-cultural EL studies, as described in the following
section.
2.3 Cross-cultural Approach to Ethical Leadership
For a holistic view of EL, the 4-V model of ethical leadership, which was created by
Dr. Bill Grace, the founder of the Center for Ethical Leadership (Center for Ethical
Leadership, 2020), provides a framework that links the internal factors, such as
beliefs and values, with the external factors, such as behaviours and actions, of an
ethical leader (Mohiuddin & Hossain, 2016). The 4-V model of ethical leadership is
grounded in theories of moral development, human development, leadership
development, and community development (Center for Ethical Leadership, 2020).
The 4-V model encompasses the values, vision, voice, and virtue of EL (Vikaraman et
al., 2020), which is illustrated in Figure 2.1 below.
43
Figure 2.1: The 4-V Model of Ethical Leadership
Source: Center for Ethical Leadership (2020)
Drawing from the 4-V Model of ethical leadership, Mohiuddin and Hossain (2016)
have summarised EL as beginning with ‘values’, meaning that a leader needs to seek
and commit to his/her individual core ethical values. Following that, ‘vision’ and
‘voice’ are the actions of the leader in visualising, communicating, and motivating
desirable ethical outcomes. Lastly, ‘virtue’ can then be fostered by leaders
continuously practising virtuous behaviours that are in line with their core ethical
values.
Given that values serve as the beginning point for ethical leaders, it is argued that
current literature on EL predominantly reflects a Western-based perspective on
ethical values (Eisenbeiß & Brodbeck, 2014). Several scholars have indicated that
most well-known research on EL, whether using a normative or descriptive approach,
has been developed from a Western perspective with Western ideas of moral
philosophy or conducted through empirical Western-based data collection, mostly
from the private sector. Such studies rarely consider viewpoints, principles or values
from other cultures or from the public and social sectors (Batmanghlich, 2015;
Eisenbeiss, 2012; Eisenbeiß & Brodbeck, 2014; Martin et al., 2013; Resick et al., 2006,
2011).
44
In order to take ethical values from different contexts into consideration, it is crucial
to explore EL from a cross-cultural perspective. Despite cultural differences,
leadership research that takes a cultural perspective suggests that there are certain
elements or dimensions of EL that may be accepted universally (Yukongdi, 2010). In
particular, previous studies in cross-cultural EL have indicated commonalities
regarding EL attributes or dimensions across cultures (Eisenbeiss, 2012; Eisenbeiß &
Brodbeck, 2014; Martin et al., 2013; Resick et al., 2006, 2011).
Resick et al. (2006) reviewed Western-based leadership ethics literature to gather
key characteristics of what determines ethical leaders, then mapped these against
the data from the Global Leadership and Organizational Effectiveness (GLOBE)
project to analyse which Western-based EL characteristics are endorsed across
different cultures. Their study found four components that characterise EL in
Western societies, namely: 1) Character/Integrity; 2) Altruism; 3) Collective
Motivation; and 4) Encouragement, are universally supported, although the degree
of endorsement for each dimension differs in different cultures.
Another empirical cross-cultural EL study conducted in six societies1 in Asia, America,
and Europe indicates six common EL attributes and behaviours across those societies,
which are: 1) Accountability; 2) Consideration and Respect for Others; 3) Fairness and
Non-Discriminatory Treatment; 4) Character (demonstrating honesty,
trustworthiness, integrity, and sincerity); 5) Collective Orientation; and 6) Openness
and Flexibility. Among these six dimensions, Character and Consideration, and
Respect for others are the dominant components across all societies in the study
(Resick et al., 2011). Similarly, Martin et al. (2013) investigated the meaning of leader
1 These six societies are the People’s Republic of China (the PRC), Hong Kong, the Republic of China
(Taiwan), the U.S., Ireland, and Germany (Resick et al., 2011).
45
integrity in six societies2 representing three culture clusters, the Anglo, Germanic
Europe, and Confucian Asia clusters. They identified nine common themes that were
endorsed in all or most of the societies: 1) Guided by Strong Personal Moral
Code/Values; 2) Value-Behaviour Consistency; 3) Word-Action Consistency; 4)
Honest; 5) Fair and Just; 6) Openness and Transparency; 7) Consideration and
Respect for Others; 8) Sense of Responsibility for/towards Others; and 9) Abiding by
Rules and Regulations.
Overall, it can be observed from the above empirical cross-cultural EL studies that
most EL attributes and behaviours in the various studies are similar. In particular,
attributes such as honesty, fairness, and respect for others are identified in all EL
studies. Based on this view, Eisenbeiss (2012) extensively reviewed EL research from
different disciplines and cultures, and developed an integrative interdisciplinary
analysis of the seminal works in ancient and modern moral philosophy from the West
and the East, ranging from Kant, Plato, Aristotle to Tagore and Confucianism, as well
as the ethical principles of the world religions, including Christianity, Islam,
Buddhism, and Hinduism. Hence, this framework can be regarded as a cross-
disciplinary and intercultural view of EL, drawing from Western and Eastern moral
philosophy and religious traditions. Moreover, the framework also covers the EL
concepts from the prominent EL theory developed by Brown et al. (2005).
Eisenbeiss’ interdisciplinary integrative approach to EL yields four essential principles
of EL, referred to as “Central Ethical Orientations”, comprising: 1) Humane
Orientation; 2) Justice Orientation; 3) Responsibility and Sustainability Orientation;
and 4) Moderation Orientation. Furthermore, in later work, Eisenbeiss et al. (2014)
conducted an empirical study of executives’ perceptions of EL from Western and
Eastern cultures and in both the private and the public/social sectors, in which their
2 These six societies are Ireland, the U.S., Germany, Austria, China (PRC), and Hong Kong (Martin et al.,
2013).
46
findings confirmed that honesty, integrity, concern for responsibility/sustainability,
and people orientation are collectively perceived across different cultures as aspects
of EL. Table 2.1 below presents the description of each dimension of Eisenbeiss'
(2012)’s Four Central Ethical Orientations.
Table 2.1: Eisenbeiss' (2012) Four Central Ethical Orientations
Source: Compiled by the author based on Eisenbeiss (2012)
47
2.4 Ethical Values in Thai Society
Given that this research places an emphasis on EL in the Thai context, it is worth
investigating ethical values in Thai society in particular. It could be argued that the
Eastern context that has been a focus in prior cross-cultural EL studies only includes
major Asian countries, such as China (PRC), Hong Kong, Korea and India (Eisenbeiß &
Brodbeck, 2014; Martin et al., 2013; Resick et al., 2011), whereas South East Asian
countries, such as Thailand, have been ignored. To the author’s best knowledge,
there have been no empirical studies on how EL is defined or what attributes
determine ethical leaders in Thai society.
However, the Thai government has recently approved the First Master Plan for
National Moral Promotion B.E. 2559-2564 (2016-2021) based on the 20-year
National Strategy, which aims to lay foundations to promote morality in Thai society
(The Government Public Relations Department, 2017). Within the National Moral
Promotion Master Plan, the National Board of Ethics has considered and announced
four moral virtues to be promoted in Thai society and endorsed in Thai organisations
as moral organisations. The four ethical values are sufficiency, discipline, honesty and
volunteering (The National Board of Ethics, 2018). According to the National Board
of Ethics (2018), the definitions of the four ethical values are presented in Table 2.2
as follows:
48
Table 2.2: Four ethical values endorsed by the government in Thai society
Ethical Values Description
Sufficiency Self-sufficiency based on a middle way. Rational and prudent decision
making. Careful and balanced action with no harm to self, society,
and environment. Resilience in an ever-changing world.
Discipline Be responsible for one’s role, organisation, and society. Adhere to the
law and ethical standards and regulations
Honesty Uprightness and integrity. Adhere to principles, justice, and what is
right. Courage to resist dishonest actions of others.
Volunteering Volunteering – care for society, voluntarily contribute to common
goods, societal and national benefits, habitual generosity for others
and society.
Source: Compiled by the author based on the National Board of Ethics (2018)
2.5 Synthesis of Ethical Leadership Dimensions
Drawing from an analysis of the existing EL literature reviewed in this chapter, it can
be seen that EL attributes and behaviours found in different studies intersect and
overlap somewhat. This research pursues an integrative approach to EL and
synthesises seven key EL dimensions that are dominant in various EL literature,
namely: 1) humane/people orientation; 2) honesty; 3) justice and fairness; 4)
moderation; 5) responsibility and sustainability; 6) discipline; and 7) role model.
These identified ethical dimensions contribute to the development of the conceptual
framework of the research and serve as the key themes for designing research
questionnaires (see Chapter Four for more detail). Moreover, this synthesis of seven
common EL dimensions is used as the framework to discuss the research findings in
the last chapter of this thesis.
The intersection of the seven EL dimensions across key seminal research, including
prominent EL theory (Brown et al., 2005), various cross-cultural EL studies, ethical
values endorsed in Thai society (The National Board of Ethics, 2018), and other EL
studies, are illustrated in Table 2.3.
49
Table 2.3: Synthesis of ethical dimensions from various key studies
Synthesis of EL
Dimension
EL Theory
(Brown et al., 2005)
Cross-cultural EL studies Ethical Values in Thailand
(The National Board of Ethics,
2018)
Other EL studies
1. Humane/People
Orientation
Care for others, define
success not just by results
but also the way that they
are obtained, listen to
what employees have to
say, has the best interests
of employees in mind
- Altruism, Collective Motivation,
Encouragement (Resick et al.,
2006)
- Humane Orientation (Eisenbeiss,
2012)
- Consideration and respect for
others (Martin et al., 2013; Resick
et al., 2011)
- Openness and flexibility (Resick et
al., 2011)
- People Orientation/Consideration
(Eisenbeiss et al., 2014)
Habitual generosity for others
(within volunteering dimension)
People Orientation, care
about, respect and support
followers, listen to their ideas
and concerns, altruism,
agreeableness, true concern
for people, and supporting
employees (Brown et al.,
2005; Kalshoven et al., 2011;
Treviño et al., 2003;
Walumbwa & Schaubroeck,
2009; Zoghbi-Manrique-de-
Lara & Viera-Armas, 2019).
2. Honesty Honesty, can be trusted
- Character/Integrity: trust, sincere,
honest (Resick et al., 2006, 2011)
- Honest, Openness and
Transparency, Value-Behaviour
Consistency (Martin et al., 2013)
- Honest, fair, transparent, high
integrity (Eisenbeiss et al., 2014)
Honesty: Uprightness, integrity,
adhere to principles, justice,
and what is right, courage to
resist dishonest actions of
others
Honesty, integrity,
trustworthiness, consistency
of words and acts, keep
promises (Brown & Treviño,
2006; Daft, 2014; Kalshoven et
al., 2011; Northouse, 2015)
50
Synthesis of EL
Dimension
EL Theory
(Brown et al., 2005)
Cross-cultural EL studies Ethical Values in Thailand
(The National Board of Ethics,
2018)
Other EL studies
3. Justice and
Fairness
Makes fair and balanced
decisions
- Character/Integrity: just (Resick et
al., 2006)
- Fairness and non-discriminatory
treatment (Resick et al., 2011)
- Justice Orientation (Eisenbeiss,
2012)
- Fair and Just (Martin et al., 2013)
Adhere to justice (within
honesty dimension)
Fairness: Do not practise
favouritism, treat others in a
way that is right and equal,
make principled and fair
choices (De Hoogh & Den
Hartog, 2008; Kalshoven et al.,
2011)
4. Moderation –- - Modest, group orientation, puts
the interests of the group ahead of
their own (Resick et al., 2006)
- Being approachable, good natured,
tolerant (Resick et al., 2011) -
Moderation Orientation (Eisenbeiss,
2012)
Sufficiency: Self-sufficiency
based on a middle way. Rational
and prudent decision making.
Careful and balanced action
with no harm to self, society,
and environment. Resilience in
an ever-changing world
–
5. Responsibility
and Sustainability
–- - Accountability, Collective
orientation (Resick et al., 2011)
- Responsibility and Sustainability
(Eisenbeiss, 2012; Eisenbeiß &
Brodbeck, 2014)
- Sense of Responsibility
for/towards Others (Martin et al.,
2013)
Volunteering: care for society,
voluntarily contribute to
common goods, societal and
national benefits, habitual
generosity for others and
society
Concern for sustainability,
care about the environment
and stimulate recycling
(Kalshoven et al., 2011)
51
Synthesis of EL
Dimension
EL Theory
(Brown et al., 2005)
Cross-cultural EL studies Ethical Values in Thailand
(The National Board of Ethics,
2018)
Other EL studies
6. Discipline Moral person – conduct
his/her personal life in an
ethical manner
Moral Manager –
discipline employees,
promote ethical conduct
to followers through
communication,
reinforcement, and
decision making
- Having a personal moral code and a
sense of ethical awareness;
authentic, courageous, and self-
disciplined (Resick et al., 2011)
- Guided by strong personal moral
code/values (Martin et al., 2013)
Discipline: Be responsible for
one’s role, organisation, and
society. Adhere to the law and
ethical standards and
regulations.
Ethical guidance,
communicate about ethics,
explain ethical rules,
promote and reward ethical
conduct (Kalshoven et al.,
2011)
7. Role Model Set an example of how to
do things the right way in
terms of ethics
Lead by example (Eisenbeiss et al.,
2014; Resick et al., 2011)
– Role modelling, lead by
example (De Hoogh & Den
Hartog, 2008; Kanungo, 2001;
Morais & de Moura, 2018)
Source: Compiled by the author
52
2.6 Ethical Leadership Development: A Critical Issue
Since the importance of EL has become more recognised in the literature and a large
number of studies have reported various positive outcomes of EL in the past few
years, it is suggested that more attention should now be paid to developing ethical
leaders in organisations (Sharma et al., 2019). However, the question regarding how
EL can be developed remains a critical issue that is underexplored (Treviño & Brown,
2014). While many academic articles have been published on the subject of ethics,
those suggesting practical tools seem rare (Thornton, 2009).
By far, the most common ethics programmes in organisations tend to rely heavily on
compliance-based or rule-based mechanisms, such as a formal ethics code in the
form of a written framework, regulations, strict rules, and monitoring (Brewer et al.,
2015; Downe et al., 2016; Martineau et al., 2017; Pelletier & Bligh, 2006). This
approach focuses on external controls imposed on an individual in the form of
command, control and punishment, in order to prevent people from violating ethics
(Tanner et al., 2019; Tremblay et al., 2017). However, it is evident that no matter
formal systems and structures have been established either at national or
organisational levels to eradicate or ameliorate unethical behaviours, malfeasance
still persists (Hossain et al., 2020). Hence, scholars have raised concerns about the
overall impact of compliance-based mechanisms on ethics in organisations. Much
international research indicates that the use of only compliance-based mechanisms
is insufficient to entirely solve ethical problems, nor can it effectively encourage
ethical behaviour (Stevulak & Brown, 2011; Trapp, 2011; Tremblay et al., 2017).
Consequently, a growing number of academics have paid more attention towards
the other end of the ethics mechanism spectrum, that is a value-based approach, and
have addressed the need to use such an approach as a supplement to compliance-
based mechanisms. The value-based approach is also known as the integrity-oriented
or self-regulatory approach (Tanner et al., 2019), given that this approach
emphasises individual awareness, personal ethical responsibilities, self-governance
and self-control (Brewer et al., 2015). Moreover, the value-based approach to ethics
53
highlights the importance of internal controls in fostering self-regulation, because to
be able to regulate oneself, an individual needs to internalise ethical values and
standards rather than being controlled by external authority (Tremblay et al., 2017).
Much of the research in behavioural ethics indicates that self-regulation and self-
awareness are the underlying factors of ethical behaviour. Self-awareness has the
primary function of making self-regulation possible, because failure to monitor one’s
actions can undermine one’s self-control, thereby resulting in immoral outcomes
(Baumeister & Alghamdi, 2015). Research shows that when self-awareness is low,
this deprives an individual of the ability to know whether or not behaviour conforms
to moral standards (Baumeister & Alghamdi, 2015). On the other hand, if one has
self-awareness, it contributes to the self-control needed to enact behaviours that are
consistent with one’s ethical values and to avoid engaging in behaviours that are
driven by short-term and selfish motives (Gino et al., 2011).
Unfortunately, the majority of ethics training programmes in organisations are
commonly found to be in the form of passive formal training through conventional
classroom teaching or self-learning, such as e-training, computer-based tools and
videos (Adam & Rachman-Moore, 2004; Harris, 2014; Sekerka, 2009; Trapp, 2011).
This type of ethics training tends to simply provide knowledge of rules and codes of
conduct, but barely supports the development of self-awareness and self-control,
which are deemed as the key factors that underpin ethical behaviour. Moreover,
negative thoughts and unpleasant behaviours, such as greed, narcissism, arrogance,
and anger, tend not to be eliminated by conventional ethics training, but they require
leaders to primarily be consciously aware of these sources of negativity (Banaji et al.,
2003). For this reason, ethics training that merely teaches rules and codes of conduct
cannot entirely solve ethical problems. It seems that leaders learn a lot about
integrity and ethics and most of them already know that there is a range of
behaviours that are not acceptable, but the problem is they tend not to live by this
(De Cremer et al., 2010; Goldman Schuyler, 2010).
54
These challenges point to the need for more research on alternative ways to develop
ethical leaders, given that ethics training needs to go beyond simply teaching about
the rules and codes of conduct (Tremblay et al., 2017). Martineau et al. (2017)
suggested that experiential orientation to ethics practices that aim at increasing
consciousness, including experiential ethical development practices, such as mind-
body approaches, meditation, contemplation, and spiritual practices, can contribute
to a more sophisticated composition of ethics programmes, rather than using only
compliance-based mechanisms. Nonetheless, only a small number of previous
academic studies or current practical ethics programmes in organisations have
focused on incorporating experiential orientation to ethics practices into ethics
training and development (Martineau et al., 2017).
Meanwhile, the last decade has seen a burgeoning interest in mindfulness and there
has been an exponential growth in research papers, books and media on mindfulness
(Brown et al., 2015; Chambers et al., 2009; Stanley et al., 2018). A vast number of
studies of mindfulness have pointed out that it has a close link to awareness (Lehnert
et al., 2015; Mihelič & Culiberg, 2019; Ruedy & Schweitzer, 2010; Shapiro et al.,
2012). Given the scarcity of research on alternative ways to develop ethical leaders
that are oriented towards the value-based and self-regulatory approach, the second
part of this chapter further explores and reviews the literature and previous research
on mindfulness and its association with ethical behaviour.
55
Part 2: Mindfulness
2.7 Origin and Definitions of Mindfulness
2.7.1 A historical perspective of mindfulness concepts
It is believed that mindfulness as a concept can be traced back for the longest time
in Eastern contemplative traditions, such as Hinduism, Chinese Confucian
philosophies, and has been most deeply rooted in Buddhism for over 2,500 years
(Brown & Ryan, 2003; Ie et al., 2014; Shapiro et al., 2006). Nevertheless, it cannot be
assumed that the concept of mindfulness only belongs to Eastern cultures or
Buddhism, since similar idea can also be found in various other philosophical, wisdom
and spiritual traditions of the world, such as ancient Greek philosophy, Christianity,
Hinduism and other religions, without any association with Buddhism or other
Eastern traditions (Brown et al., 2007; Dhiman, 2009; Dryden & Still, 2006; Krägeloh,
2019).
It is only during the late 19th century that the word “mindfulness” first became
associated with Buddhism (Stanley, 2013, 2014; Young, 2016). In 1881, Thomas
William Rhys Davids was the first person to translate the Buddhist Pali word “sati” as
“mindfulness” in his attempt to translate the Pali Canon, which are the oldest
Buddhist texts, into English (Bodhi, 2011; Gethin, 2011; Stanley, 2012; Sun, 2014). In
light of this first contact with this Buddhist concept, “mindfulness” became the main
English translation of sati (Gethin, 2011; Sun, 2014; Young, 2016). Today, when most
scholars explain the historical perspective of mindfulness, they commonly
acknowledge that the word derives from “sati”, as drawn from the early Buddhist
texts (Dryden & Still, 2006; Stanley, 2012).
2.7.2 The three strands of mindfulness concepts
There seems to be broad agreement that mindfulness fundamentally concerns
consciousness and attentiveness to what is present, or being aware of the present
56
moment (Brown et al., 2015; Gilpin, 2008). Yet, to date, there has been no precise or
scholarly consensus on a single definition of “mindfulness”, because the term can be
conceptualised in different ways (Brown & Ryan, 2004; Brown et al., 2007; Palitsky &
Kaplan, 2019). There are still divergent and contrasting opinions among scholars from
different approaches to mindfulness. Overall, mindfulness conceptualisations in
current literature can be divided into three major strands: Buddhist mindfulness
(BM), modern mindfulness (MM), and mindfulness as a cognitive process (Hart et al.,
2013; Hede, 2010; Ie et al., 2014; Khoury et al., 2017; Stanley, 2015).
1) Buddhist mindfulness (BM)
The mindfulness concept in Buddhism originates from the teaching of the Buddha
over 2,500 years ago (Bodhi, 2011). Mindfulness comes from the Pali word “sati” in
Buddhist texts, which literally means “memory” and “remembrance” (Bodhi, 2011;
Dryden & Still, 2006; Huxter, 2015; Rhys Davids, 1881; Stanley, 2013). However, there
is no explicit formal definition of the word sati in the original Buddhist texts (Bodhi,
2011; Sun, 2014). Unlike textbooks and modern scholarly studies, the early Buddhist
discourse collections do not explicitly define the term mindfulness in a formal
manner (Bodhi, 2011; Gethin, 2001). The word sati appears throughout the Pali
canon, which is the oldest complete collection of Buddhist texts (Bodhi, 2011), but it
is used in multiple ways so that its meaning varies depending upon the context in
which it is used (Stanley, 2015). For example, sati connotes a present moment
recollection of what is happening in the present and what one is engaging in at the
present moment (Analayo, 2006; Peacock, 2014). Yet, sati may also be associated
with the memory of events from the past as well. Moreover, the function of sati may
facilitate one to see internal and external phenomena as they really are, and to
distinguish between projections or misunderstandings and reality (Nyanaponika,
1972). More importantly, mindfulness in traditional Buddhism has a function in
ethical practices in addition to simple awareness and bare attention to the present
moment, since in Buddhist teachings, sati plays a crucial role in facilitating a greater
sense of one’s ethical behaviour (Analayo, 2006). Stanley's (2015) analysis indicates
57
that there could be four functions of sati, drawn from the traditional Buddhist
approaches as follows: first, “simple awareness” of what is happening or what one is
experiencing in the present moment; second, “protective awareness” that guards
against, restrains, or prevents unwholesome states and unethical conduct; third,
“introspective awareness” that investigates and observes the mind or the inner state
of a person; and fourth, “deliberate forming of concepts”, whereby what is
conceptualised as wholesome and ethical is remembered or called to mind.
Buddhist approaches to mindfulness are discussed in more detail later within this
chapter. The subsequent section on Buddhist approaches to mindfulness extensively
reviews the literature on how mindfulness is practised within Buddhist traditions,
and the Buddhist principles underlying mindfulness, with a particular focus on the
ethical framework underpinning BM practices.
2) Modern mindfulness (MM)
Modern approaches to mindfulness emerged from the work of a clinical doctor, Jon
Kabat-Zinn, and his colleagues in an attempt to bring mindfulness practices to clinical
therapy (Kabat-Zinn, 1994, 2003; Ludwig & Kabat-Zinn, 2008). Overall, the modern
approaches to mindfulness refer to the so-called “mindfulness-based” type of
applications, programmes or interventions that rely on an understanding of
mindfulness and a practice of mindfulness meditation (Stanley, 2015). For the most
part, the foundation of meditative practices and mindfulness concepts in MM
approaches are derived from Buddhism in particular (Hede, 2010; Ie et al., 2014;
Weick & Putnam, 2006). Yet, it is also blended with other methods, such as yoga and
modern psychology, and is taught in a systematic and standardised manner (Chiesa
& Malinowski, 2011). MM is also known as the secular approach and is oriented
towards therapeutic purposes, since mindfulness meditation is mostly utilised as a
primary practice for the alleviation of mental and physical conditions in early MM
interventions (Ditrich, 2016; Hart et al., 2013).
58
Kabat-Zinn (1994, p. 4) defines mindfulness as “paying attention in a particular way:
on purpose, in the present moment, and non-judgmentally.” This definition is the
most commonly cited and employed in the current psychological and scientific
literature related to mindfulness (Baer, 2011; Chiesa, 2013; Gilpin, 2008; Khoury et
al., 2017; Krägeloh, 2019; Shonin et al., 2016). Despite the lack of scholarly consensus
on a definition for mindfulness, most scholars in this MM approach define it similarly
to Kabat-Zinn (Huxter, 2015). There seems to be general agreement among scholars
within this approach that mindfulness is a state of consciousness which focuses on
the present moment in a non-judgmental manner (King & Haar, 2017). The MM
approach is explored and discussed in more detail in subsequent sections within this
chapter.
3) Mindfulness as cognitive process or Langerian Approach
The approach to mindfulness as a cognitive process is also known as the Langerian or
socio-cognitive approach (Khoury et al., 2017). The concept of this approach
emerged from the work of Langer (1989), who studied mindfulness as a cognitive
process based on the social psychological discipline (Alexander et al., 1989; Ie et al.,
2014; Langer, 1992; Langer, 1989; Weick & Putnam, 2006). This concept of
mindfulness emphasises cognitive processing of sensory input, such as the
intentional search for novelty, distinctions, and multiple perspectives in task
performance and behaviour. For this reason, Langer’s conception of mindfulness has
been called a “cognitive style” (Sternberg, 2000). Clearly, this approach has
originated independently of any reference to Eastern traditions and has no relation
to Buddhist concepts or contemplative practices (Glomb et al., 2011; Ie et al., 2014).
Langer describes mindfulness as the opposite to mindlessness and uses the term to
indicate a state of alertness and awareness (Reitz et al., 2016). This approach
emphasises a heightened sense of awareness through maintaining an openness to
new information and forming new categories out of one’s experience (Ie et al., 2014).
Given that the focus of this research is investigation of the influence of BM on Thai
organisational executive leaders’ ethical behaviour, the scope of this study only
59
covers two strands of mindfulness approaches, which are BM and MM, due to their
Buddhist associations. Additionally, these two approaches are concerned with
mindfulness training and practices, which are currently the subject of interest in the
organisational and management fields. Meanwhile, the cognitive process approach
to mindfulness is less engaged within this research because this approach bears no
relation to BM traditions or meditative practices. Thus, the concept of mindfulness
in the cognitive process approach is not directly related to the aim and scope of this
study.
2.8 Modern Mindfulness Approach
Over the past 40 years, BM has evolved into a new model that has become even more
well-known, both in literature and in practice, particularly in Western countries. This
current popular version of mindfulness is referred to in this research as “modern
mindfulness” (MM). The concepts and practices of MM are mostly drawn from
Buddhism, but they are blended with other approaches, such as yoga and modern
psychological techniques, and are taught in a systematic and standardised manner
(Chiesa & Malinowski, 2011; Choi & Leroy, 2015; Dryden & Still, 2006), which is why
this approach is commonly regarded as the modern version of mindfulness practice
(Rapgay & Bystrisky, 2009). Consequently, the modern approach to mindfulness has
undergone considerable transformations to introduce the practice and application of
mindfulness into Western culture. Since the 1980s, the MM approach has been
widely accepted due to its integration of psychological and meditative elements, with
a growing number of scientific and empirical studies examining the health outcomes
of cultivating mindfulness through the practice of mindfulness meditation (Ie et al.,
2014).
The current popularity of mindfulness is believed to originate from the first
introduction of mindfulness to clinical settings by Jon Kabat-Zinn (Bishop et al., 2004;
Kang & Whittingham, 2010; Shapiro & Carlson, 2009). In 1979, Kabat-Zinn and his
60
colleagues developed an intervention that they called the Mindfulness-Based Stress
Reduction (MBSR) programme (Kabat-Zinn, 2011). The major practices in the MBSR
programme are drawn from Buddhism; however, it is clearly presented that MBSR is
not a part of Buddhism (Dryden & Still, 2006). Kabat-Zinn (2003) pointed out that
MBSR was developed with the primary intention of seeking to apply Buddhist
meditative practices as a tool for helping patients who were coping with stress, pain,
and illness, used as a complement to their medical treatments. Due to this specific
intention and context, the MBSR programme was designed by selecting techniques
from Buddhist practices that could be useful when applied in a secular context.
MBSR has become the most common form of modern mindfulness-based training
and the most researched mindfulness programme by far (Chaskalson & Hadley,
2015). It has played the key role in establishing the adaptation of BM practice to the
psychological and medical fields. The wide acceptance and popularity of MBSR has
resulted in further its subsequent adaptation into other modern mindfulness-based
interventions (MBIs) (Rapgay & Bystrisky, 2009). In the past few decades, various
forms of MM intervention have been developed. Perhaps the most prominent MBSR-
influenced programme is mindfulness-based cognitive therapy or MBCT (Segal et al.,
2002), which has been a successful mindfulness programme in the UK. It is noted that
MBSR and MBCT are becoming the mainstream treatment approaches for a variety
of mental health problems. While the dominant programme in the US is MBSR, the
National Institute for Clinical and Health Excellence has specifically recommended
MBCT for the treatment of depression in the UK (Stanley, 2012; The Mindfulness All-
Party Parliamentary Group, 2015).
Today, modern MBIs have been the subject of thousands of scientific studies. Interest
in mindfulness and its efficacy has exploded, given that several research findings have
found the benefits of MM approaches for cognitive functioning, stress reduction, and
well-being (Brown et al., 2007; The Mindfulness Initiative, 2016a). More recently,
there has been a growing interest in bringing mindfulness into an organisational
61
context as well. The following section critically reviews the current place of MM in
organisations.
2.9 Modern Mindfulness in Organisations
Although MM has been popularised and well-established in the clinical and
psychology literature since the 1970s, research regarding MM in the organisational
and management fields is considered to be in a nascent stage (Hyland et al., 2015;
Reb & Choi, 2014). Modern approaches to mindfulness have gained a burgeoning
interest among organisational scholars and practitioners only in the past decade
(Alberts & Hülsheger, 2015; Choi & Leroy, 2015; Hyland et al., 2015; Purser & Milillo,
2015).
The growing number of research findings on the potential benefits for physical and
mental health within the clinical and psychotherapy disciplines, has also generated
increasing interest in mindfulness interventions in the workplace (Glomb et al., 2011;
Good et al., 2016). Based on a review of existing literature on mindfulness in
organisational contexts, overall, there are two common types of empirical study in
this area of research (Allen et al., 2015; Choi & Leroy, 2015; Good et al., 2016; Hyland
et al., 2015; Lomas et al., 2017):
1) Research that addresses mindfulness as a state or quality of mind – this type
of research is based on correlational research designs, which assess the
mindfulness of an individual based on self-report questionnaires. Two of the
most popular measures of mindfulness are the Freiburg Mindfulness
Inventory (FMI; Buchheld et al., 2001) and the Mindfulness Attention and
Awareness Scale (MAAS; Brown and Ryan, 2003), which have been used to
investigate and establish a correlation or relationship between mindfulness
scores and other variables within the focus of study, such as stress levels,
burnout, and job satisfaction.
62
2) Research that emphasises mindfulness as a form of practice – this type of
research adopts experimental research designs, which involve some type of
mindfulness training or intervention, the two most popular mindfulness
interventions being MBSR and MBCT.
Emerging empirical studies of mindfulness in organisations and a body of research
that has conducted systematic reviews of the literature on this topic have shown that
there are a number of potential benefits of MM in diverse occupational contexts
(Allen et al., 2015; Chaskalson, 2011; Eby et al., 2017; Glomb et al., 2011; Good et al.,
2016; Hyland et al., 2015; Jamieson & Tuckey, 2017; Lomas et al., 2017; Reb & Choi,
2014; The Mindfulness Initiative, 2016a).
Key research findings drawn from previous research on mindfulness in the workplace
can be divided into five arenas: health/well-being, work performance, relationship,
job satisfaction/work engagement and leadership, as illustrated below in Table 2.4.
Table 2.4: Key findings for MM outcomes in the workplace from previous studies
Dimension Key Outcomes
1.Health/Well-being
1.1 Mental/
psychological health
Reduction of stress, strain, burnout and anxiety in various
occupations, such as;
- Health care professionals (Geary & Rosenthal, 2011;
Goodman & Schorling, 2012; Marx et al., 2014; Moody et al.,
2013; Shapiro et al., 2005)
- Teachers (Flook et al., 2013; Franco et al., 2010; Roeser et al.,
2013)
- Social workers (McGarrigle & Walsh, 2011)
- Call centre employees (Grégoire & Lachance, 2015)
- Sports coaches (Longshore & Sachs, 2015)
- Military combat aircraft squadron (Meland et al., 2015)
- Law enforcement officers (Christopher et al., 2016)
- Public sector employees (Bartlett et al., 2017)
63
Dimension Key Outcomes
1.2 Physical health - Positive effects on the brain and immune function (Davidson
et al., 2003)
- Greater sleep quality (Hülsheger et al., 2014, 2015)
- Decrease in the levels of salivary α-amylase, which is a
biological result of stress (Duchemin et al., 2015)
- Improvement in heart rhythm coherence ratio of heart rate
variability (Wolever et al., 2012)
- A reduction in diastolic blood pressure, which is associated
with stress and is a key indicator of cardiovascular functioning
(Harris et al., 2016).
2. Work performance
2.1 Better job
performance
- Mindfulness is positively related to better job performance
(Dane, 2011; Dane & Brummel, 2014; Shonin et al., 2014)
- Improved working memory capacity (Jha et al., 2010)
- Increased attention (Jha et al., 2015)
2.2 Creativity and
innovation
- Improved creativity in problem solving (Ostafin & Kassman,
2012)
- Promotion of “divergent thinking”, a type of thinking that
allows new ideas to be generated (Colzato et al., 2012)
2.3 Customer/
patient outcomes
- The trait of mindfulness is associated with more favourable
patient ratings for communication quality and better overall
satisfaction of customers/patients (Beach et al., 2013)
- Mindfulness training is likely to help staff to respond to
clients’ challenging behaviours in a more mindful and less
reactive way (Brooker et al., 2014)
- Mindfulness intervention for call centre employees is
associated with greater satisfaction levels of clients (Grégoire
& Lachance, 2015)
3. Relationship - Mindfulness facilitates the quality of interpersonal
connections (Hutcherson et al., 2008)
- Mindfulness training contributes to greater social
connectedness and interpersonal well-being (Cohen & Miller,
2009)
- Increased positive relations with others (Fredrickson et al.,
2008)
- Increased tendency to feel compassion for people in general,
and for challenging people in particular (Taylor et al., 2016)
- Improved communication quality including listening with
increased awareness and being less judgemental of others
(Beckman et al., 2012)
64
Dimension Key Outcomes
4. Job satisfaction
and work
engagement
- Positive relationship between mindfulness and job
satisfaction (Fortney et al., 2013; Hülsheger et al., 2013; West
et al., 2014)
- Positive relationship between mindfulness and employees’
work engagement (Leroy et al., 2013; Malinowski & Lim, 2015;
Van Berkel et al., 2014)
- Mindfulness is related to decreased employee turnover
intention (Dane & Brummel, 2014)
5. Leadership - Mindfulness meditation programmes increase the caring
efficacy of leaders (Pipe et al., 2009)
- Improved psychological well-being of leaders (Roche et al.,
2014)
- The trait of mindfulness in supervisors has a positive impact
on employee well-being and performance (Reb et al., 2014)
- Increased supervisor self-control and decreased abusive
behaviours (Liang et al., 2016)
- Mindfulness training develops leaders’ capacity for resilience
and collaboration (Reitz et al., 2016)
Source: Compiled by the author
It is notable from a review of existing literature on MM outcomes in the workplace
that the most commonly studied category of mindfulness benefits are those
associated with health and well-being, particularly in terms of stress reduction (Allen
et al., 2015). This is no surprise, since workplace stress is seen as a major problem in
today’s organisations. In the 21st century, the subject of occupational stress has
remained an important topic with an increase in the amount of literature (Redfern et
al., 2008). Similarly, a study of Overholt and Vickers (2014) found that, among all the
issues explored in the workplace, the problem of high stress levels ranked
uppermost. Additionally, due to the high level of competitiveness and rapid change
in the modern world, organisations need to seek ways to increase their performance
to ensure continued profitability. As a consequence, the commonest use of MM-
based interventions in an occupational context is as a tool for helping employees
cope with stress and mental health issues, as well as a means to improve work
performance (Lomas et al., 2017).
65
Given that the prominent objective of MM is oriented towards therapeutic benefits
and self-functioning enhancement, this has raised a controversial issue regarding the
current place of mindfulness in organisations. In recent years, a growing number of
mindfulness scholars and practitioners have started to raise concern about the
appropriateness and the ethics of implementing MM programmes in corporate
settings (Hyland et al., 2015). In particular, scholars and practitioners of the BM
approach seem to have mixed feelings about the popularisation and
commodification of mindfulness (Huxter, 2015). On the one hand, some of them
agree about the development of a healing tool being available for wider range of
recipients and they are optimistic about its transformative potential in the future
(Huxter, 2015; Sun, 2014). Moreover, without the evolution of MM, mindfulness
practices would arguably not have been successfully utilised and would not have
impacted on diverse fields, particularly in the West (Lomas, 2017). On the other hand,
academics are concerned about the current use, accuracy of teaching, and possible
drawbacks of not explicitly incorporating ethics within MM frameworks (Monteiro et
al., 2015). The criticisms of MM in organisations are further discussed in the
subsequent section.
2.10 Criticisms towards Modern Mindfulness in
Organisations
Although the topic of mindfulness in the workplace has only recently gained interest
among organisational scholars and practitioners, it has been growing rapidly (Alberts
& Hülsheger, 2015; Choi & Leroy, 2015; Hyland et al., 2015). Such rapid growth in
interest has raised concerns about the purpose, value and essence of the concept
(Forbes, 2016; Williams & Kabat-Zinn, 2011). Several controversial issues have been
raised about the way mindfulness is being interpreted and communicated to
Western audiences (Lomas, 2017), particularly the current use of mindfulness in the
workplace and corporate settings (Purser & Milillo, 2015). The criticisms towards the
66
use of modern MBIs in organisations that are commonly found in the extant
literature can be categorised into the following three major issues.
Firstly, scholars have started to argue that when MBIs are used as a tool for employee
stress reduction, organisations can conveniently shift the burden on to the individual
employee. In this regard, stress can be framed as a personal problem, and
mindfulness intervention is offered as a means to help employees cope with stress
so that they can work effectively and calmly within the same toxic environments
(Purser & Milillo, 2015). The possible reason why mindfulness training has rapidly
received wide attention in the workplace is because it can be utilised as a method for
reducing employee stress while keeping employee attention focused on
organisational goals (Hyland, 2017; Loy, 2016). Employees may be convinced to feel
that their stress are self-made (Loy, 2016). Such a way of using mindfulness tends to
develop an obedient workforce which encourages employees to accept all of their
unpleasant experiences in the workplace simply through mindful and non-
judgmental present-moment awareness (Hyland, 2017). Consequently, it is argued
that the mindfulness movement in organisations has yet to address the critical
question of why stress is pervasive in modern organisations. Purser (2015) further
argues that stress is an outcome of the system, culture, and management within an
organisation itself. Instead of attempting to solve the root causes of problems, the
responsibility is placed on individual employees, and a mindfulness programme is
then provided to help employees solve the issue by themselves.
Secondly, Purser and Loy (2013) critique the notion of mindfulness today by labelling
it as “McMindfulness”, which refers to a marketisation and commodification of
mindfulness practices as quick-fix or self-help tools (Hyland, 2017). There has been a
criticism made that the reason why mindfulness has been popularised so much is
because such techniques for improving individuals’ functioning fit very well within
modern capitalist society (Hickey, 2010; Stanley, 2012). Employers provide
mindfulness training for their employees because they expect there to be an
improvement in work performance and better organisational outcomes.
67
Consequently, mindfulness is being used as a means to increase organisational
profits rather than for the benefit of employees per se (Purser & Milillo, 2015).
The final issue, which is perhaps the most significant critique of MM, is that modern
approaches to mindfulness have been largely de-contextualised from its antecedent
Buddhist roots (Monteiro et al., 2015; Van Gordon et al., 2015). The quick adoption
and application of MM has resulted in an inadequate understanding of the meaning,
fundamental purpose and principles underlying the concept of mindfulness from the
original Buddhist approach (Purser & Milillo, 2015). Currently, MM is denatured with
respect to its Buddhist origins to such an extent that its concepts and practices have
lost their grounding in the development of ethical behaviour, and have simply
become just another technique for boosting attention and calmness (Grossman,
2015; Grossman, 2011; Grossman & Van Dam, 2011).
It is argued that the major benefits of MM, such as stress reduction, relaxation, and
self-fulfilment, are merely the immediate superficial benefits one can gain from
mindfulness (Sun, 2014). From the Buddhist viewpoint, an increase in enjoyment and
pleasant sensations are not the core aims. The goals of Buddhist meditation are
clearly situated in ethical domains and the highest purpose is to reach deep insight
and full awakening, whereas the state of calm and relaxation could be seen as only
the “side-effects” that occur due to the practice of mindfulness meditation practice
(Ditrich, 2013; Purser & Milillo, 2015). Furthermore, Stanley (2012) makes the crucial
point that BM practices cannot be separated from ethics and how to live a moral life.
BM is specifically concerned with the cultivation of “right” mindfulness as a
wholesome state of mind, situated within the principle called the Noble Eightfold
Path, which also includes “right speech”, “right action”, “right livelihood”, and the
adoption of ethical training rules embodying a non-harmful orientation to life. Since
MM approaches exclude the ethical frameworks underpinning BM practices, this
may lead to the misinterpretation that well-being, happiness, or compassion are to
be achieved without changing the way of how one lives. From a Buddhist perspective,
68
peace of mind and true happiness are not a result only of meditating, but instead
needs to be coupled with living an ethically responsive life (ibid).
On the whole, since the application of MM in the workplace is mainly concerned with
stress reduction and improved performance, the potential of mindfulness practices
for greater outcomes is diminished, particularly the benefits of mindfulness for
ethical development (Lomas, 2017). In fact, this issue has been recognised by Kabat-
Zinn himself, as he noted that there is “the potential for something priceless to be
lost” (Williams and Kabat-Zinn, 2011, p. 4). Consequently, the major criticism of the
use of modern MBIs in organisations is the absence of ethical and moral frameworks
that underpin the concepts and practices of the original BM (Stanley, 2012).
However, recent studies on MM have started to investigate the outcomes of
mindfulness as a trait, and MBIs as training programmes in ethical behaviour, given
the close link between mindfulness and awareness, which is the core antecedent of
ethical behaviour and ethical decision making (Guillén & Fontrodona, 2017; Lehnert
et al., 2015; Mihelič & Culiberg, 2019; Ruedy & Schweitzer, 2010). Prior research on
the relationship between MM and ethics is reviewed in the next section.
2.11 Modern Mindfulness and Ethical Behaviour
Given that the outcomes of mindfulness reported by numerous studies are usually
related to greater attention, emotion management and self-regulation, scholars then
started to examine the role of mindfulness in ethical behaviour. The work of Ruedy
and Schweitzer (2010) was among the first to examine the link between mindfulness
and ethical decision making. They found that individuals who have high scores in self-
reported mindfulness are more likely to act ethically, to value ethical standards, and
to use a principled approach to ethical decision making. However, their study did not
involve mindfulness practices or interventions. They measured individual
69
mindfulness levels through mindfulness questionnaires to find the correlation
between mindfulness and ethical decision making.
Shapiro et al. (2012) were first to empirically study the effects of MM practices on
ethical behaviour. According to their study, they found that mindfulness practices
through the MBSR programme have resulted in improvements in moral reasoning
and ethical decision making. Similarly, Sanko et al. (2016) conducted an experimental
study to explore the impact of mindfulness meditation training on ethical decision
making as well. In their study, after the subjects completed the MM training
programme, similar to MBSR, they were measured for mindfulness and ethical
decision making scores by using existing validated questionnaires. They reported that
mindfulness training improves mindfulness and some aspects of ethical decision-
making.
A more recent study by Pandey et al. (2018) examined the role of mindfulness as an
antecedent to moral reasoning among business school students. According to their
findings, there is a positive association of mindfulness with moral reasoning.
Moreover, they also investigated the impact of MM training, based on MBSR and
MBCT programmes, on moral reasoning. They found that MM practices reduce self-
centred bias, while enhancing compassion and moral reasoning.
As the research on modern approaches to mindfulness has received increasing
attention among organisational scholars and practitioners, some of the studies in the
organisational and business ethics literature have begun to relate mindfulness and
its outcomes to ethical behaviour. From a conceptual perspective, scholars have
argued that mindfulness is an important antecedent of ethical behaviours in
organisations. Riskin (2009) reviewed previous research on the concept of MM and
proposed that several qualities or outcomes of mindfulness increase the likelihood
that the meditator will not choose to violate the moral standard, because
mindfulness helps one to be aware of one’s own thought processes and to notice the
intentions behind them, which leads to the tendency to behave ethically. Similarly,
Karelaia and Reb (2015) reviewed previous findings from MM research in order to
70
find connections between mindfulness and ethical decision making. Given that much
research on MM suggests that mindfulness increases self-awareness, Karelaia and
Reb (2015) proposed that mindfulness is likely to help individuals during the decision
making process to recognise the ethical implications of the decisions, which might go
unnoticed if decision makers are not mindful.
Additionally, a body of research in neuroscience and behavioural ethics suggests that
the re-perceiving process in mindfulness practice, which is the process of decentring
and maintaining a certain distance from one’s own thoughts, emotions, and external
stimuli without being absorbed in them (Eisenbeiss et al., 2014), may benefit ethical
decision making (Eisenbeiss et al., 2014; Pless et al., 2017). A review of literature
conducted by Pless et al. (2017) summarised that neuroscientific research provides
evidence for a positive link between mindfulness and cognitive flexibility, which is
the ability to create alternative options; thereby, leaders who often have to confront
moral issues and ethical dilemmas can see situations from different perspectives and
develop varied solutions. Moreover, they reviewed previous empirical studies which
show that mindfulness training can reduce individual emotional reaction to both
positive and negative stimuli. This emotional regulation can contribute to more
neutral evaluations when leaders cope with complex ethical dilemmas. Additionally,
Pless et al. (2017) gathered evidence from brain scans, which demonstrates that both
cognition and emotions are involved in moral decision making. Therefore, the
regulation of thoughts and emotion, which is the key benefit of mindfulness practice,
is important for effective ethical decision making.
In a similar vein, a recent conceptual paper from Guillén and Fontrodona (2017)
suggested that mindfulness is likely to promote more ethical behaviour by improving
levels of awareness, which supports the development of fundamental virtues. In
accordance with the aforementioned studies, theoretical work by Patel and Holm
(2018) pointed out that practising mindfulness may help managers engage in more
pro-environmental workplace behaviours. They theorised that practising
mindfulness results in experiencing greater connectedness with nature, and such
71
connection tends to encourage leaders to think beyond their immediate self-gain or
performance-related concerns and address larger environmental issues.
In terms of empirical research that links MM to ethical behaviour in organisational
contexts, Schuh et al. (2017) conducted quantitative correlational research by using
a set of existing validated questionnaires to measure mindfulness and the enactment
of procedural justice among leaders. Their findings confirmed that leaders’
mindfulness is positively related to their enactment of procedural justice with respect
to employees. Subsequently, Reb et al. (2018) further established the empirical link
between mindfulness and leadership ethics, which they found that mindfulness
increases interpersonal justice among leaders and that leaders who are more mindful
tend to engage in more interpersonally fair behaviours.
A more recent empirical study that involves modern mindfulness-based training was
conducted by Orazi et al. (2019). In their experimental research, they found causal
evidence for the effects of states of mindfulness cultivated through modern
mindfulness-based training on other-focused ethical behaviours, including choice of
fair-trade products, charitable giving, and volunteering.
Overall, research on MM and ethical behaviour is still in a nascent state and the topic
of mindfulness and ethical behaviour remains largely unexplored by empirical
research (Pandey et al., 2018; Pless et al., 2017). From a review of the relevant
literature, there have been only a small number of empirical studies that examine
the role of mindfulness in ethical behaviour or ethical decision making. Particularly
in the field of leadership studies, mindfulness has only been studied in relation to
leaders’ ethical behaviour and decision making in the past few years; thereby, the
assumption that mindful leadership fosters positive leadership behaviours is still
largely untested (Reb et al., 2018; Schuh et al., 2017).
While the findings from the previously cited literature on MM and ethical behaviour
demonstrate promising results for the positive effects of mindfulness on ethical
behaviour, it is not completely clear in most research on MM whether or not modern
72
approaches to mindfulness are essentially connected to ethics (Karelaia & Reb,
2015). It is still ambiguous in explaining how MM approaches to mindfulness practice
can directly lead to ethical behaviour. Most research draws a linkage between
awareness and ethical behaviour in order to explain that mindfulness helps in
increasing individual awareness, which leads to better moral reasoning and ethical
behaviour. However, there is no evidence of a direct link between mindfulness and
ethical decision making from MM studies (Pless et al., 2017). It may not be a given
that heightened awareness necessarily leads to better moral reasoning and ethical
decision making. Chen and Jordan (2020) reviewed prior research and pointed out
that evidence for whether or not secular mindfulness increases empathy and
prosocial behaviour is mixed. They found that modern approaches to mindfulness
may increase prosocial behaviour for some people who already have prosocial
personalities or behaviours that are not in contradiction with prosocial behaviours.
This is because there are no explicit instructions that encourage the cultivation of
compassion or that communicate ethical principles in MM approaches.
In summary, the majority of the existing research that relates mindfulness to ethical
behaviour is drawn from MM approaches. However, MM has no ethical frameworks
underpinning its concepts and practices. Furthermore, the emphasis on being non-
judgmental in the MM concept of mindfulness undermines the fact that ethical
behaviour and decision making involve ethical judgement. These are the main
challenges that lead to major criticisms towards MM approaches to mindfulness,
particularly when it comes to the connection between MM and ethical behaviour.
2.12 Buddhist Mindfulness and Ethical Behaviour
Given that the most significant point commonly addressed by many scholars who are
well-versed in BM is the emphasis on the ethical dimensions of BM, the current
position of MM is subject to the criticism that it ignores the very core of BM practice,
which is the development of ethics and morals. Hence, in recent years, the ethical
73
foundation of BM has been widely addressed. It is proposed that by re-ethicising
mindfulness based on the original Buddhist ethical framework, it may yield benefits
that have a wider extent than therapeutic and psychological well-being outcomes (de
Zoysa, 2016; Lomas, 2017). Based on this view, BM may also be relevant to the
promotion of ethical behaviour within organisational contexts.
Drawing from key studies in the BM literature which address the ethical foundation
of BM, its relevance to ethics is due to the initial purpose and the key principles
underlying its concepts and practices. The aim of BM practice is to help individuals
understand the nature of suffering, identifying its cause, and removing it
(Gunaratana, 2011; Nyanaponika, 1972). The way to eliminate suffering in Buddhism
encompasses both mindfulness and ethical practices, which is elaborated in the
Noble Eightfold Path (NEP), the principle that emphasises the notion of “rightness”
(Nirban, 2018). Given that the word “mindfulness” appeared in the first teaching of
the Buddha as “right mindfulness”, the concept of mindfulness in Buddhism
originated with a moralistic view underpinning its rationale. Scholars have argued
that BM encompasses ethical judgement and sensitivity (Chiesa, 2013; Dreyfus, 2011;
Stanley, 2012, 2015). The word “right”, appearing in all eight factors, especially the
term “right mindfulness”, assumes that BM is not an ethically neutral practice but
requires an ethical judgment on what is considered wholesome/skilful and
unwholesome/unskilful (Chiesa, 2013). Such ethical judgment is considered essential
in the NEP and needs to be developed simultaneously with the cultivation of
mindfulness and wisdom. This is perhaps the most significant point in terms of
mindfulness concepts and principles in Buddhism.
Furthermore, the essence of Buddhist teachings can be synthesised as “not to do any
evil, to cultivate what is wholesome, to purify one’s mind” (Harvey, 2000, p. 42). BM
practices are generally accompanied by Buddhist teachings which advocate that
greed, hatred and delusion are to be avoided because they lead to behaviours that
harm others, while altruism, generosity, equanimity, loving kindness, sympathy,
compassion, harmlessness and lack of delusion are to be engaged in (Gilpin, 2008;
74
Harvey, 2013). The classical BM emphasises the ethical dimensions of mindfulness as
the function of mindfulness. Practitioners need not only to be aware of the present
moment, but also to not drift away from wholesome mental states (Dreyfus, 2011).
In this regard, it is argued in BM literature that mindfulness in Buddhism is practised
based on moral grounds (Karunamuni & Weerasekera, 2017).
What lies at the centre of BM is an ethical framework. Buddhist approaches to
mindfulness explicitly include ethics to establish appropriate views and intentions
prior to mindfulness practice (Qiu & Rooney, 2017). The following section elaborates
more on Buddhist approaches to mindfulness and the core principles underlying BM
practices in order to provide a clearer understanding as to how scholars have argued
that BM is underpinned by an ethical framework.
2.13 Buddhist Approaches to Mindfulness
Given that there are no formal definitions of the word sati or mindfulness in the
classical Buddhist texts, it is important to understand the key principles that provide
the fundamental for the concept of BM. The Four Noble Truths (FNTs) and the Noble
Eightfold Path (NEP) primarily are the key principles that mindfulness is founded
upon. These two principles also provide ethical framework underpinning mindfulness
practices in Buddhism. The following sub-sections further explain the FNTs and the
NEP and indicate where the concept of BM is embedded.
2.13.1 Principles underpinning the mindfulness concept in Buddhism
Given that mindfulness is considered central to Buddhism, literature on BM has indicated
many concepts and principles related to mindfulness practices (Shonin, Van Gordon, &
Singh, 2015). However, a complete description of all Buddhist principles that are
assumed to be relevant to the mindfulness concept is beyond the scope of this
research, and the present section is not meant to be a comprehensive summary, but
rather a brief examination of the two fundamental Buddhist principles underpinning
75
the mindfulness concept, namely the FNTs and the NEP (Gunaratana, 2001, 2012;
Huxter, 2015; Krägeloh, 2016; Van Gordon et al., 2015b).
The Four Noble Truths (FNTs)
The teaching of the Four Noble Truths or the Four True Realities (Harvey, 2013) are
the first sermon given by the Buddha after he attained enlightenment (Bodhi, 2000a;
Ditrich, 2016; Huxter, 2015; Sumedho, 1992). They are deemed to be the most
important of all Buddhist teachings because they are the foundation for the entirety
of the discourses that the Buddha subsequently provided (Huxter, 2015).
The essence of the FNTs are about suffering, its cause and the path to the extinction
of suffering (Bodhi, 2000a; Sumedho, 1992). Suffering is the translation of the Pali
word dukkha, as mentioned in the classical Buddhist texts (Chaskalson & Hadley,
2015; Kabat-Zinn, 2016b). The suffering that the Buddha referred to in his teaching
covers various types of negative experiences ranging from the gross and obvious
ones, such as severe illness, physical or emotional pain and death, to the subtle and
intangible ones, such as suffering caused by burning desire, endless craving, not
getting what one wants, and feelings of weariness, unease and lacking (Huxter, 2015;
Teasdale & Chaskalson, 2011).
The FNTs comprise four elements, which include the NEP embedded in the fourth
truth, as illustrated in Figure 2.2 below.
76
Figure 2.2: The Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path
Source: Author’s construct, based on Gunaratana, 2001 and Huxter, 2015
Drawing from Figure 2.2 above, the four elements within the FNTs can be briefly
described as follows (Gunaratana, 2001; Huxter, 2015; Marques, 2015):
1) The truth of suffering – suffering exists
Suffering and dissatisfaction are unavoidable for everyone because all human beings
must encounter the life cycle, changes, and uncontrollable things in their lives. For
example, the life cycle means that once one is born, one will inevitably become ill,
grow old, and ultimately die; therefore, our life cycle encompasses suffering.
Changes in life, such as separation and loss, provoke dissatisfaction. When something
does not happen in the way we desire, or happens outside of our control, this also
brings dissatisfaction.
2) The truth of the origin of suffering – suffering has a cause
The actual cause of suffering in human life is desire and clinging. Generally, human
beings always have endless desires; even when one gets what one wants, one either
craves more of it, or moves on to another desire. Moreover, clinging to pleasure can
77
result in greed and attachment. Desire and clinging are important factors in human
actions and behaviours, because desire and clinging can lead to greed, attachment,
anger, fear and hatred. These can result in unwholesome thoughts that drive
unethical behaviours.
3) The truth of the cessation of suffering – suffering can be ended
It is possible to end all suffering and dissatisfaction by completely eradicating all
attachment and desire. Without desire and attachment, there is no root cause for
unwholesome thoughts and unethical behaviours. Moreover, this is the way to
experience serenity and inner happiness, which has no conditions and does not
depend on anything.
4) The truth of the way leading to the cessation of suffering – the path to end
suffering
The fourth truth signifies the way to bring true happiness and a cessation to suffering.
The way is called the Noble Eightfold Path (NEP). There are eight interrelated
components that all feature the word “right”. Mindfulness, fully described as “right
mindfulness”, is one of the components. Furthermore, the NEP is where the ethical
dimension of BM is presented. This is further examined in the following section.
78
The Noble Eightfold Path (NEP)
The NEP is an integral part of the fourth element in the FNTs, as explained in the
previous section. This principle is also known as the “middle way”, which refers to a
way of living that avoids pursuing either extreme pleasures of the senses or harsh
practices such as asceticism (Gethin, 2001; Harvey, 2013). There are eight
components in the NEP. As mentioned earlier, each element of the NEP features the
word “right”, which is the common translation of the Pali term samma. This term
samma can be understood as complete, authentic, skilful, appropriate, or correct
(Huxter, 2015, p. 34).
The eight elements of the NEP consist of: right view, right thinking, right speech, right
action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration. These
eight factors are interconnected and can be compared to “the intertwining strands
of a single cable that requires the contributions of all the strands for maximum
strength” (Bodhi, 2000b, p. 13). In other words, each factor cannot be separately
categorised in a hierarchical or sequential order. Rather, they are all interdependent
factors that collectively support each other on the path towards freedom from
suffering.
Given that the eight factors in the NEP are interconnected, Huxter (2015) explains
the interdependent roles of each factor starting from “right view”, which refers to
the understanding that actions have consequences and that unethical actions often
lead to negative consequences. Therefore, having “right view” can lead to “right
thinking”, which results in skilful decision making and wholesome behaviours in
terms of right speech, action, and livelihood, in ways that are harmless and kind.
Accordingly, when one has wholesome behaviours, there is a level of mental
composure that is favourable for right concentration, right mindfulness and right
effort. Right mindfulness then plays a pivotal role in protecting the mind from
reacting with desire, aversion, and unwholesome drives, because mindfulness helps
one to realise whether one’s mental state at a particular moment is wholesome or
79
not. This wholesome state of mind is necessary to establish the grounds for wisdom
to evolve (Ditrich, 2016).
Despite the interconnected roles of all eight elements in the NEP, it can be argued
that mindfulness has a central role in unifying all others (Kabat-Zinn, 2016a). Hanh
(1999, p. 59) emphasises that “when right mindfulness is present, the Four Noble
Truths and the seven other elements of the Eightfold Path are also present”. This is
because mindfulness acts as the guarantor of the correct practice of all the other
path factors (Bodhi, 2011). The role of mindfulness in the NEP is to enable the
practitioners to cultivate wise attention and lucid awareness which leads to the
ability to understand what is wholesome and what is not, to abandon wrong
intentions, and to differentiate good deeds from bad deeds (Bodhi, 2011). In other
words, mindfulness is an ethical intuition, the function of which can be compared to
the ‘guarding of the gates of the senses’ from immoral and unwholesome qualities
that obstruct the path to the cessation of suffering (Gethin, 2011). In essence, these
eight factors describe a process for changing unhelpful habits and behaviours and
developing what is wholesome for the benefit of the self and others instead (Huxter,
2015). A brief summary descriptions of the eight factors within the NEP are given in
Table 2.5 below.
80
Table 2.5: Elements of the Noble Eightfold Path
Source: Compiled by the author, based on Harvey (2000, 2013); Udomratn (2009); Thera
(2010); Jayasaro (2014); Huxter (2015)
81
As can be seen in the above table, the eight factors in the NEP can be categorised
into three groups called the Threefold Training (Harvey, 2013; Huxter, 2015). This is
explained further in the following section.
The Threefold Training
The eight elements in the NEP are often grouped as a set of practical trainings called
the “Threefold Training” (Bodhi, 2000b; Buswell Jr & Lopez Jr, 2013; Thera, 2010).
The Threefold Training includes three areas of training relating to first, ethics,
morality, virtue (sīla); second, concentration, meditation, mental discipline
(samādhi); and third, wisdom, understanding (paññā) (Boyce et al., 2009; Stanley,
2015).
To reiterate the categorisation of the eight elements of the NEP into the three groups
of the Threefold Training, this is summarised as follows (Harvey, 2013; Huxter, 2015):
Group 1 “Sīla”: Right speech, Right action, Right livelihood
Group 2 “Samādhi”: Right effort, Right mindfulness, Right concentration
Group 3 “Paññā”: Right view, Right thinking
The first group of the Threefold Training is the training in ethical conduct (sīla), which
aims to restrain non-virtuous deeds of body and speech and is often understood in
conjunction with the keeping of the five precepts for the layperson (Buswell Jr &
Lopez Jr, 2013). Notably, Buddhists scholars and practitioners suggest that the five
precepts of Buddhism are not rules, but rather a way of life that will lead to the well-
being for the individual and harmonious living with others (Amaro, 2018). Ethical
principles in Buddhism are guidelines for personal and spiritual practices rather than
commands, which encourage one to be aware of harmful actions in one’s personal
and professional life (Mikulas, 2018; Stanley, 2015). When it comes to mindfulness
practices in a Buddhist context, such as Thailand, practitioners are particularly
instructed to adhere to explicit ethical behaviour (Stanley, 2015). From a Buddhist
perspective, ethical training is required as a prerequisite for mindfulness meditation,
because it is considered the foundation upon which right concentration and right
82
mindfulness can be built (Chavan, 2007; Huxter, 2015; Titmuss, 2018). Before wisdom
(paññā) can be cultivated, it requires the condition of a pure and clean mind
generated by ethical conduct (sīla) and a one-pointed state of mind generated by
concentration (samādhi) (Boyce et al., 2009). Based on this, training in ethical
conduct provides a degree of life stability and a lightness of conscience that leads to
better concentration during meditation (Buswell Jr & Lopez Jr, 2013; Huxter, 2015;
Olendzki, 2014; Titmuss, 2018).
The second group of the Threefold Training is called ‘samādhi’, which refers to
concentration, meditation, mental discipline (Boyce et al., 2009; Stanley, 2015). The
training in mentality is known as the practice of meditation that encompasses all
forms of meditative practice directed towards the achievement of states of
concentration (Buswell Jr & Lopez Jr, 2013). Literature on Buddhist meditative
practices has indicated various meditation techniques and objects of meditation
(Harvey, 2015; Jayasaro, 2014). Meditative practices involve the attempt to keep
coming back to the focused object each time there is a distraction, which is the
process of developing and sustaining concentration (Batchelor, 2011). In this training,
mindfulness (sati) plays a crucial role in the ability to continuously keep one’s mind
focused on a single object, because mindfulness is the presence of mind and
alertness, which helps one be able to pay attention to the object of concentration
moment by moment (Gunaratana, 2001; Jayasaro, 2014). When the mind wanders
away from the selected object of contemplation, mindfulness reminds one to return
to it (Buswell Jr & Lopez Jr, 2013; Harvey, 2015). This leads to the ability to establish
and maintain a one-pointed state of mind, which is how right concentration can be
developed (Batchelor, 2011; Buswell Jr & Lopez Jr, 2013). Samādhi or the training in
concentration is expanded on in more detail in the subsequent section regarding
Buddhist meditations.
The third aspect within the Threefold Training is the training in wisdom (paññā),
which aims to develop insight into the true nature of reality (Buswell Jr & Lopez Jr,
2013). Such insight can be generated from a clear and one-pointed state of mind
83
(Boyce et al., 2009). Insights that one gains through the training in wisdom provide a
deep and penetrative understanding about the way things are; the three key
characteristics of existence (tilakkhana), which are impermanence (anicca),
instability (dukkha), and non-self (anatta); how suffering arises; and how the inner
causes of suffering can be eradicated (Gunaratana, 2011; Jayasaro, 2014; Payutto,
2018). As a result, the mind becomes more liberated as it is less attached to things,
which may help one abandon thoughts, emotions and behavioural patterns that are
the cause for distress for oneself and others (Buddhadasa, 2007; Huxter, 2015).
2.13.2 Buddhist meditations
In Buddhism, there are two major branches of meditation or mental development,
namely samatha (calm meditation) and vipassana (insight meditation) (Buswell Jr &
Lopez Jr, 2013). In the psychology discipline, these two types of Buddhist meditation
are known as focused attention and open monitoring respectively (Lomas et al.,
2014). Samatha and vipassana are distinct in their nature, yet are interrelated. The
following two sections outline the characteristics of these two meditation types as
well as how they are interrelated in practice.
Samatha (Calm meditation)
Samatha is a Pali word that is translated as calmness, serenity, peace, evenness, or
tranquillity (Buswell Jr & Lopez Jr, 2013; Harvey, 2015; Jayasaro, 2014). Thus,
samatha meditation is known as calm meditation, referring to focused attention
practices in psychology research (Lomas et al., 2014). This type of meditation is
practised through the cultivation of concentration (samādhi) that primarily involves
training the mind to focus and sustain attention on one object, such as the breath,
over a prolonged period of time, which results in serenity and mental calmness
(Goodman et al., 2018; Lomas et al., 2014).
Mindfulness is also essential in the cultivation of concentration in samatha
meditation. During the initial stage, especially for those who are less experienced in
the practice, attention is less disciplined and the mind tends to habitually wander
84
from the object of focus or to proliferate with thoughts (Goodman et al., 2018).
Mindfulness counteracts this forgetfulness towards focusing on the object that
occurs when the mind wanders away (Buswell Jr & Lopez Jr, 2013). Harvey (2015)
explains that the mind wanders because mindfulness slips so that one forgets what
one is supposed to be doing, in this case is concentrating on the object, and resulting
in concentration being lost. Mindfulness returns when one notices that the mind is
not on the object. Therefore, samatha needs a high degree of both mindfulness and
concentration, because for a state of concentration to be sustained, it requires
distractions to be recognised when they arise and attention to be redirected back to
the object of concentration (Goodman et al., 2018).
The aim of samatha meditation is to develop the quality of concentration to reach a
state in which the mind is free from distraction or wavering and has truly become
one-pointed (Harvey, 2015). The reason for developing one-pointedness of the mind
is because this specific degree of concentration is needed before one can observe
things in their true nature without adding one’s delusions, emotions or reactions to
them, which is the core process for generating insight into reality in vipassana
meditation (Buswell Jr & Lopez Jr, 2013; Harvey, 2015). Vipassana or insight
meditation is expanded on in the next section.
Vipassana (Insight meditation)
Vipassana meditation or insight meditation also represents mindfulness meditation
or open monitoring, which is known in contemporary psychology research (Huxter,
2015; Lomas et al., 2014). Vipassana needs a degree of calmness, as generated in
samatha meditation (explained in the previous section); however, for vipassana, the
mind does not remain focused only on a particular object, but observes various
physical sensations as they occur (Harvey, 2015). Vipassana involves training the
mind to be receptive to changing moment-to-moment experiences (Goodman et al.,
2018). The key practice is to be attuned to everything going on in the body and mind
without trying to suppress or change any physical sensations, emotions or thoughts
(Udomratn, 2009).
85
The purpose of vipassana meditation is to gain insight into three key characteristics
of existence (tilakkhana), which are impermanence (anicca), instability (dukkha), and
non-self (anatta) (Gunaratana, 2011; Payutto, 2018). Vipassana mediation brings the
mind to attune to the nature of things: firstly, that all things are subject to change
and impermanence (anicca); secondly, that things are unable to sustain themselves
in an original form due to the pressure, stress and friction from rising and
disintegration (dukkha); and thirdly, that existence is impersonal (anattā) as there is
nothing one can truly claim as permanent self, fixed possession, or under one’s
authority to control (Goodman et al., 2018; Harvey, 2015; Jayasaro, 2014; Payutto,
2018). By allowing the one-pointed mind to observe changing moment-to-moment
experience over prolonged periods of time, this can lead to penetrative insight into
the true nature of the three characteristics of existence. Thereby, the mind becomes
less attached to things and more able to eliminate defilements, such as greed, lust,
anger, hatred, and other unwholesome states of mind.
In summary, samatha and vipassana meditations are interdependent in terms of
application and both types of meditation need mindfulness. When practising
samatha, a degree of mindful awareness is needed to detect when attention has
drifted away from its focused object in order to sustain a one-pointed state of mind.
Similarly, vipassana practice requires the mind to stay in the present moment to
observe the moment-to-moment experience (Goodman et al., 2018).
86
Satipatthana: The four foundations of mindfulness
As described earlier, samatha and vipassana are the two main types of Buddhist
meditation. The detailed instructions for both meditation practices are found in the
classical Buddhist scripture called Satipatthana-sutta or the discourse on the four
foundations of mindfulness. Theoretically speaking, Satipatthana-sutta provides the
range of processes needed for the development of insight and the fullest explanation
of the instructions on how mindfulness can be cultivated in a way that leads to the
realisation of enlightenment (Analayo, 2015b; Bodhi, 2011; Huxter, 2015). The
method to practice the four foundations of mindfulness in accordance with the
instructions described in Satipatthana-sutta covers both samatha and vipassana
meditation (Chavan, 2007; Harvey, 2015).
The four foundations of mindfulness are the core principles of Buddhist meditation
(Nyanaponika, 1962), and emphasise the four domains of contemplation, namely
body, feelings, mind, and phenomena (Huxter, 2015). Moreover, this discourse
provides the source from which current therapeutic mindfulness practice, as seen in
modern MBIs, is primarily derived (Brazier, 2013). The details of the four foundations
of mindfulness are summarised in Table 2.6.
87
Table 2.6: The Four Foundations of Mindfulness
Source: Compiled by the author, based on Analayo (2003, 2015b), Gunaratana (2012) and
Huxter (2007, 2015)
88
2.13.3 Summary of the principles related to Buddhist approaches to
mindfulness
To summarise, the key Buddhist principles reviewed within this traditional BM
section are regarded as the common core of Buddhist teachings across the three
Buddhist traditions and they are the principles underlying mindfulness concepts and
practices in Buddhism. Furthermore, they are all interconnected as can be seen in
Figure 2.3, which illustrates the relationship between the principles underlying BM.
Figure 2.3: The relationship of the principles underlying BM
Source: Author’s construct based on Gunaratana (2001, 2012) and Huxter (2015)
Figure 2.3 starts with the principles of the FNTs, which have the NEP, as the way that
leads to the cessation of suffering, as the fourth truth. Within the NEP, one of the
eight factors is called “right mindfulness”, which is considered a unifying factor
89
present in all of the other seven factors. The instructions for how to cultivate right
mindfulness are further explained through the Satipatthana-sutta or the discourse
on the four foundation of mindfulness, which teaches the practices of the four
foundations of mindfulness: mindfulness of the body, mindfulness of feelings,
mindfulness of mind and mindfulness of dhammas or phenomena. Lastly, the forms
of meditative practices that are aligned with the Satipatthana-sutta are the samatha
(calm meditation) and vipassana (insight meditation) methods.
However, mindfulness practices that have been adopted in MM do not cover the full
set of principles that are the foundation of the BM scheme, but rather skip directly
to the practical dimension of mindfulness, which consists of vipassana or mindfulness
meditation and the four foundations of mindfulness. The reason for this is probably
because some of the Buddhist teachings, particularly the methods within vipassana
practices that teach one not to seek to modify external stimuli, but merely to observe
one’s own cognitive and emotional states, seem to be compatible with modern
psychological techniques and psychological well-being concepts (Gethin, 2001).
Indeed, in recent years, mindfulness meditation has been utilised as a means for
treating a variety of psychological and physical disorders and for reducing stress
levels because it enables practitioners to work differently with anxious and
depressed patients by attempting to end the struggle with unwanted thoughts and
feelings without forcing patients to eliminate them (Chiesa & Malinowski, 2011;
Dunkley & Loewenthal, 2013).
2.14 Criticisms towards Buddhist Approaches to Mindfulness
It is highly controversial as to whether or not the whole Buddhist framework of
mindfulness practice would be acceptable in secular contexts or contexts which are
heavily dominated by non-Buddhist-based spiritual and religious philosophies
(Sutamchai et al., 2020). There has been an ongoing debate among scholars over
issues such as whether or not MM could be more aligned with the traditional
90
Buddhist approach and whether or not Buddhist ethics should be included, either
implicitly or explicitly, in MM interventions (Baer, 2015; Lindahl, 2015; Monteiro et
al., 2015).
On one hand, various scholars seem to advocate the idea that MM interventions may
be of more benefit if they can put some of the elements and teachings from the
traditional Buddhist approach to good use. For example, Monteiro et al. (2015) argue
for a middle path between Buddhist and secular mindfulness approaches, because
there are significant areas of overlap between the two approaches, which they
suggest, with a rigorous and continued dialogue between the two camps, may lead
to mutual benefits. Similarly, Van Gordon et al. (2015) and Shonin et al. (2016)
support the argument that Buddhist and scientific researchers can work together to
bring the best of help to human beings. Other scholars perceive that the current time
could be appropriate for starting to re-contextualise MM with the traditional
Buddhist approach since mindfulness practices have gained more acceptance.
Thereby, contemporary mindfulness could increase its potential while addressing its
existing pitfalls by taking some useful concepts or elements from the Buddhist
approach into account (Lomas, 2017; Lomas et al., 2014; Lomas & Jnanavaca, 2015).
Meanwhile, some of the proponents of the BM approach go so far as to argue against
any de-contextualisation and deviation of mindfulness from the traditional Buddhist
way (Purser, 2015).
On the other hand, various scholars point out some major concerns in bringing the
modern secular mindfulness approach into line with the traditional Buddhist
approach, although they do not completely reject the idea that the two streams can
maintain useful dialogue (Baer, 2015; Lindahl, 2015). Perhaps the key debate
between modern and BM approaches is over the issue regarding the lack of ethics
training in MM, which can potentially cause ethically problematic or misguided
applications of MM, especially when mindfulness is applied in corporate contexts
(Monteiro et al., 2015; Purser, 2019; Purser & Milillo, 2015). However, Baer (2015)
makes a crucial point that the direct use of Buddhist ethics in MM can raise a problem
91
about the source of authority regarding what is ethical, given that ethical guidance
should not merely come from Buddhist sources. In particular, more serious problems
can occur in professional contexts, such as clinical settings, in which interventions
cannot be heavily based on a religion (Ibid). Lindahl (2015) echoes this view by
providing various examples of negative consequences when interventions that are
based on a particular religion were applied in contexts in which they need to be
secular, such as clinical settings and schools.
Another controversial issue is regarding dhamma or Buddhist teachings about the
law of nature and the truth about the way things are. The reality that the Buddha
described as natural law can be seen as ontological constraints, which can be
challenged by people who have different perceptions (Compson & Monteiro, 2016).
The attempt to bring dhamma teachings into MM practices by presenting dhamma
as the natural or universal law is subject to the sceptical response that it is rhetoric
aimed at bringing Buddhism into secular contexts (Ibid). Furthermore, various
terminologies, concepts, and philosophical claims within the Buddhist system can
also be problematic if they were to be applied in secular or different spiritual
contexts. For example, Ratnayake and Merry (2018) argue that application of
mindfulness practices from the Buddhist approach are metaphysically loaded with
philosophical claims about the self (i.e. the Buddhist non-self ideology), which cause
tension with many people’s core beliefs. Moreover, certain concepts in Buddhism
propose different understandings from those of psychological science, such as the
term “suffering”. Lindahl (2015) points out that it can be difficult for MM
interventions to adopt the whole Buddhist model since there are cross-cultural
differences in conceptualisation of suffering and coping strategies.
Eventually, it is possible that any associations of MM interventions with Buddhism
may cause problems regarding individual differences, which may impact on the
acceptability of certain elements within mindfulness practices, from the instructions
to the content of the teachings that accompany BM practices (Palitsky & Kaplan,
2019). Teaching mindfulness in some contexts, such as in schools, can be a sensitive
92
issue; given the Buddhist origin of these practices, some participants may feel
hesitant about the practice (Paulson & Kretz, 2018). Meanwhile, certain participants
may be indirectly marginalised given that the practice indicates an advocacy of a
particular substantive set of values from one religion (Geisz, 2016).
2.15 A Summary of Gaps in the Literature
A review of current literature related to the two streams of the research, namely
ethical leadership (EL) and mindfulness, both modern mindfulness (MM) and
Buddhist mindfulness (BM), has revealed a range of gaps in that literature.
In terms of the EL literature, two main gaps are found. Firstly, current EL studies have
predominantly been developed from a Western perspective or from empirical
Western-based data collection, mostly in the private sector (Batmanghlich, 2015;
Eisenbeiss, 2012; Eisenbeiß & Brodbeck, 2014; Martin et al., 2013; Resick et al., 2006,
2011). Hence, there has been a call for more cross-cultural research on EL. In
particular, EL research in Thailand is still lacking. To the author’s best knowledge, no
prior social scientific approach to EL research has been conducted in Thailand
regarding what determines ethical leaders in the Thai context.
Secondly, the study of ethical behaviour development for organisational leaders is
still limited in the current literature. While numerous studies have addressed the
positive outcomes of EL (Bedi et al., 2016; Mostafa & Abed El-Motalib, 2020; Wei et
al., 2020), research regarding how EL can be developed remains scarce (Brown &
Treviño, 2006; Sharma et al., 2019; Treviño & Brown, 2014). More importantly,
scholars have raised concern about the effectiveness of compliance or rule-based
approach to ethics as well as conventional ethics teaching programmes (Stevulak &
Brown, 2011; Trapp, 2011; Tremblay et al., 2017). There is a need to find alternative
ways, particularly the use of value-based or self-regulatory approaches to ethics, to
93
complement compliance-based mechanisms (Brewer et al., 2015; Martineau et al.,
2017; Tremblay et al., 2017).
As for the literature regarding mindfulness, there are four important gaps found in
the current research. Firstly, there has been a paucity of research on interpersonal
benefits of mindfulness, especially in an organisational context, since the majority of
existing mindfulness studies have primarily focused on intrapersonal benefits, such
as stress reduction, lowered anxiety, reduced emotional exhaustion, increased work
performance, greater cognitive performance and greater job satisfaction (Glomb et
al., 2011; Good et al., 2016).
Secondly, although there has been a dramatic growth of interest in mindfulness
research in the past few decades, most empirical studies in the extant literature on
mindfulness focus on modern secular mindfulness as practised in Western contexts.
To date, there has been much less empirical mindfulness research in Eastern
countries, such as Thailand.
Thirdly, a major criticism has been that research on mindfulness in the workplace,
which is mostly based on the MM approach, has neglected the interlinkage between
mindfulness practices and ethics development, even though the MM approach is
largely derived from Buddhist traditions (Reb et al., 2018). BM scholars argue that
Buddhist approaches to mindfulness are explicitly and purposefully taught to
facilitate moral behaviour development; nevertheless, this purpose is largely
overlooked by workplace mindfulness researchers and practitioners (Grossman,
2011; Grossman & Van Dam, 2011; Purser, 2019; Purser & Milillo, 2015; Qiu &
Rooney, 2017; Sun, 2014). However, most prior research has critically discussed this
issue by discussing the Buddhist principles underlying traditional practices of
mindfulness in Buddhism in order to highlight the differences between the MM and
BM concepts. Given that BM research has been predominantly guided by theory
rather than direct empirical data, little is known about how mindfulness is
understood and how the Buddhist form of mindfulness is actually practised in the
East (Charoensukmongkol, 2014; Krägeloh, 2019; Surinrut et al., 2016).
94
Lastly, from a methodological perspective, a review of the extant literature has
revealed that prior mindfulness research, especially in organisational contexts, has
been predominantly based on quantitative methods (Ditrich, 2016), for instance
investigating the correlations between mindfulness and certain variables, such as
stress level, job satisfaction, performance, and well-being. Consequently, there has
been a call for researchers to incorporate qualitative approaches in order to capture
the complexity and depth of the practice of mindfulness in organisational settings
(Choi & Leroy, 2015; Grossman & Van Dam, 2011).
Drawing from the gaps in the literature, this thesis seeks to address these gaps by
empirically studying EL and traditional Buddhist approaches to mindfulness in an
Eastern country, Thailand. The aim of this current research is to augment empirical
understanding of mindfulness practices in the Eastern Buddhist context, with a
particular focus on the extent to which Buddhist mindfulness can influence leaders’
ethical values and behaviour, through the examination of mindfulness practices
among Thai organisational executive leaders in the Thai Buddhist context. Given that
the research links mindfulness practices to the ethical behaviour of organisational
leaders, this may potentially contribute to the search for more alternative ways to
complement the compliance-based approach to ethics in developing EL in
organisational contexts. Moreover, this research employs a mixed methods
approach, with a priority on qualitative methods to study mindfulness in order to
address methodological gaps found in current mindfulness literature, which lacks the
depth and insightful data that can be drawn from qualitative approaches. The
research methodology and methods used for data collection are presented in detail
in Chapter Four.
95
2.16 Chapter Summary
This chapter provides a summary and critical review of the existing literature relating
to the research. The first part of the chapter begins with a review of literature relating
to EL. While this research draws from EL theory as the main theoretical underpinning
of the research, the shortcomings of EL theory regarding its reliance on Western
perspectives are also discussed. Hence, the chapter further reviews EL research from
cross-cultural EL studies. Based on this review, the research synthesises seven
common core EL dimensions across Western and Eastern cultures, namely: 1)
humane/people orientation; 2) honesty; 3) justice and fairness; 4) moderation; 5)
responsibility and sustainability; 6) discipline; and 7) role model. These EL dimensions
contribute to the development of the conceptual framework for the research, which
is presented in Chapter Four.
Another key critical issue regarding EL is related to how ethical leaders can be
developed. A review of literature has found that scholars have raised concerns about
compliance-based or rule-based mechanisms for ethical practices as well as about
conventional ethics training that they cannot provide an adequate framework for
developing leaders’ ethical behaviour. Drawing from this critical issue, the second
part of this chapter moves on to review relevant literature on mindfulness given that
a growing number of recent studies indicate the link from mindfulness to awareness,
which is the key factor underlying ethical behaviour. The chapter extensively reviews
the concept of mindfulness, with a particular emphasis on the two main approaches
to it, namely modern and Buddhist approaches. The relevant literature on
mindfulness for ethical behaviour from both approaches is reviewed. Moreover, the
chapter also discusses the criticisms and controversial issues related to the use and
application of both modern and Buddhist approaches to mindfulness.
96
CHAPTER 3: ENGAGED BUDDHISM AND
MINDFULNESS PRACTICES IN THAILAND
The aim of this chapter is to introduce the Thai context, which is the context of study
for this research. An emphasis is placed on engaged Buddhism, the background of
Buddhism, the influence of Buddhism on Thai culture and values, as well as on
mindfulness practices in Thailand. Additionally, challenges regarding Buddhist and
mindfulness practices at the current time in Thailand are also discussed. Lastly, the
chapter concludes with a review of literature and prior research on mindfulness in
Thai organisations. The research gaps are also identified.
3.1 Engaged Buddhism in Thailand
3.1.1 Background of Buddhism
Historically, Buddhism originated in North East India over 2,500 years ago after
Siddhattha Gotama became a Buddha (meaning an awakened one), and began to
teach ways towards awakening or enlightenment (Ditrich, 2016; Harvey, 2013;
Huxter, 2015; Shonin, Van Gordon, & Griffiths, 2014; Stanley, 2013). The Buddha
spent his life teaching people ways that led to peace of mind, wisdom and complete
liberation from sufferings and dissatisfaction (Gunaratana, 2001). The teachings of
the Buddha are called the dhamma, which refers to laws of nature or truths inherent
in nature (Payutto, 2018, p. 402). Buddhist teachings are mostly concerned with the
way things are, the truth about life, a sense of lawfulness about causes and effects,
actions and consequences, and interdependence among all things (Bodhi, 2011;
Huxter, 2007).
97
Buddhism is a plural tradition so that some concepts or practices can be slightly
different between traditions (Dreyfus, 2011). Buddhism and its practices expanded
throughout different Asian countries, which led to the development of various types
of mindfulness practices in the countries where Buddhist teachings were embraced
(Bodhi, 2011). There are three main Buddhist traditions: Theravada, Mahayana or
Zen, and Vajrayana or Tibetan traditions (Kabat-Zinn, 2003; Lomas, 2017). Shonin et
al. (2014) summarise the significant characteristics of each Buddhist tradition, with
the most recent school being Vajrayana Buddhism, considered to have originated in
the seventh century AD. Great importance is placed on the bond with the spiritual
guide and practices related to a realisation of the nature of the mind. This school is
embraced in Himalayan plateau countries, such as Tibet, Bhutan, Nepal, and
Mongolia. Secondly, Mahayana Buddhism is believed to have emerged in the first
century AD. This school places emphasis on the concept of compassion, and on the
empty nature of phenomena. Mahayana Buddhism is prevalent throughout East
Asian countries, such as Japan, Taiwan, Korea, and Vietnam. Lastly, Theravada
Buddhism is the longest enduring school of Buddhist tradition. The concepts and
practices in this school show great adherence to the Buddha’s original teachings. This
school is prevalent in Sri Lanka, Burma and Thailand.
3.1.2 Buddhism and Thai culture
Thailand is a Buddhist society in which 94.6 percent of the population are Buddhist
(National Statistical Office, 2015). Buddhism is the national religion of Thailand and
is supported by the King (Wongtes, 2000). Theravada Buddhism is the main influence
on Thai culture and values given that it has roots in Thai society going back many
centuries and has played a major role in shaping the way of life, attitudes and social
values of Thai people (Runglertkrengkrai & Engkaninan, 1987; Wongtes, 2000). A
survey carried out by the National Statistical Office (NSO) shows that more than 50%
of 32,198 Thai Buddhists reported usually or always engaging in behaviours that are
influenced by Buddhist values, such as expressing gratitude to one’s parents (84%),
returning favours (82%), accepting guilt (72%), forgiving (70%), practising principles
98
of sufficiency economy (59%), and helping those in need (53%) (Winzer & Gray,
2018).
In terms of engagement with Buddhism, many Thais are involved with Buddhist
practices to some degree. Thai children usually receive Buddhist teaching at school,
temple or home (Assanangkornchai et al., 2002; Weisz et al., 1995). In particular, it is
quite common for many Thai Buddhist men to attain monkhood at some point in
their lives (Assanangkornchai et al., 2002). To be on the Buddhist path, a layperson
may observe the five precepts (Pancha Sila), practise meditation, and gain merit
(Tamboon) by doing good deeds, such as making donations and offering food to
monks (Takbat). Notably, all these Buddhist practices are not compulsory or done by
commandment, but they are considered as the Buddhist way of life (Leelavanichkul
et al., 2018). Generally, Thai Buddhists freely choose the extent to which they want
to participate in various Buddhist practices in their lives, such as chanting, offering
food or goods to monks, listening to or reading about dhamma (the Buddha’s
teachings), and meditating (National Statistical Office, 2015).
3.2 Mindfulness Practices in Thailand
Meditation is seen as a common way to practise mindfulness, which has deep roots
in Buddhism. Given that Thailand is a Buddhist society, the concept of mindfulness
meditation is not something new for most Thai people, and some of them may have
been introduced to mindfulness practices in childhood (Wongtongkam et al., 2018),
such as in schools that offer Buddhist studies (Srinivasan, 2011). While modern
mindfulness mainly aims to use the benefits of relaxation and improvement in
general health, mindfulness in Buddhist contexts, such as Thailand, is commonly
practised with the purpose of spiritual development and benefits (Surinrut et al.,
2016). In the Thai context in particular, the relationships between culture, spirituality
and religion are relatively intertwined (Blomfield, 2009; Yiengprugsawan et al.,
2010).
99
In Thailand, meditation training is widely offered in various temples and institutions
(Van Den Muyzenberg, 2014). There are hundreds of meditation centres with
different types of teachers, ranging from monks to laypeople, and there are also
many types of meditation methods being taught. Thai meditation centres are diverse
in terms of the format of their retreat processes, programme schedules, numbers of
participants per course, styles of management, course lengths, types of
accommodation, and environments (Schedneck, 2017). Moreover, mindfulness
meditation practices have recently become more popular in many organisations
(Petchsawang & McLean, 2017).
From a traditional Buddhist perspective, mindfulness is deliberately taught as a key
component in a path to spiritual liberation (Wynne, 2007). It could be said that the
ultimate purpose of mindfulness practice in Buddhism is the attainment of nibbana
or enlightenment (Bodhi, 2011; Marques, 2015; Wallace & Shapiro, 2006).
Enlightenment in Buddhism refers to the elimination of all kinds of dissatisfaction or
suffering caused by greed, hatred and delusion. Traditionally speaking, a primary goal
of Buddhist meditation is an increase in virtuous mental states and behaviour to
counter those causes of suffering (Lim et al., 2015). When all those causes are
extinguished, the mind and senses are absolutely pure and clear, which can result in
true inner happiness (Gunaratana, 2001). Therefore, mindfulness is at the heart of
the Buddha’s teachings and is seen as a fundamental aspect of Buddhist practice
(Hanh, 1999; Shonin, Van Gordon, & Singh, 2015).
In a nutshell, it could be summarised from Buddhist literature that there are two
significant roles of mindfulness that are crucial for awakening. Firstly, according to
Gunaratana (2012), mindfulness helps in recognising one’s actions, feelings, thoughts
and perceptions at the moment they arise. This awareness allows one to see clearly
whether the actions come from beneficial (e.g. generosity, compassion and wisdom)
or harmful (e.g. greed, hatred and delusion) impulses. When one is mindful of the
deep roots from which thoughts, words and deeds are produced, it provides the
opportunity to cultivate those that are beneficial while eliminating those that are
100
harmful. This is because beneficial actions ultimately bring peace of mind and
happiness to life, which is part of the progress towards liberation from suffering.
Secondly, mindfulness practices lead to the realisation of the three characteristics of
phenomena, which are impermanence (anicca), instability (dukkha), and non-self
(anatta) (Harvey, 2015; Payutto, 2018). Within the process of mindfulness practices,
the mind is trained to pay attention to what is happening inside oneself and in the
outside environment so that one can develop deep insight about the truth
(Gunaratana, 2012). For example, by observing what is happening from moment to
moment, one can see that everything continually changes. This is the way to
understand the truth and reality about the world that all experience is impermanent,
and that nothing is therefore worth clinging or attaching to (Gunaratana, 2001). The
less worldly attachment and burning desire one has, the more inner peace and true
happiness one can gain.
In terms of mindfulness practices in Thailand, broadly speaking, some Thai Buddhists
have a more profound understanding of Buddhism, while others may not understand
core Buddhist teachings and the purposes of mindfulness practices (Schedneck,
2017). Despite the ultimate purpose of BM practices explained earlier, Thai people
practise mindfulness or attend meditation retreats for many reasons (Surinrut et al.,
2016). Due to the scope of the research and word count limitation, it is not possible
to investigate deeply into all the kinds of purposes and the degrees of understanding
of Thai BM practitioners. In brief, there are two main levels of purposes that Thai
people aim for when they practise mindfulness. First, the lokkutara (world-
transcending) level has the ultimate goal of enlightenment. Monastic, religious
layperson and advanced practitioners usually aim for this goal. Second, the lokiya
(worldly) level has the goal of general happiness in worldly life (Schedneck, 2017).
For example, some people practise mindfulness to try to search for ways to solve
problems (Surinrut et al., 2016), since it is common for Thais who are suffering from
emotional distress to seek advice from dhamma and to practise meditation
(Srichannil & Prior, 2014). Some people may hope to gain merit from keeping to the
101
precepts and staying at a temple during retreat. Mostly, practitioners in earlier stages
aim to generate an increased ability to remain mindful, calm and concentrated, along
with other more practical goals (Kitiarsa, 2012). However, research has found that
Thai people may practise mindfulness with both lokiya and lokuttara goals, as these
are not contradictory; the world-transcending (lokuttara) level may be set as a long-
term goal, while the worldly (lokiya) level can be achieved along the way (Cook,
2012).
3.3 Challenges of Buddhist Practices in Thailand
It is important to note that although Buddhism is the main religion of most Thai
citizens, understanding of Buddhist concepts and involvement in Buddhist practices
can be varied among Thai Buddhists. In addition, Buddhist values and practices are
currently being challenged in Thai society (Chamratrithirong et al., 2013).
In the long-term historical background, Thai culture and values have been nurtured
and diversified through various concepts and ideologies (Jones, 2013). Originally,
Thai people had their own traditional beliefs, especially belief in supernatural spirits,
before becoming associated with Buddhism (Wongtes, 2000). Later on, there has
been the mixture of Buddhism with other religious practices and beliefs such as
Hindu Gods, animistic folk beliefs in spirits, supernatural power and astrology (Baker
& Phongpaichit, 2014; Malikhao, 2017b). As a result, one cannot assume that original
Buddhist teachings are identical with the actual beliefs and practices of Thai
Buddhists themselves, because many of them may have an understanding of
Buddhism that is mixed with other religions or beliefs (Boyce et al., 2009).
Over time, Thai society has passed through cultural, economic, and social changes,
and Buddhist practices and values in Thailand have also been affected by these
changes. Like many other countries, contemporary Thailand is subject to
developments in the world economy and the pressures of capitalist ideology. Since
102
the introduction of globalisation and capitalism, many aspects of Buddhist values and
practices have been eroded (Boyce et al., 2009; Chamratrithirong et al., 2013). Thai
society is changing in response to processes of development, modernisation, and
globalisation, resulting in Buddhist values being challenged (Parnwell & Seeger,
2008). For instance, the need for short-term gain has often undermined Buddhist
thinking on wisdom, compassion and upright behaviour (Boyce et al., 2009).
To be able to survive in a fast paced and competitive world, many Thais seem to focus
more on how to serve practical needs, rather than spiritual needs. Research has
found that Thai people in urban areas, especially the younger generation, are less
committed to traditional Buddhist practices (Chamratrithirong et al., 2013). For many
Thai youths, enlightenment seems a long way away since their focus is on making a
living now and coping with life’s daily problems. Consequently, Buddhist practices
are seen by many young Thai people as being a good thing, but optional, which is
why they would engage in Buddhist practices when they have time and want to do
so (Hughes et al., 2008). The statistics from a national survey also reveal that basic
principles and practices, for example, the five precepts, as well as meditation are
practised less occasionally by Thai Buddhists (Winzer & Gray, 2018). In particular,
research has found that many young Thai people have only occasionally, or never
participated in Buddhist practices (Hughes et al., 2008).
To conclude, given that Thai society is complex and multifaceted, Thai Buddhists have
different levels of understanding of Buddhism and their degree of involvement in
Buddhist practices, including mindfulness practices, can be varied. Although most
Thai people define themselves as Buddhists, this does not necessarily mean that
most Thais regularly engage in Buddhism or endorse Buddhist values, nor does it
mean they possess a deep understanding of Buddhist principles (Boyce et al., 2009;
Winzer & Gray, 2018).
103
3.4 Extant Research on Mindfulness in Organisations in
Thailand
Researchers have begun to study the application of mindfulness in Thai
organisations, which has resulted in a growing number of studies that have found
benefits in the application of mindfulness for employees and organisations. For
example, prior research that has studied mindfulness in Thai organisational contexts
has found that employees who regularly practise mindfulness meditation tend to
have lower job burnout (Charoensukmongkol, 2013). Vipassana (insight meditation)
has been found to partially mediate the relationship between workplace spirituality
and work performance (Petchsawang & Duchon, 2012), and to also have positive
effects on employees’ peace of mind, loving kindness, and organisational citizenship
behaviour (Ariyabuddhiphongs & Pratchawittayagorn, 2014). Moreover, the role of
mindfulness as a personal characteristic has a positive correlation with lower
resistance to change in merger and acquisition scenarios (Charoensukmongkol, 2016,
2017). Additionally, it has been found that Thai organisations that offer meditation
courses have high levels of workplace spirituality and employee engagement
(Petchsawang & McLean, 2017).
Nevertheless, the body of mindfulness research in the Thai organisational context is
still limited compared to the research in Western contexts. Moreover, research on
mindfulness in the area of leadership is even more lacking in Thailand. Thus, there is
a clear opportunity for an empirical study on the BM concept and practice and the
influence on leaders’ ethical behaviour, as well as on the contribution of BM as
perceived by Thai leaders. More importantly, to the author’s best knowledge, no
research in Thai context has linked BM practices to ethical behaviour, especially EL.
Despite the key argument of BM scholars being that Buddhist approaches to
mindfulness area underpinned by ethical framework, little is known about whether
or not Thai organisational leaders who practise BM would engage in ethical
behaviour and about how BM could be related to leaders’ ethical behaviour.
104
3.5 Chapter Summary
Since the aim of the study is to augment empirical understanding of mindfulness
practices in the Eastern Buddhist context, with a particular focus on the extent to
which Buddhist mindfulness can influence leaders’ ethical values and behaviour,
through the examination of mindfulness practices among Thai organisational
executive leaders in the Thai Buddhist context, this chapter sets the tone for the
context of the study by providing an overview of the Thai Buddhist context and how
Buddhism has influenced Thai culture and values throughout history. Moreover, the
way mindfulness is practised in the Thai Buddhist context and the prior research on
mindfulness in Thai organisations are also reviewed. The chapter discusses the
challenges related to mindfulness practices in Thailand, in that Thai Buddhists have
different understandings of Buddhism and the levels of their engagement in BM
practices are varied. Furthermore, to the author’s best knowledge, no prior research
on the Thai context has linked BM practices to ethical behaviour in leaders. Hence,
to address this gap, this research studies the influence of BM on ethical values and
behaviour among Thai organisational executive leaders who are interested and
engage in mindfulness practices. In this regard, the research design and methodology
are explained and discussed in the following chapter.
105
CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This chapter discusses the research design and methods employed to examine the
research questions. The chapter begins with the research questions and the
conceptual framework of the study. It then goes on to discuss an overview of
research philosophy, followed by the philosophical assumptions of this research. This
leads to the explanation of the research methodology, which is a mixed methods
approach, and the data collection techniques, which are both quantitative and
qualitative methods. The rationale for the sampling strategies is also discussed. It
then goes on to demonstrate the procedures for the data analysis. Finally, the quality
of the research, including the issues of validity, reliability and ethical considerations
are discussed.
4.1 Research Questions
As the current knowledge gaps within BM and EL, particularly in the Eastern and Thai
contexts, are identified in Chapter Two and Chapter Three, those gaps are the main
considerations behind the development of the research objectives, research
questions and the design of this study. The research questions arising from the
literature review are addressed by the context-specific study and a collection of
primary data in this research.
As discussed in the introductory chapter, this research aims to augment empirical
understanding of mindfulness practices in the Eastern Buddhist context, with a
particular focus on the extent to which Buddhist mindfulness can influence leaders’
ethical values and behaviour, through the examination of mindfulness practices
among Thai organisational executive leaders in the Thai Buddhist context. In order
106
to address the aim of this research, Table 4.1 illustrates the research questions in
relation to the research objectives, which are based on the research aim.
Table 4.1: Research objectives and research questions
Research Objectives Research Questions
1. To examine the understanding
and application of the core
principles underlying Buddhist
mindfulness among Thai
organisational executive leaders
who practise mindfulness in the
Thai Buddhist context.
1. What are the core principles underlying Buddhist
mindfulness as understood by Thai organisational
executive leaders who practise mindfulness in the
Thai Buddhist context, and how do they apply those
principles in their mindfulness practices?
2. To explore the extent to which
Buddhist mindfulness principles
and practices influence Thai
organisational executive leaders’
ethical values and behaviours.
2. What ethical values and behaviours are perceived
by Thai organisational executive leaders to be crucial
for ethical leadership?
3. How does Buddhist mindfulness influence ethical
values and behaviours of Thai organisational
executive leaders who are Buddhist mindfulness
practitioners?
4. To what extent are Thai organisational executive
leaders who practise Buddhist mindfulness
perceived as ethical leaders by their direct
employees?
3. To propose prospective
implications of ethical leadership
development through
mindfulness interventions.
5. What are the potential implications of the findings
for the development of ethical leadership in
organisations?
Source: Author’s construct
107
4.2 Research Conceptual Framework
This research focuses on two key streams of literature, namely BM and EL, which
have been reviewed in depth in Chapter Two. The conceptual framework with
reference to the research objectives is illustrated in Figure 4.1 below.
Figure 4.1: Conceptual framework of the research
Source: Author’s construct
From the research conceptual framework illustrated above, it can be seen that BM
and EL form the theoretical framework underpinning this research, which can be
summarised as follows:
108
Principles underlying BM
With regard to the core principles underlying BM, from a review of the literature in
Chapter Two, there are three key principles that BM is founded upon: 1) The Four
Noble Truths; 2) The Noble Eightfold Path, which can be grouped as the Threefold
Training; and 3) the Four Foundations of Mindfulness (Gunaratana, 2001, 2012;
Harvey, 2000, 2013; Huxter, 2015). These three principles are the framework within
which this research examines the understanding and application of the core principles
underlying Buddhist mindfulness among Thai organisational executive leaders who
practise mindfulness in the Thai Buddhist context.
EL dimensions
In order to address the second research objective, which is to explore the extent to
which Buddhist mindfulness principles and practices influence Thai organisational
executive leaders’ ethical values and behaviours, it is important to, first and foremost,
identify what determines EL. EL literature from Western and cross-cultural
perspectives, as well as ethical values in Thai society, have been extensively reviewed
in Chapter Two. Based on this, seven key EL dimensions have been identified as they
are commonly found in various EL literature across cultures, including Thailand (see
Chapter Two, section 2.5 Synthesis of EL Dimensions for more detail). These seven
core EL dimensions comprise of: 1) humane/people orientation; 2) honesty; 3) justice
and fairness; 4) moderation; 5) responsibility and sustainability; 6) discipline; and 7)
role model. Notably, for the research conceptual framework, there is an additional
component that has appeared as the eighth ethical dimension, as illustrated in Figure
4.1, which is the five precepts of Buddhism. Given that this research particularly
focuses on EL in the Thai Buddhist context, the five precepts are generally regarded
as ethical guidelines for Buddhist practitioners, especially those who practise
mindfulness in Buddhist traditions.
These eight ethical dimensions provide the framework to discuss the research
findings on core ethical values and behaviours perceived by Thai executive leaders in
109
comparison to the EL dimensions found in the existing literature. Moreover, the EL
dimensions of this research framework are crucial in the design of the research
questionnaires that seek to examine the extent to which Thai leaders who practise
Buddhist-based mindfulness are perceived as ethical leaders by their direct
employees.
4.3 Research Philosophy
4.3.1 Key concepts and background of research philosophy
This research is regarded as social research, which denotes “academic research on
topics relating to questions relevant to the social scientific fields” (Bryman, 2012, p.
4). Social researchers generate a wealth of data and knowledge about the world and
societies we live in (David & Sutton, 2004). There are various factors that underpin
the process of acquiring knowledge in social research. Creswell and Poth (2018) point
out that what influences social researchers is their beliefs and philosophical
assumptions, which they always bring to their research whether they are aware of it
or not. These beliefs and philosophical assumptions influence the way in which
researchers understand the social world, what they research, what research
questions they ask, and how they go about gathering data (Bryman, 2012; Creswell
& Poth, 2018). These assumptions constitute the “research paradigm.” According to
Kuhn (1996, p. 45), a research paradigm is “the set of common beliefs and
agreements shared between scientists about how problems should be understood
and addressed.” In other words, it is a specific way that researchers perceive the
world and it shapes how they seek answers to research questions. The notion of
paradigm is also known as theoretical perspective (Crotty, 1998; Gray, 2014) and
philosophical worldview (Creswell & Creswell, 2018).
Guba (1990) argues that a research paradigm is essentially characterised by its
ontological, epistemological and methodological dispositions, with ontology and
110
epistemology having a particularly close link (Crotty, 1998). The definitions of
ontology, epistemology and methodology, are summarised as follows:
1) Ontology is “the branch of philosophy that attempts to answer questions
regarding the existence/non-existence of things and their nature” (Epstein,
2012, p. 10).
2) Epistemology is “usually understood as being concerned with knowledge
about knowledge” (Johnson and Duberley, 2000, p. 3). Epistemology deals
with “the nature of knowledge” (Hamlyn, 1995, p. 242).
3) Methodology is: “the strategy or plan of action. This is the research design
that shapes our choice and use of particular methods and links them to the
desired outcomes” (Crotty, 1998, p. 7). Thus, methodology deals with “the
nature of research design and methods” (Sarantakos, 2013, p. 29).
Moreover, Crotty (1998) explains that in the process of conducting social scientific
research, a relationship exists between the researcher’s view of the epistemology,
the theoretical perspective or paradigm adopted by the researcher and the
methodology and methods used. Here, “research methods” can be described as the
concrete “techniques or tools” researchers use to collect and interpret data (Crotty,
1998; Hesse-Biber & Leavy, 2004). In terms of research approaches, Creswell and
Creswell (2018) further discuss how the philosophical paradigm or theoretical
perspective held by individual researchers leads them to embrace any one of the
three research approaches: the qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods
approaches.
This interrelation between ontology, epistemology, theoretical stance or
philosophical paradigm, methodology, research methods, and research approach,
can be demonstrated in Figure 4.2.
111
Figure 4.2: The philosophical foundation of social research
Source: Author’s construct, based on Crotty (1998); Creswell and Creswell (2018)
4.3.2 Philosophical assumption of the research
As mentioned in the previous section, philosophical assumption is important for
researchers because it influences the adoption of research methodology and
methods, and the approach of the researcher. Thus, it is important to be aware of
the philosophical standpoint of this research at the outset.
There are different paradigms or theoretical perspectives that can influence a
researcher. There is a tension that often relates to that between two contrasting
theoretical positions, positivism versus constructionism (Flick, 2014).
Constructionism or constructivism is also referred to as interpretivism (Creswell &
Creswell, 2018; Robson & McCartan, 2016). The incompatibilities between positivism
and constructionism mean they are often seen as opposite paradigms and these two
camps are seen as engaged in a paradigm war (Lincoln & Guba, 1985).
From the positivist point of view, it is contended that ontologically, there is a reality
out there to be studied, captured, and understood (Guba, 1990). According to Guba
112
and Lincoln (2004), positivism’s epistemology is objectivist, meaning that
phenomena are independent entities and can be objects of investigation. Positivists
employ experimental research and often have stated hypotheses to be verified by
empirical testing. This paradigm is largely based on quantitative data and separation
of facts from values (Robson & McCartan, 2016).
On the contrary, social constructivists believe that individuals seek understanding of
the world in which they live, so they develop subjective meanings for their
experiences through their cognition and perception of the world (Creswell &
Creswell, 2018; Glasersfeld, 1995). Constructionism/constructivism indicates a view
that social properties are constructed through interactions between people, rather
than having a separate existence (Robson & McCartan, 2016). This paradigm informs
a large number of qualitative researchers, who tend to use open-ended questions so
that participants can share their views, thereby seeking to understand the context or
setting of the participants (Crotty, 1998; Flick, 2014).
However, this research is not committed to either of the two ends of the
philosophical continuum. Instead of being guided by philosophical theory, the
researcher rather focuses on the research questions and seeks out any practical
approach that can bring about the answers to the research questions. Furthermore,
the researcher believes that there is no one best way to understand social
phenomena. Thus, an individual researcher should have freedom of choice to employ
the methods, techniques and procedures of research that meet their needs and
purposes. In light of this, scholars point out that there is an alternative research
paradigm posited to occupy a middle ground between the above philosophical
stances, which is known as “pragmatism” (Cherryholmes, 1992; Johnson &
Onwuegbuzie, 2004; Morgan, 2007; Patton, 2002; Robson & McCartan, 2016;
Tashakkori & Teddlie, 2010). The researcher finds this theoretical perspective to be
most compatible and practical for this particular study.
Moreover, the research approach in this study is a mixed methods approach because
this approach allows the researcher to expand the understanding of the research
113
topic and find answers to the research questions by combining quantitative research
method with qualitative ones (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). This approach is aligned
with various scholars who have also suggested that the research paradigm that is
most compatible with the mixed methods approach is pragmatism (Creswell &
Creswell, 2018; Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004). Philosophically, mixed methods
research adopts a pragmatic system, based on a view of knowledge as being both
socially constructed and based upon the reality of the world we experience and live
in (Johnson et al., 2007). Given that pragmatists place more importance on the
research problem being studied and the research questions asked about the problem
(Rossman & Wilson, 1985), they are not committed to any one system of philosophy
and reality, but they look to many approaches in collecting and analysing data rather
than being limited to only one scheme (Cherryholmes, 1992; Murphy, 1990). Hence,
research methods are not determined according to a set of assumptions that flow
from one paradigm or another, but flow from the nature of the research questions
being asked, offering the best chance of obtaining useful and workable answers
(Gray, 2014).
4.3.3 Approaches to theory development: Abductive approach
Saunders et al. (2019) point out that there are three main approaches to theory
development in research, namely deductive, inductive, and abductive, which are
usually guided by the research philosophy that is assumed.
Firstly, the deductive approach is generally used by positivists (Saunders et al., 2019).
In this approach, researchers work from more general to more specific study by
reviewing a wealth of literature to develop a theory and hypothesis (or hypotheses),
and then testing those hypotheses through data analysis (Samuels, 2000; Saunders
et al., 2019). Hence, the deductive approach is considered a “top-down approach”
(Blackstone, 2012).
Secondly, the inductive approach tends to be adopted by constructivists/
interpretivists, who begin with a specific observation of a set of phenomena before
114
they can arrive at broader general conclusions by analysing and reflecting upon
different themes derived from the data (Samuels, 2000; Saunders et al., 2019). The
inductive approach is considered a “bottom-up approach” (Blackstone, 2012).
Lastly, the abductive approach, which is the approach adopted in this research, is an
alternative approach that uses both deductive and inductive approaches to
complement one another (Blackstone, 2012). Saunders et al. (2019) point out that,
within the abductive approach, data are used to explore a phenomenon, identify
themes and explain patterns; thereby, researchers can generate new, or modify
existing theories. This approach can bring “fruitful cross-fertilisation where new
combinations are developed through a mixture of established theoretical models and
new concepts derived from the confrontation with reality” (Dubois & Gadde, 2002, p.
559). Moreover, the abductive approach particularly suits this current research
because firstly, it is likely to be compatible with a pragmatic philosophical stance,
which this research is founded upon; and secondly, when a researcher attempts to
study a topic that has a relatively large number of studies in one context but far less
in the context which the researcher is investigating, then an abductive approach is
suitable (Saunders et al., 2019).
In this study, an inductive approach is taken to examine the understanding and
application of the core principles underlying Buddhist mindfulness among Thai
organisational executive leaders who practise mindfulness in the Thai Buddhist
context, and to explore the extent to which Buddhist mindfulness principles and
practices influence their values and behaviours. The data collected are categorised
into themes to be compared with the existing literature and theory related to EL and
BM. Meanwhile, the leaders’ EL characteristics are examined using a deductive
approach to verify the extent to which those leaders are perceived as ethical leaders
by their direct employees. Finally, an abductive approach is taken to integrate the
empirical data collected using both the inductive and deductive approaches for
critical analysis in accordance with the research objectives and to propose
115
prospective implications for ethical leadership development through mindfulness
interventions as well as recommendations for future research.
4.4 Research Methodology: Mixed Methods Approach
4.4.1 The rationale for the use of a mixed methods approach
Mixed methods research is becoming increasingly recognised as the third major
research approach (Johnson et al., 2007). It is defined as “the type of research in
which a researcher or a team of researchers combines elements of qualitative and
quantitative research approaches (e.g. use of qualitative and quantitative viewpoints,
data collection, analysis, inference techniques) for the broad purposes of breadth and
depth of understanding and corroboration” (Johnson et al., 2007, p. 123). It is noted
that this definition of mixed methods research has been widely accepted in the last
few years (Flick, 2014).
The key guiding methodological principle of mixed methods research is the rejection
of the “either-or” choice between quantitative and qualitative approaches, which
means that practitioners of mixed methods research select and then synergistically
integrate the most appropriate techniques from among both quantitative and
qualitative methods, mixing these strategies to thoroughly investigate a
phenomenon of interest (Teddlie & Tashakkori, 2005). David and Sutton (2004) argue
that there can be no absolute separation between the qualitative and the
quantitative in social research and that the boundary between qualitative and
quantitative research is not set by any single or agreed set of principles.
There are various advantages of using a mixed methods approach which are the
rationales behind the adoption of this approach among researchers, particularly in
social science (Bryman, 2006). In terms of this research, in an attempt to identify the
best of the available options to meet the needs of the study and answer the research
116
questions, there are three main reasons for mixing quantitative and qualitative
methods.
Firstly, this research needs to use both qualitative and quantitative methods to
successfully answer all of the research questions. Given that research questions are
the key to research design, it is therefore important that researchers select the
appropriate methodology to answer their research questions (Robson & McCartan,
2016). In terms of the research questions in this study, the use of quantitative
methods, i.e. questionnaires, can provide explicit answers to research questions that
need precise measurement in the form of standard questions. Research question
four is a case of this: To what extent are Thai organisational executive leaders who
practise Buddhist mindfulness perceived as ethical leaders by their direct employees?
Meanwhile, other research questions in this study need qualitative methods,
because they are ideal for research questions that seek insightful information related
to experiences and processes within a certain context and usually address why and
how questions (Onwuegbuzie & Leech, 2006). According to Mack et al. (2005), the
strength of qualitative research is its ability to provide complex descriptions of how
people experience a given research issue. Qualitative methods provide information
about the “human” elements of an issue, such as behaviours and opinions. A
qualitative approach is considered especially effective in obtaining culturally specific
information and accounting for the social contexts of particular populations. In this
study, the experience of BM practices among Thai organisational executive leaders
and their perspectives on the influence of BM on their ethical behaviour are the main
focus of this research, which requires them to be investigated in depth through
qualitative methods.
Secondly, with the use of a combination of methods, methodological and data
triangulation is also possible. Gillham (2000) argues that a mixed methods approach
is important to address real-life research questions because one approach is rarely
adequate. Moreover, the researcher can have greater confidence in the findings if
the results of different methods converge. In this study, there are two groups of
117
participants: first, the organisational executive leaders (who practise BM); and
second, those leaders’ direct employees. One set of data regarding the mindfulness
experience and the influence of mindfulness practices on ethical practices is gained
from the organisational executive leaders, who have direct experience in
mindfulness practices themselves, through the interview technique. Another set of
data is obtained from their direct employees by means of a questionnaire. Hence, by
using multiple methods, the sets of results can be compared and verified with one
another, which can better strengthen the validity of the findings (Greene et al., 1989).
Lastly, the application of multiple methods ensures that any inherent bias due to one
measure is counterbalanced by the strengths of the other(s). The use of mixed
methods helps to balance out any of the potential weaknesses in each method
because using only one method may be insufficient due to the inherent weaknesses
of each approach (Creswell, 2015; Gray, 2014). For example, in this research, it is
more suitable to use questionnaires with the employees, because the researcher can
use them to gain data from a relatively large number of employees, which is more
difficult to do by interviews. Moreover, questionnaires allow respondent anonymity
more than interviews; therefore, it is more likely that employees respond to
questionnaires with honest answers than when being interviewed by the researcher.
However, quantitative methods cannot adequately investigate personal stories and
meanings, or deeply probe the perspectives of individuals (Creswell, 2015), which is
why this research also needs qualitative methods to gain rich descriptions and
detailed information through interviews with the leaders when it comes to their
mindfulness experience and leadership practices.
4.4.2 Research strategy: Convergent mixed methods
Research strategies are sometimes referred to by different scholars as research
designs or inquiry that provides specific direction for procedures in a research study
(Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Denzin & Lincoln, 2018). Creswell and Creswell (2018)
provide an overview of research strategies that are commonly found employed in
118
the different types of research approach (i.e. quantitative, qualitative, and mixed
methods approaches), as illustrated in the table below.
Table 4.2: An overview of research strategies for each type of research approach
Quantitative Qualitative Mixed Methods
• Experimental designs
• Nonexperimental designs,
such as surveys
• Longitudinal designs
• Narrative research
• Phenomenology
• Grounded Theory
• Ethnography
• Case study
• Convergent
• Explanatory sequential
• Exploratory sequential
• Complex designs with
embedded core designs
Source: Creswell and Creswell (2018, p. 12)
This research uses the convergent parallel design of the mixed methods approach
(Creswell & Plano Clark, 2018), with qualitative priority (Bryman, 2012). According
to Creswell (2015), convergent design involves the separate collection and analysis
of quantitative and qualitative data. The intention of this design is to merge the
results of the quantitative and qualitative data analyses. This merging then provides
both a quantitative and qualitative picture of the issue being studied. Given that the
two forms of data provide different insights, their combination contributes to seeing
the issue from multiple angles and perspectives.
In this study, qualitative and quantitative data are collected at the same time. In
terms of qualitative data, this is collected from interviews with Thai organisational
executive leaders who practise mindfulness in the Thai Buddhist context. However,
as the focus of the research is also on EL, the most acceptable way to study EL in
academic research is through questionnaires that need to be completed by leaders’
employees (Brown et al., 2005; Kalshoven et al., 2011). Hence, quantitative methods
are employed in this study for a particular purpose, i.e. to address research question
four: “To what extent are Thai organisational executive leaders who practise Buddhist
mindfulness perceived as ethical leaders by their direct employees?” The data are
collected from questionnaires completed by direct employees of the leaders being
119
interviewed in this study. The results from each data set are then compared for
agreement, discrepancy, or a combination thereof in preparation for interpretation
and discussion of the findings (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2018; Jick, 1979). Thus, the
researcher can advance multiple perspectives, as well as validating one set of data
with the other.
However, given that the majority of the research questions seek to find insightful and
detailed information regarding the understanding of principles underlying BM,
experience in mindfulness practices, and perspectives on the influence of BM on Thai
executive leaders’ ethical behaviour, qualitative methods are the primary data-
gathering tool, and the qualitative data are prioritised over the quantitative data. The
priority and sequence of the mixed methods approach in this study are illustrated in
Figure 4.3 below.
Figure 4.3: Convergent parallel mixed methods design with qualitative priority
Source: Author’s construct, based on Bryman (2012:632); Creswell and Creswell (2018:218)
120
4.5 Data Collection Methods
As mentioned in the previous section, this research employs a mixed methods
approach. This section provides information regarding the methods or research
techniques used for data collection. In terms of qualitative methods, the research
uses semi-structured interviews. Meanwhile, the questionnaire is employed as a
quantitative methods tool. The following sub-sections outline the data collection
techniques and procedures in more detail.
4.5.1 Semi-structured interviews
This research employs semi-structured interviews as the prime method to obtain
data. Interviews are one of the most common methods for qualitative research data
collection (Yin, 2014). A semi-structured interview is a type of interview that features
guided conversations. This type of interview does not take a rigid set of structured
queries as in a structured interview, nor does it allow the researcher to talk freely
without the use of predetermined questions as a guide during the interview as in an
unstructured or in-depth interview (Saunders et al., 2019). For the semi-structured
interviews, the researcher uses an interview guide to serve as a checklist of topics to
be covered and some of the more important wording, but general wording and
question order can be modified depending on the flow of the interview. Moreover,
additional unanticipated questions can be asked as new issues arise in order to follow
up on what the interviewee says or to prompt informants to expand their answers
(Gray, 2014; Robson & McCartan, 2016). Although a consistent line of inquiry is
pursued, the actual stream of questions in a case study interview is likely to be fluid
rather than rigid (Rubin & Rubin, 2004). Therefore, semi-structured interviews allow
the researcher to gain a better understanding of and to clarify particular issues raised
by interviewees (Johnson, 2002). Moreover, this method provides the possibility of
enquiring openly about situations, meanings, motives for action, and self-
interpretation by respondents (Hopf, 2004).
121
Miller and Crabtree (2004) point out that the interview is a particular data-gathering
process designed to generate narratives that focus on fairly specific research
questions. Thus, the interview is employed as the main method in this research
because it is considered a highly suitable technique for most of the research
questions in this study, given that they ask specifically about real experiences of BM
practices. Moreover, the interview is the favoured approach because the research
questions are open-ended and are based upon understanding experiences, opinions,
attitudes, values and processes related to the informants’ BM practices. The
researcher needs to attain highly personalised data and explanations, or examples
based on real situations from the informants (Gray, 2014). On this basis, semi-
structured interviews are appropriate for eliciting individual experiences, opinions,
and feelings, along with the perspectives from which a person sees a particular
phenomenon, as well as the interpretation of his or her beliefs (Mack et al., 2005).
4.5.1.1 Interview participant selection
Sampling refers to the process of selecting samples from a population, which can be
any group that shares a common set of traits (Black, 1999). It is necessary for social
researchers to sample because it is very rare that they have the time and resources
to carry out research on the whole of the population that could be potentially
included in a study (Seale, 2012).
Given that this research seeks insightful information through semi-structured
interviews, the population that is the main target is Thai organisational executive
leaders who have been practising BM on a regular basis for at least one year. In this
regard, the researcher sets the criteria for selecting the samples, as summarised in
Table 4.3 below.
122
Table 4.3: Criteria for selecting the interview informants
Criteria Sub-criteria
1. Being an executive
leader
A work position that can be considered as part of
the top management of organisations e.g. the
founder, chief executive, senior executive,
managing director, or vice-president
2. Regular mindfulness
practice
Considers himself/herself as a regular
mindfulness practitioner (at least once a month)
3. Length of mindfulness
practice experience
At least one year
4. Agreement with all the
data collection
processes
The leaders willingly agree to:
1) be interviewed by the researcher
2) allow their direct subordinates to respond to
the questionnaires on a voluntary basis
Source: Researcher
Non-probability sampling is employed for the selection of the interview participants
because this sampling strategy is more suitable for accessing groups whose activities
are normally hidden from the public or official view, so that a sampling frame for the
whole population may be difficult to define (Seale, 2012). It can be clearly seen that
this research has a very specific set of sample characteristics, as described in Table
4.3. As a result, such a specific group of samples cannot be recognised from a public
or official view, nor can the figure for the whole population for this group be
identified. Therefore, the most suitable sampling techniques for this research are
drawn from non-probability sampling methods, which are purposive sampling and
snowball sampling.
Purposive sampling
The purposive sampling strategy refers to the selection of participants according to
preselected criteria relevant to a particular research question (Mack et al., 2005). The
researcher selects individuals and sites for study because they can purposefully
inform an understanding of the research problem and the central phenomenon in
the study (Creswell & Poth, 2018).
123
In this research, the researcher started collecting data from those Thai organisational
executive leaders whom she knows, due to a personal connection, have been
regularly practising BM for at least one year.
Snowball sampling
Snowball sampling is also known as chain referral sampling or network sampling. In
this method, informants with whom contact has already been made, use their social
networks to refer the researcher to other people who could potentially participate
in or contribute to the study. In this study, the researcher asked those Thai
organisational executive leaders already selected for referrals to other leaders who
meet the same criteria. The researcher has used this sampling technique because it
is a helpful technique for discovering important people with whom to talk about a
particular issue, especially if the informants are among elite groups and the study
population is relatively hidden (Seale, 2012).
4.5.1.2 The research interview participants
Through the process of snowball sampling technique, 41 executive leaders in leading
positions in various Thai organisations, from the public, private and non-profit
sectors, were identified. Due to the need to maintain the anonymity of the
interviewees, the leaders’ names, their specific job titles within their organisations,
as well as the names of their organisations cannot be reported. For the purpose of
analysis and further discussion in terms of this demographic profile, the participants
are referred to by using a reference code. Each interviewee is referred to as ‘Leader’,
followed by a designated number, as illustrated in Table 4.4 below, which
summarises the number of participants and their profiles.
124
Table 4.4: Summary of the interview participants
Interview Participants Organisation Sector/Industry
Leader1 Head of a Research
Committee Public University, Ministry of Education
Leader2 Director Public University, Ministry of Education
Leader3 Director Public University, Ministry of Education
Leader4 Director (Colonel) Military Circle, Ministry of Defence
Leader5 Vice-President Office of the Prime Minister
Leader6 Board of Executives Public Healthcare and Royal Academy,
Office of the Prime Minister
Leader7 Senior Expert Head of
Advisory Group
Department of Mental Health, Ministry of
Public Health
Leader8 Board of Executives State Independent Agency
Leader9 Board of Executives Central Bank, State Independent Agency
Leader10 Board of Executives Central Bank, State Independent Agency
Leader11 Vice-President State Enterprise, Ministry of Transport
Leader12 Vice-President and Project
Director State Enterprise, Ministry of Energy
Leader13 Head of Department State-owned specialised financial
institution, Ministry of Finance
Leader14 Senior Vice-President Telecommunication
Leader15 Marketing Director Pulp and Paper Manufacturing
Leader16 CEO (Founder) Consulting Firm
Leader17 CEO (Founder) Media
Leader18 Managing Director Construction Material Trade
Leader19 Executive Vice-President Real Estate
Leader20 CEO (Founder) Music
Leader21
1) President and Founder
2) Creative Director and
Founder
1) Financial consultant and services
2) Luxury brand production
Leader22 CEO (Founder) Education
Leader23 CEO (Founder) Training and Coaching
Leader24 Business Director Electronics
Leader25
Chairman of the Board of
Directors and Executive
Chairman
Garment and Apparel Manufacturing
Leader26 CEO (Founder) Consulting and Construction Services
Leader27 President and Founder Education
Leader28 Director & General
Manager Banking
125
Interview Participants Organisation Sector/Industry
Leader29 CEO (Founder) Consulting Agency
Leader30 Head of Financial Crime
and Compliance Banking
Leader31 Chairperson Real Estate
Leader32 Regional Chief Financial
Officer Machine Manufacturing
Leader33 CEO (Founder) Consulting Agency and Educational
Consultant
Leader34 CEO (Founder) Training and Coaching
Leader35 CEO and Chief Operating
Officer Healthcare
Leader36
Director, Chairman of the
Executive Committee and
Managing Director
Property and Private Hospital Management
Leader37 1) President
2) President
1) A Royal Project under Her Royal
Highness Princess Maha Chakri Sirindhorn's
Royal Initiatives
2) A Non-Profit Institute
Leader38 Board of Directors Community Centre and Religious
Organisation
Leader39 Head of Department Community Centre and Religious
Organisation
Leader40 Chief Officer Thailand Management Association
Leader41 President A Vipassana Foundation and Training
Centre
Source: Author’s construct
Demographic data of interviewees
Qualitative data were collected through face-to-face semi-structured interviews with
41 participants, who have been undertaking leadership roles in various organisations,
including the public (13)3, private (23) and non-profit (5) sectors. Interviewees were
all at a high, or the highest positions in their organisations. Most of them are
3 Numbers in brackets represent the number of interviewees.
126
founders, chief executive officers (CEO), presidents, chairpersons, or managing
directors (MD) (22), while the rest were in high executive positions, namely boards
of executives, chief executive level, regional management, executive vice-president
(EVP), senior vice-president (SVP), vice-president (VP) (10), or other senior
management roles (9). There is a fairly equal distribution of participants in terms of
gender with an approximately 60:40 ratio between the respective numbers of males
and females. The majority of participants were between 51-60 years old, and hold
postgraduate degrees. The socio-demographic data of interviewees is summarised in
Table 4.5 below.
Table 4.5: Summary of demographic data of the interviewees
Socio-demographics n Percentage
Gender
Male 25 61%
Female 16 39%
Total 41 100%
Age (years)
31 - 40 4 10%
41 - 50 13 32%
51 - 60 18 44%
61 and above 6 15%
Total 41 100%
Highest Education
Bachelor’s degree 4 10%
Master's degree 19 46%
Doctoral of Medicine (M.D.)/
Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.)/
Doctor of Business Administration (D.B.A.)
18 44%
Total 41 100%
Leadership Position
Founder/CEO/President/Chairperson/MD 22 54%
Board of Executives/Chief Executive/
Regional Management/EVP/SVP/VP 10 24%
127
Socio-demographics n Percentage
Senior management 9 22%
Total 41 100%
Sector
Public 13 32%
Private 23 56%
Non-profit 5 12%
Total 41 100%
Source: Author’s construct
4.5.1.3 The interview procedure
The interviews were conducted between December 2018 and May 2019. All
interviews were recorded with the permission of the participants. Initially, the
researcher contacted the prospective leaders in order to explain the research
objectives and data collection procedure. The participant information sheet was then
sent to them. After receiving an acceptance to participate in the study, the researcher
then tailored the schedule to suit the needs of each leader. All interviews were
conducted face-to-face on a one-to-one basis between the researcher and the
interviewee.
The length of the interviews generally varied from one hour to two hours, although
in some cases, interviews lasted longer because respondents were keen on providing
in-depth, detailed and explicit descriptions of their mindfulness practices and
application. The researcher followed the guideline for the interview questions, which
were developed based on the research objectives and research questions to ensure
that the data obtained from the key informants are in accordance and able to answer
the research questions (see Appendix 1).
128
4.5.2 The questionnaire
The questionnaire is one of the most widely used techniques for primary data
gathering in quantitative approaches. Questionnaires are important data gathering
tools, through which people are asked to respond to the same set of standardised
questions in a predetermined order. The questionnaire is ideal when the audience is
relatively large and where standardised questions are needed (David & Sutton, 2004;
Gray, 2014).
There are two main types of questionnaire survey, analytic and descriptive (Gray,
2014), determined according to the aim of conducting the questionnaire. According
to Gill and Johnson (2010), analytic surveys attempt to test a theory by taking the
logic of the experiment out of the laboratory, where dependent, independent,
extraneous, and controlled variables need to be specified. In contrast, descriptive
surveys are concerned with addressing the characteristics of a specific population of
relevant subjects. In the organisational context, descriptive surveys can often be used
to ascertain attitudes, such as views and opinions of employees (Reeves and Harper,
1981).
In this research, the main purpose of using the questionnaire is to address research
question four: To what extent are Thai organisational executive leaders who practise
BM perceived as ethical leaders by their direct employees? The type of questionnaire
survey in this present study is mainly descriptive, with the questionnaire being used
to provide a relatively simple and straightforward approach to finding out the
employees’ attitudes (Robson & McCartan, 2016). The data obtained from the
employees can then be analysed to verify and compare with the data received from
the interviews with executive leaders.
This technique allows the researcher to cover a relatively large number of employees
within limited time and resource constraints (Bryman, 2012). Furthermore, given that
the researcher would like to examine the perceptions of the employees regarding
their leaders, the use of a self-completion questionnaire allows the employees to feel
129
freer to respond in an anonymous style than if they were being interviewed (Gillham,
2000). The use of questionnaires also reduces the biases that result from face-to-
face interaction (Gray, 2014).
4.5.2.1 The questionnaire samples
The probability sampling strategy was employed in order to determine the
questionnaire sample. Probability sampling involves selecting random samples of
subjects from a given population on the basis that they are representative of the
population as a whole. This type of sampling technique is usually used in quantitative
research design (Gray, 2014). This sampling strategy ensures that every unit of the
target population has an equal probability of being included in the sample, and thus
any findings can be generalised to that target population with confidence (Gill &
Johnson, 2010; Sarantakos, 2013).
To draw up a probability sample, it is necessary for the researcher to define a
sampling frame, which is a list of all members of the relevant population (Seale,
2012). Within this research context, the target population is employees who work
directly with the leaders being interviewed in the research, as they work closely and
have regular interactions with their leaders. This is because it is necessary for the
researcher to ensure that all questionnaire respondents are able to observe their
leaders’ attitudes and behaviours in order to respond to the questions regarding
employees’ perceptions of leader’s ethical behaviour.
This sampling frame is identified by asking the HR officer or the administrative staff
of each organisation to list all the employees’ names whose roles are to report
directly to the targeted leader. Hence, the sample size of the target population in this
study includes everyone who is identified in the sampling frame, which is 219 in total.
4.5.2.2 The questionnaire respondents
The representativeness of the target populations and generalisations from the data
collected are crucial. These can be influenced by the sample size, which needs to be
130
large enough to provide confidence in the data. According to Saunders et al. (2015),
the minimum sample size can be identified as in Table 4.6 below:
Table 4.6: Sample size for different sizes of target population at a 95 per cent confidence
level
Source: Saunders et al. (2015, p. 281)
The questionnaires were distributed to all subordinates whose roles are to report
directly to the targeted leader, which is 219 in total. Permission to distribute the
questionnaires was given by their managers or supervisors. Each respondent was
provided plenty of time to submit the completed questionnaire.
As illustrated in Table 4.6 above, Saunders et al. (2015, p. 281) propose that when a
population is 250, then the sample size should be 151 with 5% margin of error. The
population for this study is 219, of which 176 completed questionnaires, thus
covering the 5% margin of error.
131
4.5.2.3 The questionnaire design
Regarding the construction of the questionnaires, a 34-item questionnaire was
developed (see appendix 2 for the identification of the themes underlying the
development of the questionnaire). The research questionnaire items are created
based on two types of questionnaire instrument as follows:
1) Existing scale
In this research, one existing scale has been used as a starting point to establish
general views from employees on their leaders’ EL. The scale adopted is the ethical
leadership scale (ELS) developed by Brown et al. (2005). This scale has been shown
to demonstrate good reliability in a large number of industrial and geographical
contexts (Brown et al. 2005; Mayer et al. 2010; Walumbwa et al. 2011). It is the first
and the most well-known EL scale that has been used by many credible scholars in EL
research. The ELS also addresses the role model dimension of ethical leadership given
that Brown et al.’s (2005) EL theory is based on social learning theory (Bandura, 1977,
1986), which specifically highlights that ethical leaders have to lead by an example.
The questionnaire consists of 10 items, with the scale anchored on a five-point
format (1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = neither agree nor disagree, 4 = agree,
and 5 = strongly agree).
2) Self-conducted questionnaire
The second type of instrument employed in this research questionnaire design is a
self-conducted questionnaire that attempts to cover other EL dimensions that are
lacking in the ELS, such as Eastern views on ethics, ethical values in Thailand, and
ethics in Buddhism. These additional research questionnaire items have been
developed by the researcher based on the literature review. Drawing from an
analysis of the cross-cultural EL studies reviewed in Chapter Two, seven key EL
dimensions that are dominant in various EL literature have been identified, namely:
1) humane/people orientation; 2) honesty; 3) justice and fairness; 4) moderation; 5)
responsibility and sustainability; 6) discipline; and 7) role model. Moreover, there is
132
another dimension, which is the five precepts of Buddhism, added to the
questionnaire items. Given that this research particularly focuses on EL in the Thai
Buddhist context, the five precepts are generally regarded as ethical guidelines for
Buddhist practitioners. This part of the self-conducted questionnaire consists of 24
items (items 11 to 34, see appendix 2). Each of the descriptions in the questionnaire
items have been developed with reference to the literature. The five-point Likert
scale, mentioned earlier as aligned with the ELS, is also used.
4.6 Pilot Study
A pilot study is the process whereby the researcher runs a small scale version of the
research method or conducts pre-testing of a particular research instrument, such as
a questionnaire or interview, before carrying out the actual research (Baker, 1988;
Blaxter et al., 2010; Yin, 2016). This is because pilot studies can help to identify
potential practical problems that may arise during the actual research procedure, for
instance whether the instruments are inappropriate or too complicated, which can
cause poor responses or low response rates (van Teijlingen & Hundley, 2001). Hence,
it is important for researchers to undertake pilot studies to ensure the suitability,
practicality and appropriateness of research instruments and data collection
procedures (Perry, 2001)
Accordingly, this study undertook pilot studies to test the face validity of the research
instruments, including the research questionnaire and interview questions. Initially,
both types of instrument were developed in English and reviewed by the supervisory
team for both coherence and validity. The original English versions of the
questionnaires and interview questions were then translated into Thai because, in
the actual data collection process, the questionnaires and interviews were to be
administered in the Thai language, since all research participants are Thai. The
questionnaire and interview questions were translated from English to Thai and then
133
back-translated from Thai to English in order to ensure the accuracy of the original
translation.
In the next stage, the preliminary questionnaires were tested in a pilot study before
carrying out the questionnaire stage of the fieldwork, given that the questionnaires
are a one-shot attempt at data gathering; therefore, it was essential for them to be
accurate, unambiguous and simple to complete. At this stage, the researcher tried
out the initial list of questions to test their comprehensiveness with three people,
who are not part of the target group, by having them look through the questions and
noting their comments. Furthermore, an interview was conducted with these three
participants. As a result of the comments received from the pilot study participants,
the researcher improved the clarity of the questionnaire items in terms of the
language used, the structure of sentences, and the length of the questions, as well
as by deleting some redundant words or other elements. This stage of the pilot study
led to an improvement in the validity and clarity of the research questionnaire.
Following that, the researcher amended the questionnaire and re-trialled it with
another ten randomly chosen participants, who are similar to, but not part of the
target group. These participants were also asked to record how long they needed to
complete the questionnaire. Overall, the pilot studies provided confidence regarding
the comprehensiveness of the research questionnaire instruments.
Furthermore, as part of the pilot study, the questionnaire’s reliability was tested for
each of the questionnaire dimensions. This analysis of the questionnaire’s reliability
was undertaken using reliability coefficients known as Cronbach’s alpha, which is the
most commonly used measurement for internal consistency of research surveys
(Johanson & Brooks, 2010). In particular, it is imperative to calculate and report
Cronbach’s alpha for internal consistency or reliability when using Likert-type scales
(Gliem & Gliem, 2003).
Cronbach’s alpha was developed by Lee J. Cronbach (1951) to provide a measure of
internal consistency or reliability between several items on a scale. Cronbach’s alpha
is used to inform the reliability of responses to a questionnaire or ratings evaluated
134
by subjects, which can indicate the stability of the tools as well as ascertaining
whether or not the items are reliable in measuring the same dimension (Bujang et
al., 2018).
It is suggested that a sample size of 30 representative participants from the
population of interest is a reasonable minimum recommendation for a pilot study in
which the purpose is a preliminary survey or scale development (Johanson & Brooks,
2010). In this research, the test for questionnaire reliability was undertaken with 45
samples. Table 4.7 below presents the Cronbach’s alpha scores for each domain of
the research questionnaire, including EL Scale (Brown et al., 2005), humane, justice,
responsibility and sustainability, moderation, discipline, honesty, and the five
precepts of Buddhism.
Table 4.7: Reliability statistics for the research instruments (Cronbach’s alpha scores for
the pilot questionnaire)
Questionnaire Domain Cronbach's Alpha
Scores
Ethical leadership scale (Brown et al., 2005) 0.89
Humane 0.90
Justice 0.87
Responsibility and Sustainability 0.88
Moderation 0.90
Discipline 0.90
Honesty 0.73
Five Precepts of Buddhism 0.83
Source: Author’s Construct
The value of Cronbach’s alpha ranges from 0 to 1. It is recommended that acceptable
values of alpha should range from a minimum of 0.70 to a maximum of 0.90 (Tavakol
& Dennick, 2011). According to Table 4.7 above, the analysis found that the reliability
coefficients for the pilot questionnaire in this study range from 0.73 to 0.90. Hence,
all domains of this research questionnaire are considered to have acceptable
coefficients levels for its application to larger samples.
135
In terms of the research interview questions, preliminary interview questions were
sent to academic researchers in social science and experienced BM practitioners in
the Thai Buddhist context. They were asked to provide feedback on these questions.
Following that, pilot interviews were conducted in Thailand with three leaders who
practise mindfulness. The pilot study allowed the researcher to try out the interview
process as well as to practise time management skills. This stage led to modifications
of some words and minimal changes in the sequence of questions.
4.7 Data Analysis
4.7.1 Analysis of qualitative data
The process of analysis and interpretation of the qualitative data involved thematic
analysis of the interview transcripts. Thematic analysis is a method for analysing,
discovering, identifying, and reporting patterns, in other words themes, that emerge
across a data set (Braun & Clarke, 2006; Daly et al., 1997; Saunders et al., 2019;
Spencer et al., 2014). Given that the researcher conducted semi-structured
interviews, it was possible for various themes to emerge. Hence, thematic analysis
was an important approach for grouping similar statements under the same headings
or categories (Corbin & Strauss, 2015).
Following suggestions from various scholars (Braun & Clarke, 2006; Pope et al., 2000;
Spencer et al., 2014), the researcher undertook several steps for qualitative data
analysis. The first step involved the transcription of the interview audio-records, with
the researcher transcribing all interviews verbatim in Thai. This helped the researcher
begin to actively engage with, and make sense of the data, that process that would
be beneficial for researcher when having to code and categorise the data at a later
stage (Braun & Clarke, 2006; Riessman, 2008). The second step was familiarisation
and immersion in the data, with the researcher reading and re-reading the transcripts
multiple times, as well as noting down key ideas for recurrent themes (Pope et al.,
136
2000). Third, the researcher generated codes across the entire data set with the use
of the NVivo program version 12 to assist during the coding process. The NVivo
program was useful at this stage because the researcher could import the transcript
files and code them easily and quickly. More importantly, the key advantage of the
NVivo program is that the original data and locations of the material are always
retained, so that the researcher could avoid the risk of moving sections of material
from their context in a way that could have made them irretrievable or could have
caused a loss of their contexts (Spencer et al., 2014). Fourth, all the codes were
collated into early themes before they were then reviewed and reread to define the
final themes as well as to identify sub-themes.
Lastly, since the interviews were conducted in the Thai language, the transcripts were
then translated from Thai into English. Due to financial and time limitations, the
researcher could not fully translate all of the transcripts, but only the data that was
selected based on the thematic analysis. The selected data from the transcripts were
translated from Thai to English and back translated from English to Thai, by a bi-
lingual Thai academic. These translations were rechecked by the researcher, to
ensure their accuracy.
4.7.2 Analysis of quantitative data
Quantitative data, which is the data from the questionnaire survey, was analysed by
using the SPSS for Windows program for the analysis of statistical data. The SPSS
analyses provided findings to answer the fourth research question, which is: To what
extent are Thai organisational executive leaders who practise Buddhist mindfulness
perceived as ethical leaders by their direct employees?
Firstly, descriptive statistics were computed to find the extent to which those
executive leaders who have been practising mindfulness in the Thai Buddhist context
that were interviewed in this study, were perceived as ethical in different core EL
dimensions by their direct employees. The descriptive statistical results give the
137
frequency, the mean (M), and the standard deviation (s.d.), which shows the spread
of the data around the M, for each EL dimension.
In addition to the descriptive statistics, the questionnaire data were further
examined by using four analytical tools, namely Pearson’s correlation coefficient (r),
the one-way ANOVA, the Tukey HSD test, and the independent T-Test, in order to
further investigate any interesting patterns in the data, as well as possible significant
relationships between some variables and EL results. Firstly, Pearson’s correlation
coefficient (r) was used to analyse whether there is a relationship between the EL
constructs in the questionnaires and the five precepts of Buddhism, or the
interviewed leaders’ years of experience in mindfulness practices. The five precepts
of Buddhism and years of experience in mindfulness practices were particularly
selected variables to be investigated because this research focuses specifically on
Buddhist approaches to mindfulness and leaders’ experience in BM practices.
Moreover, ethical conducts for BM practitioners is commonly based on the five
precepts of Buddhism (Lomas, 2016). Hence, it is of interest to learn whether or not
the five precepts and the years of BM practice among the leaders have a relationship
with each of the EL dimensions.
In terms of the one-way ANOVA, the Tukey HSD test, and the independent T-Test,
these statistical tools were used to assess if there are any significant differences
between the mean EL scores generated by respondents based on different
demographic variables, namely organisational sector, work experience of the
respondents with the leaders, gender of the leaders, and gender of the respondents.
In attempting to identify whether or not there are any interesting patterns in the
data, the study examines whether EL scores change significantly with different
demographic variables by using the one-way ANOVA and T-test, as mentioned above.
Findings derived from quantitative data analysis are noted to comparison and
discussion with the data collected from the interviews with the leader informants. It
is not the intention of the researcher to frame this research as following an analytic
quantitative design (such as, experimental and correlational research). As clarified in
138
Section 4.4.2, this research uses a mixed methods approach with qualitative priority
(Bryman, 2012). The use of quantitative methods is mainly to supplement and
validate the data collected using qualitative methods. However, the statistical
analysis of the quantitative data from the study could yield preliminary findings that
may be worthwhile for future quantitative research that pursues an experimental
direction or tests correlations between variables, as is discussed in more detail in
Chapter Eight.
4.8 Quality of the Research
Researchers are required to ensure the quality of their research to justify that it
meets minimum quality standards. The quality of research usually involves the issues
of reliability and validity. Reliability is concerned with the consistency of research
instruments, which indicates the extent to which a measurement procedure used in
the research may yield the same answer regardless of how and when it is carried out
(Kirk & Miller, 1986; Tavakol & Dennick, 2011). In this research, reliability has been
addressed by conducting a pilot study before commencing the actual data collection
for both the questionnaire and the interview, as explained in Section 4.6. In
particular, for the research questionnaire, all of its domains were tested for internal
reliability by using Cronbach’s alpha. Given that Cronbach’s alpha across the domains
ranged between 0.70 and 0.90, the instruments’ reliability is acceptable (Tavakol &
Dennick, 2011).
Although the use of reliability and validity is common in quantitative research
(Golafshani, 2003), in qualitative research, “verification” is argued to be the
mechanism that contributes to ensuring reliability and validity, and thus rigour of a
qualitative study (Morse et al., 2002). Following Morse et al. (2002), the verification
of the thesis was conducted by checking to make sure that there is congruence
among research question formulation, the literature, participant recruitment, data
collection strategies, and data analysis. In particular, the researcher has ensured a
139
degree of consistency in relation to the qualitative data. For example, an interview
guide and a list of certain questions were used to remind the researcher (Yin, 2014)
to maintain focus and uphold objectivity standards throughout all of the interviews,
while minimising researcher bias. Moreover, the researcher’s supervisory team
played an important role in evaluating and commenting on the research
methodology employed in this study. They also helped to critically assess the process
of data analysis and interpretation, again to avoid researcher bias and to establish
the credibility of the research.
Additionally, validity of research was also a concern. Research validity is the extent
to which the research instrument measures what it is intended to measure, which
indicates the accuracy of the data (Kirk & Miller, 1986; Tavakol & Dennick, 2011). For
social scientific research, to claim that findings are valid is to argue that the findings
are true and certain (Schwandt, 2007). Triangulation is one of the most commonly
known principles to strengthen the validity of research (Yin, 2013). Triangulation is
broadly understood as "the combination of methodologies in the study of the same
phenomenon" (Denzin, 2009, p. 297). However, there are four main types of
triangulation, namely data source triangulation, analyst triangulation,
theory/perspective triangulation, and method triangulation. Yin (2013) suggests that
the data source and method types are likely to strengthen validity and provide
increased confidence in findings from a qualitative study. Accordingly, this research
has employed triangulation of data sources by collecting data from Thai
organisational executive leader informants as well as from their direct employee
participants. Additionally, data were also triangulated in heterogeneous samples
with a variety of participant characteristics, such as age, gender, types of
organisation, and years of experience of mindfulness practice, to maximise variation
in the data. In terms of method triangulation, this research combines quantitative
and qualitative methods by using questionnaires and semi-structured interviews.
Hence, when two or more sources of data and different methods of data collection
yield a convergence of findings on the same subject, then the research findings may
be judged valid and credible (Bloor, 2001; Denzin, 2009).
140
4.9 Ethical Considerations
Apart from the quality of the research, it is crucial to consider ethical issues that may
arise during the study. Particularly when the research involves collecting data from
people, researchers need to ensure that the data collection encompasses the
protection of the research participants and the researcher. Moreover, researchers
need to develop trust with the participants, promote the integrity of research, and
avoid any misconduct or impropriety that might reflect on the participants’
organisations (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). For this thesis, particular ethical concerns
have been addressed regarding the prior process of data collection, the consent
form, protection of the participants, confidentiality, and data protection, which are
further clarified below.
First of all, prior to conducting the fieldwork study, ethical clearance was sought in
accordance with the University of Manchester’s ethics committee guidance. All
participants who took part in this study and their organisations have no conflict of
interest with the researcher. Moreover, the researcher has obtained permissions
prior to the study to gain access to sites and to study participants, both for interviews
and questionnaires. Following that, official letters were sent to prospective leader
informants for their consideration, together with the participant information sheet
(see appendix 3), which provides details of the research, such as research aim,
objectives, interview process, list of key interview questions, approximate length of
the interview, confidentiality and data protection, in order to gain their acceptance
before making appointments with them for interviews. Those participants who were
willing to participate in this study were asked to sign the consent forms (see appendix
4), which contains a standard set of elements that acknowledge protection of human
rights (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). For example, participation in the study was
voluntary and that they had the right to withdraw at any time without giving any
reason. The consent form also gained their permission for audio recording of the
interviews.
141
The confidentiality and anonymity issues are addressed to the participants in both
the interviews and questionnaires. The process of collecting and storing participants’
personal information was in accordance with the General Data Protection Regulation
(GDPR) and the Data Protection Act 2018. Participants’ personal identifiable
information was anonymised by the researcher. Regarding the presentation of the
qualitative data, this study maintains the anonymity of the interviewees by
addressing only the sector type and industry of their organisations. In addition, each
individual informant is referred to by assigning them a number, for example
“Leader1”. This form of presentation offers a high level of confidentiality in terms of
respondent identification. Furthermore, the transcripts were sent to the informants to
verify the accuracy of the information upon request. In terms of the questionnaires, the
researcher asked for permission from the employees’ managers or supervisors prior
to the distribution of the questionnaires. Furthermore, it is clearly highlighted in the
cover letter given to all questionnaire respondents that their responses are
anonymous. Moreover, the reporting of the quantitative findings does not reveal the
identities of the respondents. All of the data collected during this fieldwork, such as
voice recordings and questionnaire results have been securely stored in line with
University policy and used for the purpose of this study only.
142
4.10 Chapter Summary
This chapter primarily describes the research design and the methodology employed
in this research. The research questions and the conceptual framework of the
research are also specified. Furthermore, the methods for both the qualitative and
quantitative approaches are presented in detail. The chapter discusses an overview
of research philosophy, followed by the philosophical assumptions of this research.
Following that, the mixed methods approach and data collection techniques are
explained, along with the rationales for selecting the research methods, data
collection procedures and data analysis. Finally, the quality of the research and
ethical considerations are addressed.
To summarise, the research aims to augment empirical understanding of mindfulness
practices in the Eastern Buddhist context, with a particular focus on the extent to
which Buddhist mindfulness can influence leaders’ ethical values and behaviour,
through the examination of mindfulness practices among Thai organisational
executive leaders in the Thai Buddhist context. The research objects, research
questions, methods of inquiry, and samples are summarised in Table 4.8 as follows.
143
Table 4.8: Summary of the research questions and methods for data collection
Research Objectives
Research Question Methods for
data collection Source of
data Sample
size
1. To examine the understanding and application of the core principles underlying Buddhist mindfulness among Thai organisational executive leaders who practise mindfulness in the Thai Buddhist context.
1. What are the core principles underlying Buddhist mindfulness understood by Thai organisational executive leaders, who practise mindfulness in the Thai Buddhist context, and how do they apply those principles in their mindfulness practices?
Semi-structured interviews
Thai organisational executive leaders
41
2. To explore the extent to which Buddhist mindfulness principles and practices influence Thai organisational executive leaders’ ethical values and behaviours.
2. What ethical values and behaviours are perceived by Thai organisational executive leaders to be crucial for ethical leadership?
Semi-structured interviews
Thai organisational executive leaders
41
3. How does Buddhist mindfulness influence ethical values and behaviours of Thai organisational executive leaders who are Buddhist mindfulness practitioners?
4. To what extent are Thai organisational executive leaders who practise Buddhist mindfulness perceived as ethical leaders by their direct employees?
Questionnaires
Direct employees of the interviewed leaders
176
Source: Author’s construct
144
CHAPTER 5: UNDERSTANDING AND APPLICATION OF
THE PRINCIPLES UNDERLYING BUDDHIST
MINDFULNESS PRACTICES
This chapter provides the first section of the findings, which are the qualitative
findings based on the interview transcripts analysis. The aim of the chapter is to
answer the first research question regarding the understanding and application of
the principles underlying BM practices among executive leaders who practise
mindfulness in the Thai Buddhist context. Table 5.1 below summarises the first
research question with a cross-reference to the related research objective and key
interview question.
Table 5.1: The first research question and the related research objective and key interview
question
Research Objective Research Question Key Interview Question
1. To examine the
understanding and
application of the core
principles underlying
Buddhist mindfulness among
Thai organisational executive
leaders who practise
mindfulness in the Thai
Buddhist context.
1. What are the core
principles underlying
Buddhist mindfulness
understood by Thai
organisational executive
leaders who practise
mindfulness in the Thai
Buddhist context, and how
do they apply those
principles in their
mindfulness practices?
What Buddhist principles
do you perceive as most
fundamental to BM
practices? Why do you
think so?
Please explain how you
understand and apply the
principle in your practices.
Source: Author’s construct
145
The researcher openly asked interviewees the key interview questions as illustrated
in Table 5.1 above. The interview transcripts were then analysed to identify themes.
The themes were categorised in relation to the existing theory and principles found
in the literature with the use of the NVivo program to assist the process of qualitative
data analysis. It is important to clarify at the outset of this chapter that the findings
are reported, as well as discussed with reference to existing related literature
throughout this chapter. The chapter comprises three main sections. Firstly, a
summary of the interviewees’ experience in BM practices is provided. Secondly, it
then explores the extent to which Thai executive leaders who practise BM
understand its underlying principles. Lastly, the chapter concludes with a summary.
5.1 Interviewees’ Mindfulness Practice Experience
All interviewees identified themselves as Buddhists who practise mindfulness in the
Thai Buddhist context on a regular basis. In terms of interviewees’ years of
experience in mindfulness practices, the majority of the interviewees fall into two
groups: 14% of them have practised mindfulness for 21 to 30 years, while 13% have
practised it for one to ten years. Six respondents had more than 30 years of
mindfulness practice. The interview data reveal that most interviewees practise
mindfulness on a daily basis, with 80% of them practising it in formal sessions, such
as sitting meditation and walking meditation, while all of them reported that they
apply mindfulness practices in most activities throughout the day as much as
possible. Apart from daily practice, some interviewees also take weekly mindfulness
courses (2)4, and attend mindfulness retreats every month (6) or every year (18). The
data regarding the interviewees’ years of mindfulness experience and the frequency
of their BM practices are summarised in Table 5.2 and Table 5.3 respectively.
4 Numbers in brackets represent the number of participants.
146
Table 5.2: Interviewees’ years of experience of mindfulness practices
Years of mindfulness practice
n Percentage
1 - 10 13 32%
11 - 20 8 20%
21 - 30 14 34%
≥ 31 6 15%
Total 41 100%
Source: Author’s construct
Table 5.3: Interviewees’ mindfulness practice frequency
Frequency n % Note
Daily – formal practice
(e.g. sitting meditation, walking
meditation)
33 80% Average 40 mins
Daily – informal practice
(e.g. mindfulness of physical activities,
mindfulness of feelings and emotions)
41 100% As much as possible
throughout the day
Weekly 2 5% Average 2 hours
Monthly mindfulness retreat 6 15% Average 4 days
Yearly mindfulness retreat 18 44% Average 8 days
Source: Author’s construct
147
5.2 Concepts and Principles Underpinning BM Practices
The participants were asked to describe their understanding of the relationship of
mindfulness practices to core Buddhist teachings and principles. They were also
asked to explain the extent to which, and how they associate those principles in their
BM practices, as well as how they enact those principles in their work and personal
lives. Three main themes related to core Buddhist principles perceived as
fundamental to BM practices emerge from the analysis of the interview data: 1) the
Four Noble Truths; 2) the Noble Eightfold Path and Right Mindfulness; and 3) the
Threefold Training. Each main theme also contains sub-themes as explained below.
5.2.1 The Four Noble Truths
The principle of the Four Noble Truths (hereafter ‘FNTs’) was regarded by most
interviewees as one of the core Buddhist principles that is closely related to BM
practices. In brief, the principle consists of four elements, which together form an
analysis which leads to understanding of suffering (dukkha), the cause of suffering
(samudaya), the end of suffering (nirodha), and the means to achieve the end of
suffering (magga) (Gunaratana, 2001; Huxter, 2015; Marques, 2015). This principle
is considered as the most important of all Buddhist teachings (Huxter, 2015), a view
which was also reflected by the interviewees; for example:
“What principles do mindfulness practices relate to? I’d definitely say the FNTs,
which is a fundamental principle in Buddhism.” (Leader13)
“The FNTs principle explains the mechanics and reasoning of suffering, the
cause of suffering, and teaches us the path, which is the way to achieve true
happiness or to end suffering.” (Leader35)
The above quotations indicate that the participants are knowledgeable about the
FTNs principle. The majority of the participants could explain each of the four
elements within the FNTs and their theoretical understanding of the FNTs concurs
with the literature. Several scholars, who study mindfulness from a Buddhist
148
perspective, also situate the foundations of mindfulness within the Buddha’s
teaching of the FNTs (Van Gordon et al., 2015a; Anālayo, 2018).
Moreover, it can be seen from the above comments that the participants view the
FNTs as “mechanics and reasoning” to understand the nature of human suffering,
the cause of suffering and the way to end suffering. This view supports the work of
Mendis (1994), who states that the FNTs are based on reasoning, experiencing, and
rational thinking, as they are a diagnosis of the truth of human suffering and how to
put an end to suffering. In Buddhism, the FNTs provide the way towards awakening,
which is the spiritual goal in Buddhism (Bodhi, 2011; Marques, 2015; Wallace &
Shapiro, 2006).
5.2.2 The Noble Eightfold Path and “Right Mindfulness”
The second Buddhist principle that most interviewees emphasise to be
fundamentally related to BM practices is “the Noble Eightfold Path” (hereafter
‘NEP’). They explain their understandings of the NEP as follows:
“The NEP is the fourth element of the FNTs, which presents the path to
awakening. The path combines the eight elements as one path.” (Leader8)
“The NEP leads to the release from suffering in accordance with the FNTs.”
(Leader35)
Based on the interviewees’ comments, it can be inferred that the main reason why
they acknowledge the principle of the NEP is because this principle is the fourth
element situated within the FNTs, which are addressed in the previous section.
Hence, interviewees frequently mention the two principles together.
More importantly, interviewees highlight that mindfulness has a direct link to the
principle of the NEP due to the fact that one of the eight elements within the NEP is
called “samma sati” or “right mindfulness.” One leader informant puts this point
forward:
149
“My understanding is that mindfulness practice is fundamentally related to the
NEP because it includes ‘samma sati’ (right mindfulness). Actually, eight factors
of the NEP are all samma (right) – right view, right thinking, right speech, right
action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration.”
(Leader13)
This finding is a crucial point that is in line with the main argument made by most
scholars who study mindfulness from a Buddhist perspective, namely that BM
practices cannot be separated from ethics and the way to live a moral life, since BM
is concerned with the cultivation of “right” mindfulness as a wholesome state of mind
(Chiesa, 2013; Dreyfus, 2011; Stanley, 2012). Consistent with the interview data,
research related to fundamental Buddhist principles of mindfulness also points out
that there are eight components in the NEP and each element features the word
“right”, which is the common translation of the Pali term samma, meaning skilful,
appropriate, or correct (Huxter, 2015, p. 34). The cultivation of “right mindfulness” is
only one part of the NEP, along with seven other “right” elements (Purser, 2019).
Following the foregoing point regarding the eight elements of the NEP, participants
mention that for the application of the NEP, they not only take the mindfulness
element into account, but they also adopt all eight elements into their practice
because these factors are interconnected and they work to reinforce one another
(Bodhi, 2000b). The quotations below provide some examples of how participants
understand and actively apply each element of the NEP:
Right view (samma ditthi): “My perception of having samma ditthi (right view)
is that I try to avoid mistaken understandings, particularly the notion that
everything is precise and permanent… This is to see that all existence is
fundamentally impermanent; therefore, there’s no point in attaching to things.”
(Leader2)
Right thinking (samma sankappa): “This is the attempt to maintain our
thought, which is the source of our intention, to have good will, kindness and
harmlessness. To be able to do this, mindfulness can be very helpful. When we
have mindfulness, we would realise whenever unkind thoughts arise. Once we
realise, we would be able to undermine those thoughts.” (Leader11)
150
Right speech (Samma vaca): “Right speech is not just about refraining from
lying, but it also means to abstain from backbiting, slander, harsh, malicious,
and abusive language, as well as idle and useless talk. Personally, since I have
started to practise mindfulness following the NEP, I have improved the way I
talk, and I have been extremely careful when I speak.” (Leader4)
Right action (Samma kammanta): “In order to advance in the NEP, ethical
conduct has to be the first and foremost thing to do. For me, since I have
seriously started to practise mindfulness following the principle of the NEP, I am
committed to observing the five precepts.” (Leader1)
Right livelihood (Samma ajiva): “I carefully choose the company that I work for.
There are certain industries that obviously involve breaking the five precepts,
such as killing animals and trading weapons. Therefore, I would work only for a
company where the work context allows me to have samma ajiva (right
livelihood).” (Leader24)
Right effort (Samma vayama): “Samma vayama (right effort) is to be aware
whether something is virtuous, and attempt to preserve it. If it is a good deed
that you haven’t done yet, then endeavour to do it. If it is a bad deed, strive to
abstain. You also need to be careful to prevent other immorality from appearing
in your thought.” (Leader41)
When it comes to right mindfulness and right concentration, interviewees often
mention the two elements together. The comments below illustrate how participants
understand the concepts of right mindfulness and right concentration:
“The attempt to eliminate improper desires and defilements in the mind needs
samma sati (right mindfulness) to assist. Practising mindfulness creates
awareness of the present, before one takes an action... If they have right
mindfulness, they’d be able to recognise that the action they were about to take
is immoral and abstain from committing it.” (Leader5)
“One can benefit from the cultivation of mindfulness and concentration but
misuse the skills, for example gunmen and safecrackers can hone their ability to
focus attention and are capable of being mindful, but they use it improperly.
However, through the cultivation of right mindfulness, one needs to distinguish
rights from wrongs.” (Leader41)
151
It is observed from the quotations that interviewees emphasise that the skills
developed by the cultivation of concentration and mindfulness can be utilised either
for good or bad purposes. Such separation of the right and wrong use of mindfulness
and concentration is also found in the traditional Buddhist canonical descriptions, in
that there is a differentiation between two types of sati (mindfulness), “right”
(samma) and “wrong” (miccha) (Purser & Milillo, 2015, p.5). In this regard, the role
of right mindfulness (samma sati) within the NEP is not simply passive and bare
attention to the present moment, but its role is to enable practitioners to cultivate
wise attention and lucid awareness, which leads to the ability to understand what is
wholesome and what is not, to abandon wrong intention, and to differentiate good
deeds from bad deeds (Bodhi, 2011; Kang & Whittingham, 2010; Purser & Milillo,
2015). This point is clearly reflected in the leaders’ comments above; for instance: “If
they have right mindfulness, they’d be able to recognise that the action they were
about to take is immoral and abstain from committing it.” “Through the cultivation
of right mindfulness, one needs to distinguish rights from wrongs.”
Furthermore, it is particularly highlighted by interviewees that “right mindfulness”
for them is the most important element among the eight parts within the NEP:
“Actions which are virtuous are accompanied by mindfulness and lack of mental
defilements. Particularly, one should always be mindful of one’s actions and
purposes. This means that one should not let oneself act mindlessly based on
one’s emotions or habitual acts… Samma sati is the foundation for all eight
elements to work completely as one path.” (Leader2)
“I think the fundamental factor of all elements within the NEP is right
mindfulness. If you lack it, it’d be difficult to uphold the rest of the “right”
elements. Even if you can remember what all of the other seven right elements
are about, if you don’t have right mindfulness, you wouldn’t be able to be aware
of your own actions, speech, thoughts, or to adhere to the other seven elements
anyway.” (Leader13)
From the above comments, interviewees use the words “foundation” and
“fundamental” when they describe the concept of right mindfulness. This implies
that although they understand that all eight elements within the NEP are to be
152
adopted simultaneously, what makes them capable of keeping to all eight elements
together is “right mindfulness”. This view is corroborated by existing literature in which
mindfulness has a central role in unifying all other elements of the NEP (Kabat-Zinn,
2016a). The leaders’ comments above appear to be consistent with Hanh (1999, p.
59) stressing that when right mindfulness is present, the seven other elements of the
eightfold path are also present. Sati (mindfulness) is understood as a quality of mind
that watches over the mind itself (Gethin, 2001). Hence, right mindfulness acts as the
guarantor of the correct practice of all of the other factors in the path (Bodhi, 2011).
Leader13 addressed this point when he mentioned that: “if you don’t have right
mindfulness, you wouldn’t be able to be aware of your own actions, speech, thoughts,
or to adhere to the other seven elements anyway.”
5.2.3 The Threefold Training
All interviewees agreed that the principle called “Trisikkha” is fundamentally related
to BM practices. Trisikkha is translated as the “Threefold Training”, which includes
the three overarching domains of training in ethical conduct, greater mentality, and
greater wisdom. It is noted in Buddhist literature that the Threefold Training
subsumes all eight of the constituents of the NEP (Bodhi, 2000b; Buswell Jr & Lopez
Jr, 2013; Thera, 2010). The NEP is often grouped into three sections, which are
aligned with the Threefold Training, namely: sila (ethics, morality, virtue) comprising
right speech, right action, right livelihood; samadhi (concentration, meditation,
mental discipline) comprising right effort, right mindfulness, right concentration; and
pañña (wisdom, understanding) comprising right view, right thinking (Stanley, 2015).
Interviewees in this study also acknowledge this fact, for example:
“The NEP can be grouped in a shorter form as ‘sila, samadhi, pañña.’”
(Leader17)
“I don’t think we need to focus on remembering all of the details of the NEP. It’s
like in an educational system where you start in kindergarten to learn simple
things first before expanding your knowledge later. So, by breaking the NEP
down to ‘sila, samadhi, pañña’ it is easy to remember and practise.” (Leader36)
153
It can be seen from the above comments that most participants understand that the
Threefold Training and the NEP are the same, with the former being the short form
of the latter, since the eight elements of the NEP are categorised into the three
groups that appear in the Threefold Training. Regarding the comment from Leader36,
the Threefold Training seems to be simpler and easier to remember, which could be
the reason why the Threefold Training is well recognised by all interviewees in this
study.
In responding to the question of why the Threefold Training is perceived as a principle
underlying BM practices, the interviewees all agreed that this is because the
cultivation of mindfulness constitutes one of the three trainings. Interestingly, the
interview data reveal that all participants do not selectively practise only
mindfulness, but put great emphasis on practising all three trainings simultaneously.
One participant explains this point as follows:
“The most important thing is to take the whole package of ‘sila-samadhi-
pañña’. It has to be done simultaneously… When you practise the Threefold
Training, you maintain your strong morality while meditating regularly. This will
gradually lead to gaining wisdom and insight. Each element is complementary
to the others.” (Leader23)
In this regard, the researcher then asked all interviewees to elaborate on how they
practise and apply all three trainings. The following three sections elucidate in more
detail how each of the three trainings is understood and applied by interviewees.
5.2.3.1 Sila: The training in ethical conduct
The first part of the Threefold Training is the training in ethical conduct, which
encompasses all forms of restraint of the body and speech, including the five
precepts of Buddhism for the layperson (Buswell Jr & Lopez Jr, 2013). Sila is a Pali
word that can be translated variously as ethics, morality, and virtue (Stanley, 2015).
The training in sila in Buddhism encompasses practices which aim to restrain non-
virtuous deeds of body and speech and is often understood in conjunction with
keeping to the precepts (Buswell Jr & Lopez Jr, 2013). Based on the NEP, sila is the
154
domain that includes right speech, right action and right livelihood (Huxter, 2015;
Thera, 2010). Participants in this research particularly mention that, since they have
started practising mindfulness meditation, they have taken the training in ethical
conduct seriously by attempting to observe the five precepts. One interviewee points
out:
“As soon as I started to practise mindfulness, I also learned the ‘Sila-Samadhi-
Pañña’ principle and I know that the first thing I need to do is to uphold the five
precepts.” (Leader24)
Leader13 and Leader33 provide the following explanatory examples of how they
have observed the five precepts and integrated them into their daily and working
lives:
“Since the beginning of my mindfulness practice, I have committed to observing
the five precepts, particularly those that are in my absolute control like the third
and fifth precepts, which are to abstain from sexual misconduct and avoid
alcohol or drugs. For other precepts, I try my best to observe these as well.”
(Leader13)
“As I keep the five precepts along with mindfulness practices, I am honest in my
occupation. I wouldn’t lie that I can do what I actually can’ t. I’m honest about
my specialities. When I approach my clients, I am sincere, and speak from the
heart saying that I want to help them, rather than seeing them as simply a
source of income.” (Leader33)
From the interviewees’ comments, it can be seen that the attempt to observe the
five precepts of Buddhism influence both how they live their lives and how they work
for a more ethically-oriented behaviour. For example, they avoid sexual misconduct,
intoxicants and drugs in their daily lives, while being honest and communicating
truthfully in their work.
In addition, the interview results also reveal that most meditation retreats/centres
in Thailand require participants to keep at least the five precepts as a prerequisite.
For example, one leader clearly states:
155
“When I go on a meditative retreat, they would make us vow to accept precepts
every morning as a reminder. When you repeat it daily, it settles in your mind.
Repeating things is a way to programme the subconscious to assimilate those
teachings into yourself.” (Leader34)
This is arguably one of the most distinct differences between mindfulness when
practised in a Buddhist context, such as Thailand, and that practised elsewhere,
particularly in the West, where it is rare for participants in MM-based programmes
to be instructed to adhere to explicit ethical behaviour (Stanley, 2015). From a
Buddhist perspective, ethical training is required as a prerequisite for training in
mentality because it is considered the foundation upon which meditation practices
can be built (Huxter, 2015; Titmuss, 2018).
Additionally, most participants express their understandings of sila as in the following
statements:
“Sila is normality. Each of the five precepts tells you how you should behave to
live a normal life with others. For example, if you get angry and kill people, it
wouldn’t be accepted. If you steal from people, who would trust you to be near
them? If you always tell lies, no one would like to talk to you. Hence, sila is the
principle that makes you live peacefully in any society.” (Leader9)
“Sila is like common ethical behaviour that should generally be incorporated
into our daily lives.” (Leader20)
“I see sila as a way of life and guidelines, not as rules.” (Leader29)
“The five precepts would basically guarantee that I will do no harm to others.
Then, others would be comfortable to associate with me.” (Leader31)
The findings derived from the leaders’ views on the five precepts above are
consistent with Buddhist literature regarding the features of the five precepts, which
has described them, rather than being perceived as a matter of obedience to a list of
commandments, as a kind of training or education about conduct, which is taken on
voluntarily (Jayasaro, 2014). Ethical principles in Buddhism are guidelines for
personal and spiritual practices, which encourage one to investigate relationships of
156
harm in one’s personal and professional life (Mikulas, 2018; Stanley, 2015). In this
regard, the five precepts of Buddhism are not rules, but rather a way of life that will
lead to the optimum well-being for the individual and that will support them in the
endeavour to live harmoniously with others (Amaro, 2018). In Buddhism, the reason
for not contravening the five precepts is simply that adverse consequences tend to
occur to people who contravene the precepts, both internally (e.g. one may
experience negative thoughts) and externally (e.g. other people may harm the
person in return) (Lomas et al., 2014).
Arguably, due to the nature of Buddhist ethical precepts that appear to be a kind of
guideline to be taken on voluntarily, the degree to which Buddhist laypeople commit
to observing the precepts can be varied. Furthermore, although the general Thai
Buddhist may be familiar with the five precepts, this does not guarantee that they
observe them. Thailand Science Research and Innovation (2018) has reported a
research project in which an experiment was conducted to find out whether or not
students who could remember and write down all five precepts would be less likely
to cheat in an exam. Surprisingly, the study found that the students who were asked
to write down the five precepts before doing the exam cheated more than those who
were not asked to write down the precepts. Consequently, remembering the five
precepts does not necessarily equal committing to them. For this research,
interviewees remember the five precepts and claim that they attempt to observe the
five precepts as best they can. This data gained from the interviews is further verified
through the questionnaires conducted with the interviewees’ direct employees in
order to find the extent to which they find their leaders to be committed to the five
precepts (see quantitative findings in Chapter Seven).
5.2.3.2 Samadhi: The training in mentality
The second component of the Threefold Training is called ‘samadhi’, which can be
translated as concentration. The development of concentration is known as training
157
in mentality, which encompasses all forms of meditative practice directed towards
the achievement of states of concentration (Buswell Jr & Lopez Jr, 2013).
In this study, participants were asked to describe the specific practices they
personally carry out for training in mentality. Literature on Buddhist meditative
practices has indicated various meditation techniques and described 40 possible
objects of meditation (Harvey, 2015; Jayasaro, 2014). The interview results in this
study also identify many methods of meditation employed by participants in their
training in mentality, which are in line with Satipatthana (the four foundations of
mindfulness) as reviewed in Chapter Two. In the ensuing paragraphs are some of the
key examples elicited from the interviewees:
Mindfulness of breathing: “When I practise meditation, I mainly use
mindfulness of breathing. I practise this every day in the morning.” (Leader6)
Walking meditation: “Mostly, I practise walking meditation, because it involves
more movements than sitting… I try to be fully mindful of the movement of my
body while walking. If my mind wanders, I just bring it back to the walking
movement.” (Leader36)
Mindfulness of physical activities: “Being mindful in your work can be a kind of
mindfulness practice as well… For example, I try to be fully aware of my body
movement while doing every task. I think mindfulness practices do not need to
be in formal forms only. We can actually practise during daily routine activity
too.” (Leader13)
Mindfulness of feelings and emotions: “When you feel anger and frustration,
be aware of it. If you have strong mindfulness, your anger should be brief
because you realise it very quickly. If your mind wavers, you might be angry for
several minutes before you notice the anger and realise that you have
succumbed to it.” (Leader18)
Chanting: “For me, the primary method for training in mentality is chanting. I
find that it is a way to practise mindfulness and concentration in the sense that
I keep my focus and awareness on the chant… I set it as my daily routine to
chant every morning about 30-45 minutes.” (Leader16)
158
Loving-kindness meditation: “Extending loving-kindness to all starts from being
compassionate to yourself, and then extending that compassion to your loved
ones, be it your parents, partner, friends, and finally even your adversaries.
Think of all living beings to attain happiness Keep awareness of the thought of
loving-kindness and keep your mind as the centre that is sending out energy in
all directions.” (Leader3)
Taking into consideration all of the quotations above, it can be seen that, although
participants use different objects as the anchor of attention in their meditation, such
as breathing, body movements, feelings that arise in a particular moment, chanting,
and the thought of sharing loving-kindness, all of the methods described aim to
enhance and develop both concentration and mindfulness. As can be seen from the
quotations, they reflect a combination of the roles of mindfulness (sati) and
concentration (samadhi) during their practice given that phrases, such as “be
mindful”, “focus on”, “concentrate”, and “keep awareness of”, all appear in all
practices mentioned by interviewees. They also highlighted that their practices
involve attempting to keep coming back to the focused object each time they are
distracted, which is the process of developing and sustaining concentration
(Batchelor, 2011).
However, in order to continuously keep the mind focused on a single point and
maintain a one-pointed state of mind, mindfulness (sati) plays a crucial role, because
mindfulness is presence of mind and alertness that helps one be able to pay attention
to the object of concentration moment by moment (Gunaratana, 2001; Jayasaro,
2014). When the mind wanders away from the selected object of contemplation,
mindfulness reminds one to return to it (Buswell Jr & Lopez Jr, 2013; Harvey, 2015).
Hence, the ability to remember to focus on the object of concentration and be aware
every time the mind wanders from the object needs mindfulness. This leads to the
ability to establish and maintain one-pointedness of the mind in relation to that
specific object, which is how concentration can be developed (Batchelor, 2011;
Buswell Jr & Lopez Jr, 2013). Therefore, it can be inferred that the meditation
159
practices of training in mentality, as described by interviewees, involve the
cultivation of both concentration and mindfulness.
It is also worth noting that when participants explain the ways they practise the
training in mentality, most of them do not mention only one method; instead they
integrate different types of practice according to what they find appropriate in
various situations. For instance, Leader1 states:
“I have to say that it is a combination of different types of mindfulness practices
that you find useful in different situations. You shouldn’t think of mindfulness
practices as fixed, such as sitting or walking meditation only.” (Leader1)
The following quotations provide some examples from participants to clarify how
different methods of mindfulness practice can be combined and integrated:
“My way of training in mentality is doing both chanting and sitting meditation
together for an average of 30 minutes every day.” (Leader4)
“… It’s all about the Four Foundations of Mindfulness principle, which I try to
practise in their entirety. When there’s sensation, I use it to practise mindfulness
of feeling. I also try to be aware when emotions emerge in my mind. In my
everyday life, I try to observe the body in any physical activities that I am doing.
Whenever I experience something, I try to use it as a lesson for learning the truth
about life or the way things are.” (Leader33)
“Walking meditation is considered as an emotion filter. People usually have
overwhelming emotions, so they should be filtered through walking meditation.
This will make it easier to practise sitting meditation afterwards… Starting from
walking meditation for half an hour, followed by sitting meditation for half an
hour, is the optimal point.” (Leader37)
It can be concluded from the participants’ comments that the training in mentality is
not to be practised only in formal sessions, such as sitting meditation and attending
meditation retreats/courses. However, participants need to find ways to apply the
practices in their everyday activities as much as possible. The findings of this study
suggest that there are various ways to practise mindfulness during the day; for
instance, one may periodically notice the breath or the contact of the feet with the
160
ground, or may observe how the mind is reacting to a given situation and note any
tensions in the body or emotional state. Mindfulness in activities can contribute to
greater concentration in general day-to-day activities. For example, Harvey (2015)
suggests that mindfulness may result in more alertness to things. The leaders’
methods of mindfulness practices are found to be in line with Satipatthana (the four
foundations of mindfulness).
5.2.3.3 Pañña: The training in wisdom
The third training within the Threefold Training is the training in wisdom (pañña),
which includes all forms of study and reflection that are directed towards developing
insight into the true nature of reality (Buswell Jr & Lopez Jr, 2013). With regard to the
questions as to how participants practise the training in wisdom, and how such
training is relevant to their mindfulness practices, it is interesting to find that all
participants particularly emphasise that wisdom can be cultivated through a specific
type of meditation called “vipassana”, which is directly translated as insight
meditation, with mindfulness practices at its core. This is probably why the concept
of vipassana meditation is often understood and equated to mindfulness meditation
in the existing literature (Harvey, 2015; Huxter, 2015; Pagis, 2019).
However, the literature indicates two major branches of Buddhist meditative
cultivation: samatha (calm meditation) and vipassana (insight or mindfulness
meditation) (Buswell Jr & Lopez Jr, 2013). Similarly, although much emphasis is
placed on vipassana, participants also include samatha in their practices as well; for
example:
“Practising samatha and vipassana are different. However, vipassana definitely
employs samatha, meaning that it requires concentration and one-pointedness
of the mind, or else the mind would be swept away when you practise
vipassana.” (Leader21)
“Personally, I start my practice from samatha, in which I employ mindfulness of
breathing, until my concentration reaches a deep level, and then I practise
161
vipassana. So, in my one hour practice, I practise samatha for half an hour,
followed by vipassana for another half an hour.” (Leader22)
“Samatha works as the base or foundation. You cannot practise vipassana
without samatha.” (Leader31)
From the above statements, it can be seen that while the interviewees clearly
distinguish the two types of meditation, they also address the need to practise both.
This is also indicated via the interviewees’ comments that samatha is practised
before vipassana. This view also supports theories about samatha and vipassana
practices in the existing literature, which suggest that deeper levels of concentration
are developed through samatha as a stepping stone for the development of insight
through vipassana (Analayo, 2003; Harvey, 2015).
In this regard, participants were then asked to further elaborate on these two types
of meditation and how these practices are relevant to the cultivation of wisdom. To
begin with, participants describe their understanding and experiences of practising
samatha, as in the following examples:
“Samatha is the meditation for cultivating concentration, which allows the mind
to rest by stopping thoughts. Normally, the mind is always racing with thoughts
and becomes distracted, emotional, and stressed. This is the nature of the mind.
But, if we practise halting thoughts through awareness of our breathing, we
would find peace and calm.” (Leader7)
“When you cultivate concentration through samatha, your mind becomes
steady and calm. Then, you use this state of mind to start vipassana.”
(Leader22)
According to the above quotations, it can be seen that when participants talk about
samatha, they mention words such as “calm”, “peace”, “steady”, and
“concentration”. These understandings also accord with the literature on Buddhist
meditation that has described samatha in the same manner (Buswell Jr & Lopez Jr,
2013; Harvey, 2015; Jayasaro, 2014). This can also be referred to as the training in
mentality to cultivate concentration (samadhi) in the previous section, in which
162
participants clarify that all of the mental objects of focus, for instance breathing,
walking, and body movements, are aimed at establishing a state of calmness of the
mind in order to bring about deeper levels of concentration suitable for vipassana
meditation.
Following samatha meditation, vipassana (insight meditation) is then explained
further by interviewees as the step that follows their samatha practices. The
quotations below illustrate some examples of how interviewees practise vipassana:
“After the mind is serene from practising samatha, then I use this to practise
vipassana, by examining natural truth. For example, observe that exquisitely
beautiful and handsome faces without skin are just blood and gore; without
flesh and blood, they’re just bones. As a result, you would be able to let go, and
any attachment would slowly dissipate. You really see that even you, yourself,
will cease to be. Nothing is truly mine.” (Leader9)
“Following samatha, then comes the next step, which is vipassana, or
cultivation of wisdom. This is contemplation of the nature of the way things are,
particularly the three characteristics of existence: anicca, dukkha, and anatta,
and then letting them all go, which is the hard part.” (Leader38)
“Cultivating wisdom through vipassana brings you deep equanimity and
acceptance ... Such deep acceptance has to be sprung from the inside, rather
than through thoughts. Vipassana is the method that brings the mind to see the
truth of the way things are, so that it can let go of any attachment it holds.”
(Leader40)
It can be seen from the above that participants use terms such as “to examine or
contemplate the truth” during their vipassana practices. These terms are obviously
different from when they describe samatha, which is often done using terms such as
“to calm the mind”. This indicates clearly different, yet supporting roles and functions
between samatha and vipassana, given that samatha helps to equip the mind for a
state of calmness and one-pointedness, which is appropriate for use in vipassana to
observe aspects in one’s own true nature without adding one’s delusion, emotion or
reaction to them (Harvey, 2015).
163
The most common insight claimed to be gained through vipassana is the three
characteristics of existence, namely impermanence (anicca), instability (dukkha), and
non-self (anatta). Such understanding helps interviewees become less attached to
things, even to their own bodies and selves. This finding supports the extant
literature regarding vipassana and wisdom development, which views the process of
vipassana as bringing the mind to attune to the nature of things, in that they are
subject to change, unable to remain in an original form, and impersonal (not
something one can identify with as permanent self and fixed possession), which is
why they not worth clinging to and building an identity upon (Harvey, 2015).
5.2.3.4 The relationship between the three trainings
Since all participants identify the Threefold Training as the core principle related to
their mindfulness practices, it is worth noting that all participants address the
interrelationship between these three trainings, and each component supports the
others. They also share their direct experiences of the interconnections between the
three trainings. The following subsections report the findings regarding how
interviewees find each of the three trainings to support one another.
Sila (the training in ethical conduct)
As reported earlier, interviewees highlight that they have attempted to keep to the
five precepts as best they can since the beginning of their mindfulness practices (see
Section 5.2.3.1). All participants in the study share their own experiences that their
training in ethical conduct and the attempt to keep to the five precepts has led to
more effective training in mentality:
“The training in ethical conduct leads to better training in mentality. Because
when I live my life ethically, I have fewer things to worry about. When I refrain
from hurting other people, lying, stealing, cheating and getting drunk, it makes
my mind feel light because at the back of my mind, I don’t have to worry about
the consequences that could follow this misconduct. Therefore, during the time
I practise mindfulness, my mind is likely to be calm and peaceful.” (Leader26)
164
“When you meditate, if there’s something intense inside you, it will squirm and
rise to the fore, because when the mind starts to become calm things hidden in
your subconscious can start to surface on their own without being prompted.
Sometimes feelings of guilt and sadness would emerge at this time.” (Leader41)
Drawing from the above comments, and the participants’ mention in the earlier
section of the five precepts acting as a basic guideline for them to live harmoniously
with others in society (see Section 5.2.3.1), this could be the reason why they believe
that keeping to the five precepts would help them avoid the negative consequences
of basic negative behaviours, for example harming others’ lives, stealing, sexual
misconduct, lying, and consuming intoxicants. Therefore, they feel that avoiding
these obvious harmful behaviours tends to bring fewer problems to their minds. This
results in better outcomes in their meditation practices, which requires the mind to
be calm and still. Such a finding is in accordance with the extant literature, which also
suggests that the training in ethical conduct provides a degree of life stability that
can generate mental composure and a lightness of conscience that leads to better
concentration during meditation, because the mind tends to become less
concentrated if it is pervaded with unwholesome thoughts, ill will, and restlessness
(Buswell Jr & Lopez Jr, 2013; Huxter, 2015; Olendzki, 2014; Titmuss, 2018).
Additionally, interviewees point out that the training in ethical conduct plays an
important role in preventing concentration and wisdom from being misused.
“I believe it needs the whole package – all three elements – because if you take
just the mindfulness training part, but don’t take the ethics part to be the frame,
you can be mindful in doing wrong things. We need to cultivate mindfulness,
while having morality, ethics, and integrity as well.” (Leader29)
“I believe that in general, those who are thinkers or intelligent already have
good concentration and thus wisdom, perhaps at least worldly wisdom.
However, they can misuse what they have. I think that it’s a good strategy that
the morality element in the Threefold Training informs your mental process. The
training in ethical conduct would frame your concentration to be used for good,
which will create wisdom that shall be used properly.” (Leader35)
165
This finding seems to support the criticisms and concerns which have been raised
about the way in which mindfulness is being communicated to Western audiences
(Lomas, 2017). MM approaches usually frame mindfulness as simply another
technique for boosting attention and calm (Grossman, 2011, 2015; Grossman & Van
Dam, 2011), and a practice in quick-fix self-help tools (Hyland, 2017), whilst having
very little, if any, discussion about ethical or moral behaviour of the participants who
join such programmes (Stanley, 2015). One of the most often cited examples
regarding such concerns is that a mindful sniper can be better at killing others if
mindfulness practices are not grounded on ethical framework (Amaro, 2015;
Monteiro et al., 2015; Purser, 2019; Purser & Loy, 2013). On the other hand, drawing
from the interviewees’ comments, practising mindfulness in a Buddhist context
requires ethical training as its foundation. Therefore, ethics, in turn, becomes the
ground upon which mindfulness can be used to prevent misuse of the ability gained
from the development of mentality and wisdom in the wrong way.
Samadhi (the training in mentality)
Participants address the idea that cultivation of concentration and mindfulness also
supports the training in morality and wisdom. Firstly, interviewees consider that the
training in mentality goes back to helping them keep to the five precepts more
effectively.
“Mindfulness practice is significant because everything you do starts from your
mind first. But the mind naturally works extremely fast If you can have strong
awareness of what’s happening in your mind, then you can control your
behaviour and make the right decision.” (Leader10)
“Your mindful conscience can warn you against doing something wrong when a
problem or dilemma arises.” (Leader37)
It is indicated from the quotations above that mindfulness has two key functions:
firstly, one can be watchful of one’s own actions so that one can be more careful to
avoid ethical conduct; secondly, one can be aware of and discern one’s own mind
and thoughts before actually turning them into actions. Such roles of mindfulness
166
experienced by interviewees support the literature on the function of mindfulness in
Buddhist contexts, which theorises that mindfulness has a preventive role (Stanley,
2015). According to Gombrich (2009, p. 13), one of the Buddhist teachings is that “all
thoughts, words and deeds derive their moral value, positive or negative, from the
intention behind them… the basic criterion for morality is intention.” Hence,
mindfulness has its preventive role in the sense that it helps one to become more
aware of one’s intentions, emotions, and motives, which leads to the ability to
understand what is wholesome and what is not, to abandon wrong intentions, and
to differentiate good deeds from bad deeds (Bodhi, 2011; Harvey, 2000). Here, the
finding of this study supports Peacock's (2014) argument that this protective function
of mindfulness from a Buddhist perspective might be one of the key elements that
distinguishes BM from MM, given that the mindfulness concept in MM is mostly
interpreted as bare attention and non-judgmental awareness.
Secondly, participants highlight that concentration cultivated through the training in
mentality is key for seeing things with clarity, which leads to the development of
wisdom.
“From my direct experience, training in mentality equips me to have a clear and
powerful mind, which contributes to the ability to think and see things with
clarity. I believe that this would lead to the cultivation of wisdom.” (Leader14)
“You first need samadhi as a basis to develop wisdom because without a
perfectly calm and resolved mind, it is hard to deeply see things to gain insight
and cultivate wisdom.” (Leader21)
“If you are committed to the training in morality… and add meditation to that,
I think that wisdom will emerge. That is because good concentration would
allow you to think more clearly and do things more effectively.” (Leader35)
The comments above are in line with the findings extensively discussed in Section
5.3.3.3 on Pañña and the training in wisdom, in which the participants indicate that
the training in mentality leads to the state of calmness and one-pointedness of the
mind, which is required for the training in wisdom.
167
Pañña (The training in wisdom)
When it comes to the relationship of the training in wisdom to the other trainings,
interviewees address the notion that the development of wisdom and insight equips
them to be even more committed to keeping to the precepts and developing
concentration because they deeply understand the reasons and benefits from the
training in terms of ethical conduct and mentality.
“Wisdom lets us see that keeping to the five precepts is reasonable and lets us
realise the bad consequences for defying them. When we see the repercussions
of those actions, we would refrain from doing them. Thus, ethical conduct and
wisdom go hand in hand, tempering and teaching each other… When we can
live in peace within society, our minds would be at peace. Then, a peaceful mind
supports the cultivation of wisdom. They support each other that way.”
(Leader24)
The comment above indicates that the training in wisdom provides a rationale for
practising the other two trainings in the Threefold Training, because wisdom helps
one understand and realise the benefits of living an ethical life and of mental
cultivation. The extant literature regarding wisdom training within the Threefold
Training is also in line with this view. According to Buddhadasa (2007), the insight
that one gains through the training in wisdom provides a deep and penetrative
understanding of the way things are, for example the impermanence of existence. In
turn, this understanding contributes to reducing clinging to, and craving for things.
As a result, outwardly, one behaves according to an ethical responsive life, while,
inwardly, the mind becomes more liberated as it is less attached to things. Huxter
(2015) also suggests that wisdom can refer to knowledge, understanding, or insight
about how suffering or dissatisfaction arises and how it is eliminated; thereby,
wisdom may help one abandon thoughts, emotions and behavioural patterns that
are the cause for distress for oneself and others. This may lead to one’s ability to
purify one’s behaviour and mind.
On the whole, the quotations derived from interviewees generally suggest that the
three trainings support one another. This understanding is addressed in a similar way
168
by most of the interviewees. For example, one participant echoes this view as
follows:
“The five precepts and ethical conduct provide the guiding principles for living
in peace within society. Samadhi (concentration) is about the strength, quality,
and attentiveness of the mind required to combat anything that leads the mind
to a bad place, such as mental defilements and excessive desires. Pañña
(wisdom) is the correct understanding about the way things are, so that we have
the right attitude and perceptions to live our lives. It is necessary for connecting
all of them together as a holistic training for human development.” (Leader17)
The comments above indicate that the interviewees perceive the Threefold Training
as providing a framework for holistic human development in terms of the outer,
which involves moral behaviour, actions and conduct, and the inner, which includes
the development of the mind, thoughts and attitude. The three trainings in ethical
conduct, mentality and wisdom are understood by all interviewees to be practised
simultaneously.
5.3 Chapter summary
This chapter explores the first research question of the study by addressing the
results obtained from interviews with Thai organisational executive leaders, who
practise mindfulness in the Thai Buddhist context regarding their understanding and
application of the core principles underlying BM. Overall results reveal that
interviewees in this study demonstrate profound knowledge about the principles
underlying BM, since most of their views and experiences appear to be consistent
with the principles and theory found in the extant literature. However, this may be
because the target samples in this study are those who practise mindfulness on a
regular basis; therefore, this group of people seem to already be committed to
studying and practising Buddhism to a certain degree. Moreover, the results reported
in the first section regarding interviewees’ experience of mindfulness practice show
that the participants have had long experience in practising BM, which could be one
169
of the reasons why they have acquired considerable knowledge of Buddhist
principles and mindfulness practices. Another important finding in this chapter is that
the principles underlying mindfulness appear to be grounded on an ethical
framework. For example, interviewees mention that the NEP and the Threefold
Training encompass rightness and ethical conduct, which need to be practised in
parallel with mindfulness meditation. In this regard, it would be interesting to find
whether or not such an ethical framework underlying mindfulness practices
influences the leaders’ ethical behaviour and values when it comes to their
leadership roles. This point is further examined in the next chapter.
170
CHAPTER 6: THE INFLUENCE OF BUDDHIST
MINDFULNESS ON ETHICAL VALUES AND BEHAVIOUR
This chapter provides the second section of the qualitative findings based on the
interview transcripts analysis. The chapter addresses the results for the study’s
second and third research questions, which can be cross-referenced with the
research objectives and key interview questions as presented in Table 6.1 below:
Table 6.1: The second and third research questions and the related research objectives,
and key interview questions
Research Objective Research Questions Key Interview Questions
2. To explore the extent
to which Buddhist
mindfulness principles
and practices influence
Thai organisational
executive leaders’ ethical
values and behaviours.
2. What ethical values and
behaviours are perceived by
Thai organisational executive
leaders to be crucial for ethical
leadership?
What are the ethical values
and behaviours that you
think are most important to
you as a leader, and that
you personally adhere to?
Please give examples of
situations or actions.
3. How does Buddhist
mindfulness influence ethical
values and behaviours of Thai
organisational executive
leaders who are Buddhist
mindfulness practitioners?
To what extent do
mindfulness practices
influence the ethical values
and behaviours you have
identified earlier?
Please describe how, and
provide real situations in
which you find mindfulness
practices are relevant.
Source: Author’s construct
In order to find out the extent to which BM principles and practices influence Thai
organisational executive leaders’ ethical values and behaviours, it is imperative to
primarily understand what ethical values and behaviour Thai leaders have found to
be significant for EL. An inductive approach was taken to collect the data, given that
171
the researcher openly asked interviewees the key interview questions illustrated in
Table 6.1 above. Following the critical incident technique (Flanagan, 1954) ,
interviewees were then asked to describe real situations in which they have found
their mindfulness practices to be relevant to ethical values and behaviours they had
identified. The themes which emerged from the two key interview questions were
analysed together to find the perceived relevance of mindfulness practices and core
ethical values and behaviours as identified by the interviewees. Based on this, eight
themes regarding EL values and behaviours emerged from the interviews in this
study, namely: 1) compassion and empathy; 2) humility and equal respect for others;
3) emotion regulation; 4) sufficiency; 5) honesty; 6) justice; 7) pro-social behaviour;
and 8) discipline and role model. Additionally, the findings are also discussed with
reference to related existing literature throughout the chapter. Lastly, the chapter
concludes with a summary.
6.1 Compassion and Empathy
Not surprisingly, compassion and empathy are addressed most frequently by the
participants in this study as their core ethical values and behaviours. Consistent with
the literature on EL, compassion and empathy, as well as other similar concepts, such
as caring, altruism, agreeableness, true concern for people, and supporting
employees, have often been agreed among various scholars to be the key component
of EL (Brown et al., 2005; Kalshoven et al., 2011; Treviño et al., 2003; Walumbwa &
Schaubroeck, 2009; Zoghbi-Manrique-de-Lara & Viera-Armas, 2019).
More precisely, there are two concepts commonly mentioned by most interviewees
when they talk about compassion: first, metta, which can be translated as loving
kindness, refers to a mental state of unselfish and unconditional kindness to all
beings, and the wish for others to be happy (Hofmann et al., 2011; Buswell Jr and
Lopez Jr, 2013); and second, karuna, which can be translated as ‘compassion’ or
‘empathy’ (Buswell Jr & Lopez Jr, 2013), means the ability of a person to share in
172
others’ suffering and to help those in distress (Naemiratch & Manderson, 2009).
Compassion and empathy gained the highest emphasis in this study, which is no
surprise, because the concepts of metta and karuna are embedded in Thai culture
and are frequently used in everyday language as interchangeable terms for kindness,
compassion and sympathy (Naemiratch & Manderson, 2009). For example, one
participant states:
“First and foremost, leaders need to have goodwill and love for employees, in
other words to have ‘metta’ . Also, leaders should have ‘karuna’, which is the
genuine attempt to help others as much as they can… In order to build good
relationships and friendships, it begins with love and compassion. Then,
everybody will work harmoniously and smoothly together.” (Leader1)
Additionally, the majority of the interviewees often mention the term ‘empathy’ in
parallel with compassion as in the following examples:
“One of the most important aspects of ethical leaders is empathy. This refers to
the ability to understand why other people act the way they do. You have to try
to look at the situation from their perspectives. You shouldn’t use your own
mindset or standard to judge others.” (Leader1)
“The ethical value and principle I have always adhered to is ‘ao-chai-khao-ma-
sai-chai-rao’ (to put oneself in someone's shoes). This means that I don’t treat
others how I don’t want to be treated. Before I do anything, I always ask myself
first that, if someone else did the same thing to me, how would I feel?”
(Leader11)
It can be seen from the above comments that the word ‘empathy’ may be variously
defined by the interviewees, for example ‘to understand why other people act the
way to do’, ‘to look from others’ perspectives’, or ‘to put oneself in someone's shoes.’
However, overall, these expressions pointed to empathy involving the capacity to
understand the feelings of others (Singer & Klimecki, 2014).
It is also worth noting that a number of participants specifically indicate a Buddhist
principle called the four Brahmavihàra (Four Sublime States of Mind) to be the ethical
principle related to compassion and empathy that they followed. For example,
173
Leader5 stated: “One of the ethical principles I personally adhere to is the four
Brahmavihàra.” The principle consists of four elements, namely mettà (loving-
kindness, goodwill), karuna (compassion, empathy), mudita (sympathetic joy,
rejoicing in the successes and happiness of others) and upekkha (equanimity, mental
balance) (Buswell Jr & Lopez Jr, 2013; Goodman et al., 2018; Hofmann et al., 2011).
Interestingly, during the interviews, participants often emphasised the fourth
element of this principle (upekkha or equanimity) in particular, giving opinions such
as the following:
“The four Brahmavihāras principle comprises of four sub-principles… I consider
the fourth one, upekkhà or equanimity, to be quite crucial to helping me balance
compassion and empathy in a wise and appropriate manner.” (Leader3)
“Generally, as a leader, I help my employees as much as I can, even if those
problems are not related to work. But, at some point, I need to know when and
how to let go, which is where upekkha comes in. I cannot take their problems as
my responsibility forever… Upekkha or equanimity is to let go at the right time.”
(Leader5)
While this study agrees with the majority of research on EL, which identifies
compassion and empathy as the key behaviour for ethical leaders, the finding in this
part of the study highlighting the concept of equanimity (upekkha) provides an
extended element to compassion and empathy. The result indicates that it is also
important for leaders to exercise compassionate actions wisely and appropriately. As
can be seen from the above quotations, the participants particularly stress the
equanimity element of the four Brahmavihàra (Four Sublime States of Mind) while
addressing the act of compassion. In fact, an emphasis on the importance of
equanimity to compassion and empathy is also found in the existing literature. For
example, Analayo (2015a) suggests that if a compassionate action does not lead to
an expected result, equanimity can play a crucial role in letting go and not feeling
distressed about it. Equanimity also helps one to maintain clear awareness and
presence of mind when experiencing either pleasant or unpleasant situations
(Goodman et al., 2018). Moreover, psychological research has found that having
174
compassion and empathy can result in empathic distress and compassion fatigue,
which can be caused by continued exposure to intense suffering and empathic
overload, leading to burnout and a strong aversive response to the suffering of others
(Addiss, 2017; Singer & Klimecki, 2014). Hence, equanimity may provide the
emotional resilience to avoid such negative effects of compassion and empathy
(Addiss, 2017). This finding is crucial for ethical leaders to perform the balancing act
of showing compassion while maintaining their state of mind to avoid empathic
distress and compassion fatigue.
When it comes to the second key interview question regarding the relevance of
mindfulness practices to leadership compassion and empathy, all interviewees
acknowledge that BM practices have contributed to their cultivation of compassion
and empathy to a great extent and in various ways.
Firstly, interviewees assert that mindfulness plays a significant role in their cultivation
of compassion through improving the ability to regulate negative emotions.
“In the past, I used to react aggressively when my colleagues presented their
ideas or works that did not meet my expectation. I would let anger and
aggressiveness be my automatic response all the time. But since I have practised
mindfulness, I have been calmer and it’s like I have more time to think before I
act. I realise that, actually, I have choices, from which I choose to speak kindly.”
(Leader24)
“Mindfulness practices help me develop more compassion and empathy. This is
particularly important as I am working in a different country and culture.
Awareness helps me avoid immediately reacting based on negative emotions,
such as anger, when my employees do things differently from what I expect.
Awareness also allows me to stop and realise that I need to look at the situation
from others’ perspectives, not just from my own point of view.” (Leader28)
From the above quotations, phrases such as ‘avoid immediately reacting based on
negative emotions’, and ‘think before I act’, imply the ability to regulate negative
emotions through mindfulness training, leading to interviewees’ behaviour in the
form of compassionate and empathetic acts. Empirical scientific studies employing
175
neuroimaging techniques and experimental design also report the similar outcome
of mindfulness practices increasing practitioners’ compassion and empathy (Birnie et
al., 2010; Desbordes et al., 2012; Jazaieri et al., 2013; Wallmark et al., 2013). Given
that mindfulness practices develop a state of openness, awareness and non-
reactivity (calmness) in response to an experience, it is suggested that other-focused
compassion can be created through such a state of mind (Boellinghaus et al., 2014).
Moreover, emotion regulation is one of the factors contributed by mindfulness
practices that leads to compassion and empathy, because in order to recognise and
be aware of others’ feelings and sufferings, it requires a certain level of stability of
the mind (Addiss, 2017). In the current study, it is indicated from the interviewees’
comments that negative emotions, such as anger and annoyance, tend to drive one
to react quickly and automatically, and to obstruct one from feeling what others are
feeling.
Other research also suggests that it is considered impossible to express loving-
kindness and compassion when one is angry or feeling ill will (Goodman et al., 2018).
Drawing from the interview data, practising mindfulness has helped the interviewees
to realise whenever a negative emotion arises so that they can then regulate it. As a
result, not only can they stop an automatic negative reaction, but they can also think
from others’ perspectives and use alternative ways to act kindly and empathetically.
This finding supports the assumption suggested by other research that mindfulness
practice can affect empathy through self-awareness, because becoming aware of
one’s negative emotions can prevent one from automatically being caught up in
those emotions; thereby, one can be aware of another person’s feelings (Centeno &
Fernandez, 2020).
Secondly, BM practices are perceived to help the interviewees have empathy and
understanding of others because they started to understand themselves and have
self-compassion for themselves through the process of mindfulness training, which
leads to understanding and compassion for others. One leader describes this as
follows:
176
“For me, mindfulness relates to empathy, because it helps me to see that, even
during my mindfulness sessions, I still slip up, as I can see that my mind wanders
quite a lot sometimes. I turn inward to look at myself and see that I am not
perfect. That’s how I extend to an understanding of others, that they are not
perfect and can make mistakes too.” (Leader27)
This finding provides promising groundwork for the influence of mindfulness on self-
compassion and empathy, which is currently an emerging area of interest among
researchers (Centeno & Fernandez, 2020). The interview results in this study provide
further explanation from interviewees’ direct experience for how mindfulness
practices influence self-compassion, and how self-compassion then leads to
empathy. Moreover, it can be inferred from the above assertion that mindfulness
practices lead to the development of a sense of common humanity. This supports
earlier research indicating that the common humanity notion is central to self-
compassion, because it involves recognising that all humans are imperfect and can
experience failures or make mistakes, by connecting one’s own flawed experience to
the shared human condition (Neff & Pommier, 2013). A compassionate and accepting
attitude towards oneself creates a compassionate stance towards others (Kumar,
2002). It can be clearly seen that the same viewpoint is provided by Leader27’s
comment above. Hence, this finding supports prior research that suggests that
mindfulness practice encourages self-compassion, which goes hand in hand with
compassion for others (Centeno & Fernandez, 2020; Neff & Pommier, 2013).
Lastly, participants refer to the specific practice of loving- kindness meditation. The
concept of loving-kindness can be briefly described as “an unconditional love without
desire for people or things to be a certain way; an ability to accept all parts of
ourselves, others and life, including pleasurable and painful parts” (Boellinghaus et
al., 2014, p. 130). Participants claim that practising loving-kindness meditation has
helped them to develop compassion, cultivate love, and build a capacity for
forgiveness of others. It is highlighted by interviewees that loving- kindness
meditation involves repetitive thoughts about wishing oneself and all living beings
177
happiness and peace, as well as forgiveness; thereby, such thoughts can become
habits. For example:
“Generally, we only take care of our physical hygiene, but what about emotional
hygiene? Practising loving- kindness meditation together with mindfulness
meditation is like mind-cleansing. You keep reminding yourself to be
compassionate towards others, and forgiving. If you really put your mind to the
meaning while practising loving- kindness, not just reciting the words, and you
do this repeatedly, it can gradually change you to become a loving and kind
person.” (Leader2)
It is not unexpected to find that loving-kindness meditation is mentioned by the
participants in this study, because loving-kindness meditation is a prominent type of
mindfulness practice in Buddhist tradition that particularly focuses on the cultivation
of compassion. In fact, there has been an emerging interest in the clinical application
of Buddhist-derived loving-kindness and compassion meditation. Various loving-
kindness and compassion meditation interventions, applied in the traditional
Buddhist approach, are delivered in a secular format (Shonin et al., 2015). A systemic
literature review study has also found initial scientific evidence that loving-kindness
meditation, including interventions that combine the practice of loving-kindness
meditation, can have positive benefits in increasing self-compassion and compassion
for others (Boellinghaus et al., 2014). Based on the scientific evidence from prior
studies, as well as the results from this study, it is promising that loving-kindness
meditation may serve as an alternative way for leaders to cultivate compassion and
empathy, which are key attributes for ethical leaders.
178
6.2 Humility and Equal Respect for Others
In cross-cultural EL studies, leaders’ humility and treatment of others with equal
respect are found to be one of the universal behaviours that determine EL (Resick et
al., 2006). Participants in this study emphasise that, in order to be considered as
ethical leaders, one should treat others with respect and equality, as well as not
seeing oneself as superior to others. In the words of one interviewee:
“It is very important that leaders have to respect their employees. Leaders
should fully recognise that others have their rights and dignity as humans
equally. For me, I have never praised myself for being superior to them with
regard to my leadership position.” (Leader1)
When participants are asked about the extent to which the BM that they have
practised is relevant to their behaviour in treating others with dignity and respect, it
is found that the contemplation of human body and existence has played an
important role in the practice of mindfulness among the participants. For example,
one participant states:
“I was taught to contemplate the truth about human existence, which makes
me realise that our physical bodies are simply composed of the elements, such
as bones, flesh, blood, and breath. That’s it. Then, I see that everyone is equal,
they’re human, and I’m human, all of whom will die just the same.” (Leader39)
This finding indicates a particularism of mindfulness practised in a Buddhist context,
which endorses some domains that are not frequently seen in general MM
programmes that are practised in the West. Based on this interview result, it is found
that contemplation of the elements of the body is one type of mindfulness practice
that is commonly practised in the Thai Buddhist context. In contrast, this type of
practice is rarely found in MM programmes, although these are adaptations of
specific Buddhist techniques (Vago & David, 2012). The BM techniques related to
contemplation of the bodily domain, which are most commonly known in the major
MM programmes (e.g. MBSR and MBCT), are mindfulness of breathing, bodily
postures and physical activities (Chaskalson & Hadley, 2015). However,
179
contemplating the parts of the body is not a mindfulness practice that is commonly
taught in Western settings (Huxter, 2015).
Contemplation of the elements of the body refers to reviewing and being aware of
the material elements that make up the human body, which include the qualities of
temperature (fire), hardness and softness (earth), movement (air), and fluidity
(water) (Analayo, 2003, 2015b; Gunaratana, 2012; Huxter, 2015, 2007). According to
Analayo (2015b), the main purpose of this exercise in Buddhist tradition is, on one
hand, to undermine the solid sense of an embodied self, while on the other hand, it
helps to foster a sense of connectedness to the natural environment outside of one’s
own body as a whole. This is because the practice encourages one to closely inspect
one’s own body to see that it is simply a combination of material qualities that, in
themselves, are not different from outside manifestations of matter in nature, nor
does it differ from other human beings’ bodies (Analayo, 2015b). Based on the
understanding of this concept, the interviewees in this study claim that
contemplation of the elements of the body influences their perspectives on seeing
and treating everyone equally.
The above result seems to be a critical finding, particularly in the Thai cultural
context. This is because Thailand has a high power distance culture, which means
that there is considerable inequality between people in different social positions,
given that the country has high acceptance of inequality of power and privileges
within hierarchical organisational systems (Hofstede, 1980, 2001; Ralston et al.,
2005). In this regard, in some cultures that have low power distance, e.g. the United
States and England, it may be common to find that people who have low societal or
organisational status are treated fairly equally to those in high positions
(Chompookum & Derr, 2004; Earley, 1999). On the contrary, in Thailand, status and
seniority are highly valued (Jingjit & Fotaki, 2010). The high power distance culture
shapes the behaviour of Thai people in general, including leaders and subordinates,
given that unusually high deference towards those of senior status can be seen in all
social relationships (Pimpa & Hooi, 2017). Large differences in power between
180
organisational levels tend to appear as natural in Thai organisations (Hallinger, 2004).
People who are in higher positions are greatly respected and accommodated by their
subordinates (Wilhelm & Gunawong, 2016).
Nevertheless, it can be argued that, although high power distance is commonly
accepted in Thai society, this does not necessary mean that people are willing to be
treated unequally with regard to their status. In fact, it was revealed by a study
conducted to find Thai employees' preferred leadership style that the least preferred
type of manager by Thai employees is an autocratic manager, and that those Thai
employees who perceived their managers to be autocratic preferred to work under
a democratic or participative manager (Yukongdi, 2010). Hence, the fact that
executive leaders in this study report how mindfulness practices influence their
behaviour in treating others with equal respect seems to be promising in developing
leadership in the Thai context.
6.3 Emotion Regulation
The majority of informants identify that emotion regulation and self-control by
leaders are essential elements in EL. They perceive leaders who cannot control their
emotion and behaviour, for instance by reacting negatively, speaking unkindly, or
expressing bad manners to their employees due to their negative moods, as not
entirely to be regarded as ethical leaders. For example, one leader opined that:
“Sometimes leaders can be hot-tempered due to great pressure and their
responsibilities. However, if leaders cannot control their temper, this only leads
to negative consequences for both themselves and their employees. Their
employees would be scared and anxious to work with them. Therefore, I think
good leaders should be able to regulate their emotions.” (Leader6)
The result from the interviews reveals that emotion regulation is frequently
acknowledged to be one of the main benefits the participants have gained from
mindfulness practices. Emotion regulation is a similar concept to self-regulation,
181
which refers to the ability to shift the focus of attention at will, and to control ongoing
emotional activity (Vago & David, 2012). It involves a diverse set of cognitive control
processes aimed at manipulating when, where, how and which emotion one
experiences and expresses (Quirk & Beer, 2006).
It is not an unexpected result to find that nearly all participants in this study
experience this benefit from practising mindfulness, because various theoretical
work on mindfulness has proposed emotion regulation as a central mechanism of
mindfulness due to the fact that the outcome that has consistently been reported in
mindfulness studies in the past two decades is emotion regulation (Baer et al., 2009;
Bishop et al., 2004; Brown et al., 2007; Creswell et al., 2007; Glomb et al., 2011; Hayes
& Feldman, 2006; Shapiro et al., 2006).
Drawing from the interview data analysis, as a group, the interviewees claim that,
after practising mindfulness for some time, they are able to detect the emergence of
their negative emotions, particularly anger, which has led to better control of
negativity. As a result, they can prevent themselves from acting out in negative ways.
“It is like you ‘install a sensor to your house’. Your mind is compared to the
house, and mindfulness is the sensor that helps you detect negativity, such as
anger, fear, boredom, loneliness and greed. When the sensor alerts you, you are
aware of those emotions. Hence, you don’t let them overwhelm you.” (Leader2)
“Since I have started to practise mindfulness regularly, it has helped me be
aware of my anger or frustration. From my experience, it’s like there’s a filter;
instead of reacting immediately, I would be aware of the emotion and observe
it until the emotion gradually subsides.” (Leader5)
“Actually, I am a very hot-headed person. Mindfulness is greatly beneficial for
me because it helps me be aware of my emotions much better… Like I have a
detection. Nowadays, when the anger starts to arise, I am aware of it and I don’t
act out based on negative impulses.” (Leader19)
From the above quotations, it is interesting to find that the participants provide a
similar metaphorical examples when trying to explain the mechanism of mindfulness
in helping them regulate emotion. Leader2 associates this function with ‘a sensor’ ,
182
Leader5 considers it as ‘a filter’, while Leader19 uses the word ‘detection’. This
mindfulness function helps them to have emotion regulation and self- control
because, since they can be aware of their negative emotion as soon as they emerge,
they tend not to be overwhelmed by such emotion. This process prevents them from
automatically reacting, driven by their emotions, which leads to better control of
their actions.
What participants describe based on their direct experience above is in line with most
psychological and neuroscientific scholars, who have theorised about and explained
the function of mindfulness in relation to emotion regulation. In terms of
neuroscientific explanation, research in brain activity demonstrates that mindfulness
practices, which let one observe negative emotions without reaction, lead to a
reduction in the neural activity associated with emotional reactivity, while
strengthening neural systems important for emotion regulation (Glomb et al., 2011;
Goodman et al., 2018; Hülsheger et al., 2013; Vago & David, 2012). From a
psychological perspective, mindfulness meditation leads to the mechanism called re-
perceiving, which allows one to stand back and observe one’s own thoughts and
experiences instead of automatically reacting upon or being immersed in them
(Shapiro et al., 2006). This psychological explanation clearly supports Leader2’s
statement above in which he mentions: “You are aware of those emotions. Hence,
you don’t let them overwhelm you.” Moreover, this shift in perspective, which occurs
when one is aware of emotion and simply stands back to observe, brings one to the
realisation that the thought or emotion that one is experiencing in that moment
eventually passes away (Chambers et al., 2009; Sedlmeier et al., 2012). This
psychological process echoes what Leader5 states above: “instead of reacting
immediately, I would be aware of the emotion and observe it until the emotion
gradually subsides.”
In terms of the EL literature, emotion regulation is recognised as a key competence
associated with effective EL, because leaders who can deal with negative emotions
tend to reduce potentially adverse outcomes, as well as to improve their
183
relationships with their employees (Haver et al., 2013). Research has also found that
emotions, especially anger, have the potential to influence ethical decisions; thereby,
emotion regulation significantly decreases the negative effects of negative emotions
on sense-making and ethical decisions (Kligyte et al., 2013). This is clarified further in
Section 6.5, which discusses in particular the findings on how leaders’ honesty and
unethical behaviours can be influenced by mindfulness practices.
In this regard, although emotion regulation is a common finding in numerous
mindfulness studies, the finding in this study seems to be significant to the EL
literature, because research that focuses on mindfulness and leadership is still
limited, given that there is a scarcity of empirical mindfulness studies from research
outside the therapeutic context (Sedlmeier et al., 2012). Hence, due to the important
role of emotion regulation on EL described above, the finding in this study sheds light
on the influence of mindfulness practices on leaders’ emotion regulation, which may
contribute to knowledge about EL development through mindfulness practices.
6.4 Sufficiency
The concept of sufficiency has been promoted in Thailand for decades. The most
prominent or well-known term related to sufficiency has been sufficiency economy,
which is an economic philosophy addressed by a previous king of Thailand, Bhumibol
Adulyadej (Malikhao, 2017a). Moreover, since 2002 the sufficiency economy
philosophy has been the core principle of the development strategy within the
National Economic and Social Development Plan to promote moderation,
reasonableness, and resilience in the Thai economy and society (Office of the
National Economic and Social Development Board, 2017). This could also be the
reason why, during the interviews with leaders in this study, the concept of
sufficiency is identified by several interviewees as one of the key dimensions for EL.
184
Although the sufficiency economy philosophy seems to be related to economics, it is
interesting to find that when interviewees talk about sufficiency, they emphasise the
role of the mind rather than economic aspects of the concept. One example is given
by Leader10, who happens to be an expert in economics and holds the top executive
role in the Thai central bank. He perceives the sufficiency economy concept to be
fundamentally driven by the mind:
“King Rama IX’s philosophy of sufficiency economy has very much to do with the
mind. Most people may look at this concept only in its economic aspect, but I
have learned that, in fact, the rationale underlying the concept is ‘sufficiency
within the mind’ . It is about being reasonable, moderate, and avoiding the
extreme. It needs to start with the mind.” (Leader10)
This result contributes to a more refined understanding of the concept of sufficiency
economy in Thailand. However, the finding does not only contribute to research
knowledge exclusively about Thai society, but also about other contexts, given that
concepts around sufficiency, such as less consumption and a sustainable economy,
have received more interest recently. There has been a growing concern over various
issues worldwide, for instance over-consumption, materialism, environmental
deterioration, inequality, and corporate greed (Brown, 2015; Helm & Subramaniam,
2019; Kim, 2014; Konecki, 2017; Patel & Holm, 2018). Moreover, numerous scholars
have also pointed out that human greed is the underlying cause of the current global
crisis and social problems, such as climate change, income disparity, financial crisis,
food crisis, corruption, and political instability (D’Souza, 2015; Kirchgässner, 2014;
Seuntjens et al., 2019; Wang & Murninghan, 2011). It can be argued that leaders who
are moderate, self-sufficient and able to retrain personal desire, are required in the
current time more than ever, which is probably why, in the EL literature, moderation
and balanced desire are deemed as important dimensions of EL (Eisenbeiss, 2012).
In terms of Thailand, the concept of sufficiency has recently been addressed outside
of the economic aspect. The first National Moral Promotion Master Plan, 2016-2021,
has been announced to encourage Thai people to adopt the philosophy of sufficiency
as one of the core moral values, because sufficiency is believed to guide people to
185
live modestly, leading to a strong foundation to counter corruption, illegal means of
seeking self-enrichment, cheating, and exploitation (The Government Public
Relations Department, 2017).
Given that the sufficiency concept is perceived by the participants in this study as
driven to a great degree by the mind, the interviewees further emphasise the
contribution of mindfulness to sufficiency; for example:
“Mindfulness gives the ability to look at your mind and see if your mind is filled
with greed or extreme desire. You can deeply see your own thought, if what you
want is for a short- term gain, or whether it will cause any harm to anyone. It
helps you to be able to refrain from greed; then, you wouldn’t want to take
advantage of others.” (Leader10)
“…I’m not saying that we have to reject all worldly desires, but through
mindfulness practice, I gradually develop the wisdom and awareness to know
what is necessary and find where the balance is.” (Leader17)
“Human desire is indefinite and usually continues to increase… However, since I
have started to practise mindfulness, I have learned that actually I don’t need
that much to live. As I am more in the present, I appreciate little things in life
more, especially those that have nothing to do with money, such as time and
peace.” (Leader25)
The finding sheds light on the role mindfulness can play in supporting the promotion
of sufficiency. This research finding can contribute to the current call for more
research on mindfulness that may lead to greater outcomes beyond stress reduction
and improved work performance (Ditrich, 2013, 2016; Forbes, 2016; Purser & Milillo,
2015; Stanley, 2013; Sun, 2014). The comment from Leader17 that “human desire
usually continues to increase” echoes what several scholars have addressed in terms
of the major cause of the problems of overconsumption and materialism being that
human desires and cravings for satisfaction are perpetuated and cannot ever be
satisfied (Boyce et al., 2009; Konecki, 2017).
However, Leader17 also makes it clear that sufficiency does not mean rejecting all
desires, but rather finding a balance. This view reflects the word ‘sufficiency’ in Thai,
186
which means “not-too-little, not-too-much”, and the fact that this ideology is also
influenced by the classical Buddhist teaching of the middle path (Noy, 2011). The
middle path in Buddhism encourages the idea of moderate consumption by limiting
consumption to a level that meets the necessary and sufficient conditions for well-
being and basic needs, as well as by training the mind to eliminate defilement driven
by greed (Boyce et al., 2009). Mindfulness has been found to be helpful in this
process. Based on the interviewees’ comments, mindfulness practices may influence
leaders’ sufficiency behaviour through awareness of their cravings and desires. This
supports earlier research indicating that the process of monitoring and inspecting
states of mind during mindfulness leads to recognition of whether greed is present
in, or absent from the mind (Anālayo, 2019). Moreover, scholars have suggested that
practising mindfulness facilitates increased awareness, which helps to restrain
worldly desires and consider needs before taking action (Boyce et al., 2009; Noy,
2011; Patel & Holm, 2018).
In the recent years, there has been an emerging area of mindfulness research
attempting to link mindfulness to sustainable consumption and anti-materialism,
which has started to show positive results (Ericson et al., 2014; Helm &
Subramaniam, 2019; Patel & Holm, 2018; Rosenberg, 2004; Watson, 2018). Hence,
this finding in the current study contributes to knowledge in this emerging area of
research by providing empirical and rich data drawn from the interviews that may
lead to more understanding of mindfulness as a cognitive driver of sufficiency. More
importantly, this study has found that leaders’ sufficiency is intertwined with leaders’
honesty and other ethical behaviours. This point is discussed in more detail in the
following section, which focuses on the honesty dimension of EL.
187
6.5 Honesty
It can hardly be denied that malfeasance in organisations, especially corruption, has
been a prominent problem in many countries worldwide (Beeri et al., 2013; Kumasey
et al., 2017; Linder et al., 2021), including Thailand. Issues relating to lack of honesty
have been persistent in Thailand, where corruption has been the key moral problem
facing Thai society that seriously needs to be tackled (Office of the National Economic
and Social Development Board, 2017).
Honesty is considered as one of the universal qualities that determines EL, given that
most scholars who study EL, in either Western or cross-cultural contexts, agree that
ethical leaders need to manifest honesty, integrity and trustworthiness (Brown &
Treviño, 2006; Daft, 2014; Eisenbeiß & Brodbeck, 2014; Northouse, 2015; Resick et
al., 2006). Consistent with most EL literature, the result from the interviews also
reveals that most leaders hold up honesty, integrity, uprightness and trustworthiness
as their core ethical value. For example:
“One of the core ethical values I adhere to is honesty. As a central banker,
principle-based conduct and uprightness is crucial. I will never compromise
integrity for monetary gain.” (Leader9)
“One of the core ethical values I adhere to is honesty. I never get involved in
corruption, bribery, or any types of misconduct, such as faking accounting
systems to avoid tax.” (Leader22)
Regarding the quotations above, not only do the interviewees emphasise the
importance of honesty as a crucial quality constituting EL, they also explain how they
enact the concept of honesty in their leadership practices. In this regard, principled
conduct and non-involvement in transgression, such as corruption, bribery, receiving
money under the table, financial statement fraud, and avoiding tax, are deemed as
behaviours that determine leaders’ honesty. Moreover, they go on to state their
opinions about the root cause of most unethical behaviour being greed. The excerpts
below illustrate this view:
188
“When are ethics damaged? It’s when people can’ t regulate their desires. Do
you think corrupt CEOs don’t know that what they have done is wrong? Of
course, they know. Nevertheless, they still do it, fully aware that it’s wrong.
Why? It’s the greed that they get intoxicated by.” (Leader2)
“I think corruption problems in most organisations are caused by greed.
Therefore, if people can reduce their greed, it can also reduce corruption. ”
(Leader7)
The above comments from the interviewees are in line with prior research which has
addressed how negative thoughts and unpleasant behaviours, such as greed,
narcissism, arrogance and anger, tend to require the ability to be consciously aware
of the sources of negativity (Banaji et al., 2003). For this reason, ethics training that
merely teaches rules and codes of conduct to leaders are unlikely to solve ethical
problems. Moreover, Leader2’s opinion above seems to be in accordance with the
extant literature, which also points out that leaders learn enough about integrity and
ethics to know what behaviours are deemed to be unethical, but the problem is they
tend not to live by this (De Cremer et al., 2010; Goldman Schuyler, 2010).
Following this point, they mention their mindfulness practices and express the idea
that mindfulness practices increase the quality of awareness, which then leads to the
ability to notice when cravings and desires arise. This makes it possible for them to
be more careful and reasonable rather than taking action purely driven by their
desires.
“In order to restrain your excessive desire, it requires awareness to see the
emergence of your desire and craving first. This awareness can be trained
through mindfulness practice. If one doesn’t have self-awareness, it’s easy to
indulge oneself in those desires.” (Leader2)
“The reason people take bribes or engage in corruption is borne out of impure
intents, such as greed and excessive desire. Practising mindfulness makes us
aware of our feelings and thoughts in the present before taking action. So,
mindfulness would keep the impure thoughts in check.” (Leader5)
189
“I must admit that, due to the nature of my company’s projects, there are a lot
of opportunities for me to be involved in corruption. But I am never a part of it…
Mindfulness is very important. I need to have strong awareness to fight the
allure of money and to remain firm to my core values… It’s better to stay as a
small company and keep our integrity, rather than be a large but corrupted
company.” (Leader16)
The comments above highlight the interviewees’ opinions that greed is the cause of
dishonesty and unethical conduct. Such opinions seem to be in concordance with
numerous scholars who have studied the cause of unethical behaviour and have
indicated that greed is a central element in human existence that is the root cause of
various organisational and financial scandals, as well as different forms of corporate
misconduct, for instance corruption, fraud and theft (D’Souza, 2015; Lambie &
Haugen, 2019; Linder et al., 2021; Sekhar et al., 2020; Seuntjens et al., 2019; Wang &
Murninghan, 2011). Also, all major religious traditions, including Christianity, Islam,
Hinduism and Buddhism, consider greed as some form of evil (Seuntjens et al., 2019;
Wang & Murninghan, 2011). The same view is also found in the results from the
interviews in this study.
The reason why greed is seen as the underlying cause of immoral and unethical
behaviour is because the key characteristics of greedy people are: (1) striving to
acquire either wealth, resources, material goods, as well as non-material desires,
such as power, status, or sex, that are usually beyond basic needs; (2) never being
satisfied and continuously wanting more; and (3) ignoring the potential cost of
obtaining their desires even if they may harm others (D’Souza, 2015; Krekels &
Pandelaere, 2015; Lambie & Haugen, 2019; Seuntjens et al., 2015, 2019). Empirical
research also confirms the relationship between greed and unethical behaviour
(Seuntjens et al., 2019). Hence, it is suggested that people who are sufficient do not
need to become involved in unethical means for self-gain because they tend not be
greedy (The Government Public Relations Department, 2017).
Based on this view, this study contributes further to the suggestions in the literature
that humility is linked to honesty and ethical behaviour. The interview data provide
190
an empirical finding that sheds light on how mindfulness practices may be a helpful
means to support sufficiency and honesty. Given that human beings have basic
impulses to do what brings immediate benefit, in order to behave morally, self-
control is required to enable individuals to have control over impulses and to
overcome selfish inclinations (Baumeister & Alghamdi, 2015).
The finding in this section reiterates the important role of mindfulness in emotion
regulation and sufficiency, which has been reported earlier in Sections 6.3 and 6.4. It
also confirms suggestions in the literature that, due to increased awareness through
mindfulness practices, leaders gain more ability to regulate emotion and have self-
control, which is the underlying mechanism for most ethical behaviours, including
honesty (Sosik et al., 2019). Much research in behavioural ethics indicates that self-
regulation and self-awareness are the underlying factors of ethical behaviour. Self-
awareness is intertwined with self-regulation, because failure to monitor one’s
actions can undermine one’s self-control, which then results in immoral actions
(Baumeister & Alghamdi, 2015). Moreover, Gino et al. (2011) point out that self-
awareness contributes to self-control in enacting behaviours that are consistent with
one’s ethical values and avoiding to engage in behaviours that are driven by short-
term gain and selfish motives.
More precisely, awareness is found to be essential to restraining greed and extreme
desires, as discussed in the previous section regarding sufficiency. This finding
supports the arguments that those who are sufficient and modest (in other words,
not greedy) do not have the urge to commit unethical conduct for self-gain (Lee et
al., 2005; Linder et al., 2021; The Government Public Relations Department, 2017).
Thus, the result found in this study is crucial for current mindfulness research, given
that much has been reported about the positive outcomes of mindfulness on health
and well-being, while research into the effects of mindfulness on social and
interpersonal benefits is still limited, despite the unethical and social problems that
are pervasive in the world today.
191
6.6 Justice and Fairness
Cross-cultural EL studies have collectively identified treating employees fairly, as well
as making just and objective decisions without bias, are types of ethical behaviour
within EL (Eisenbeiss, 2012; Eisenbeiß & Brodbeck, 2014; Resick et al., 2011).
Consistent with prior literature, two thirds of the participants in the current study
highlight justice as the core ethical value and behaviour of organisational leaders. For
example, one participant mentions:
“Ethical leaders have to be just and fair. They have to make unbiased decisions.
This means that they do not favour anyone. In order to be fair, their decisions
need to be based on fact, rationale and guidelines.” (Leader3)
In terms of the research question regarding the extent to which, and how BM
practices contribute to unbiased and fair decision making, interviewees mention that
their mindfulness practices have elevated their ability to notice emotions and
feelings. This, in turn, has helped them realise whenever they have made an
immediate judgement in relation to their employees, because immediate
judgements are usually influenced by emotions or feelings rather than fact:
“Normally, when we see things, we tend to automatically or unconsciously
make immediate judgements, especially likes and dislikes. I think leaders need
to be careful about this because such immediate judgement may not be right.
But sati (mindfulness) brings me to realise whenever I have made such an
immediate judgement.” (Leader1)
“One example where I have felt that BM training has really helped me in my
leadership role is that I can catch my own thoughts and feelings; therefore, I
tend to be able to separate fact from feelings to avoid bias. I can focus on my
employees’ work so that my comments on their work are purely based on the
work, rather than my personal feelings or thoughts about them.” (Leader15)
“Mindfulness helps me not to make decisions based on emotional impulses… As
a leader, I need to consider thoroughly in order to make fair and unbiased
decisions, which need to be based on fact rather than personal feelings. That’s
why it is important for leaders to be aware of their own emotions and not let
them influence their decision making.” (Leader40)
192
This result from the interviews reiterates the importance of awareness and emotion
regulation as a key mechanism for leaders’ ethical behaviour. This section has
addressed how leaders may unintentionally let their emotions influence their
decisions if they are not aware of them. In fact, a substantial body of existing
literature on ethical decision making suggests that a lack of awareness is a critical
factor in the unethical decision making process, particularly unconscious biases
(Bazerman et al., 2002; Goldman Schuyler, 2010; Ruedy & Schweitzer, 2010).
Moreover, this study also supports the existing research by indicating that
mindfulness promotes ethical decision making through increased awareness. Given
that a focus on enhancing awareness is central to mindfulness practices, it has been
suggested that mindfulness practitioners not only develop awareness of any subtle
changes in the mind and body, but also develop the self-regulation to not let
destructive emotions take over and dominate actions unintentionally, which
contributes to the capacity of act with awareness (Goldman Schuyler, 2010). Such
awareness is essential for leaders to be fair and just because the ability to be aware
of themselves before conducting any actions can help leaders generate outer
expressions appropriate to the situation and respond to their employees objectively,
rather than reacting automatically based on their emotions.
Additionally, a growing number of experimental and quantitative studies have
started to find positive results of mindfulness in terms of ethical decision making and
moral reasoning (Pandey et al., 2018; Ruedy & Schweitzer, 2010; Sanko et al., 2016;
Shapiro et al., 2012), the ability to pay attention to such unconscious biases (Howell
et al., 2016), and the characteristic of justice among leaders (Schuh et al., 2017).
However, most research related to mindfulness and ethical behaviour is drawn from
the MM approach. Most extant studies also employ quantitative methods, which
may lack richness and depth of the data as to how and why mindfulness practices
contribute to ethical decision making and justice according to the experiences and
perspectives of the participants. In particular, in the field of leadership studies,
mindfulness has only been studied in relation to justice and ethical decision making
193
on the part of leaders. Therefore, this area is still largely underexplored by research
(Schuh et al., 2017). Hence, the findings from this current study contribute to
research within the Eastern context, as well as to mindfulness research in the area of
leadership justice and fairness.
6.7 Pro-Social Behaviour
Pro-social behaviour is typically defined as voluntary behaviour intended to benefit
another (Vago & David, 2012). In Thailand, the importance of pro-social behaviour,
which is also known as voluntary behaviour, has been addressed as one of the four
core morals to be promoted in Thai society in the first National Moral Promotion
Master Plan, 2016-2021 (The Government Public Relations Department, 2019).
Voluntary behaviour refers to any voluntary actions for the greater good that would
contribute to the benefit of others, society and the nation, including being
responsible and talking part in developing society without expecting anything in
return (The National Board of Ethics, 2018).
In terms of the results from this study, the interview data analysis reveals that nearly
half of the interviewees identify pro-social behaviour as a highly important dimension
of EL. Moreover, the participants also mention that they have implemented pro-
social activities that have been possible for them to carry out within their
organisational contexts. For example:
“Ethical leaders need to be responsible and care for society… In my school, we
address and teach the concept of interconnectedness and the principle of
actions- consequences to both our teachers and students. They need to
understand how one small action of our own can impact widely on society.
Although we are one tiny dot in the big picture in the world, our action matters.”
(Leader27)
“As leaders, we have a duty to be responsible to the environment and nature.
At my company, we do a lot of projects to solve environmental issues because
we find that environmental problems are the causes of other problems in our
194
lives. It's all connected to the environment – the air we breathe and the water
we drink.” (Leader17)
This result confirms the argument that the dimension of pro-social behaviour, which
includes responsibility, sustainably and voluntary behaviour, should be considered as
one of the core ethical dimensions for EL (Eisenbeiss, 2012). This is because there has
been criticism of the initial EL theory developed by Brown et al. (2015) that it neglects
to consider responsibility and sustainability orientation within EL, while putting
emphasis only on justice and humane orientations for ethical leaders (Eisenbeiss,
2012). However, the finding from the interviews with Thai executive leaders in this
study support results from the work of other scholars who have found that pro-social
behaviour is an essential element of EL (De Hoogh & Den Hartog, 2008; Eisenbeiss,
2012; Kalshoven et al., 2011).
In this regard, the interviewees point out that mindfulness has played a major role in
influencing them to enhance pro-social behaviour. Participants agree that
mindfulness practices enable them to be aware of the consequences of their actions,
which results in them being more careful and responsible. Furthermore, several
interviewees point to the Buddhist teaching on interconnectedness, a concept which
they claim has influenced them to see that everything in this world is connected and
nothing can truly exist independently. For example:
“Buddhism teaches that we are not living beings who are independent of other
things, but we are a part of this world and our actions can create an impact on
the world.” (Leader17)
“I believe that practising mindfulness and studying Buddhist teachings are the
reason why I started to be concerned for the environment and the consequences
of my actions on others and the ecosystem. I have learned the teachings about
dependent origination and conditionality of phenomena… Nowadays, I try to
avoid causing harm to the environment as much as possible.” (Leader39)
It can be seen from the above quotations that the concept of interdependence is
emphasised as the underlying rationale for the participants in enhancing their pro-
195
social behaviour. It can be inferred from this finding that Buddhist teachings
(dhamma) play a major role, along with mindfulness practices in the Thai Buddhist
context, rather than practice of meditation alone. Such a finding provides insight on
a recent interest among scholars who study mindfulness and pro-social behaviour.
Only recently have scholars begun to give a central role to the Buddhist teaching on
interdependence in the study of mindfulness practice and pro-social behaviour.
According to Chen and Jordan’s (2020) experimental study, adding the explicit
Buddhist teaching on the principles of no harm and the interdependence of all beings
to MM programmes can enhance practitioners’ pro-social behaviour more than
general MM programmes without these teachings. This is because the teachings
provide the rationale and internal guidance that direct the awareness cultivated by
mindfulness practice towards seeing the connection between one’s experiences and
those of other living beings (Chen & Jordan, 2020).
However, the role of the teachings on the interconnectedness of things in parallel
with mindfulness is still under-researched. To date, a substantial number of studies
have linked awareness and compassion to pro-social behaviour (Amel et al., 2009;
Barbaro & Pickett, 2016; Berry et al., 2020; Howell et al., 2011; Lim et al., 2015).
Therefore, the findings of this study contribute to the emerging research on the
contribution that the concept and teachings on interconnectedness in Buddhist
approaches to mindfulness may make to pro-social behaviour. This finding further
augments the empirical findings and extant knowledge that are based on the
relevance of Eastern mindfulness practices to pro-social and pro-environmental
behaviour, because current research on mindfulness has been predominantly
conducted in the West based on the MM approach.
Besides, the relevance of mindfulness to prosocial behaviour has only recently
become a topic of scientific focus (Lim et al., 2015). The influence of mindfulness on
leaders’ pro-social and pro-environmental behaviour is still an under-explored area,
despite the fact that organisational actions can be regarded as one of the major
causes of many environmental problems, so that top-level organisational leaders
196
could exercise considerable influence when it comes to environmental and social
initiatives (Patel & Holm, 2018). Hence, the finding in this study contributes to the
limited knowledge in the literature in this area.
6.8 Discipline and Role Model
Discipline is perceived to be another core ethical behaviour for organisational leaders
by nearly half of the participants. Two sub-themes emerge from the interview data
analysis: firstly, leaders’ self-discipline, and secondly, their role in disciplining others.
This result concurs with the EL theory first proposed by Brown et al. (2015). As
described in the EL theory, two primary roles of an ethical leader are emphasised: a
moral person and a moral manager. A moral person denotes leaders’ self-discipline,
given that Brown et al. (2015) initiated their EL theory based on social learning theory
(Bandura, 1977, 1986). First and foremost, therefore, ethical leaders need to
discipline themselves to behave in a normatively appropriate manner in order to
become role models and be able to influence their followers to behave ethically.
Meanwhile, the second role of EL, as proposed by Brown et al. (2015), is the moral
manager, which refers to leaders using their leadership roles to discipline others
through two-way communication and formal reinforcement. Both roles of ethical
leaders are also suggested by the participants in this study.
Firstly, interviewees emphasise that leaders being ethical role models through self-
discipline is the most effective way to promote ethical values and practices in their
organisation.
“No matter how much rules, regulations, ethical guidelines and monitoring
systems are clearly set up, they can be ineffective and meaningless if leaders
break those rules themselves.” (Leader3)
“First of all, leaders need to discipline themselves in order to make themselves
role models before they can convince anybody else to do something. This then
leads to the organisational culture. Therefore, I totally believe that a leader’s
197
ethical behaviour is the most important factor in organisational ethics. ”
(Leader12)
“First and foremost, ethical leaders need to walk the talk. They, themselves,
must not break the law or the rules and must behave ethically in order to be a
role model for their followers.” (Leader32)
Concerning the question of the relevance of mindfulness to discipline and role
models for EL, the ability to have greater self-awareness and self-control is reiterated
when participants explain how their mindfulness practices contribute to their
leadership role in terms of being role models for their employees.
“I believe that there are always some flaws or loopholes in the rules that people
can take advantage of. Therefore, the most effective way is not external law
enforcement, but internal discipline in people’s minds. Here, awareness is key.
We need to have self- awareness in order to be careful in our thoughts and
actions.” (Leader3)
“Mindfulness practices help me to have self- control. The ability to have self-
control really matters in my leadership role. As a leader, I need to be a role
model for my employees. If I don’t have self-control, I wouldn’t be a very good
example for them.” (Leader5)
Secondly, given their leadership role, leaders are also responsible for disciplining
their subordinates. In this regard, participants also note that, in order to discipline
their employees effectively, awareness is perceived as crucial.
“If my subordinates do something wrong, I need to discipline them. However, it
is very important that I do this rationally and in an appropriate manner. For
example, I won’t scold or react angrily to my employees, despite their
wrongdoings. Mindfulness practices help me to have better awareness. If I am
aware that I’m angry or frustrated, I would wait until it subsides before talking
to my employees.” (Leader30)
It can be clearly seen from the interview results that awareness is once again taken
to be the key contribution of mindfulness practices. The finding in this section
confirms the suggestion in the literature that, due to increased awareness through
mindfulness practices, leaders have gained in their ability to regulate emotion and
198
exercise self-control, which then becomes the underlying mechanism for most
ethical behaviours (Sosik et al., 2019). Such a viewpoint echoes a growing interest
among scholars who have turned their attention to the value-based approach, also
known as the self-regulatory approach, to ethics practices (Tanner et al., 2019). The
value-based approach emphasises individual awareness, personal ethical
responsibilities, self-governance and self-control (Brewer et al., 2015). Moreover, it
gives an important role to individual internal controls in fostering self-regulation
rather than being controlled by external authority (Tremblay et al., 2017).
With regard to leaders’ self-discipline and being role models, it is highlighted that,
since leaders are in positions where employees can watch and see them most of the
time, they need to have great awareness in order to act carefully and appropriately
at all times. By practising mindfulness, the participants acknowledge that they have
developed self-awareness. As a result, they claim to act more thoughtfully and as
better role models for their employees. Meanwhile, awareness also plays an
important role for leaders in controlling their negative moods and emotions when it
comes to leaders’ roles in disciplining their employees. Given that they can better
take notice their emotions and thoughts, they are more rational when it comes to
punishing employees who commit wrongdoings. With better emotion regulation,
leaders tend to be careful before making any judgement or decision to punish
someone.
The findings in this study regarding the contribution of mindfulness to leadership
discipline and being a role model are important because it has been widely
recognised that leaders are regarded as the central source in promoting and
strengthening ethical culture in organisations (Beeri et al., 2013; Brown & Treviño,
2006; Brown et al., 2005; Downe et al., 2016; Thorne et al., 2008).
Moreover, this study also contributes to the literature on leadership and emotions.
Previous research has shown that leaders’ emotions have a significant impact on
their employees (Dasborough, 2006; Koning & Van Kleef, 2015; Sy et al., 2005).
Leaders who can express positive emotions when they give either positive or
199
negative feedback to their followers are perceived as better leaders, whereas leaders
who show negative emotions and act irrationally may enhance frustration,
demotivation, and decreased well-being among their followers (Haver et al., 2013;
Newcombe & Ashkanasy, 2002). Therefore, the findings in this study suggest that
mindfulness may help leaders to have better emotion regulation and self-control,
particularly when they need to discipline their employees, which may lead to a more
positive organisational environment.
6.9 Chapter Summary
In summary, this chapter presents and discusses the results relating to the second
and third research questions in this study. With regard to research question two:
“What ethical values and behaviours are perceived by Thai organisational executive
leaders to be crucial for ethical leadership?”, the findings from this study reveal eight
themes that determine EL elements: 1) compassion and empathy; 2) humility and
equal respect for others; 3) emotion regulation; 4) sufficiency; 5) honesty; 6) justice;
7) pro-social behaviour; and 8) discipline and role model. Overall, the results are
consistent with most EL dimensions generally identified in the extant EL literature, as
discussed in Chapter Two, namely: humane leadership practices, moderation,
honesty, justice, pro-social behaviour, discipline and role model. The findings also
support the suggestion in the cross-cultural EL literature that, although there is no
single agreeable meaning of EL, there are certain qualities that appear to be universal
across different cultures.
In terms of the third research question: “How does Buddhist mindfulness influence
ethical values and behaviours of Thai organisational executive leaders who are
Buddhist mindfulness practitioners?”, awareness appears to be the key mechanism
underpinning ethical practices for most ethical dimensions. Mindfulness meditation
is perceived to play a major role in developing self-awareness and self-regulation,
which has resulted in leaders engaging in more ethical decision making and
200
behaviour. Another important finding is that mindfulness practices in the Thai
Buddhist context are in parallel with learning of the dhamma teachings, which are
usually part of the training in wisdom. The findings indicate that the training in
wisdom enables the participants to deeply understand themselves and others, the
interconnectedness of things, and the nature of the way things are. The interviewees
claim that this kind of wisdom training transforms their perspectives and behaviours
towards an ethical orientation, such as compassion, treating others with equal
respect, and pro-social behaviour.
201
CHAPTER 7: QUANTITATIVE FINDINGS
This chapter provides the findings which involve quantitative results based on
questionnaire data and analysis. The chapter aims to answer the fourth research
question in this study, which can be cross-referenced with the research objective, as
presented in Table 7.1 below:
Table 7.1: The fourth research question and the related research objective
Research Objective Research Question
2. To explore the extent to which
Buddhist mindfulness principles and
practices influence Thai organisational
executive leaders’ ethical values and
behaviours.
4. To what extent are Thai organisational
executive leaders who practise Buddhist
mindfulness perceived as ethical leaders by
their direct employees?
Source: Author’s construct
The focus of this chapter is to describe and statistically analyse the data collected
from questionnaires completed by 176 employees, who work under and report
directly to the leader informants interviewed in this study. In other words,
quantitative data are the EL scores that the Thai executive leaders who practise
mindfulness in the Thai Buddhist context, and who were interviewed in this study,
received from their direct employees. The rationale for using questionnaires in this
study is primarily to provide multiple perspectives, as well as to validate one set of
data with the other. This research has collected data from leaders’ direct employees
to strengthen validity and provide increased confidence in the findings from the
qualitative part of the study (Yin, 2013).
In the previous two chapters, the findings from the qualitative data provide valuable
insight from Thai organisational executive leaders who have direct experience in
practising BM as to how BM principles and practices influence their ethical values
202
and behaviours. However, the data derived from the first-person perspective
through interviews with leaders who practise mindfulness themselves could be
subject to bias, particularly when it comes to positive attributes, such as being
ethical, in which people tend to oversell themselves. Hence, the way in which EL can
be indicated in most EL research is by the ratings from leaders’ subordinates collected
through questionnaires (Khuntia & Suar, 2004). Moreover, it is more suitable to use
questionnaires with employee samples, because the researcher can gain data from a
relatively large number of employees, which can be more challenging than
interviews. Additionally, questionnaires provide more of a sense of privacy than
interviews, which may reduce the bias that comes from face-to-face interaction
(Gray, 2014). Therefore, it is likely that the researcher would obtain honest answers
from employees regarding their perceptions of their leaders through questionnaires.
This chapter is divided into five sections. Section One introduces the response rate
by organisation sector and the respondents’ demographic data. Section Two
demonstrates the descriptive findings derived from the questionnaire data. In
addition to descriptive statistics, this chapter seeks to provide a wider perspective on
the quantitative analysis by further investigating the possible significant relationships
between some variables and EL results. In Section Three, Pearson’s correlation is
used to analyse for potential relationships between the EL constructs in the
questionnaires and the five precepts of Buddhism, as well as the years of experience
in mindfulness practices of the leaders interviewed in this study. Section Four
extends the investigation to identifying further relationships between the degree of
each EL dimension and the four demographic variables: organisation sector, working
experience of the respondents with the leaders, gender of the leaders, and gender
of the respondents, by using the one-way ANOVA and T-test where appropriate.
Finally, the chapter concludes with a summary section.
203
7.1 Demographic Data of the Questionnaire Respondents
7.1.1 Descriptive demographics of the respondents
The descriptive demographic data of the participants are presented in Table 7.2.
Overall, it can be seen that the majority of the respondents are female (63%), while
males represent 37%. Regarding the age of the participants, there is a group of
respondents aged between 31 and 40, who constitute the majority of the
respondents (38%), while the youngest group (aged between 20 and 30) represents
the smallest proportion of respondents grouped by age (15%).
Table 7.2: Summary of demographics data of the questionnaire respondents
Demographics n %
Gender
Male 65 37%
Female 111 63%
Total 176 100%
Age (years)
20 - 30 27 15%
31 - 40 67 38%
41 - 50 49 28%
51 and above 33 19%
Total 176 100%
Experience of Working with the Leader (years)
Less than 1 year 19 11%
1 - 3 75 43%
4 - 9 47 27%
10 - 15 25 14%
16 years and above 10 6%
Total 176 100%
Source: Author’s construct
204
7.1.2 Response rate
This section presents the questionnaire response rate by organisation sector with
cross-referencing to the number of leaders interviewed in the study (see Table 7.3).
The research questionnaires were distributed to all employees who were identified
as working under, and reporting directly to the leaders interviewed (219 direct
employees in total), of whom 176 completed and submitted the questionnaires. This
is a total response of 80%, which can be considered as a high response rate. The
highest response rate is 86% by public sector respondents, while participants from
the private and non-profit sectors have similar response rates (77% and 79%
respectively).
Table 7.3: Questionnaire response rates by organisation sector with cross-reference to the
number of interviewed leaders
Organisation Sector
Number of Distributed
Questionnaires
Number of Completed
Questionnaires
Response Rates
(%)
Percentage of Questionnaire Respondents
per Sector
Interviewed Leaders
n %
Public sector 73 63 86% 36% 13 32%
Private sector 117 90 77% 51% 23 56%
Non-profit sector 29 23 79% 13% 5 12%
Total 219 176 80% 100% 41 100%
Source: Author’s construct
As Table 7.3 above demonstrates, the populations of questionnaire respondents and
interviewed leaders from show similar proportions in each sector. More precisely,
the questionnaire respondents from the private sector constitute the largest group
(N = 90, which is 51% of the total sample), as is the case for the number of
interviewed leaders (N = 23, which is 56% of the total interviewees). This is followed
205
by the samples from the public sector, for which the questionnaire respondents
make up 36% of all respondents, and the interviewed leaders make up 32% of all
interviewees. Lastly, in the non-profit sector both types of sample are approximately
12-13% of the total.
7.2 Descriptive Statistics
7.2.1 Summary of the descriptive statistics of the questionnaire
results
This section presents a summary, given by the SPSS package, of the descriptive
quantitative data collected through the questionnaires. The main statistics reported
in this section are the mean (M) and standard deviation (s.d.), which respectively
show the average value of respondents’ answers and the data spread from the value
of M (Field, 2013).
The questionnaire comprises nine themes. Seven themes were synthesised from
cross-cultural ethical leadership literature (reviewed in Chapter Two), namely: 1)
humane/people orientation; 2) honesty; 3) justice and fairness; 4) moderation; 5)
responsibility and sustainability; 6) discipline; and 7) role model. Additionally, the
ethical leadership scale (ELS) developed by Brown et al. (2005), which is the scale that
is most used in the literature to measure ethical leadership, is also adopted in this
research questionnaire. Lastly, the five precepts of Buddhism were also added to the
questionnaire items, given that this research particularly focuses on ethical
leadership in the Thai Buddhist context, in which the five precepts are generally
regarded as ethical guidelines for Buddhist practitioners.
Table 7.4 below summarises and compares the descriptive results for the nine
themes derived from the questionnaires by ranking them in order according to the
mean scores from highest to lowest.
206
Table 7.4: Summary of average results for each ethical leadership dimension (n = 176)
Ethical Leadership Dimension Mean s.d.
Five precepts of Buddhism 4.74 0.377
Honesty 4.70 0.481
Discipline 4.68 0.461
Humane 4.59 0.543
Role Model 4.56 0.562
Responsibility and sustainability 4.50 0.565
Ethical leadership scale (ELS) 4.47 0.471
Justice 4.43 0.615
Moderation 4.38 0.579
Average Result of
All Dimensions 4.53 0.433
Source: Author’s construct
As Table 7.4 demonstrates, the mean scores can be categorised into three groups:
high, medium, and low. The highest appreciation is seen in the first three dimensions,
namely leaders’ commitment to the five precepts of Buddhism (M = 4.74), honesty
(M = 4.70), and discipline (M = 4.68). Leaders’ humane orientation (M = 4.59), being
a role model (M = 4.56), and responsibility and sustainability orientation (M = 4.50)
are perceived as moderately high. Lastly, ethical leadership scores based on ELS (M
= 4.47), justice (M = 4.43) and moderation (M = 4.38), attained the least favourable
responses.
In summary, the leaders who practise Buddhist mindfulness interviewed in this study
receive considerably high scores in every dimension of ethical leadership from their
direct employees. Even the theme of moderation, which is reported as the least
favourable dimension (M = 4.38) is still scored at a high score level. It is evident from
the results that most respondents strongly agree that the leaders interviewed in this
study are ethical, given that the average score for the whole questionnaire, as
represented by the average of the means from every ethical dimension, is 4.53 (s.d.
= 0.433). This indicates that most of the respondents strongly agree with the
statements provided in the questionnaire.
207
7.2.2 Questionnaire results by EL dimension
This section presents detailed descriptive quantitative data for each EL dimension in
terms of frequencies in the data by displaying the percentages of responses to the
questionnaire items for each theme. As mentioned in Chapter Four, the
questionnaires were based on a 5-point Likert scale, with five rating scales according
to the degree of agreement with the statement provided in the questionnaire items.
A score of 1 indicates that respondents ‘strongly disagree’, 2 indicates that they
‘disagree’, 3 that they ‘neither agree nor disagree’, 4 that they ‘agree’, and 5 that
they ‘strongly agree’ with the statement provided.
7.2.2.1 Ethical leadership scale (ELS) and role models
This section reports the results for the ethical leadership scale (ELS) developed by
Brown et al. (2005). This scale consists of 10 questionnaire items. Hence, the results
derived for the ELS could provide a general view about the extent to which the
leaders interviewed in this study are perceived as ethical leaders by their direct
employees. Moreover, this scale also measures the role model dimension of
leadership (item no. 8). Table 7.5 below presents the results for the ELS.
Table 7.5: Descriptive results for the “ethical leadership scale (ELS)” (n = 176)
Questionnaire Items
Percentage of Responses
Mean s.d.
1 2 3 4 5
1. The leader conducts
his/her personal life in an
ethical manner.
0% 0.6% 3.4% 36.4% 59.7% 4.55 0.593
2. The leader defines
success not just by results
but also the way they are
obtained.
0% 2.3% 7.4% 34.7% 55.7% 4.44 0.730
3. The leader listens to
what employees have to
say.
0% 1.1% 7.4% 36.4% 55.1% 4.45 0.683
208
Questionnaire Items
Percentage of Responses
Mean s.d.
1 2 3 4 5
4. The leader disciplines
employees who violate
ethical standards
0% 1.1% 10.2% 45.5% 43.2% 4.31 0.699
5. The leader makes fair
and balanced decisions. 0% 1.1% 6.3% 44.3% 48.3% 4.40 0.660
6. The leader can be
trusted. 0% 0% 1.7% 28.4% 69.9% 4.68 0.502
7. The leader discusses
business ethics or values
with employees.
0.6% 0% 5.1% 38.1% 56.3% 4.49 0.650
8. The leader sets an
example of how to do
things the right way in
terms of ethics.
0% 0.6% 1.7% 38.6% 59.1% 4.56 0.562
9. The leader has the best
interests of employees in
mind.
0% 2.3% 12.5% 44.3% 40.9% 4.24 0.756
10. When making
decisions, the leader asks
"what is the right thing to
do?"
0% 0.6% 3.4% 35.8% 60.2% 4.56 0.592
Source: Author’s construct
Overall, the data indicate that the leaders, the interviewees in this study, are viewed
with a relatively high degree of EL by their direct employees. Given that the mean
scores for all ten items range from 4.24 to 4.68, this reflect that the respondents
either agreed or strongly agreed with the ten statements in the ELS. Item 6 generated
the highest mean (M = 4.68), which indicates that respondents strongly agree that
their leaders can be trusted. The lowest mean (4.24) is reported for item 9, regarding
leaders having the best interests of employees in mind. Nevertheless, the lowest
mean still accounts for a considerably high score, representing the fact that the
respondents ‘agree’ with the statement.
209
In terms of s.d., this ranges from 0.502 to 0.756. This shows that the degree of spread
of the responses is low. As can be seen from Table 7.5, over 50% of the respondents
strongly agreed with nearly all of the statements, whereas almost no responses were
given for “strongly disagree” and a low number of responses for “disagree”.
Given that one of the most distinct qualities of EL described in EL theory by Brown et
al. (2005) is that ethical leaders act as role models for employees by explicitly
demonstrating ethical behaviours, it can be seen that item 8 of the ELS is concerned
with this role model facet. In this regard, item 8 generates a mean response of 4.56
(s.d. 0.562). Nearly 60% of the respondents strongly agreed with the statement,
while almost no responses indicated disagreement with the statement that the
leaders set an example of how to do things ethically. This indicates that the
respondents tended to express highly positive attitudes about their leaders being
ethical role models for them.
7.2.2.2 Humane
Table 7.6 presents the descriptive findings under the theme of “humane”, which has
appeared in Eisenbeiss’ (2012) interdisciplinary integrative approach to EL, yielding
four central ethical orientations, with humane orientation being one of the four.
Humane orientation refers to leaders treating others with dignity and respect and
seeing them as ends, not as means. It may be expressed by leaders' fully recognising
the rights of others, or through their compassion and concern about people’s well-
being (Eisenbeiss, 2012).
210
Table 7.6: Descriptive results for the “Humane” dimension (n = 176)
Questionnaire Items
Percentage of Responses
Mean s.d.
1 2 3 4 5
11. The leader treats
others with dignity and
respect.
0% 1.1% 4.0% 24.4% 70.5% 4.64 0.616
12. The leader has full
recognition of the rights of
others.
0% 1.1% 2.8% 32.4% 63.6% 4.59 0.608
13. The leader sees their
subordinates as ends not
as means.
0% 0% 5.7% 33.5% 60.8% 4.55 0.603
14. The leader is concerned
about employees’ well-
being.
0% 1.7% 7.4% 23.9% 67.0% 4.56 0.706
Source: Author’s construct
The table above shows that respondents have a positive view on their leaders’
humane orientation, with the mean scores for all items ranging from 4.55 to 4.64
(s.d. 0.603 to 0.706). No responses are recorded for “strongly disagree” for any items,
and there are very few responses showing disagreement. Item 11 generated the
highest mean (4.64), with 70.5% of the respondents strongly agreeing that their
leaders treat others with dignity and respect. The respondents provide the least
appreciation for item 13 (M = 4.55), regarding their leaders having full recognition of
the rights of others. Nonetheless, the lowest mean does not differ much from the
highest mean.
211
7.2.2.3 Justice
Justice is also an EL dimension described in Eisenbeiss’ (2012) four central ethical
orientations. Justice orientation means that leaders make fair and consistent
decisions without discriminating against others. Justice orientation may be expressed
by leaders’ consistency in decision making, respect for diversity, and non-
discriminatory treatment of others with regard to sexual differences, nationality,
religion, political beliefs, economic or social status (Eisenbeiss, 2012). Table 7.7 below
displays employees’ views about their leaders’ justice orientation.
Table 7.7: Descriptive results for the “Justice” dimension (n = 176)
Questionnaire Items
Percentage of Responses
Mean s.d.
1 2 3 4 5
15. The leader makes
unbiased decisions by
gathering and employing
accurate information before
making a decision.
0% 1.1% 6.3% 44.3% 48.3% 4.40 0.660
16. The leader applies his/her
decisions consistently
regarding people and time.
0% 2.3% 9.1% 42.6% 46.0% 4.32 0.735
17. The leader respects
diversity and shows non-
discriminatory treatment of
others with regard to sexual
differences, nationality,
religion, political beliefs,
economic or social status.
0.6
% 1.1% 4.0% 30.1% 64.2% 4.56 0.682
Source: Author’s construct
It can be observed from the above results in Table 7.7 that the leaders in this study
are viewed very positively in terms of their justice orientation by their employees,
with the mean scores ranging from 4.32 to 4.56 (s.d. 0.660 to 0.735). Item 17
generated the highest mean (M = 4.56) with 64.2% of the respondents strongly
212
agreeing with the statement: “The leader respects diversity and shows non-
discriminatory treatment of others with regard to sexual differences, nationality,
religion, political beliefs, economic or social status”. The lowest mean (4.32) was seen
for item 16 regarding the leader applying his/her decisions consistently regarding
people and time.
7.2.2.4 Responsibility and sustainability
Turning to the responsibility and sustainability dimension, this EL orientation is
described by Eisenbeiss (2012) as leaders’ long-term views on success and their
concern for the welfare of society and the environment. It is rooted in a leader’s
sense of responsibility to him-/herself and the community, and may be expressed by
a long-term focus on organisational performance, reflection upon the impact of
decisions on society and the natural environment, and consideration of the interests
and needs of future generations. This orientation reflects a leader’s position with
respect to more indefinite and distal targets (i.e. society and the common good) and
seems to refer particularly to the leadership component of setting goals. The
responsibility and sustainability dimension is regarded as the third central ethical
orientation of Eisenbeiss’ (2012) interdisciplinary integrative approach to EL. The
findings relating to this theme are presented in Table 7.8.
213
Table 7.8: Descriptive results for the “Responsibility and Sustainability” dimension (n =
176)
Questionnaire Items
Percentage of Responses
Mean s.d.
1 2 3 4 5
18. The leader is
concerned for the welfare
of society, environment
and the needs of future
generations.
0% 1.1% 6.8% 35.2% 56.8% 4.48 0.676
19. The leader considers
the consequences of
his/her actions, and
always tries to carefully
choose actions that are
harmless to others and
society.
0% 0% 2.3% 39.8% 58.0% 4.56 0.542
20. The leader volunteers
to do things beyond their
work for the benefit of
others, society and the
country without
expecting anything in
return.
0.6% 2.3% 5.7% 34.1% 57.4% 4.45 0.755
Source: Author’s construct
As Table 7.8 demonstrates, the results show a narrow range of mean scores within
this theme, running from 4.45 to 4.56 (s.d. 0.542 to 0.755). This indicates that the
respondents view their leaders’ degree of responsibility and sustainability to be high,
given that the majority of the respondents either strongly agreed or agreed with
most statements under this theme. Item 19 generated the highest mean (M = 4.56)
with 58% strongly agreeing and 39.8% agreeing with the statement that their leader
considers the consequences of his/her actions, and always tries to carefully choose
actions that are harmless to others and society. The lowest mean (M = 4.45), which
was not much lower than the highest, belonged to item 20 regarding leaders
214
volunteering to do things beyond their work for the benefit of others, society and the
country without expecting anything in return.
7.2.2.5 Moderation
According to Eisenbeiss (2012), moderation refers to temperance, humility and
balanced leader behaviour, which can be expressed by leaders’ self-control, their
ability to restrain emotions and personal desires, humility, as well as careful and wise
attempts to find a balance between organisational objectives and stakeholder
interests. Table 7.9 presents the descriptive findings under the theme of moderation,
which has appeared as the fourth dimension in Eisenbeiss’ (2012) central ethical
orientations.
Table 7.9: Descriptive results for the “Moderation” dimension (n = 176)
Questionnaire Items
Percentage of Responses
Mean s.d.
1 2 3 4 5
21. The leader is able to
restrain his/her emotions. 0.6% 3.4% 10.8% 44.9% 40.3% 4.21 0.811
22. The leader can
restrain his/her personal
desires and interests.
0% 2.3% 10.8% 38.1% 48.9% 4.34 0.761
23. The leader is modest
and humble. 0.6% 1.1% 9.1% 32.4% 56.8% 4.44 0.753
24. The leader attempts
to find a balance between
organisational interests
and stakeholders’
interests.
0% 0.6% 5.1% 48.3% 46.0% 4.40 0.615
25. The leader is self-
sufficient by living
moderately and avoiding
exploitation of others and
environment.
0% 0% 6.3% 36.9% 56.8% 4.51 0.614
Source: Author’s construct
215
The table above shows that the theme of moderation produced a range of mean
scores from 4.21 to 4.51 (s.d. 0.614 to 0.811). Item 25 generates the highest mean
(4.51), regarding the leaders being self-sufficient by living moderately and avoiding
exploitation of others and environment. The lowest mean (4.21) is reported for item
21, regarding leaders’ ability to restrain their emotions.
7.2.2.6 Discipline
According to the National Committee to Promote Morality established under the
Ministry of Culture of Thailand, ‘discipline’ has been identified as one of the four core
moral values5 that the Thai government has attempted to promote nationally. Table
7.10 below reports employees’ views about their leaders’ discipline.
Table 7.10: Descriptive results for the “Discipline” dimension (n = 176)
Questionnaire Items
Percentage of Responses Mean s.d.
1 2 3 4 5
26. The leader is disciplined and
takes responsibility for his/her
role.
0% 0% 1.7% 29.5
%
68.8
% 4.67 0.506
27. The leader adheres to the
law and the organisation’s
codes of ethics and regulations.
0% 0% 1.7% 26.7
%
71.6
% 4.70 0.496
Source: Author’s construct
The theme of discipline produced considerably high mean scores for both items. Item
26 generated a mean of 4.67 (s.d. = 0.506), with 68.8% of the respondents strongly
5 The four core moral values comprise: sufficiency, volunteering, discipline and honesty. The
first two are considered to overlap with two of the four central ethical orientations
(Eisenbeiss, 2012), which are moderation orientation, and responsibility and sustainability
orientation respectively. Hence, only the dimensions of discipline and honesty were added
to the questionnaire developed in this study.
216
agreeing with the statement that the leader is disciplined and takes responsibility for
their role. Item 27 generated a slightly higher mean of 4.70 (s.d. = 0.496) with 71.6%
of the respondents strongly agreeing that their leaders adhere to the law and the
organisation’s codes of ethics and regulations. It is also noted that there are no
responses for either “strongly disagree” or “disagree” for both statements. Hence,
the findings in this section indicate that the leaders are perceived as being
disciplined.
It is worth noting that, although the leaders have received high mean scores in the
theme of discipline, they receive a lower mean score (M = 4.31) for item 4 of the ELS
reported earlier, regarding leaders disciplining employees who violate ethical
standards. This indicates that the leaders may be better at being disciplined
themselves as individuals, while being less effective when it comes to disciplining
their employees.
7.2.2.7 Honesty
Another core notional moral value promoted by the Thai government, which does
not overlap with other ethical dimensions described in Eisenbeiss’ (2012)
interdisciplinary integrative approach to EL, is ‘honesty.’ This section presents the
findings relating to the theme of honesty, as illustrated in Table 7.11.
217
Table 7.11: Descriptive results for the “Honesty” dimension (n = 176)
Questionnaire Items
Percentage of Responses
Mean s.d.
1 2 3 4 5
28. The leader is honest and
has integrity. 0% 0% 1.1% 20.5% 78.4% 4.77 0.447
29. The leader has the courage
to resist dishonest actions of
others.
0% 1.1% 3.4% 27.3% 68.2% 4.63 0.611
Source: Author’s construct
As can be seen from the above table, the majority of the respondents strongly agree
with both statements within the honesty dimension. Item 29, regarding leaders
having the courage to resist dishonest actions of others, generated a slightly lower
mean score (M = 4.63, s.d. = 0.611) than item 28, concerning leaders being honest
and having integrity (M = 4.77, s.d. = 0.447). The findings in this section seem to be
in line with the mean score for item 6 within the ELS (M = 4.68), regarding whether
or not leaders can be trusted, which has the highest mean score among the ten items
of the ELS.
7.2.2.8 The five precepts of Buddhism
As it has been claimed in the literature that BM practices involve morality training,
the five precepts of Buddhism are considered to be the most widely known set of
moral practices, and are one of the three strands, namely the training in ethical
conduct, in the Threefold Training (Lomas, 2016). Therefore, the questionnaire items
in this study include five items that are in line with the five precepts of Buddhism in
order to examine how the leaders are seen to adhere to the five precepts. Table 7.12
presents the results of this section.
218
Table 7.12: Descriptive results for “the five precepts of Buddhism” (n = 176)
Questionnaire Items
Percentage of Responses
Mean s.d.
1 2 3 4 5
30. The leader abstains
from killing and harming
others’ lives.
0.6% 0% 0.6% 13.6% 85.2% 4.83 0.471
31. The leader abstains
from stealing. 0% 0% 0% 14.2% 85.8% 4.86 0.350
32. The leader always
speaks skilfully,
abstaining from lying,
malicious words, harsh
language, and useless
talk.
0% 1.1% 2.8% 28.4% 67.6% 4.63 0.601
33. The leader abstains
from sexual misconduct. 0% 0% 1.7% 12.5% 85.8% 4.84 0.411
34. The leader abstains
from misusing alcohol
or other intoxicants.
1.1% 1.7% 8.0% 17.6% 71.6% 4.57 0.804
Source: Author’s construct
It can be observed from Table 7.12 that the respondents strongly agree that their
leaders adhere to the five precepts of Buddhism, given that the mean scores of the
five items range from 4.57 to 4.86 (s.d. ranges from 0.350 to 0.804). Over 80% of the
responses show strong agreement with three of the five statements, while
approximately 70% of them agree with the other two statements. Item 31, regarding
leaders abstaining from stealing, generated the highest mean score (M = 4.86), while
the lowest mean score (4.57) was reported for item 34, concerning leaders abstaining
from consuming alcohol or other intoxicants.
219
7.3 Analysis of the Correlations
This section presents the correlation between the EL dimensions in the
questionnaires and the following two variables: first, the five precepts of Buddhism,
which is one of the dimensions in the research questionnaire; and second, the years
of experience in practising mindfulness of the leaders interviewed in this study. The
study seeks to identify if there are any relationships between these two variables and
EL.
The two variables were particularly chosen for further examination in this study
because of the study’s specific research context, namely the Thai Buddhist context.
Given that it has been widely argued in the literature that the training in ethical
conduct is crucial for BM practices (Lomas, 2016; Purser, 2019; Stanley et al., 2018),
the most common set of ethical conducts in Buddhism is the five precepts of
Buddhism (Lomas, 2016). Therefore, it is interesting to examine if the five precepts
of Buddhism dimension is associated with other EL dimensions. Moreover, the study
focuses on BM experience of Thai organisational executive leaders. Hence, it is of
interest to investigate if the length of BM practice experience among the leader
participants is associated with each of the EL dimensions in the study.
In this section, Pearson’s Correlation Coefficient (r) is utilised to measure the
association between the variables (Pallant, 2013). Correlation is a statistical measure
of how closely two variables are related; this can be either a positive correlation (as
one variable goes up, the other also goes up) or a negative correlation (as one
variable goes up, the other goes down) (Emerson, 2015; Schober et al., 2018). When
the r value is higher than zero, this indicates a positive relationship. In contrast, a
result that is less than zero (a negative number) reflects an inverse relationship. The
correlation is statistically significant if the p values are below 0.05. However, it is
important to note that the Pearson correlation does not indicate a causal relationship
between the two variables (one variable causes the other to change), given that it
merely informs whether or not the two variables are correlated, and if so, the degree
and direction of the correlation (Emerson, 2015).
220
7.3.1 Correlations between the five precepts of Buddhism and other
EL dimensions
Table 7.13 displays the results for the correlations between the five precepts of
Buddhism and other EL dimensions.
Table 7.13: Correlations between the five precepts of Buddhism and other EL dimensions
(n = 176)
EL Dimensions Correlations
1. Ethical Leadership Scale (ESL)
Pearson Correlation 0.569**
Sig. (2-tailed) 0.000
2. Humane Pearson Correlation 0.560**
Sig. (2-tailed) 0.000
3. Justice Pearson Correlation 0.525**
Sig. (2-tailed) 0.000
4. Responsibility and Sustainability
Pearson Correlation 0.475**
Sig. (2-tailed) 0.000
5. Moderation Pearson Correlation 0.585**
Sig. (2-tailed) 0.000
6. Discipline Pearson Correlation 0.565**
Sig. (2-tailed) 0.000
7. Honesty Pearson Correlation 0.574**
Sig. (2-tailed) 0.000
8. Role Model Pearson Correlation 0.402**
Sig. (2-tailed) 0.000
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
Source: Author’s construct
Table 7.13 above reveal that the five precepts of Buddhism dimension has a statistical
significance of correlation with all other EL dimensions given that the p value of all
correlations are below 0.01. Moreover, all Pearson correlation (r) values are higher
than zero, which indicates positive association between the five precepts of
Buddhism dimension and other EL dimensions. More precisely, the three dimensions
221
that have the highest degree of correlation are moderation (r = 0.585), honesty (r =
0.574), and the ELS (r = 0.569).
7.3.2 Correlation between leaders’ mindfulness experience and EL
The Pearson’s correlation coefficient (r) calculation was performed again to find out
the extent to which the number of years of experience in BM practices of the leaders
in this study has a relationship with each of the EL dimensions. The results are
presented in Table 7.14 below.
Table 7.14: Correlations between the length of experience (years) in BM practices and EL
EL Dimensions Correlations
1. Ethical Leadership Scale (ESL)
Pearson Correlation 0.256**
Sig. (2-tailed) 0.001
2. Humane Pearson Correlation 0.244**
Sig. (2-tailed) 0.001
3. Justice Pearson Correlation 0.186*
Sig. (2-tailed) 0.014
4. Responsibility and Sustainability
Pearson Correlation 0.130
Sig. (2-tailed) 0.085
5. Moderation Pearson Correlation 0.170*
Sig. (2-tailed) 0.024
6. Discipline Pearson Correlation 0.060
Sig. (2-tailed) 0.429
7. Honesty Pearson Correlation 0.132
Sig. (2-tailed) 0.080
8. Role Model Pearson Correlation 0.184*
Sig. (2-tailed) 0.014
9. The Buddhist Five precepts
Pearson Correlation 0.082
Sig. (2-tailed) 0.282
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
Source: Author’s construct
According to Table 7.14 above, the length of experience in BM practices of the
leaders has a statistical significance of correlation with five EL dimensions, including
222
the ELS (r = 0.256, p = 0.001), humane (r = 0.244, p = 0.001), justice (r = 0.186, p =
0.014), moderation (r = 0.170, p = 0.024), and role model (r = 0.184, p = 0.014). These
are all positive correlations, given that none of the Pearson correlation (r) values are
negative numbers.
7.4 Analysis of the Relationship between Demographic
Variables and EL
This section pursues a further investigation to identify if there are any other patterns
in the data. Specifically, this section seeks to find out statistical differences between
the means generated by respondents from different demographic groups, i.e.
organisation sectors, work experience of the respondents with the leaders, gender
of the leaders, and gender of the respondents. In other words, the study examines
whether EL scores significantly change with different demographic variables by using
ANOVA and T-test, as mentioned earlier. ANOVA is used to test and find significant
differences between the means of more than two groups. In addition, post hoc
testing is used to identify where the differences exist between groups. As for the T-
test, this is conducted to recognise the difference between the means of two groups.
7.4.1 Organisation sector
The differences between the EL dimensions for the three organisational sector
groups, i.e. public, private and non-profit sectors, are examined in this section. Table
7.15 presents the descriptive data of the respondents from the three sectors in terms
of their attitudes towards the EL dimensions identified in this study.
223
Table 7.15: Descriptive statistics by organisation sector
EL Dimensions Sector Mean Std.
Deviation
1. ELS
Public 4.44 0.443
Private 4.44 0.506
Non-profit 4.66 0.356
2. Humane
Public 4.54 0.543
Private 4.55 0.574
Non-profit 4.86 0.300
3. Justice
Public 4.42 0.587
Private 4.39 0.663
Non-profit 4.61 0.468
4. Responsibility and Sustainability
Public 4.43 0.595
Private 4.49 0.543
Non-profit 4.68 0.546
5. Moderation
Public 4.42 0.534
Private 4.32 0.609
Non-profit 4.50 0.572
6. Discipline
Public 4.67 0.484
Private 4.71 0.430
Non-profit 4.63 0.527
7. Honesty
Public 4.65 0.446
Private 4.69 0.534
Non-profit 4.85 0.317
8. Role Model
Public 4.56 0.532
Private 4.52 0.604
Non-profit 4.74 0.449
9. Five precepts of Buddhism
Public 4.74 0.377
Private 4.73 0.384
Non-profit 4.82 0.356
Source: Author’s construct
As can be seen from the above table, respondents from the non-profit sector report
the highest mean scores in every dimension except the discipline dimension, in which
the private sector respondents scored the highest mean for their leaders’ discipline.
However, in terms of the comparison between the public and private sector
responses, the overall mean scores of every dimension reported are not very
224
different, especially for the ELS, with the mean score from the public sector
respondents of 4.44 equalling the mean score from the private sector respondents.
In order to determine whether there are any statistically significant differences in EL
dimension scores between the respondents from the three organisational sectors,
the one-way ANOVA test was used. The results are illustrated in Table 7.16 below.
Table 7.16: ANOVA results for the relationship between organisation sector and EL
ANOVA Results Sum of
Squares df
Mean
Square F Sig.
1. ELS
Between Groups 0.983 2 0.492 2.250 0.108
Within Groups 37.799 173 0.218
Total 38.782 175
2. Humane
Between Groups 1.981 2 0.990 3.453 0.034
Within Groups 49.616 173 0.287
Total 51.597 175
3. Justice
Between Groups 0.917 2 0.459 1.216 0.299
Within Groups 65.282 173 0.377
Total 66.199 175
4. Responsibility
and Sustainability
Between Groups 1.033 2 0.516 1.632 0.199
Within Groups 54.742 173 0.316
Total 55.775 175
5. Moderation
Between Groups 0.792 2 0.396 1.185 0.308
Within Groups 57.837 173 0.334
Total 58.629 175
6. Discipline
Between Groups 0.151 2 0.075 0.352 0.704
Within Groups 37.098 173 0.214
Total 37.249 175
7. Honesty
Between Groups 0.658 2 0.329 1.426 0.243
Within Groups 39.882 173 0.231
Total 40.540 175
8. Role Model
Between Groups 0.867 2 0.433 1.377 0.255
Within Groups 54.446 173 0.315
Total 55.313 175
9. Five precepts
of Buddhism
Between Groups 0.151 2 0.075 0.527 0.591
Within Groups 24.783 173 0.143
Total 24.934 175
Source: Author’s construct
225
Table 7.16 shows that there is only one EL dimension, humane orientation (p =
0.034), that has a statistically significant difference between the respondents from
the three organisational sectors, as determined by the one-way ANOVA.
However, given that the one-way ANOVA can only identify if the groups are
significantly different, but cannot specifically inform which group is different from
the other, a post-hoc test must therefore be performed after the ANOVA. The result
from the Tukey HSD post-hoc test is presented in Table 7.17.
Table 7.17: Multiple comparisons table for organisation sector and the ‘humane’ EL
dimension using the Tukey HSD post-hoc test
Post-hoc Results
Mean
Difference
(I-J)
Std. Error Sig.
Humane
Public
Private -0.00754 0.08797 0.996
Non-profit -.31901* 0.13047 0.041
Private
Public 0.00754 0.08797 0.996
Non-profit -.31147* 0.12512 0.036
Non-profit
Public .31901* 0.13047 0.041
Private .31147* 0.12512 0.036
*. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.
Source: Author’s construct
Table 7.17 shows that the mean difference between the views of leaders’ humane
orientation given by the populations from the public and private sectors is not a
statistically significant difference (p = 0.996), since the p value is higher than 0.05.
However, the mean differences between the non-profit sector population and both
the public and private sector populations are statistically significant (p = 0.041 and
0.036 respectively).
226
7.4.2 Working experience of the respondents with their leaders
The processes of performing descriptive statistics and conducting the ANOVA test
were repeated to examine the statistical differences between populations with
different numbers of years of working experience with their leaders in relation to
their EL results. The range of years of working experience with the leaders is
categorised into five groups. The descriptive data sorted by the respondents from
the five groups are presented in Table 7.18.
Table 7.18: Descriptive statistics for respondents’ years of work experience with their
leaders in relation to the EL dimensions
EL Dimensions Respondents’ years of work experience with their leaders
Mean Std.
Deviation
1. ELS
˂ 1 year 4.64 0.325
1-3 4.36 0.574
4-9 4.51 0.360
10-15 4.57 0.371
≥16 years 4.50 0.397
2. Humane
˂ 1 year 4.80 0.339
1-3 4.45 0.680
4-9 4.64 0.416
10-15 4.70 0.361
≥16 years 4.65 0.394
3. Justice
˂ 1 year 4.68 0.437
1-3 4.31 0.755
4-9 4.48 0.486
10-15 4.52 0.452
≥16 years 4.37 0.483
4. Responsibility and Sustainability
˂ 1 year 4.61 0.448
1-3 4.44 0.670
4-9 4.52 0.438
10-15 4.45 0.552
≥16 years 4.63 0.483
5. Moderation
˂ 1 year 4.58 0.388
1-3 4.32 0.671
4-9 4.40 0.505
10-15 4.29 0.560
≥16 years 4.52 0.454
227
EL Dimensions Respondents’ years of work experience with their leaders
Mean Std.
Deviation
6. Discipline
˂ 1 year 4.87 0.327
1-3 4.63 0.522
4-9 4.62 0.445
10-15 4.82 0.350
≥16 years 4.70 0.422
7. Honesty
˂ 1 year 4.79 0.384
1-3 4.62 0.557
4-9 4.74 0.428
10-15 4.76 0.357
≥16 years 4.75 0.540
8. Role Model
˂ 1 year 4.68 0.478
1-3 4.52 0.644
4-9 4.60 0.496
10-15 4.52 0.510
≥16 years 4.60 0.516
9. Five precepts of Buddhism
˂ 1 year 4.85 0.265
1-3 4.71 0.434
4-9 4.71 0.377
10-15 4.83 0.236
≥16 years 4.78 0.371
Source: Author’s construct
As Table 7.18 demonstrates, the highest mean scores for most ethical dimensions are
generated from the population within the group of employees who have worked with
their leaders for less than one year, while the second highest mean scores are
generally reported from those who have worked with their leaders for between 10
and 15 years. However, in order to further analyse whether the differences in mean
scores between these groups are statistically significant, the one-way ANOVA was
performed. The results are displayed in Table 7.19 below.
228
Table 7.19: ANOVA results for the relationship between respondents’ years of work
experience with their leaders and EL
ANOVA Results Sum of Squares
df Mean Square
F Sig.
1. ELS
Between Groups 1.809 4 0.452 2.091 0.084
Within Groups 36.973 171 0.216
Total 38.782 175
2. Humane
Between Groups 2.773 4 0.693 2.428 0.050
Within Groups 48.823 171 0.286
Total 51.597 175
3. Justice
Between Groups 2.739 4 0.685 1.845 0.122
Within Groups 63.460 171 0.371
Total 66.199 175
4. Responsibility and Sustainability
Between Groups 0.737 4 0.184 0.573 0.683
Within Groups 55.038 171 0.322
Total 55.775 175
5. Moderation
Between Groups 1.456 4 0.364 1.089 0.364
Within Groups 57.173 171 0.334
Total 58.629 175
6. Discipline
Between Groups 1.514 4 0.379 1.812 0.129
Within Groups 35.734 171 0.209
Total 37.249 175
7. Honesty
Between Groups 0.841 4 0.210 0.905 0.462
Within Groups 39.699 171 0.232
Total 40.540 175
8. Role Model
Between Groups 0.528 4 0.132 0.412 0.800
Within Groups 54.784 171 0.320
Total 55.313 175
9. The five precepts of Buddhism
Between Groups 0.602 4 0.150 1.057 0.379
Within Groups 24.333 171 0.142
Total 24.934 175
Source: Author’s construct
The table above shows that there are no statistically significant differences in the
mean scores for any ethical dimension between the respondents from the five
groups with different years of working experience with their leaders, since all p
values are above 0.05. Hence, this indicates that, although the mean scores of each
229
group are different, as shown in Table 7.19 earlier, those differences are not
statistically significant.
7.4.3 Gender of the leaders
In order to investigate gender differences between leaders in terms of the mean
scores for each EL dimension as viewed by their employees, a T-test was performed
since there are only two groups involved (i.e. males and females). Table 7.20
demonstrates a comparison according to leader gender of the descriptive data of the
results from the respondents for each EL dimension.
Table 7.20: Descriptive statistics for leader gender in relation to EL dimensions
EL Dimensions Leader's
Gender Mean
Std.
Deviation
1. ELS Female 4.41 0.513
Male 4.51 0.436
2. Humane Female 4.51 0.630
Male 4.64 0.466
3. Justice Female 4.38 0.649
Male 4.46 0.590
4. Responsibility and Sustainability Female 4.43 0.630
Male 4.55 0.509
5. Moderation Female 4.27 0.626
Male 4.45 0.532
6. Discipline Female 4.61 0.505
Male 4.74 0.421
7. Honesty Female 4.67 0.532
Male 4.72 0.443
8. Role Model
Female 4.47 0.646
Male 4.63 0.486
9. Five precepts of Buddhism Female 4.76 0.361
Male 4.73 0.390
Source: Author’s construct
As shown in Table 7.20, the overall tendency is for respondents who have male
leaders to report higher scores than those who have female leaders in nearly all
dimensions, except for the five precepts of Buddhism. However, in order to indicate
230
whether such different mean scores have any statistical significance, the
independent T-test has to be performed. Table 7.21 presents the T-test results.
Table 7.21: T-test results for leader gender in relation to EL dimensions
EL Dimensions t df Sig. (2-tailed)
Mean Difference
Std. Error Difference
1. ELS -1.348 174 0.179 -0.09666 0.07172
2. Humane -1.498 174 0.136 -0.12374 0.08262
3. Justice -0.912 174 0.363 -0.08567 0.09396
4. Responsibility and Sustainability
-1.370 174 0.172 -0.11782 0.08599
5. Moderation -2.109 174 0.036 -0.18463 0.08753
6. Discipline -1.835 139.383 0.069 -0.13209 0.07200
7. Honesty -0.702 174 0.484 -0.05167 0.07360
8. Role Model -1.732 129.483 0.086 -0.15448 0.08917
9. The five precepts of Buddhism
0.533 174 0.595 0.03079 0.05776
Source: Author’s construct
As Table 7.21 demonstrates, there is only one dimension, moderation, for which the
result suggests that there is a statistically significant difference between the two
groups, as the p-value is less than 0.05 (p = 0.036). In the moderation dimension, the
respondents whose leaders are male perceived them to have a higher mean score
(M = 4.45) than those who have female leaders (M = 4.27), a pattern which the T-test
found to be significant.
7.4.4 Gender of the respondents
The processes of performing descriptive statistics and conducting the T-test were
repeated to examine the statistical differences between populations who have
different gender. The descriptive data, with a comparison between the female and
male respondents, are presented in Table 7.22 below.
231
Table 7.22: Descriptive statistics for respondent gender in relation to EL dimensions
EL Dimensions Respondent's Gender
Mean Std.
Deviation
1. ELS Female 4.44 0.494
Male 4.52 0.427
2. Humane Female 4.56 0.549
Male 4.63 0.532
3. Justice Female 4.35 0.656
Male 4.56 0.517
4. Responsibility and Sustainability
Female 4.51 0.548
Male 4.47 0.595
5. Moderation Female 4.37 0.591
Male 4.39 0.562
6. Discipline Female 4.70 0.444
Male 4.65 0.492
7. Honesty Female 4.67 0.488
Male 4.75 0.469
8. Role Model
Female 4.55 0.568
Male 4.58 0.556
9. The five precepts of Buddhism
Female 4.73 0.385
Male 4.76 0.367
Source: Author’s construct
Table 7.22 above demonstrates that the mean scores for nearly all EL dimensions are
higher among the male respondents than the female population, except for two
dimensions, namely responsibility and sustainability, as well as discipline. In this
regard, the independent T-test was then performed to find any statistically significant
differences between the two groups. The T-test results are displayed in Table 7.23.
232
Table 7.23: T-test results for respondent gender in relation to EL dimensions
EL Dimensions t df Sig. (2-tailed)
Mean Difference
Std. Error Difference
1. ELS -1.051 174 0.295 -0.07728 0.07350
2. Humane -0.923 174 0.357 -0.07831 0.08484
3. Justice -2.185 174 0.030 -0.20762 0.09504
4. Responsibility and Sustainability
0.530 174 0.597 0.04685 0.08836
5. Moderation -0.290 174 0.772 -0.02628 0.09064
6. Discipline 0.677 174 0.499 0.04886 0.07217
7. Honesty -1.161 174 0.247 -0.08718 0.07510
8. Role Model -0.398 174 0.691 -0.03507 0.08802
9. The five precepts of Buddhism
-0.503 174 0.615 -0.02974 0.05908
Source: Author’s construct
Table 7.23 demonstrates that only the justice dimension has a statistically significant
difference between male and female respondents, as the p-value is less than 0.05 (p
= 0.030). The male respondents report higher justice mean scores for their leaders
(M = 4.56) than female respondents (M = 4.35), and this difference is statistically
significant.
7.5 Chapter Summary
This chapter presents the findings obtained from the questionnaires collected from
176 direct employees of the leaders who were interviewed in this study. The analysis
in this chapter is based on the fourth research question: To what extent are Thai
organisational executive leaders who practise Buddhist mindfulness perceived as
ethical leaders by their direct employees? In order to address this research question,
it is necessary to use questionnaires to collect the data, since the most acceptable
way to measure EL in academic research is through questionnaires completed by
leaders’ employees (Brown et al., 2005; Kalshoven et al., 2011). The questionnaire
data gained from leaders’ direct employees can be analysed and compared with the
233
data obtained from the interviews with the leaders themselves. Moreover, the
questionnaire method can help in reducing the bias that may stem from using only
interviews with leaders. Given that the qualitative and quantitative data provide
different insights, the combination of both data sets contributes to seeing the issue
from multiple angles and perspective. The results from each data set can be
compared for agreement and discrepancies in the interpretation and discussion of
the findings (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2018; Jick, 1979).
The chapter presents the data in a systematic and detailed manner. The
questionnaire results are presented using nine key themes, which are in line with the
core EL dimensions across different cultures based on the literature review (see
Chapter Two). The descriptive statistics results for each EL dimension are
demonstrated by thoroughly examining the frequency, the mean (M), and the
standard deviation (s.d.). The overall findings from the descriptive statistics reveal
that the leaders interviewed in this study are perceived to be ethical leaders, given
that the mean of the average scores for all dimension is 4.53 (s.d. 0.433), while no
ethical dimension has a reported mean score lower than 4 out of 5.
Following this descriptive analysis, the questionnaire data are further examined by
using four analytical tools: Pearson’s correlation, the one-way ANOVA, the Tukey HSD
test, and the independent T-Test. With regard to the analytical results, the findings
based on Pearson’s correlation indicate statistical significance of a positive
relationship between the five precepts of Buddhism dimension and other EL
dimensions (p < 0.01). Additionally, the results indicate a significant positive
relationship between the years of experience in mindfulness practices of the leaders
and most EL dimensions. Meanwhile, the one-way ANOVA, the Tukey HSD test, and
the independent T-Test are performed to assess for statistical differences between
the means generated by respondents from different demographic groups; i.e.
organisation sectors, working experience of the respondents with the leaders,
gender of the leaders, and gender of the respondents. Generally, results from these
tests indicate statistical differences only in a few ethical dimensions among different
234
demographic groups. For example, there is a statistically significant difference in the
mean only in the humane theme between the respondents from the non-profit
sector and those from the public and private sectors.
Overall, questionnaires allow the researcher to collect data from a relatively large
number of participants. Moreover, when it comes to questions regarding perceptions
and attitudes of employees towards their leaders, responding anonymously to
questionnaires tends to allow more freedom to the respondents to give their honest
answers, rather than using interview methods. Another key part of the value of the
questionnaire method is that they provide measurable and countable data that can
be further analysed for statistical significance and relationships between different
variables.
This research employs the convergent parallel design of the mixed methods approach
with qualitative priority (Bryman, 2012; Creswell & Plano Clark, 2018); in other
words, quantitative methods are merely used to complement qualitative results.
However, the data gained from questionnaires in this study can provide preliminary
findings that may be useful in extending the research in this area in the future. For
example, apart from descriptive statistics, this research has extended the analysis to
find relationships between the five precepts of Buddhism and the EL dimensions, as
well as between years of mindfulness practices and the EL dimensions. These findings
could be an interesting issue to be fully investigated in future research (future
research recommendations are discussed in more detail in the next chapter).
Furthermore, the findings from both the qualitative and quantitative data are
integrated to be analysed and discussed together in the following chapter.
235
CHAPTER 8: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
This final chapter aims to synthesise and integrate the findings garnered from the
study’s four research questions, which are drawn from both qualitative and
quantitative methods. The chapter brings together the theories and existing relevant
research, from both Western and Eastern Buddhist contexts, including Thailand, as
covered in the literature review (Chapter Two and Chapter Three), and the empirical
findings within this current study (Chapter Five to Chapter Seven) to address the
research aim and research objectives through a critical analysis and discussion.
Additionally, this chapter provides the contribution of the study to knowledge, as
well as the theoretical and practical implications based on the research findings. The
limitations of the research are also discussed, together with the recommendations
for future research. Finally, the chapter ends with the conclusion drawn from this
research and the personal reflection of the researcher.
8.1 General Overview of the Thesis
The world has been plagued with numerous unethical issues in various organisations.
Recent ethical scandals in many organisations have raised strong concerns about
ethical issues in leadership, which have meant that EL has become one of the most
critical topics in organisational and ethics studies (Eisenbeiss, 2012; Stouten et al.,
2013). Nevertheless, while the importance and benefits of EL have been relatively
well-researched, less attention has been paid to how EL can be developed (Brown &
Treviño, 2006; Sharma et al., 2019; Treviño & Brown, 2014).
In an effort to understand how ethical behaviour can be fostered, scholars have
raised concerns about the overall impact of compliance-based or rule-based
approach to ethics in organisations, since they seem to be insufficient and ineffective,
236
while suggesting a value-based or self-regulatory approach to complement
compliance-based mechanisms (Stevulak & Brown, 2011; Tanner et al., 2019; Trapp,
2011; Tremblay et al., 2017).
Meanwhile, researchers have examined the antecedents and mechanisms of ethical
decision making and ethical behaviour and have found that awareness and a
heightened state of consciousness are fundamental to ethical behaviour (Lehnert et
al., 2015; Mihelič & Culiberg, 2019; Ruedy & Schweitzer, 2010). Given the close link
between mindfulness and awareness, recent research has started to explore the role
of mindfulness in ethical behaviour. Nevertheless, this line of research is still at a
nascent stage, since the majority of research on mindfulness in organisations has
predominantly focused on outcomes regarding stress reduction, increased mental
well-being and improved work performance (Purser & Milillo, 2015; Stanley, 2013).
This has led to emerging criticism towards modern secular mindfulness that, even
though MM has been developed based on the traditional Buddhist approach, there
are some fundamental differences between the modern and Buddhist approaches,
and that MM has been diluted from the fundamental principles of its origin (Ditrich,
2016; Purser & Milillo, 2015; Sun, 2014). While BM practices are purposefully taught
for ethical and moral development, this purpose is largely neglected by workplace
mindfulness researchers and practitioners (Qiu & Rooney, 2017).
Consequently, in the past few years, there has been an emerging call for both
organisational theorists and practitioners to directly study mindfulness within the
Buddhist approach. It is suggested that the ethical principles underpinning BM may
contribute to greater benefits beyond stress reduction and improved work
performance (Purser & Milillo, 2015; Stanley, 2013). Prior research has critically
discussed the issue by providing a rich body of knowledge on the Buddhist principles
underlying traditional practices of mindfulness in Buddhism. Therefore, the key
fundamental principles underpinning BM are well-documented at a theoretical and
conceptual level in the current literature on mindfulness (see Huxter, 2015; Shonin
et al., 2015; Stanley et al., 2018).
237
However, when it comes to actual practices, little is known about whether or not
mindfulness practitioners in a real Buddhist setting acknowledge those underlying
principles when they practise mindfulness. It has been observed that a limited
number of studies have provided empirical evidence on how mindfulness is
conceptualised and practised in Eastern countries (Charoensukmongkol, 2014;
Krägeloh, 2019; Surinrut et al., 2016). This gap in the literature has led to the first
objective of this thesis, which is to examine the understanding and application of the
core principles underlying Buddhist mindfulness among Thai organisational executive
leaders who practise mindfulness in the Thai Buddhist context. Chapter Five has
presented and discussed the findings that address the first research objective based
on the data derived from interviews.
Furthermore, a review of existing literature reveals that there is a need to empirically
explore if the Buddhist ethical foundation of mindfulness can be translated into
practice, especially among leaders who play a significant role in organisational ethics.
The second objective of this research, which is to explore the extent to which Buddhist
mindfulness principles and practices influence Thai organisational executive leaders’
ethical values and behaviours, attempts to fill in this research gap. This research
objective has been addressed by both of the qualitative and quantitative methods
presented in Chapters Six and Seven respectively. The interviews with the leaders
lend valuable and insightful information as to what ethical values and dimensions are
seen as important for EL in the Thai context, and how mindfulness practices could
contribute to engagement in those ethical values and behaviours. Meanwhile,
Chapter Seven, which reports quantitative results based on questionnaires gathered
from direct employees of the leaders interviewed in this study, provides an important
dataset that could triangulate the data derived from the interviews. This is because
the questionnaire has examined the extent to which Thai organisational executive
leaders who practise BM, are perceived as ethical leaders by their direct employees.
The following section summarises and critically discusses all of the research findings
from both the qualitative and quantitative methods. The findings derived with
238
respect to these two research objectives are distilled to fulfil the third research
objective, which seeks to propose prospective implications of EL development
through mindfulness interventions. This final research objective is also discussed
later within this chapter.
8.2 Discussion and Summary of the Key Findings
The main aim of this research is to augment empirical understanding of mindfulness
practices in the Eastern Buddhist context, with a particular focus on the extent to
which Buddhist mindfulness can influence leaders’ ethical values and behaviour,
through the examination of mindfulness practices among Thai organisational
executive leaders in the Thai Buddhist context. To achieve this research aim, four
research questions have been developed to gain empirical data to address the aim
and associated objectives. Given that the findings have been discussed based on the
research questions in Chapter Five and Chapter Six, this chapter integrates all of the
results from both the qualitative and quantitative methods in order to synthesise
them and discuss the findings based on the research objectives, which covers all of
the research questions more holistically. Table 8.1 below presents a summary of the
key findings from Chapters Five to Seven and the key points of the integrative
discussion.
239
Table 8.1: Integrative discussion of the key findings with reference to the research objectives and research questions
Objective Research Question Key Findings Integrative Discussion of the Key Findings
1. To examine
the
understanding
and application
of the core
principles
underlying
Buddhist
mindfulness
among Thai
organisational
executive
leaders who
practise
mindfulness in
the Thai
Buddhist
context
1. What are the core
principles underlying
Buddhist mindfulness
understood by Thai
organisational executive
leaders who practise
mindfulness in the Thai
Buddhist context, and how
do they apply those
principles in their
mindfulness practices?
- Overall, the interviewees demonstrate
profound knowledge about the principles
underlying BM.
- Three key principles are perceived as
fundamental to BM:
1) The Four Noble Truths
2) The Noble Eightfold Path, particularly
the “right mindfulness” element
3) The Threefold Training (the trainings
in ethical conduct, mentality, and
wisdom)
1. The understanding of the principles underlying BM may come from
participants’ personal commitment to Buddhist study and BM practices
(as they have practised mindfulness frequently and have studied
dhamma for a long time).
2. The application of the core principles and mindfulness practices are
linked to the purpose of spiritual development, which is influenced by the
Buddhist teachings.
3. Mindfulness practices in the Thai Buddhist context put a great
emphasis on the training in wisdom, which can be cultivated through
vipassana (insight) meditation. However, the role and importance of
samatha (calm) meditation is relatively well emphasised in Thailand.
4. The principles underlying BM appear to be grounded in an ethical
framework, due to the “right mindfulness” concept and the training in
ethical conduct, which are integrated into mindfulness practices in the
Thai Buddhist context. The questionnaire results support the interview
findings, given that the leaders are seen to adhere to the five precepts by
their employees (the mean score for this dimension is 4.74).
240
Objective Research Question Key Findings Integrative Discussion of the Key Findings
2. To explore
the extent to
which Buddhist
mindfulness
principles and
practices
influence Thai
organisational
executive
leaders’ ethical
values and
behaviours.
2. What ethical values and
behaviours are perceived
by Thai organisational
executive leaders to be
crucial for ethical
leadership?
Eight EL dimensions are identified by the
interviewees: 1) compassion and
empathy, 2) humility and equal respect
for others, 3) emotion regulation, 4)
sufficiency, 5) honesty, 6) justice and
fairness, 7) pro-social behaviour, 8)
discipline and role model
1. EL dimensions found in this research are consistent with those initially
identified in the literature. Thereby, the findings indicate that certain EL
qualities appear to be universal across cultures but may be addressed to
different degrees in different cultures. Some EL dimensions are found to
be related to or supportive of another dimension.
2. The findings suggest that other elements, i.e. ethics and training in
wisdom that are integrated within the BM framework, also influence Thai
leaders’ ethical behaviour. However, the whole BM framework of
mindfulness practices may not be directly applied in other cultural
contexts as it tends to contradict people’s different beliefs.
3. The research provides a preliminary finding that BM seems to influence
Thai leaders’ ethical values and behaviours. Thai leaders who practise BM
are also seen by their direct employees as ethical. However, more
research is needed to identify relationships between BM and EL.
4. Given that the qualitative approach is the main approach employed in
this research, the primary findings cannot be generalised. It cannot be
claimed that Buddhism in general leads to more ethical behaviours, nor is
it a given that those who practise BM would be ethical. However, extant
scientific research and the research findings suggest that mindfulness can
serve as a mechanism to support ethical behaviour, and mindfulness can
be cultivated outside of the BM framework. The research then proposes a
model for EL development through mindfulness that may be applicable in
non-Buddhist contexts.
3. How does Buddhist
mindfulness influence
ethical values and
behaviours of Thai
organisational executive
leaders who are Buddhist
mindfulness practitioners?
Four key contributions from mindfulness
practices found to underpin leaders’
ethical values and behaviours:
1) Awareness
2) Sila (training in ethical conduct)
3) Dhamma teachings
4) Others, i.e. loving-kindness
meditation and contemplation of the
elements of the body
4. To what extent are Thai
organisational executive
leaders who practise
Buddhist mindfulness
perceived as ethical leaders
by their direct employees?
Overall, the leaders interviewed in this
study are perceived by their employees
to be ethical leaders, given that no
ethical dimensions report a mean score
lower than 4. The average score of all
dimensions is 4.53 (s.d. 0.433).
Source: Author’s construct
241
8.2.1 Objective 1: To examine the understanding and application of
the core principles underlying Buddhist mindfulness among
Thai organisational executive leaders who practise mindfulness
in the Thai Buddhist context
Regarding the review of the literature on mindfulness practices in the Thai Buddhist
context (in Chapter Three), Thai Buddhists have different levels of understanding of
Buddhism, and their degree of involvement in Buddhist practices, including
mindfulness practices, can be varied. Although most Thai people define themselves
as Buddhist, this does not necessarily mean that they all regularly engage in
Buddhism and practise mindfulness (Boyce et al., 2009; Winzer & Gray, 2018).
However, since the scope of this study is to focus on Thai executive leaders who
practise mindfulness, it is interesting to investigate the extent to which they
understand the core principles underlying BM.
There are four key findings regarding this objective. Firstly, the analysis of the
interview data reveals that the interviewees in this study demonstrate profound
knowledge about the principles underlying BM practices, given that the researcher
openly asked them to identify and explain the Buddhist principles that they perceive
as most fundamental to BM. The result shows that they could succinctly describe the
core Buddhist principles underpinning mindfulness practices in Buddhism, including
the Four Noble Truths (FNTs), the Noble Eightfold Path (NEP), and the Threefold
Training. The leaders’ methods of mindfulness practices are also aligned with
Satipatthana (the four foundations of mindfulness). This finding is consistent with
the principles and theory detailed in the extant literature on BM and its fundamental
principles (Huxter, 2015; Van Gordon et al., 2015a; Lomas, 2016), which were
reviewed and discussed in Chapter Two. However, it can be observed that most of
the interviewees have practised mindfulness for 21 to 30 years (and none of them
has practised it for less than one year), doing so on a daily basis. It can be inferred
that this group of people seem to already be committed to the study and practice of
Buddhism. Moreover, most interviewees report that they study or listen to dhamma
242
teachings (the teachings of the Buddha regarding nature, the truth and the way
things are) in parallel with their mindfulness practices. The study of dhamma
teachings is seen as an essential component of traditional BM practice in Thailand
(Surinrut et al., 2016). This could be a key reason why they have acquired
considerable knowledge on Buddhist principles related to mindfulness practices.
Meanwhile, other research, which has gathered data from the National Statistics
Office, has revealed that Thai people who define themselves as Buddhist do not
necessarily regularly engage in Buddhist practices (Winzer & Gray, 2018).
Additionally, their research has reported that only 8.1% of the Thai Buddhist
participants (n = 32,198) regularly study Buddhist sermons or teachings, while only
7.1% regularly practise meditation. Hence, in addressing the first objective of this
study, to examine the understanding and application of the core principles underlying
Buddhist mindfulness among Thai organisational executive leaders who practise
mindfulness in the Thai Buddhist context, the finding suggests that these leaders have
profound knowledge about the principles underlying BM. This could be a result of
their personal commitment to, and effort made in studying and practising BM.
Understanding can be varied across individuals, so this does not necessarily mean
that other Thai BM practitioners would have the same extent of knowledge and
understanding of the core principles underlying BM. However, more research is
needed to confirm the preliminary finding from this study regarding the correlation
of personal commitment, frequency, and experience in Buddhist studies as well as
mindfulness practices with an understanding of the core principles underlying BM.
Secondly, mindfulness practices in the Thai Buddhist context are fundamentally
underpinned by the FNTs and the NEP (grouped as the Threefold Training), which are
the core Buddhist principles concerning the way to the enlightenment. The interview
data show that participants in this study are influenced by Buddhist teachings, which
have led their ultimate goal of mindfulness practices to be oriented towards spiritual
development. Many participants mention that the main purpose of practising
mindfulness has a spiritual goal. Such a goal is different from MM practices in the
West, where mindfulness is usually taught with the specific goal of solving a
243
particular problem, such as depression, anxiety, psychological and physical illnesses,
or to enhance certain capabilities, such as focused attention (Bodhi, 2011; Chiesa &
Malinowski, 2011; Gunaratana, 2012).
Thirdly, mindfulness practices in the Thai Buddhist context have a great emphasis on
the training in wisdom. Arguably, this is an essential component in the traditional BM
practices that are much less emphasised in the MM approach (Surinrut et al., 2016).
As mentioned earlier, BM practices have enlightenment as the ultimate goal.
According to Buddhist teaching, enlightenment can be achieved through developing
insight into the true nature of reality and the nature of human sufferings (Bodhi,
2011; Buswell Jr & Lopez Jr, 2013; Purser & Milillo, 2015). Such insight is regarded as
wisdom, which can be cultivated through the type of meditation called vipassana
(insight meditation). The interview data reveal that the insight gained through
vipassana is the three characteristics of existence, namely impermanence (anicca),
instability (dukkha), and non-self (anatta). The interviewees claim that such an
understanding of the true nature of reality has helped them to become less attached
to things, even their own bodies and selves. This finding supports the extant
literature regarding vipassana and development of wisdom, in that the process of
vipassana brings the mind to the realisation of the impermanence of all phenomena,
including the self. Such insight helps to weaken the attachment to the self and to
things that surround the self (Shonin et al., 2016). By frequently retaining the
awareness to investigate the three characteristics in all phenomena, this becomes
increasingly spontaneous and influential in one’s everyday experience until,
ultimately, one can attain spiritual liberation (Gilpin, 2008).
However, the interviewees mention another type of meditation called samatha
(calm meditation). While emphasis is placed on vipassana meditation as the way to
cultivate wisdom, the importance of samatha is highly regarded by the participants
as the supporting mechanism for practising vipassana. This finding supports theories
about samatha and vipassana practices in the existing literature, which suggest that
it is through samatha that deeper levels of concentration can be developed in order
244
to provide a foundation for the development of insight through vipassana (Analayo,
2003; Harvey, 2015; Shonin et al., 2016). The finding from this study also suggests
that mindfulness plays an important role in both calm (samatha) and insight
(vipassana) meditation, and that these two types of meditation need go hand in
hand. Such a finding is distinct from the common understanding of contemporary
mindfulness programmes, which usually address only vipassana, while the role of
samatha is underrated. For example, the MBSR programme, which is the pioneer
MM intervention in the West, does not address the development of samatha to any
great degree, and its importance seems not to be much considered in the programme
(Gilpin, 2008).
Lastly, the findings in this study support the argument that BM practices are
grounded in an ethical framework (Stanley, 2015; Stanley et al., 2018). The findings
in this study are congruent with Schedneck (2017), who has also found that the
meditation practices based on Thai Buddhist understandings are embedded within
Buddhist ethical frameworks. This is because in most Buddhist traditions,
mindfulness cannot be practised in isolation from its interrelated concepts and
principles (Christopher et al., 2009). This is well reflected in the findings of this study,
none of the interviewees undertaking mindfulness as a stand-alone practice, but
practising mindfulness along with the other eight elements of the NEP, the path to
enlightenment that includes ethical practice.
Considering the practical training perspective, the eight factors within the NEP can
be grouped into three trainings, which are called the Threefold Training (Bodhi,
2000b; Buswell Jr & Lopez Jr, 2013; Christopher et al., 2009; Thera, 2010), namely:
sila (training in ethical conduct) comprised of right speech, right action, right
livelihood; samadhi (training in mentality) comprised of right effort, right
mindfulness, right concentration; and pañña (training in wisdom) comprised of right
view and right thinking. It can be clearly seen that mindfulness is only an integral part
of the Threefold Training (i.e. the training in mentality), and is one aspect of the NEP
(Gilpin, 2008), in which all elements feature the word ‘samma’ (meaning ‘right’).
245
Hence, the term ‘right mindfulness’ refers to wise attention and lucid awareness that
leads to the ability to understand what is wholesome and what is not, to abandon
wrong intentions, and to differentiate good deeds from bad deeds (Bodhi, 2011; Kang
& Whittingham, 2010; Purser & Milillo, 2015). From the Buddhist perspective, the
role of mindfulness is not simply passive and bare attention to the present moment,
which is how it is usually addressed in the conceptualisation of the modern
mindfulness approach.
The findings show that the participants adopt all eight elements of the NEP in their
practice because these aspects are interconnected and should be embodied as a
single path (Shonin et al., 2016; Thera, 2010). The training in higher morality is
required in order to ensure that the cultivation of concentration and wisdom is used
for the right purposes. Moreover, behaving morally is believed to be a foundation for
having a clear and calm mind, which provides the clarity to see the truth about the
way things are, in other words to attain insight and wisdom (Buddhadasa, 2007; Chen
& Chen, 2018; Gyatso, 2001; Harvey, 2015; Huxter, 2015; Jayasaro, 2014). It can be
seen from the interview results in Chapter Five that BM puts a great emphasis on
morality and training in ethical conduct, such that they are regarded as prerequisites
for the practice of mindfulness. In this regard, the interview results show that all
interviewees have attempted to observe the five precepts, which are the basic ethics
for laypeople in Buddhism, as part of their mindfulness training. This is supported by
the quantitative findings in the questionnaires from the leaders’ employees. The
questionnaire results show that these leaders are seen to adhere to the five precepts
by their direct employees, given that the mean scores for the five items regarding
the five precepts range from 4.57 to 4.86. In fact, it is for the five precepts dimension
that the leaders received the highest mean score across all nine dimensions in the
questionnaire (M = 4.74). This is arguably one of the most distinct differences
between the traditional BM approach and the MM approach, because it is rare for
modern mindfulness-based programmes to encompass ethical conduct of the
participants as an integral part of the mindfulness practice (Stanley, 2015).
246
8.2.2 Objective 2: To explore the extent to which Buddhist
mindfulness principles and practices influence Thai
organisational executive leaders’ ethical values and behaviours
EL dimensions
Initially, the study has sought to understand what ethical values and behaviour Thai
leaders find to be significant for EL. Based on the interview data analysis, there are
eight EL dimensions identified, namely: 1) compassion and empathy; 2) humility and
equal respect for others; 3) emotion regulation; 4) sufficiency; 5) honesty; 6) justice;
7) pro-social behaviour; and 8) discipline and role model. In addition to these
findings, the five precepts of Buddhism are also taken into account as part of the
ethical dimension in this study. Given that the focus of this study is related to leaders’
mindfulness practices in the Thai Buddhist context, the five precepts are considered
basic ethical practice for Buddhist laypeople.
The participants were asked an open-ended question for which they could freely give
their opinions on those ethical values and behaviours they find most important for
ethical leadership and they personally adhere to. The findings reveal that the EL
values and behaviours perceived as important by the participants are consistent with
the EL dimensions initially identified in the literature review (in Chapter Two). Figure
8.1 below illustrates how the EL dimensions derived from the findings (in the left
hand column in the figure) can be mapped against the EL dimensions identified in the
conceptual framework, which have been synthesised from the extant literature (in
the right hand column of the figure).
247
Figure 8.1: Mapping EL dimensions from the interview findings and the research
conceptual framework
Source: Author’s construct
The findings support the suggestion in the cross-cultural EL literature that, although
there is no single agreeable meaning of EL, there are certain qualities that appear to
be universal, which are commonly identified as core ethical values and behaviours
that determine EL across different cultures (Eisenbeiss, 2012; Eisenbeiß & Brodbeck,
2014; Resick et al., 2006). It can be seen from Figure 8.1 that EL dimensions derived
from Thai executive leaders in this study are in line with the common dimensions of
EL indicated in previous EL studies, including cross-cultural EL research.
248
There is an interesting pattern in the findings in that one dimension derived from the
study can be related to two dimensions identified in the research conceptual
framework. It can be inferred from this finding that ethical value and behaviour may
not be seen as a rigid dimension on its own, but rather as interrelated and supportive
of one another. In this study, there are three dimensions from the findings that can
be linked to two other ethical dimensions in the research framework. Firstly,
considering the prior literature, treating others with respect and equality is
categorised in the humane/people orientation dimension, while humility is seen as
part of moderation (Eisenbeiss, 2012). However, this study has found that humility
and treating others with equal respect seem to be related, because a humble leader
tends not to see himself/herself as superior to others. Humble leaders would treat
others with respect. Hence, it may be suggested that the humane/people orientation
and moderation dimensions are supportive of one another. Similarly, it has been
found that discipline can be an essential element for a leader to be a role model for
their employees. Therefore, discipline and role model may be linked. Lastly, there is
a connection found between sufficiency and honesty. It is suggested in Chapter Six
that greed can be the underlying cause of unethical behaviour and dishonesty
because greed is involved with unsatisfied needs that go beyond what is necessary,
which can drive people to acquire things through a wrongful means (D’Souza, 2015;
Krekels & Pandelaere, 2015; Lambie & Haugen, 2019; Seuntjens et al., 2015, 2019).
Thereby, it is suggested that the counterbalance of greed is sufficiency. People who
are sufficient are unlikely to be involved in unethical means for self-gain because they
do not have extreme desires (The Government Public Relations Department, 2017).
In this regard, sufficiency may support both the moderation and honesty dimensions.
However, more research that is specifically designed to find correlations between
variables is needed to confirm the preliminary suggestions based on the findings
from this study.
Besides, there is another interesting pattern found in the study, which is that three
dimensions derived from the study are related in one dimension in the research
framework. As can be seen from Figure 8.1, humility and equal respect for others,
249
emotion regulation, and sufficiency are highlighted as key EL dimension based on the
interviews with Thai leaders. All three of these dimensions can be categorised under
the moderation dimension in the prior literature on EL. It can be inferred that ethical
values and behaviours regarding moderation are especially emphasised in the Thai
context, such that there are three elements related to moderation addressed in
particular detail by Thai leaders. This finding concurs with Eisenbeiss (2012), who
described the moderation dimension as seeming to be addressed relatively strongly
by leaders from an Eastern cultural context, especially in view of the influence of
religion in the Eastern world. Such a finding also supports Resick et al.’s (2006) study,
which found that, although there seems to be a set of universal EL dimensions, the
degree to which each dimension is endorsed can vary in different cultures.
The influence of BM on ethical values and behaviours
The findings from the interviews with the leaders reveal that their mindfulness
practices play an important role in influencing the leaders’ ethical values and
behaviour. The significant finding is that the Thai Buddhist approach to mindfulness
practices entails various essential elements that accompany mindfulness, which
altogether support ethical values and behaviour. Following the results discussed
earlier in Section 8.2.1, all participants report that mindfulness is part of the
systematic training known as the Threefold Training. Within this approach,
mindfulness is an integral part of the whole framework, which consists of sila (ethics),
samadhi (concentration) and pañña (wisdom). In other words, mindfulness, which is
situated in the samadhi (concentration) section of the Threefold Training, needs to
be practised simultaneously with training in ethical conduct and wisdom.
As covered in Chapter Six, the interviewees provide various insightful thoughts and
reflections as to how their mindfulness practices influence their ethical values and
behaviour. Based on the interview data, four key contributions of mindfulness as
practiced in the Thai Buddhist context can be drawn from the findings. Table 8.2
below illustrates a matrix of the contributions of mindfulness as practised in the Thai
Buddhist context to EL dimensions identified in this study.
250
Table 8.2: The contribution of mindfulness as practised in the Thai Buddhist context to EL
EL Dimensions Awareness Sila (Ethics/Morality) Dhamma Teachings Other
Compassion and Empathy
- Thinking before acting results in acting more kindly. - The state of open awareness and non-reactivity to an experience is the state of mind that can create other-focused compassion and the ability to think from others’ perspectives. - Understanding and having compassion for others by learning to understand themselves first (due to the mindfulness training process).
- Right action: Refrain from harming other living beings. - Right speech: Abstain from harsh, malicious, and abusive language.
- The teaching of the four Brahmavihàra (Four Sublime States of Mind): mettà (loving-kindness, goodwill), karuna (compassion, empathy), mudita (sympathetic joy, rejoicing in the successes and happiness of others), and upekkha (equanimity, mental balance).
Loving-kindness meditation: Develop compassion, and cultivate love and a capacity of forgiveness for others.
Humility and Equal Respect for Others
Contemplation on the elements of the body: A close inspection of one’s own body to see that it is no different from other human beings’ bodies – developing a sense of equality and non-egocentricity.
Emotion Regulation
- Be able to detect the emergence of negative emotions and avoid automatically reacting, driven by negative emotions.
Sufficiency Middle way: Moderate
consumption and way of life.
251
EL Dimensions Awareness Sila (Ethics/Morality) Dhamma Teachings Other
Honesty
- Notice when cravings and desires arise and be able to restrain greed and extreme desire. - Be more careful and reasonable rather than taking action purely driven by desire. - Eliminate defilement driven by greed, which is the underlying cause for various unethical behaviours.
- Right action: Refrain from stealing or taking what has not been given. - Right speech: Speak the truth. - Right livelihood: Engage in a profession which is blameless and free from harm.
Justice and Fairness
- Realise whenever there is an immediate judgement. - Awareness of emotions: decisions are not influenced by emotions. - The ability to pay attention to unconscious biases.
Pro-social Behaviour
- Be aware of the consequence of actions. - Be more careful and responsible.
Interconnectedness (the interdependence of all beings).
Discipline and Role Model
- Self-regulation and self-control to be a good role model. - Be able to control negative moods and emotions when disciplining employees.
Source: Author’s construct
252
First, the contribution directly gained from mindfulness practices that is most
referred to by the participants is enhanced awareness. The opinion of most
interviewees in this study is that the development in awareness leads to an
improvement in emotion regulation and self-control, which result in leaders engaging
in more ethical decision making and behaviours. This view concurs with the outcome
that has been prominently reported in mindfulness studies in the past few decades,
namely that awareness enhancement is central to mindfulness practice which, in
turn, is key to emotion regulation and self-regulation (Baer et al., 2009; Bishop et al.,
2004; Brown et al., 2007; Creswell et al., 2007; Glomb et al., 2011; Hayes & Feldman,
2006; Shapiro et al., 2006). As can be seen in Table 8.2, awareness is the main
contribution from mindfulness that underpins nearly all ethical dimensions. Such a
finding is in line with other studies indicating that the underlying mechanisms for
ethical decision making and ethical behaviour are emotion regulation and self-
control (Kligyte et al., 2013; Sosik et al., 2019). The importance of leaders’ ability to
regulate their emotion and have self-control is highly emphasised in the literature,
such that it is considered as the underlying mechanism that triggers the
manifestation of various other forms of EL behaviour, such as honesty, humility,
empathy and moral courage (Sosik et al., 2019). The results from the interviews in
this study also support this point.
Second, given that the mindfulness that is practised in the Thai Buddhist context is
part of the NEP, which can be grouped within the systematic training called the
Threefold Training, all interviewees in this study indicate that they have been
endeavouring to develop moral conduct because the Threefold Training includes the
training in morality, which has to be practised in parallel with mindfulness practices.
Therefore, training in morality is considered by the interviewees to be an essential
mechanism which contributes to their ethical practices since the training in morality
(i.e. the five precepts) governs their behaviour and prevents them from committing
various wrongdoings.
253
This finding from the interviews is endorsed by the results from the questionnaires.
The leaders in this study are seen by the employees as adhering to the five precepts,
which are considered to be the most widely known set of moral practices for lay
Buddhists (Lomas, 2016). The leaders receive relatively high mean scores for all five
items related to the five precepts, ranging from 4.57 to 4.86 (s.d. ranging from 0.350
to 0.804). Moreover, the results from Pearson’s correlation coefficient (r) also
indicate that there is a statistically significant relationship between the five precepts
of Buddhism dimension and the other EL dimensions. Initially, it can be suggested
that the five precepts of Buddhism dimension are likely to positively influence other
EL dimensions, as the correlation results demonstrate statistical significance for all
ethical dimensions identified in the research framework. Nevertheless, given that the
focus of the current research is not on finding the relationship between the five
precepts and other EL dimensions, more research is needed to specifically examine
and confirm such correlations.
Third, all participants acknowledge that their mindfulness practices are accompanied
by the study of dhamma, which refers to truths inherent in nature (Payutto, 2018, p.
402). The participants then describe how both their mindfulness practices and
dhamma teachings have played a significant role in shaping their ethical practices.
Dhamma teachings can be regarded as part of the training in wisdom within the
Threefold Training. The participants find that the cultivation of wisdom through
dhamma enables them to deeply understand the interconnectedness of things, and
the nature of the way things are. It can be seen from the matrix presented in Table
8.2 that the participants view the realisation of the interconnected of things as
transforming their perspectives and behaviours towards a pro-social orientation.
Several interviewees point out that the Buddhist teaching on interconnectedness has
influenced them to see that everything in this world is connected and nothing can
truly exist independently, which is why they are more concerned with the
consequences of their actions.
254
Lastly, there are some specific types of meditation practices that can influence
certain EL dimensions. The study finds that the practice of loving-kindness is related
to the compassion and empathy dimension of EL because loving-kindness meditation
is a prominent type of mindfulness practice in Buddhist tradition that particularly
focuses on the cultivation of compassion, love and a capacity of forgiveness for
others. In fact, loving-kindness meditation is becoming more well-known and has
been applied in MM practices in the West. A systemic literature review has also found
initial scientific evidence indicating that MM interventions which combine the
practice of loving-kindness meditation lead to an increase in self-compassion and
compassion for others (Boellinghaus et al., 2014). However, this study also finds
another type of practice that is much less well-known in Western contexts, which is
the contemplation of the elements of the body. This finding reveals that this practice
contributes to the humility and equal respect for others EL dimension because this
type of meditation equips one to closely inspect one’s own body to understand that
it is simply a combination of material qualities that in themselves are no different
from other human beings’ bodies (Analayo, 2015b). This study finds that, based on
the understanding of this concept, this practice influences the leaders’ perspective
to see and treat everyone equally. However, this type of practice can be rarely found
in the MM approach (Vago & David, 2012). This finding indicates a particularism of
mindfulness practices in the Buddhist context.
To what extent are Thai executive leaders who practise BM perceived to be
ethical leaders by their direct employees?
Although the above findings from the qualitative data lend valuable insight into how
BM principles and practices influence Thai executive leaders’ ethical values and
behaviours, the data derived from the first-person perspective (i.e. leaders who
practise mindfulness themselves) could be subject to bias. Given that there is a
tendency for human beings to oversell themselves regarding positive attributes, it is
common in EL research to take the ratings from leaders’ subordinates (Khuntia &
Suar, 2004). Consequently, this research has adopted the mixed methods approach,
255
as explained in Chapter Four. While the data regarding leaders’ ethical behaviour and
the contribution of mindfulness are gained from the executive leaders themselves
through the semi-structured interview technique, another set of data is obtained
from their direct employees (n = 176) by using the questionnaires to examine the
extent to which the leaders are perceived as ethical by these employees. The results
from each data set are then compared for agreement or discrepancy in the discussion
of the findings (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2018; Jick, 1979). Thus, the researcher can
advance multiple perspectives, as well as validating one set of data with the other.
Given that each dimension that appears in the questionnaire and all of the
questionnaire items have been developed based on the literature review of EL
studies across cultures, the questionnaires developed in this research can be argued
to have initially determined a universal EL to a certain degree. Figure 8.2 below
illustrates the mean scores and standard deviation of each EL dimension derived
from the questionnaire results.
256
Figure 8.2: Mapping EL dimensions to the EL questionnaire results (M and s.d.)
Source: Author’s construct
According to the descriptive questionnaire results, as shown in Figure 8.2, the leaders
interviewed in this study are perceived to be ethical leaders given that no ethical
dimensions report a mean score lower than 4. The mean of the average scores of all
dimensions is 4.53 (s.d. 0.433), which indicates that the direct employees strongly
agree that their leaders are ethical leaders. The quantitative data also indicate that
the characteristics of EL identified in the qualitative stage are endorsed, given that
the EL dimensions derived from the qualitative findings are in line with the EL
dimensions used in the questionnaires.
However, it is worth noting that the leaders in this study receive the lowest mean
scores in the moderation dimension (m = 4.38, s.d. = 0.579). Moreover, according to
a further investigation for any particular patterns emerging from the data, for which
the researcher performed the ANOVA and the T-test to find any statistically
257
significant differences between different demographic variables, it is found that
moderation is the only dimension for which female leaders (m = 4.27, s.d. = 0.626)
are rated significantly lower than male leaders (m = 4.45, s.d. = 0.532). Given that the
moderation dimension is primarily concerned with leaders’ emotion regulation, the
fact that this research finding reports that female leaders receive lower scores in this
dimension than male leaders is not incongruent with previous research. Much
research on leader gender has found that there is a biased perception of leader
gender regarding emotion expression. To be precise, women leaders are usually
perceived negatively and less favourably when expressing emotion than male leaders
(Brescoll, 2016; Brescoll & Uhlmann, 2008; Lewis, 2000; Salerno & Peter-Hagene,
2015). This may be the reason why female leaders in this study are rated significantly
lower than male leaders when it comes to perceptions relating to leaders’ emotion
regulation.
Another pattern was also found regarding gender of the respondents (direct
employees of the leaders). This research finds that male respondents give higher
scores for their leaders in nearly all dimensions than female respondents, particularly
for the justice dimension, which was rated significantly higher by male respondents
(m = 4.56, s.d. = 0.517) compared to female respondents (m = 4.35, s.d. = 0.656). A
similar pattern is also found in other studies, which have discovered a difference
between women and men regarding their perception towards treatment of others.
For example, it is evident in Yun et al.’s (2020) study that male participants rate
leaders significantly higher for their leadership effectiveness than female participants
do, because female observers are more critical in evaluating their leaders than male
counterparts. Moreover, other research has found that women and men tend to
have different degrees of acceptance regarding mistreatment in the workplace, as
women are likely to have more sensitivity and to feel more affected than men
(Escartín et al., 2011; Montgomery et al., 2004).
258
However, it is beyond the scope of this study to examine in detail the different
variables that may impact EL rating scores. The quantitative results from this study
may serve as preliminary findings that suggest areas for future research.
Critical analysis of the findings concerning BM practices
According to the discussion of the results integrated from both the qualitative and
quantitative data, the findings from this study provide preliminary evidence to
indicate that Buddhist approaches to mindfulness that are practised in the Thai
context seem to influence leaders’ ethical values and behaviour. The semi-structured
interviews with Thai leaders who practise BM shed light on how the framework of
mindfulness practices in Thailand is relevant to their EL practices. The findings are
also in line with extant research, which has started to explore various benefits of
mindfulness other than for health issues, such as the contributions of mindfulness to
compassion, ethical decision making, and pro-social behaviour (Boellinghaus et al.,
2014; Eisenbeiss et al., 2014; Lim et al., 2015; Reb et al., 2018). Moreover, since the
study finds that BM practices tend to contribute to all EL dimensions identified in the
study, it can be inferred that it may also contribute to universal EL, because the EL
dimensions in this study are well-aligned with those in the extant EL literature. Yet,
more specific research, such as correlational or experimental research, is needed to
test the relationship between Buddhist approaches to mindfulness and EL.
However, even though the findings from this study provide preliminary evidence that
BM practices are likely to support universal EL dimensions, the way mindfulness is
practised in the Thai context is strongly led by core Buddhist principles and teachings.
The findings suggest that it is not mindfulness meditation alone that influences
leaders’ ethical behaviour, but also other elements (i.e. trainings in ethics and
wisdom) that are integrated within the Buddhist framework. The findings also
highlight the rationale as to why the three trainings (in mindfulness, ethics and
wisdom) are required to be practised together. This is because the trainings are
suggested to be interrelated with each other and work to complement one another.
In a nutshell, the three elements within the Threefold Training have a synergistic
259
relationship in the sense that when one’s mindfulness increases, one’s ethical
conduct becomes more skilful, which in turn, supports even better cultivation of
concentration and mindfulness that can eventually lead to the cultivation of wisdom
to deeply understand the nature of reality, including the three marks of existence,
impermanence (anicca), instability (dukkha), and non-self (anatta) (Compson &
Monteiro, 2016). In this regard, from a Buddhist perspective, the aim of training the
mind in Buddhism is to cultivate wisdom. Training in wisdom requires mindfulness
and adequate quality of the mind to discern the truth of nature. However,
unwholesome actions may negatively impact the state of mind and hinder
meditation (Gilpin, 2008). Hence, being ethical is necessary for quality of the mind.
At the same time, training of the mind supports ethical conduct due to increased
awareness, which leads to better self-control. This highlights the protective or
guarding function of sati or mindfulness in the Buddhist approach (Stanley, 2015).
For example, Buddhist laypeople may vow not to commit wrongful deeds driven by
desires of the senses, such as sexual misconduct (Gombrich, 2009), mindfulness
works in this respect as a protective function, which can be compared to a
gatekeeper that prevents the rise of unwholesome reactions of the sense organs (i.e.
eyes, ears, nose, tongue, body, mind) (Analayo, 2003); thereby, one can further avoid
committing unethical deeds.
Nevertheless, as discussed in Chapter Two, it is still highly controversial if the whole
Buddhist framework of mindfulness practice can prove to be acceptable in secular
contexts or contexts which are heavily dominated by non-Buddhist-based spiritual
and religious philosophies (Sutamchai et al., 2020). There has been an ongoing
debate among scholars over issues such as whether or not MM could be more aligned
with the traditional Buddhist approach, and whether or not Buddhist ethics should
be included, either implicitly or explicitly, in MM interventions (Baer, 2015; Lindahl,
2015; Monteiro et al., 2015). One of the major concerns is regarding the bringing of
the modern secular mindfulness approach into line with traditional Buddhist ethics,
260
because ethical guidance for universal mindfulness practices should not merely come
from Buddhist sources (Baer, 2015; Lindahl, 2015). Another controversial issue is
regarding dhamma or Buddhist teachings about the law of nature and the truth about
the way things are. The reality that the Buddha described as natural law can be seen
as ontological constraints, which can be challenged by people who have different
perceptions, religions or beliefs (Compson & Monteiro, 2016; Ratnayake & Merry,
2018).
Drawing from the critiques and concerns highlighted above, it could be argued that
the implications from the findings in the current study may be directly applicable in
the Thai or other contexts that tend to be sympathetic to an explicit BM approach.
However, implications for other cultural contexts may need to be considered along
with the extent to which the BM framework can be applied without contradicting the
different beliefs that people may have. The next section further discusses possible
ways that the findings from this study may be adapted in non-Buddhist contexts or
secular settings.
8.2.3 Objective 3: To propose prospective implications for ethical
leadership development through mindfulness interventions
Since the findings of this research are derived from Buddhist approaches to
mindfulness, it is undeniable that not all elements within BM practices can be directly
applied in every context, due to differences in religious beliefs. However, what could
be suggested from this research is that certain elements or rationales from the long
tradition within which mindfulness has been carried on can be of useful, and thus,
should not be overlooked.
Various scholars seem to advocate the idea that MM interventions may be of more
benefit if they were to put some of the elements and teachings from the traditional
Buddhist approach to good use. For example, Monteiro et al. (2015) argue for a
middle path between Buddhist and secular mindfulness approaches, because there
are significant areas of overlap between the two approaches, such that they have
261
suggested that a rigorous and continued dialogue between the two camps may lead
to mutual benefits. Similarly, Van Gordon et al. (2015) and Shonin et al. (2016)
support the argument that Buddhist and scientific researchers can work together to
bring out the best in order to help human beings. Other scholars perceive that the
current time could be appropriate to start to re-contextualise MM with respect to
the Buddhist approach, since mindfulness practices have gained more acceptance.
Thereby, contemporary mindfulness approaches could increase their potential while
addressing existing pitfalls by taking some useful concepts or elements from the
Buddhist approach into account (Lomas, 2017; Lomas et al., 2014; Lomas &
Jnanavaca, 2015).
This research agrees with the scholars who suggest that there should be ways that
East can meet West and that the re-contextualisation of mindfulness by drawing on
some of the ideas from the traditional Buddhist approach may help the development
and application of secular MM in ethically sensitive ways (Stanley, 2015; Lomas,
2017; de Zoysa, 2016). Currently, it is only mindfulness that has been recognised in
the West; however, more could be gained from recognising other elements related
to mindfulness from the Buddhist approach, which may yield significantly more
benefits than therapeutic outcomes (Lomas, 2017).
The idea from Buddhist approaches to mindfulness that emphasises the role of ethics
in accompaniment with mindfulness practices may be useful for mindfulness training
programmes, particularly for the purposes of developing EL. The close link between
mindfulness and ethical foundation should be explicitly addressed in mindfulness
programmes for ethical behaviour development purposes. Prior research also shows
that mindfulness and ethical conduct influence each other; as mindfulness develops,
one’s ethical conduct becomes more refined (de Zoysa, 2016). For example, a leader
who is well-trained in mindfulness skill tends to recognise and acknowledge the
negative thoughts and feelings that arise, such as anger, disappointment and worry,
without further reacting to them. This would lead to a better response to the
262
situation and a better chance of acting ethically afterwards. In contrast, a leader who
lacks mindfulness training may become overwhelmed by such negative emotions,
which may result in emotion-driven behaviour, such as temper outbursts (Baer,
2015). Furthermore, the research findings point to the issue that, even though there
are ethical guidelines and rules, leaders still need awareness. As one leader put it, “…
the most effective way is not external law enforcement, but internal discipline in
people’s minds. Here, awareness is key. We need to have self-awareness in order to
be careful of our thoughts and actions” (Leader3).
On one hand, mindfulness provides a supporting mechanism for ethical conduct. On
the other hand, ethical conduct may help in strengthening the mind due to the
absence of remorse and guilt that commonly occur because of unethical behaviour
or wrongdoing. Additionally, ethical conduct seems to reduce inter- and intra-
personal issues as well (De Zoysa, 2016). Based on this, it can be suggested that it
may be more effective for EL development if the training in ethics and mindfulness
go hand in hand and their supporting roles are well-emphasised.
The findings in this study indicate that it might be possible that Buddhist methods of
practising mindfulness and the Buddhist ethical framework can be directly applied
and incorporated into mindfulness development programmes in Thailand and other
Buddhist contexts. However, the implications in other cultural contexts may need be
considered along with the extent to which the BM framework can be applied without
contradicting the different beliefs that people may have. In other religious contexts
or secular settings, a framework for mindfulness practices that is independent of
Buddhist teachings and Buddhist ethics may be preferred, because “stronger
theoretical and empirical foundations in psychological science, can be used in a
variety of secular settings, and are appropriate for a wide range of clients regardless
of their religious or spiritual orientations” (Baer, 2015, p. 966).
It is important to note here that this study does not intend to suggest that leaders
who do not apply mindfulness practices cannot develop their ethical behaviour.
However, given that this research identifies a gap in the literature on EL, in that little
263
research has focused on the way in which ethical behaviour can be developed in
organisational contexts, particularly from a value-based or self-regulatory approach,
this study seeks to contribute to filling this gap by proposing a model that may be
beneficial for organisations that wish to find an alternative intervention for EL
training through the application of mindfulness practices. Figure 8.3 below illustrates
a proposed model for EL development through mindfulness that may be applicable
in non-Buddhist contexts.
Figure 8.3: Proposed model for EL development through mindfulness
Resource: Author’s construct
Drawing from the proposed model for EL development through mindfulness
presented above, the simultaneous trainings in mindfulness and ethics can be further
clarified as follows:
1) Mindfulness – The use of secular methods to develop greater awareness.
Past research has found that awareness has a significant impact on ethical decision
making, whilst the lack of awareness is a key reason for unethical behaviour (Guillén
& Fontrodona, 2017). Hence, the benefit of mindfulness practices in relation to
improvement in the quality of consciousness has brought mindfulness into the scope
264
of scientific investigation (Brown et al., 2015). Given that mindfulness is closely
related to awareness, scholars have begun to relate it to ethical behaviour, providing
evidence that mindfulness plays an important role in promoting ethical behaviour by
improving levels of awareness (Guillén & Fontrodona, 2017; Karelaia & Reb, 2015;
Pandey et al., 2018; Shapiro et al., 2012). The findings from this present research also
indicate that mindfulness practices contribute to increased awareness, which is
crucial for Thai leaders to have better self-control and encourages them to engage in
ethical behaviour in nearly all ethical dimensions (see Table 8.2)
Recent research also suggests the potential benefits of incorporating both
compliance-based and value-based approaches to ethics development, given that
simply teaching the rules and codes of conduct seems to be insufficient (Tremblay et
al., 2017). Hence, ethics trainings that target the development of consciousness, such
as mind-body approaches, meditation, and spiritual practices, may elevate and
enhance the effectiveness of an ethics programme, rather than using compliance-
based mechanisms alone (Martineau et al., 2017). Hence, mindfulness may serve as
an alternative way to incorporate practices that are related to mind-body, spiritual
and experiential activities into ethics programmes.
Notable scholars from scientific disciplines have identified that a state or trait of
mindfulness is inherit in humans and that the capacity to be mindful can be refined
to greater degrees through training (Grossman, 2011; Kabat-Zinn, 2003; The
Mindfulness Initiative, 2016b). Hence, the cultivation of mindfulness to improve the
capability of awareness seems to be helpful in providing a mechanism for EL
development. However, when it comes to the teaching of mindfulness programmes
in organisations in different contexts, cultural sensitivity regarding mindfulness
practices needs to be considered. Current research has strongly suggested that
mindfulness can be practised in a secular manner and several secular mindfulness
training programmes have successfully been implemented in prominent
organisations worldwide (e.g. Google’s Search Inside Yourself programme, General
Mills Inc.’s Mindful Leadership programme, Aetna’s Mindfulness at Work
265
programme) (Good et al., 2016; Palitsky & Kaplan, 2019). Moreover, various spiritual
traditions in the world other than Buddhism, such as Christianity, Hindu and other
religions, also have some forms of mindfulness practices within their traditions
(Brown et al., 2007; Dhiman, 2009; Dryden & Still, 2006; Krägeloh, 2019). Hence, as
part of an EL development programme, organisations may choose to design and
customise the methods of mindfulness teaching to be appropriate for their own
culture, so that participants from diverse backgrounds can participate in the training.
2) Ethics – Universal approach that is independent of Buddhist ethics
There has been an ongoing debate over whether any formal or explicit teaching of
ethical guidelines is required to accompany mindfulness training. On one hand, Baer
(2015) and Krägeloh (2016) draw upon various studies to show that engagement in
modern secular mindfulness programmes, which do not include explicit ethics
teaching, fosters compassion, moral reasoning, ethical decision making, and
prosocial and values-consistent behaviour. Baer (2015) concludes that, “it therefore
seems unlikely that worksite mindfulness training will encourage passive
acquiescence with corporate wrongdoing” (p. 964). On the other hand, Chen and
Jordan (2020) provide evidence to show that MM may increase pro-social behaviour
for those who already are likely to enact it, for example people who already have
high empathy, but might even decrease it for those who are not. For example, for
individuals who are narcissists (lacking empathy), participation in a brief secular
mindfulness sessions was found to reduce their empathic response (Ridderinkhof et
al., 2017).
Furthermore, there have been other concerns over the use of mindfulness in
corporate settings. Purser and Milillo (2015, p. 3) argue that a modern secular
approach without an ethical framework reduces mindfulness to a self-help
technique, and warn that it can be “…easily misappropriated for reproducing
corporate and institutional power, employee pacification, and maintenance of toxic
266
organisational cultures.” Similarly, Reb et al. (2015) point out that it is possible that
a leader may use mindfulness capability for selfish, political, or antisocial purposes.
Although mindfulness is found to be strongly associated with ethical decision making,
it can be argued that this may not necessarily result in ethical behaviour, because
mindfulness alone may not in and of itself be sufficient (Addiss, 2017). Incorporating
ethics within a mindfulness programme would provide the foundation and clear
direction for the cultivation of mindfulness (Amaro, 2015). Several scholars argue
that mindfulness requires ethical foundations because mindfulness that is
accompanied by ethical guidelines leads to moral conscience and discernment
between right and wrong (Monteiro et al., 2015; Small & Lew, 2019; Verhaeghen,
2015). Some existing mindfulness programmes that incorporate an ethical
foundation to mindfulness teaching have reported that when mindfulness training is
explicitly combined with information about ethical principles, this increases pro-
social behaviour to a greater degree (Greenberg & Mitra 2015; Hutcherson et al.
2008; Chen & Jordan, 2020).
Considering the findings of this research, the interview data indicate that ethics
becomes the ground upon which mindfulness is used. The ethical framework that
underpins BM helps prevent one from misusing the ability gained from the
development of mentality and wisdom in the wrong way. As one interviewee
commented, “…if you take just the mindfulness training part, but don’t take the ethics
part to be the frame, you can be mindful in doing wrong things” (Leader29). If
mindfulness practices are to serve ethical development purposes, the practices need
to be accompanied by ethical guidelines in order to avoid the risk of mindfulness
being used for wrongdoing and inappropriate purposes. In particular, if mindfulness
is to be utilised to promote ethical behaviour of organisational leaders, organisations
need to incorporate an explicit ethical focus to their mindfulness training
programmes. This is to ascertain that mindfulness entails not merely present-
moment awareness and attention, but also involves discerning what is considered
wholesome states of minds and actions (Reb et al., 2018). Mindfulness capability
267
should be used in such a way that it further supports the cultivation of ethical
qualities and encourages virtue and ethical conduct.
The subject of ethics could be included as a part of the overall mindfulness
programme (de Zoysa, 2016). However, the form of ethics may be expressed through
universal ethical guidelines without reference to or reliance on Buddhist ethics. Some
forms of universal ethics can be applied to accompany mindfulness practices, such as
value in action (VIA) and character strengths based on positive psychology discipline
(Guillén & Fontrodona, 2017), or ethical values, virtues that are desirable in that
particular religion or context. Specifically, VIA and character strengths include several
values and behaviours that are similar to the EL dimensions. Baer (2015) argues that
virtues and character strengths rooted in positive psychology research have been
derived from the study of various religious and philosophical traditions, but have
been conceptualised and presented in a contemporary psychological scientific form.
Hence, they can be applied across cultures. Such empirically based psychological
approaches to ethical values without reference to Buddhist ethics appear promising
and may have advantages over the explicit use of a Buddhist ethical framework (ibid).
However, it is beyond the scope of this thesis to describe the VIA and character
strengths in detail (for research on the relevance to mindfulness of VIA and character
strengths, see Niemiec, 2014; Niemiec & Lissing, 2015; Guillén & Fontrodona, 2017).
Apart from positive psychology, other disciplines and areas of study, such as
organisational psychology, occupational psychology, business ethics and leadership
ethics, may provide additional bodies of research on ethical behaviour in the
workplace, which can be used as in an ethical framework to accompany the
cultivation of mindfulness.
268
8.3 Implications of the Findings
8.3.1 Theoretical implications and contribution to knowledge
This research is considered an important contribution to the body of literature. As
explained in the introduction, this thesis addresses knowledge gaps in two distinct
streams of literature.
First, the current literature on EL has predominantly been developed from Western
ideas of moral philosophy or from conducted research through empirical Western-
based data collection, mostly from the private sector (Batmanghlich, 2015;
Eisenbeiss, 2012; Eisenbeiß & Brodbeck, 2014; Martin et al., 2013; Resick et al., 2006,
2011). Even the EL theory proposed by Brown et al. (2005), which is considered the
most prominent EL concept and framework that most studies in this subject area
have drawn upon (Stouten et al., 2013), was also developed from a Western
perspective through empirical Western-based research (Eisenbeiß & Brodbeck, 2014;
Martin et al., 2013; Resick et al., 2011). Hence, given that this research has been
undertaken in Thailand and the data have been gathered from different sectors, the
research adds to the body of knowledge in cross-cultural EL, by contributing
viewpoints, principles or values from Thai culture and from the public, private and
social sectors. This research confirms that there are certain universal dimensions of
EL across various culture. The findings generally are in line with the common
dimensions of EL indicated in the previous cross-cultural EL studies (Eisenbeiss, 2012;
Eisenbeiß & Brodbeck, 2014; Resick et al., 2006). It particularly agrees with Resick et
al. (2006) that the significance and degree of endorsement may vary in different
cultural contexts. For example, in the Thai context, the compassion and moderation
elements of EL are distinctly valued. Meanwhile, this research also finds that social
learning theory (Bandura, 1977) that underpins EL theory (Brown et al., 2005) is
useful to explain the EL construct given that the view on EL in the Thai context also
involves role modelling and promotion of ethics in organisations via leaders’ actions.
269
Second, in the extant literature, most empirical studies on mindfulness focus on
modern secular mindfulness as practised in Western contexts. Recently, there has
been growing criticism towards the MM approach that it has been diluted and de-
contextualised from its traditional Buddhist roots. The main criticism has centred
around the lack of an ethical framework underpinning mindfulness practices in
modern secular mindfulness (Monteiro et al., 2015; Purser & Milillo, 2015; Stanley,
2015; Van Gordon, Shonin, & Griffiths, 2015). The fundamental importance of
mindfulness for ethical behaviour remains somewhat underrated (Addiss, 2017). In
particular, research on mindfulness in organisations has been criticised for neglecting
the importance of the connection between mindfulness and ethics, which is
embedded in Buddhist approaches to mindfulness (Reb et al., 2018). Some scholars
have been concerned that, without such ethical foundation, mindfulness may be
used for questionable purposes (Purser and Milillo 2015). This has led to a call for
more research on mindfulness as practised in traditional Buddhist approaches
(Stanley, 2015). However, to date little empirical research sheds light on whether and
how Buddhist approaches to mindfulness actually influence ethical values and
behaviour of the practitioners. The current study uniquely expands upon previous
BM research, which has been predominantly guided by theory rather than direct
empirical data. This research empirically demonstrates the relevance of BM practices
to leaders’ ethical values and behaviour. To the author’s best knowledge, no previous
research has investigated such an influence among BM practitioners before. In
addition, this thesis contributes significantly to existing literature on mindfulness and
EL in Thailand. In terms of academic research, empirical support from mindfulness in
Thailand is still lacking, even though long before the modern secular approach to
mindfulness had gained interest in the West, mindfulness concepts and practices had
existed in various Asian countries, especially in Buddhist countries like Thailand.
Ironically, studies on its impact on the lives of Thai people remain scarce. Only a few
previous studies have investigated the contribution of mindfulness practices in Thai
populations (Wongtongkam et al., 2014), but no prior research has been done on
270
mindfulness and EL in Thailand. This present research is the first empirical study on
mindfulness practices and EL in the Thai Buddhist context, which has broadened
existing literature on mindfulness and EL in Thailand by contributing to
understanding of the Thai leadership perspective.
Additionally, although extant research has reported a variety of benefits and
contributions of mindfulness practices, the vast majority of research focuses on
intrapersonal benefits for individuals, particularly in terms of health and well-being,
since the psychological and clinical disciplines have dominated mindfulness literature
for several decades. Consequently, after mindfulness research expanded to the
organisational and management disciplines, most research has also extensively
focused on intrapersonal effects of how mindfulness can benefit the employee him-
or herself (Reb et al., 2018), such as stress reduction, lower anxiety, lower emotional
exhaustion, increased work performance, greater cognitive performance and greater
job satisfaction (Glomb et al., 2011; Good et al., 2016). Although it is not the intention
of this research to deny the use of mindfulness for stress reduction and therapeutic
purposes, the benefits of mindfulness should not be limited to those outcomes only
(Stanley et al., 2018). By evoking leadership mindfulness in organisational settings
with a particular focus on the influence of mindfulness and leaders’ ethical
behaviour, this research addresses Reb et al.’s (2018) call for research on
interpersonal benefits of mindfulness in the workplace through the role of leaders.
To date, only two empirical studies have related mindfulness to leadership ethics that
might result in intrapersonal effects in the workplace (Reb et al., 2018; Schuh et al.,
2017). However, both studies are quantitative and based on MM concepts. Thereby,
the present study is one of the foremost studies on organisational leadership ethics
and traditional Buddhist approaches to mindfulness that provides empirical evidence
on these aspects by using Thailand as a context of study.
By addressing the knowledge gaps in the two strands of the literature, namely EL and
mindfulness as explained above, to the author’s best knowledge, this present
research is the first empirical study that combines EL and traditional Buddhist
271
approaches to mindfulness. Most prior research on mindfulness has sought to find
the relationship between mindfulness and certain values or behaviours, for example
the relationship between mindfulness, and compassion and empathy (Birnie et al.,
2010; Desbordes et al., 2012; Jazaieri et al., 2013; Wallmark et al., 2013), procedural
justice (Schuh et al., 2017), pro-social behaviour (Chen & Jordan, 2020), or general
ethical decision making (Ruedy & Schweitzer, 2010). Moreover, most of these studies
have primarily focused on individuals in general, rather than on leaders in
organisations. However, given that EL consists of various dimensions, this present
research is the first empirical study that brings mindfulness and the various
dimensions of EL together. The research offers theoretical contributions to the extant
literature relating mindfulness to different dimensions within EL. By focusing on how
the practice of mindfulness encourages leaders to engage in ethical behaviour, this
research addresses the knowledge gap in the current literature concerning how to
develop EL.
Furthermore, this study has contributed theoretically to broadening the
methodological dimensions of the EL and mindfulness fields. It is argued that most
studies in these fields are quantitative studies (Ditrich, 2016). However, the present
research is a mixed methods study with qualitative methods prioritised. This research
has provided rich insight into mindfulness practices in the Thai Buddhist context
through organisational executive leaders’ own stories and direct personal
experiences in their long-term mindfulness practices. One of the main differences of
this research from other studies is that empirical data were gathered from the
natural settings. Each leader has practised mindfulness on their own within the Thai
Buddhist context, without the researcher intervening. It is rare to find research in
such a context with traditional Buddhist approaches to mindfulness existing in their
own natural context. Therefore, this research provides a deeper understanding of
the phenomenon and a different empirical insight from that which is predominant in
the extant literature. Although the findings from prior mindfulness research lend
272
valuable empirical data on the relationship of mindfulness to certain ethical
behaviours (e.g. Ruedy & Schweitzer, 2010; Shapiro et al., 2012; Schuh et al., 2017;
Reb et al., 2018), due to the quantitative methods of those studies, they have not
provided insight on how and why mindfulness can influence ethical values and
behaviour from a practitioner’s perspective. The qualitative findings from this study
can enhance an understanding that the quantitative approach alone cannot fulfil.
This research goes beyond the ‘what’ of the contribution made by mindfulness and
addresses the ‘how’ and ‘why’ by exposing the direct and indirect mechanisms by
which practising mindfulness enhances a leader’s propensity to engage in ethical
behaviour.
8.3.2 Practical Implications
8.3.2.1 Managerial and organisational implications
The findings of the present research provide further evidence that mindfulness
practices may contribute to ethical behaviour, specifically among organisational
leaders. Thereby, the findings have practical implications for EL development in
organisations. Given that positive outcomes of EL have been well-documented, prior
studies have suggested that organisations should make efforts to develop ethical
leaders; however, research suggesting practical ways to develop EL is still limited
(Brown & Treviño, 2006; Treviño & Brown, 2014). This research elaborates on how
mindfulness training can potentially be a significant tool for developing leaders’
ethical behaviour. Since the research findings suggest that mindfulness reinforces
ethical behaviour among Thai leaders in various dimensions that are regarded as
universal dimensions for EL, mindfulness development needs to be encouraged in
organisations.
One prescriptive implication of this research is that organisations, particularly human
resource development or training and development practitioners, might be able to
promote EL by providing mindfulness training. To be precise, organisations may
benefit from the model presented in Figure 8.3, as discussed in Section 8.2.3. This
273
model proposes that EL development programmes should be constituted of
mindfulness and ethics trainings. Such a model is an adaptation of the Buddhist
foundations of mindfulness practices derived from the research findings but
conceptualised to be independent of Buddhist principle, so that it can be accepted in
secular settings. Organisations may apply this model to develop a programme for EL
development as a supplementary intervention to compliance-based approaches.
Additionally, regarding the critical analysis of the findings on BM practices, several
concerns over Buddhist approaches to mindfulness are discussed earlier in this
chapter. This provides implications for organisations, especially those in non-
Buddhist contexts or secular settings, in that introducing mindfulness concepts and
implementing mindfulness practices needs to be done with sensitivity to cultural and
conceptual differences. The proposed model (see Figure 8.3) may be one of the
possible ways to apply mindfulness for ethical development purposes in a secular
way. In particular, in terms of the ethical guidance accompanying mindfulness
practices, organisations may choose the evidence-based scientific approach to
ethics, as suggested in Section 8.2.3, for example VIA and character strengths based
on positive psychology research.
8.3.2.2 Policy implications
This research also offers implications for policy makers. In the past, the emphasis has
been on creating and enforcing laws and regulations to fight against unethical
behaviours in both public and private organisations. However, as discussed in this
thesis, compliance-based or rule-based approaches to ethics, although necessary,
are often insufficient in bringing about shifts towards ethical behaviour. Prior
research has shown that compliance-based approaches to ethics, such as ethics
codes and regulations, as well as conventional training in ethics are generally
ineffective (Stevulak & Brown, 2011; Trapp, 2011; Tremblay et al., 2017). In contrast,
value-based or self-regulatory approaches to ethics, which emphasise self-control,
274
self-morality reminders, internal ethical values, and leadership by example, can
address the weaknesses and pitfalls of compliance-based mechanisms (Belle &
Cantarelli, 2017; Menzel, 2015; Webb, 2012).
Therefore, it is recommended that, in addition to creating and enforcing laws, further
implementation should be focused on enhancing leaders’ awareness and ethical
values through mindfulness-based training programmes. Patel and Holm (2018)
argue that when there are only laws and regulations for external enforcement,
leaders’ actions tend to be limited to meeting minimum legal requirements. In the
worst case, the interviewees in this research raised concerns that leaders may find
loopholes in the law to commit wrongdoings to serve their self-interest because it is
almost impossible to have perfect laws and regulations. In contrast, when managerial
behaviours are guided by inner ethical values together with increased awareness and
mindfulness capability, their reactions to ethical concerns tend to stem from within,
thereby encouraging them to go beyond minimum legal requirements. For example,
the act of compassion and certain pro-social behaviours may not be enforced by law;
however, ethical leaders who cultivate ethical awareness would be willing to enact
compassionate and pro-social behaviours. Orazi et al. (2019) argue that behaviours
related to empathy, sustainability and environmental friendliness are likely to be
endorsed through inner awareness rather than external enforcement. Based on this,
it is suggested that, since mindfulness practices help direct individuals to turn inward,
they may help in promoting ethical behaviours that are driven by awareness from
within.
In this regard, government departments may encourage the development of
mindfulness programmes, suitable for their national and cultural contexts, for
leaders in the public sector. The government may provide funding for pilot projects
to develop mindfulness programmes customised particularly for the purpose of
ethical behaviour development. Again, the proposed model derived from this
present research (see Figure 8.3) may be useful for the initial development of an EL
development programme.
275
Furthermore, government may provide funding for research on mindfulness for
scholars and researchers from interdisciplinary fields to work together, e.g. health
and medicine, neuroscience, psychology, education, business and management,
human resource development, and religious scholars, in order to develop
mindfulness programmes/interventions that work best in different settings that are
not limited to public sector organisations. Additionally, groups could be set up that
are dedicated to studying scientific evidence to endorse mindfulness practices that
can be appropriate in particular contexts. One practical example of such a group can
be seen from in the UK, where the Mindfulness All-Party Parliamentary Group was
set up to review the scientific evidence and current best practice in mindfulness
training to develop policy recommendations for government and provide a forum for
discussion in Parliament on the role of mindfulness and its implementation in public
policy (The Mindfulness All-Party Parliamentary Group, 2015).
By promoting the development of mindfulness and ethics in leaders in all sectors, a
positive impact may be seen at individual, employee, organisational and societal
levels.
8.4 Limitations and Recommendations for Future Research
This thesis has some limitations to be considered. Given that this research has a
specific focus on the concept of BM, it was conducted in the Thai Buddhist context
and with leaders who have practised BM for a long time, the demographic
characteristics of the respondents in the sample may influence their responses to the
interview questions regarding how mindfulness practices have reinforced their
ethical values and behaviour. This needs to be taken into account when interpreting
the results. This research has attempted to reduce the effect of this limitation due to
interviewee bias by conducting questionnaires with the leaders’ direct employees to
276
gain the data on the employees’ perceptions as to whether or not they perceive those
leaders as ethical. Nevertheless, owing to Thai culture being classified as high in power
distance (Yukongdi, 2010), it is possible that employees could rate their leaders
highly. However, the researcher was conscious of this fact and has attempted to
minimise this limitation as far as possible by clearly emphasising in the cover letter
given to all respondents that their responses would be anonymous and kept
confidential.
Additionally, the findings regarding how BM practices contribute to different EL
dimensions are based on the perceptions of the participants rather than on
assessment of the independently verified outcomes from the participants’ decision
making and behaviours. Hence, the data could not validate the correlation between
BM practices and those dimensions of EL. One of the key reasons is that, to date,
there is no mindfulness scale based on BM that has been exhaustively validated,
while existing mindfulness scales, which are based on MM, are subject to criticism
and have also been found to be incompatible for fully assessing mindfulness in
Buddhist contexts (Feng et al., 2018; Grossman, 2008, 2011), particularly in the Thai
context (Christopher et al., 2009). Hence, it would have been difficult to conduct a
correlational or experimental research design in this study. Moreover, since this
research provides statistical data other than descriptive reports, including Pearson’s
coefficient correlation, ANOVA, and T-test, to find certain possible relationships and
differences of patterns in the data between demographic variables (see Chapter
Seven), it is beyond the scope of the study to investigate these results exhaustively.
This present research provides preliminary findings that some of those variables,
such as the five precepts of Buddhism, years of mindfulness practices, gender of the
leaders or respondents, and different organisational sectors, may be associated with
EL. Nevertheless, the empirical validation of such propositions needs to be conducted
by using quantitative methodology, perhaps through specific experimental and
correlational research design.
277
Although this research focuses solely on leadership mindfulness, there can be other
variables that also influence leaders’ inclinations to engage in ethical behaviour.
Therefore, future scholars may explore a more comprehensive set of variables that
could potentially influence leaders to engage in ethical behaviour. Also, there was no
control group that could have provided a comparison for the specific effect of
mindfulness on leaders’ ethical values and behaviour. These factors could have
affected the outcomes from the study. Therefore, it is recommended that future
research conducts a comparative study between leaders who practise BM and those
who do not. The research may employ a quantitative design to verify and compare
the outcomes between the two groups. Another aspect for future research is to
compare the effect of BM practices against that of other types of mindfulness
training programmes on EL, in order to clarify whether different types of mindfulness
practices lead to different outcomes for leaders’ ethical behaviour.
Another limitation arises from the fact that this research focuses on top level leaders,
given that prior research suggests a strong impact of top level leadership on the
organisation, particularly on the ethical culture in the workplace, due to the tone that
is set from the top (Thorne et al., 2008). However, the importance of other levels of
management and leadership should not be overlooked. Without the involvement of
all managerial levels, it is difficult to truly bring about an ethical culture in the
workplace. Further research may study EL at managerial levels other than top
organisational leaders, as well as the potential influence of the application of BM
approaches on EL among different leadership positions in order to gain a more
complete understanding of the topic.
In terms of the proposed model (Figure 8.3), this has initially been developed based
on the research findings, but it has not been pilot tested. Therefore, the model needs
to be further validated though empirical studies using rigorously designed methods.
Specific research is needed to provide evidence-based date on whether or not the
model can be useful for EL development in organisations, especially in non-Buddhist
278
and secular contexts. Additionally, the outcomes from participating in an EL
development programme based on this proposed model should also be compared
against other types of ethics programmes.
Overall, this thesis was time-bound by a fieldwork duration of six months and was
also limited by financial constraints. It was difficult for the researcher to conduct a
complex research design, such as an experimental study, or a comparative study
between leaders who are BM practitioners and those who are non-practitioners,
because such research would have taken a longer time and would have been more
costly to conduct. For future research directions, more research should be conducted
to study outcomes from the application of Buddhist approaches to mindfulness on
ethical behaviour. Moreover, the cultivation of mindfulness takes considerable time
for its positive effects to emerge; therefore, long-term studies with longer data
collection intervals should also be conducted.
8.5 Conclusion
The main aim of this research is to augment empirical understanding of mindfulness
practices in the Eastern Buddhist context, with a particular focus on the extent to
which Buddhist mindfulness can influence leaders’ ethical values and behaviour,
through the examination of mindfulness practices among Thai organisational
executive leaders in the Thai Buddhist context. This aim has been achieved in this
current study, given that the thesis is a piece of empirical research that elaborates
on mechanisms through which practising BM enhances leaders’ engagement in
ethical behaviour. In doing so, this thesis expands on the gradually increasing EL and
BM literature on how mindfulness may be relevant to ethical behaviour and how
mindfulness training programmes can potentially be encouraged in modern
organisations to develop EL. The research has found that BM approaches to
mindfulness play a major role in influencing ethical values and behaviour among Thai
leaders. Semi-structured interviews with leaders who practise BM reveal eight ethical
279
dimensions that could be fostered by BM practices: 1) compassion and empathy; 2)
humility and equal respect for others; 3) emotion regulation; 4) sufficiency; 5)
honesty; 6) justice; 7) pro-social behaviour; and 8) discipline and role model. These
eight ethical dimensions are also aligned with universal ethical dimensions across
different cultures.
Drawing from the overall results, this research provides a preliminary finding that
Buddhist approaches to mindfulness seem to influence Thai leaders’ ethical values
and behaviours. In this study, Thai leaders who practise BM are perceived by their
direct employees to be ethical leaders based on the questionnaire data. However, it
cannot be claimed that Buddhism in general leads to more ethical behaviours, nor is
it a given that those who practise BM are ethical. Given that this research seeks
insightful and in-depth data regarding BM practices among Thai organisational
executive leaders, the target group of participants in this study was set as Thai
leaders who have experience of practising mindfulness regularly in order for them to
share insightful information based on their direct practice and application. Hence,
this group of participants tend to have a personal commitment to Buddhist study and
mindfulness practices. This could possibly be the underlying factor that needs more
research and further investigation.
Moreover, the research findings based on the interview data suggested that it is the
ethics underpinning mindfulness practices that is the key feature in BM that leads to
the reinforcement of Thai leaders’ ethical values and behaviour. The findings
contribute to the burgeoning dialogue among mindfulness scholars regarding how
mindfulness practices may lead to benefits that go beyond self-improvement and
intrapersonal outcomes. This research does not deny the benefits of the MM
approach. Instead, this research points out that there may be some elements and
aspects from the traditional BM approach that can be helpful and may address
certain concerns over some of MM’s current gaps, particularly, the lack of ethics
underpinning the use of MM. Additionally, most extant MM studies have focused on
280
intrapersonal benefits of mindfulness. However, the findings of this study suggest
that by incorporating mindfulness practices to EL development, it may lead to
interpersonal outcomes because EL can encompass a positive impact on employees,
organisations, and society.
Finally, this thesis contributes to the extant literature on how to develop EL. Since
the findings of this study suggest that practising mindfulness fosters awareness,
which is a key factor underlying ethical decision making and ethical behaviour among
leaders, organisations may implement mindfulness training to complement existing
compliance-based approaches to ethics in the workplace, such as laws and
regulations. However, such mindfulness training programmes should be specifically
designed for ethical development purposes. The research proposes that mindfulness
practices need to be underpinned by ethical guidelines and that ethics training
should be explicitly taught in parallel with mindfulness training. Nevertheless, this
research also realises the limitations of the application of Buddhist approaches to
mindfulness in secular contexts or contexts which are heavily influenced by non-
Buddhism-based religious philosophies. Hence, the research initially proposes that
mindfulness may be taught in a secular way and ethics underpinning mindfulness
should be independent of Buddhist ethics by incorporating scientific evidence-based
research on ethics that can be applied in cross-cultural contexts.
Broadly, the findings of this thesis further add to the dialogue between the
proponents of secular and traditional BM approaches regarding investigation of the
potential roles mindfulness may play in fostering ethical behaviour. Hopefully, the
research can encourage greater efforts among mindfulness scholars in determining
the right way to practise mindfulness that could limit the risk of its misuse and apply
its benefits within society at large.
281
8.6 Personal Reflection
The issues related to the power of human mind and personal development from the
inside out have always been keen interests for me. When I embarked on my PhD
journey, I chose to do research on mindfulness because this topic has rapidly become
a growing area of research. After delving into the extant literature, I soon realised
that a study of this topic in the Thai context could potentially contribute to
knowledge, given that the predominant research has been done in the West, even
though mindfulness concepts and practices have a long history and are deeply rooted
in the East. Hence, I would like to conduct more in-depth study on what role
mindfulness can play to benefit people and organisations.
Given my five-year experience as a practitioner in the field of human resource
development (HRD), I have found that there is a wealth of challenging and exciting
opportunities that can provide learning when it comes to managing and developing
people in organisations. For example: What drives people to willingly perform in their
jobs? What accounts for happiness at work? And what are the approaches to
promote employee well-being? Particularly when it comes to behavioural
development, such as ethical behaviour, it is intriguing for me how to best offer
training programmes that are sophisticated and effective enough to impact human
values and behaviour. Personally, I have always thought that conventional training
approaches, such as classroom training and lectures, though necessary, are
insufficient to develop people, since issues around ethics, morality, happiness, and
well-being cannot be achieved through simply teaching and proving knowledge. Yet,
I did not know what an alternative way might possibly be to supplement such
conventional trainings until I started to research this topic.
Throughout this study, it has been imperative for me to be conscious of not letting
my personal opinions influence the findings, particularly during the interviews and
data interpretation. However, at this point, it can be noted that my perception of
282
mind and inner development (such as mindfulness), that it could play an important
role in reinforcing human ethical behaviour, has been confirmed by the research
findings. Indeed, I do believe that it is not only Buddhism, but also any major world
religions, as well as spirituality in general, that can fundamentally have a great
influence on humans at a deep level. For me, I am particularly interested in Buddhist
approaches to mindfulness because I am from a Buddhist context; hence, there is
more opportunity for me to relate to this area of study and contribute to knowledge
in terms of data collection.
Additionally, since I have commenced the PhD programme at the Global
Development Institute, University of Manchester, the PhD journey has contributed
immensely to my professional development. I have gained experience in teaching
and organising learning in various classes through my TA work. Also, I have had
invaluable opportunities to develop my academic skills, for example in researching
and writing through the thesis process, as well as presentation skills through oral or
poster presentations at conferences as follows:
- October 17-18, 2019: Presenting a conference paper entitled “The
Contribution of Mindfulness to Leaders’ Ethical Values and Behaviours for
Change Management: A Qualitative Study of Buddhist Mindfulness Practices
among Organisational Change Leaders in Thailand”, at the “13th Colloquium
on Organisational Change and Development”, organised by the European
Institute for Advanced Studies in Management (EIASM), at the University of
Manchester, UK.
- September 7 – 8, 2018: Presenting a conference paper entitled “The Influence
of Mindfulness Practices on Ethical Leadership and the Contributions on
Organisational Change: Empirical Evidence of Thailand”, at the “12th
Colloquium on Organisational Change and Development”, organised by the
European Institute for Advanced Studies in Management (EIASM), at the
Wroclaw University of Economics, Poland.
- May 22, 2018: Presenting an academic poster at the SEED PGR Conference,
“Transcending Academic Boundaries: Creative methods and knowledge
sharing”, School of Environment, Education and Development, University of
Manchester, UK
283
Moreover, I have been fortunate to be able to publish two articles in academic
journals during my PhD studies as follows:
- Sutamchai, K., Rowlands, K. E., and Rees, C. J. (2020). The use of mindfulness
to promote ethical decision making and behavior: Empirical evidence from
the public sector in Thailand. Public Administration and Development, 40(3),
156-167.
- Rowlands, K. E.; Rees, C. J.; Alsultan, H.; Diaz, D. A.; Figueroa, F. A.; Inpa, Y.;
Munoz, J. A.; Sutamchai, K. and Xi, X. (2020), "Picture This! Reflecting on the
Use of Posters as Expressions of PhD Research Projects", International Journal
of Management and Applied Research, Vol. 7, No. 3, pp. 283-292.
It also worth noting that my PhD journey has also been challenging. Apart from the
difficulties inherent in the PhD process itself, I have had to deal with some personal
problems regarding my health and family issues over the course of my PhD studies.
In addition, perhaps most unexpectedly, there has been the unusual situation of a
global pandemic (COVID-19), which has persisted since the beginning of 2020.
Nevertheless, it has come to my mind that all obstacles and challenges are nothing
but the lessons that teach me to grow. Finally, I appreciate every little thing in life
that I have. Especially, I have been grateful to the people surrounding me, who have
supported me throughout this journey. In this regard, my supervisors and my parents
are the ones whom I have primarily been thankful to.
284
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Adam, A. M., & Rachman-Moore, D. (2004). The methods used to implement an ethical code of conduct and employee attitudes. Journal of Business Ethics, 54(3), 223–242. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-004-1774-4
Addiss, D. G. (2017). Mindfulness, compassion, and the foundations of global health ethics. In L. M. Monteiro, J. F. Compson, & F. Musten (Eds.), Mindfulness in behavioral health. Practitioner’s guide to ethics and mindfulness-based interventions (pp. 295–322). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-64924-5_12
Al Halbusi, H., Williams, K. A., Ramayah, T., Aldieri, L., & Vinci, C. P. (2020). Linking ethical leadership and ethical climate to employees’ ethical behavior: The moderating role of person-organization fit. Personnel Review. https://doi.org/10.1108/PR-09-2019-0522
Alberts, H. J. E. M., & Hülsheger, U. R. (2015). Applying mindfulness in the context of work: Mindfulness-based interventions. In J. Reb & P. W. B. Atkins (Eds.), Mindfulness in organizations: Foundations, research, and applications (pp. 100–132). Cambridge University Press.
Alexander, C. N., Langer, E. J., Newman, R. I., Chandler, H. M., & Davies, J. L. (1989). Transcendental Meditation, mindfulness, and longevity: An experimental study with the elderly. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57(6), 950–964. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.57.6.950
Allen, T. D., Eby, L. T., Conley, K. M., Williamson, R. L., Mancini, V. S., & Mitchell, M. E. (2015). What do we really know about the effects of mindfulness-based training in the workplace? Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 8(04), 652–661.
Amaro, A. (2015). A holistic mindfulness. Mindfulness, 6(1), 63–73. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-014-0382-3
Amaro, A. (2018). Forgiveness: Making beneficial judgments in relation to self and others. In S. Stanley, R. E. Purser, & N. N. Singh (Eds.), Handbook of ethical foundations of mindfulness (pp. 67–84). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76538-9_4
Amel, E. L., Manning, C. M., & Scott, B. A. (2009). Mindfulness and sustainable behavior: Pondering attention and awareness as means for increasing green behavior. Ecopsychology, 1(1), 14–25. https://doi.org/10.1089/eco.2008.0005
Analayo, B. (2003). Satipatthana: The direct path to realization. Windhorse Publications.
Analayo, B. (2006). Mindfulness in the Pali Nikayas. In D. K. Nauriyal, M. S.
285
Drummond, & Y. B. Lal (Eds.), Buddhist thought and applied psychological research: Transcending the boundaries (pp. 229–249). Routledge.
Analayo, B. (2015a). Compassion and emptiness in early Buddhist meditation. Windhorse Publications.
Analayo, B. (2015b). Understanding and practicing the Satipatthana-sutta. In E. Shonin, W. Van Gordon, & N. N. Singh (Eds.), Buddhist foundations of mindfulness (pp. 55–69). Springer.
Anālayo, B. (2018). Turning the wheel of Dharma. In S. Stanley, R. E. Purser, & N. N. Singh (Eds.), Handbook of ethical foundations of mindfulness (pp. 33–49). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76538-9_2
Anālayo, B. (2019). A task for mindfulness: Facing climate change. Mindfulness, 10(9), 1926–1935. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-019-01187-7
Ariyabuddhiphongs, V. (2007). Money consciousness and the tendency to violate the five precepts among Thai Buddhists. International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 17(1), 37–45. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327582ijpr1701_3
Ariyabuddhiphongs, V., & Pratchawittayagorn, A. (2014). Peace of mind and organizational citizenship behavior. Archive for the Psychology of Religion, 36(2), 233–252. https://doi.org/10.1163/15736121-12341284
Assanangkornchai, S., Conigrave, K. M., & Saunders, J. B. (2002). Religious beliefs and practice, and alcohol use in Thai men. Alcohol and Alcoholism, 37(2), 193–197.
Avolio, B. J., & Gardner, W. L. (2005). Authentic leadership development: Getting to the root of positive forms of leadership. The Leadership Quarterly, 16(3), 315–338. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2005.03.001
Baer, R. (2015). Ethics, values, virtues, and character strengths in mindfulness-based interventions: A psychological science perspective. Mindfulness, 6(4), 956–969. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-015-0419-2
Baer, R. A. (2003). Mindfulness training as a clinical intervention: A conceptual and empirical review. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 10(2), 125–143. https://doi.org/10.1093/clipsy.bpg015
Baer, R. A. (2011). Measuring mindfulness. Contemporary Buddhism, 12(1), 241–261.
Baer, R. A., Walsh, E., & Lykins, E. L. B. (2009). Assessment of mindfulness. In F. Didonna (Ed.), Clinical handbook of mindfulness (pp. 153–168). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-09593-6_10
Baker, C., & Phongpaichit, P. (2014). A history of Thailand. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139656993
286
Baker, T. L. (1988). Doing social research. McGraw-Hill.
Banaji, M. R., Bazerman, M. H., & Chugh, D. (2003). How (un)ethical are you? Harvard Business Review, 81(12), 56–64.
Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Prentice-Hall.
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Prentice-Hall.
Banks, G. C., Fischer, T., Gooty, J., & Stock, G. (2020). Ethical leadership: Mapping the terrain for concept cleanup and a future research agenda. Leadership Quarterly, 101471. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2020.101471
Barbaro, N., & Pickett, S. M. (2016). Mindfully green: Examining the effect of connectedness to nature on the relationship between mindfulness and engagement in pro-environmental behavior. Personality and Individual Differences, 93, 137–142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.05.026
Bartlett, L., Lovell, P., Otahal, P., & Sanderson, K. (2017). Acceptability, feasibility, and efficacy of a workplace mindfulness program for public sector employees: A pilot randomized controlled trial with informant reports. Mindfulness, 8(3), 639–654. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-016-0643-4
Bass, B. M., & Steidlmeier, P. (1999). Ethics, character, and authentic transformational leadership behavior. The Leadership Quarterly, 10(2), 181–217. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1048-9843(99)00016-8
Batchelor, M. (2011). Meditation and mindfulness. Contemporary Buddhism, 12(1), 157–164. https://doi.org/10.1080/14639947.2011.564832
Batmanghlich, C. A. (2015). Why leaders fail ethically: A paradigmatic evaluation of leadership. Springer International Publishing.
Baumeister, R. F., & Alghamdi, N. G. (2015). Role of self-control failure in immoral and unethical actions. Current Opinion in Psychology, 6, 66-69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2015.04.001
Bazerman, M. H., Loewenstein, G., & Moore, D. (2002). Why good accountants do bad audits. Harvard Business Review, 80(11), 96–103.
Beach, M. C., Roter, D., Korthuis, P. T., Epstein, R. M., Sharp, V., Ratanawongsa, N., Cohn, J., Eggly, S., Sankar, A., Moore, R. D., & Saha, S. (2013). A multicenter study of physician mindfulness and health care quality. The Annals of Family Medicine, 11(5), 421–428. https://doi.org/10.1370/afm.1507
Beckman, H. B., Wendland, M., Mooney, C., Krasner, M. S., Quill, T. E., Suchman, A. L., & Epstein, R. M. (2012). The impact of a program in mindful communication on primary care physicians. Academic Medicine, 87(6), 815–819. https://doi.org/10.1097/ACM.0b013e318253d3b2
Bedi, A., Alpaslan, C. M., & Green, S. (2016). A meta-analytic review of ethical leadership outcomes and moderators. Journal of Business Ethics, 139(3), 517–
287
536.
Beeri, I., Dayan, R., Vigoda-Gadot, E., & Werner, S. B. (2013). Advancing ethics in public organizations: The impact of an ethics program on employees’ perceptions and behaviors in a regional council. Journal of Business Ethics, 112(1), 59–78. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-012-1232-7
Belle, N., & Cantarelli, P. (2017). What causes unethical behavior? A meta-analysis to set an agenda for public administration research. Public Administration Review, 77(3), 327–339. https://doi.org/10.1111/puar.12714
Berry, D. R., Hoerr, J. P., Cesko, S., Alayoubi, A., Carpio, K., Zirzow, H., Walters, W., Scram, G., Rodriguez, K., & Beaver, V. (2020). Does mindfulness training without explicit ethics-based instruction promote prosocial behaviors? A meta-analysis. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167219900418
Birnie, K., Speca, M., & Carlson, L. E. (2010). Exploring self-compassion and empathy in the context of mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR). Stress and Health, 26(5), 359–371. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.1305
Bishop, S. R., Lau, M., Shapiro, S., Carlson, L., Anderson, N. D., Carmody, J., Segal, Z. V., Abbey, S., Speca, M., Velting, D., & Devins, G. (2004). Mindfulness: A proposed operational definition. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 11(3), 230–241. https://doi.org/10.1093/clipsy/bph077
Blackstone, A. (2012). Principles of sociological inquiry: Qualitative and quantitative methods. Open Textbook Library.
Blaxter, L., Hughes, C., & Tight, M. (2010). How to research (4th ed.). Open University Press.
Blomfield, B. (2009). Markers of the heart: Finding spirituality in a bus marked “Tourist.” Journal of Management, Spirituality & Religion, 6(2), 91–105. https://doi.org/10.1080/14766080902815122
Bloor, M. (2001). Techniques of validation in qualitative research: A critical commentary. In R. M. Emerson (Ed.), Contemporary field research: Perspectives and formulations (2nd ed., pp. 383–396). Waveland Press.
Bodhi, B. (2000a). The connected discourses of the Buddha: A new translation of the Samyutta Nikaya. Wisdom Publications.
Bodhi, B. (2000b). The Noble Eightfold Path: Way to the end of suffering. BPS Pariyatti Editions.
Bodhi, B. (2011). What does mindfulness really mean? A canonical perspective. Contemporary Buddhism, 12(1), 19–39.
Boellinghaus, I., Jones, F. W., & Hutton, J. (2014). The role of mindfulness and loving-kindness meditation in cultivating self-compassion and other-focused
288
concern in health care professionals. Mindfulness, 5, 129–138. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-012-0158-6
BOI. (2020). Social and culture. https://www.boi.go.th/index.php?page=social_and_culture
Boyce, G., Prayukvong, W., & Puntasen, A. (2009). Social accounting for sufficiency: Buddhist principles and practices, and their application in Thailand. In K. Saravanamuthu & C. R. Lehman (Eds.), Extending Schumacher’s concept of total accounting and accountability into the 21st century (Advances in Public Interest Accounting, Vol. 14) (pp. 55–119). Emerald Group Publishing Limited. https://doi.org/10.1108/s1041-7060(2009)0000014007
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77–101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa
Brazier, C. (2013). Roots of mindfulness. European Journal of Psychotherapy & Counselling, 15(2), 127–138. https://doi.org/10.1080/13642537.2013.795336
Brescoll, V. L. (2016). Leading with their hearts? How gender stereotypes of emotion lead to biased evaluations of female leaders. Leadership Quarterly, 27(3), 415–428. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2016.02.005
Brescoll, V. L., & Uhlmann, E. L. (2008). Can an angry woman get ahead? Status conferral, gender, and expression of emotion in the workplace. Psychological Science, 19(3), 268–275. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02079.x
Brewer, B., Leung, J. Y. H., & Scott, I. (2015). Value-based integrity management and bureaucratic organizations: Changing the mix. International Public Management Journal, 18(3), 390–410. https://doi.org/10.1080/10967494.2015.1030053
Brooker, J. E., Webber, L., Julian, J., Shawyer, F., Graham, A. L., Chan, J., & Meadows, G. (2014). Mindfulness-based training shows promise in assisting staff to reduce their use of restrictive interventions in residential services. Mindfulness, 5(5), 598–603. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-014-0306-2
Brown, C. (2015). Buddhist economics: An enlightened approach to the dismal science. Challenge, 58(1), 23–28. https://doi.org/10.1080/01603477.2015.990826
Brown, K. W., Creswell, J. D., & Ryan, R. M. (2015). Introduction: The evolution of mindfulness science. In K. W. Brown, J. D. Creswell, & R. M. Ryan (Eds.), Handbook of mindfulness: Theory, research and practice (pp. 1–6). The Guilford Press.
Brown, K. W., & Ryan, R. M. (2003). The benefits of being present: Mindfulness and its role in psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(4), 822–848.
Brown, K. W., & Ryan, R. M. (2004). Perils and promise in defining and measuring
289
mindfulness: Observations from experience. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 11(3), 242–248. https://doi.org/10.1093/clipsy/bph078
Brown, K. W., Ryan, R. M., & Creswell, J. D. (2007). Mindfulness: Theoretical foundations and evidence for its salutary effects. Psychological Inquiry, 18(4), 211–237. https://doi.org/10.1080/10478400701598298
Brown, M. E., & Mitchell, M. S. (2010). Ethical and unethical leadership: Exploring new avenues for future research. Business Ethics Quarterly, 20(4), 583–616. https://doi.org/10.5840/beq201020439
Brown, M. E., & Treviño, L. K. (2006). Ethical leadership: A review and future directions. The Leadership Quarterly, 17(6), 595–616. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2006.10.004
Brown, M. E., Treviño, L. K., & Harrison, D. A. (2005). Ethical leadership: A social learning perspective for construct development and testing. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 97(2), 117–134.
Bryman, A. (2006). Integrating quantitative and qualitative research: How is it done? Qualitative Research, 6(1), 97–113. https://doi.org/10.1177/1468794106058877
Bryman, A. (2012). Social research methods (4th ed.). Oxford University Press.
Buchheld, N., Grossman, P., & Walach, H. (2001). Measuring mindfulness in insight meditation (Vipassana) and meditation-based psychotherapy: The development of the Freiburg Mindfulness Inventory (FMI). Journal for Meditation and Meditation Research, 1(1), 11–34.
Buddhadasa, B. (2007). Handbook for mankind: Realizing your full potential as a human being. Amarin.
Bujang, M. A., Omar, E. D., & Baharum, N. A. (2018). A review on sample size determination for Cronbach’s alpha test: A simple guide for researchers. The Malaysian Journal of Medical Sciences, 25(6), 85.
Burns, J. M. (1978). Leadership. Harper and Row.
Buswell Jr, R. E., & Lopez Jr, D. S. (2013). The Princeton dictionary of Buddhism. Princeton University Press.
Centeno, R. P. R., & Fernandez, K. T. G. (2020). Effect of mindfulness on empathy and self-compassion: An adapted MCBTprogram on Filipino college students. Behavioral Sciences, 10(3), 61. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs10030061
Center for Ethical Leadership. (2020). 4-V Model: Concepts and Philosophies. http://www.ethicalleadership.org/concepts-and-philosophies.html
Chambers, R., Gullone, E., & Allen, N. B. (2009). Mindful emotion regulation: An integrative review. Clinical Psychology Review, 29(6), 560–572.
290
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2009.06.005
Chamratrithirong, A., Miller, B. A., Byrnes, H. F., Rhucharoenpornpanich, O., Cupp, P. K., Rosati, M. J., Fongkaew, W., Atwood, K. A., & Todd, M. (2013). Intergenerational transmission of religious beliefs and practices and the reduction of adolescent delinquency in urban Thailand. Journal of Adolescence, 36(1), 79–89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2012.09.011
Chariyaphan, R. (2012). Thailand’s country profile 2012. Department of Disaster Prevention and Mitigation (DDPM), Ministry of Interior, Thailand.
Charoensukmongkol, P. (2013). The contributions of mindfulness meditation on burnout, coping strategy, and job satisfaction: Evidence from Thailand. Journal of Management & Organization, 19(5), 544–558.
Charoensukmongkol, P. (2014). Benefits of mindfulness meditation on emotional intelligence, general self-efficacy, and perceived stress: Evidence from Thailand. Journal of Spirituality in Mental Health, 16(3), 171–192. https://doi.org/10.1080/19349637.2014.925364
Charoensukmongkol, P. (2016). The role of mindfulness on employee psychological reactions to mergers and acquisitions. Journal of Organizational Change Management, 29(5), 816–831.
Charoensukmongkol, P. (2017). Contributions of mindfulness during post-merger integration. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 32(1), 104–118.
Chaskalson, M. (2011). The mindful workplace: Developing resilient individuals and resonant organizations with MBSR. John Wiley & Sons.
Chaskalson, M., & Hadley, S. G. (2015). Mindfulness: Historical and contemplative context and recent developments. In J. Reb & P. W. B. Atkins (Eds.), Mindfulness in organizations: Foundations, research, and applications (pp. 42–66). Cambridge University Press.
Chat-uthai, M., & McLean, G. N. (2003). Combating corruption in Thailand: A call to an end of the “white buffet.” In J. Kidd & F.-J. Richter (Eds.), Fighting corruption in Asia: Causes, effects and remedies (pp. 317–348). World Scientific Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1142/9789812795397_0013
Chavan, D. V. (2007). Vipassana: the Buddha’s tool to probe mind and body. Progress in Brain Research, 168, 247–253. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0079-6123(07)68019-4
Chen, M. S., & Chen, P. Y. (2018). Incorporating the Buddha’s Threefold Training with management science theories. Contemporary Buddhism, 19(2), 203–222. https://doi.org/10.1080/14639947.2018.1573851
Chen, S., & Jordan, C. H. (2020). Incorporating ethics into brief mindfulness practice: Effects on well-being andprosocial behavior. Mindfulness, 11(1), 18–29. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-018-0915-2
Cherryholmes, C. H. (1992). Notes on pragmatism and scientific realism.
291
Educational Researcher, 21(6), 13–17.
Chiesa, A. (2013). The difficulty of defining mindfulness: Current thought and critical issues. Mindfulness, 4(3), 255–268.
Chiesa, A., & Malinowski, P. (2011). Mindfulness-based approaches: Are they all the same? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 67(4), 404–424.
Choi, E., & Leroy, H. (2015). Methods of mindfulness: How mindfulness is studied in the workplace. In J. Reb & P. W. B. Atkins (Eds.), Mindfulness in organizations: Foundations, research, and applications (pp. 67–99). Cambridge University Press.
Chompookum, D., & Derr, C. B. (2004). The effects of internal career orientations on organizational citizenship behavior in Thailand. Career Development International, 9(4), 406–423. https://doi.org/10.1108/13620430410544355
Christopher, M. S., Christopher, V., & Charoensuk, S. (2009). Assessing “Western” mindfulness among Thai Theravāda Buddhist monks. Mental Health, Religion & Culture, 12(3), 303–314. https://doi.org/10.1080/13674670802651487
Christopher, M. S., Goerling, R. J., Rogers, B. S., Hunsinger, M., Baron, G., Bergman, A. L., & Zava, D. T. (2016). A pilot study evaluating the effectiveness of a mindfulness-based intervention on cortisol awakening response and health outcomes among law enforcement officers. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, 31(1), 15–28. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11896-015-9161-x
Ciulla, J. B. (2014). Ethics, the heart of leadership (3rd ed.). Praeger.
Cohen, J. S., & Miller, L. J. (2009). Interpersonal mindfulness training for well-being: A pilot study with psychology graduate students. Teachers College Record, 111(12), 2760–2774.
Colzato, L. S., Ozturk, A., & Hommel, B. (2012). Meditate to create: The impact of focused-attention and open-monitoring training on convergent and divergent thinking. Frontiers in Psychology, 3, 116. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00116
Compson, J., & Monteiro, L. (2016). Still exploring the middle path: A response to commentaries. Mindfulness, 7(2), 548–564. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-015-0447-y
Cook, J. (2012). Power, protection and perfectibility: Aspiration and materiality in Thailand. In Liana Chua, Joanna Cook, Nicholas Long, & Lee Wilson (Eds.), Southeast Asian perspectives on power (pp. 51–64). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203123126-10
Corbin, J., & Strauss, A. (2015). Basics of qualitative research: Techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory (4th ed.). SAGE.
Creswell, J. D., Way, B. M., Eisenberger, N. I., & Lieberman, M. D. (2007). Neural
292
correlates of dispositional mindfulness during affect labeling. Psychosom Med, 69, 560–565. https://doi.org/10.1097/PSY.0b013e3180f6171f
Creswell, J. W. (2015). A concise introduction to mixed methods research. Sage.
Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2018). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (5th ed.). Sage.
Creswell, J. W., & Plano Clark, V. L. (2018). Designing and conducting mixed methods research (3rd ed.). Sage.
Creswell, J. W., & Poth, C. N. (2018). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches. Sage.
Cronbach, L. J. (1951). Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests. Psychometrika, 16(3), 297–334. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02310555
Crotty, M. (1998). The foundations of social research: Meaning and perspective in the research process. Sage.
Cullen, J. G. (2020). Moral recovery and ethical leadership. Journal of Business Ethics, 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-020-04658-3
D’Souza, J. (2015). Greed: Crises, causes, and solutions. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 5(7), 1-6.
Daft, R. L. (2014). New era of management (11th ed.). Cengage Learning.
Daly, J., Kellehear, A., & Gliksman, M. (1997). The public health researcher: A methodological guide. Oxford University Press.
Dane, E. (2011). Paying attention to mindfulness and its effects on task performance in the workplace. Journal of Management, 37(4), 997–1018. http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0149206310367948
Dane, E., & Brummel, B. J. (2014). Examining workplace mindfulness and its relations to job performance and turnover intention. Human Relations, 67(1), 105–128. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726713487753
Dasborough, M. T. (2006). Cognitive asymmetry in employee emotional reactions to leadership behaviors. Leadership Quarterly, 17(2), 163–178. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2005.12.004
David, M., & Sutton, C. D. (2004). Social research: The basics. Sage.
Davidson, R. J., Kabat-Zinn, J., Schumacher, J., Rosenkranz, M., Muller, D., Santorelli, S. F., Urbanowski, F., Harrington, A., Bonus, K., & Sheridan, J. F. (2003). Alterations in brain and immune function produced by mindfulness meditation. Psychosomatic Medicine, 65(4), 564–570. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.PSY.0000077505.67574.E3
Davis, J. H. (2015). Facing up to the question of ethics in mindfulness-based interventions. Mindfulness, 6(1), 46–48. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-014-0374-3
293
De Cremer, D., Mayer, D. M., & Schminke, M. (2010). On understanding ethical behavior and decision making: A behavioral ethics approach. Business Ethics Quarterly, 20(1), 1–6.
De Hoogh, A. H. B., & Den Hartog, D. N. (2008). Ethical and despotic leadership, relationships with leader’s social responsibility, top management team effectiveness and subordinates’ optimism: A multi-method study. The Leadership Quarterly, 19, 297–311. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2008.03.002
de Zoysa, P. (2016). When east meets west: Reflections on the use of Buddhist mindfulness practice in mindfulness-based interventions. Mental Health, Religion and Culture, 19(4), 362–370. https://doi.org/10.1080/13674676.2016.1200542
Denzin, N. K. (2009). The research act: A theoretical introduction to sociological methods. Taylor & Francis Group.
Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (2018). The SAGE handbook of qualitative research (5th ed.). Sage.
Desbordes, G., Negi, L. T., Pace, T. W. W., Alan Wallace, B., Raison, C. L., & Schwartz, E. L. (2012). Effects of mindful-attention and compassion meditation training on amygdala response to emotional stimuli in an ordinary, non-meditative state. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 6(OCTOBER 2012), 292. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2012.00292
Dhiman, S. (2009). Mindfulness in life and leadership: An exploratory survey. Interbeing, 3(1), 55–80.
Disayavanish, C., & Disayavanish, P. (2007). A Buddhist approach to suicide prevention. Journal of the Medical Association of Thailand, 90(8), 1680–1688.
Ditrich, T. (2013). Mindfulness in modern Buddhism: New approaches and meanings. In Benny Liow Woon Khin (Ed.), One Dharma many Buddhist traditions: A Festschrift in Memory of K. Sri Dhammananda (1919-2006) (pp. 181–190). Buddhist Gem Fellowship.
Ditrich, T. (2016). Buddhism between Asia and Europe: The concept of mindfulness through a historical Lens. Asian Studies, 4(1), 197–213.
Downe, J., Cowell, R., & Morgan, K. (2016). What determines ethical behavior in public organizations: Is it rules or leadership? Public Administration Review, 76(6), 898–909. https://doi.org/10.1111/puar.12562
Dreyfus, G. (2011). Is mindfulness present-centred and non-judgmental? A discussion of the cognitive dimensions of mindfulness. Contemporary Buddhism, 12(1), 41–54.
Dryden, W., & Still, A. (2006). Historical aspects of mindfulness and self-acceptance
294
in psychotherapy. Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy, 24(1), 3–28.
Dubois, A., & Gadde, L. E. (2002). Systematic combining: An abductive approach to case research. Journal of Business Research, 55(7), 553–560. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0148-2963(00)00195-8
Duchemin, A. M., Steinberg, B. A., Marks, D. R., Vanover, K., & Klatt, M. (2015). A small randomized pilot study of a workplace mindfulness-based intervention for surgical intensive care unit personnel: Effects on salivary α-amylase levels. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 57(4), 393–399. https://doi.org/10.1097/JOM.0000000000000371
Dunkley, C., & Loewenthal, D. (2013). Mindfulness: Current practices and criticisms. European Journal of Psychotherapy & Counselling, 15(2), 105–115. https://doi.org/10.1080/13642537.2013.795016
Earley, P. C. (1999). Playing follow the leader: Status-determining traits in relation to collective efficacy across cultures. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 80(3), 192–212. https://doi.org/10.1006/obhd.1999.2863
Eby, L. T., Allen, T. D., Conley, K. M., Williamson, R. L., Henderson, T. G., & Mancini, V. S. (2017). Mindfulness-based training interventions for employees: A qualitative review of the literature. Human Resource Management Review, in press. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hrmr.2017.03.004
Eisenbeiss, S. A. (2012). Re-thinking ethical leadership: An interdisciplinary integrative approach. The Leadership Quarterly, 23, 791–808.
Eisenbeiß, S. A., & Brodbeck, F. (2014). Ethical and unethical leadership: A cross-cultural and cross-sectoral analysis. Journal of Business Ethics, 122(2), 343–359. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-013-1740-0
Eisenbeiss, S. A., Maak, T., & Pless, N. M. (2014). Leader mindfulness and ethical decision making. In L. Neider & C. Schriesheim (Eds.), Advances in Authentic and Ethical Leadership (pp. 191–208). Information Age Publishing.
Emerson, R. W. (2015). Causation and Pearson’s correlation coefficient. Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness, 109(3), 242–244. https://doi.org/10.1177/0145482x1510900311
Engelbrecht, A. S., Heine, G., & Mahembe, B. (2017). Integrity, ethical leadership, trust and work engagement. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 38(3), 368–379.
Epstein, M. (2012). Introduction to the Philosophy of Science. In C. Seale (Ed.), Researching Society and Culture (3rd ed., pp. 7–28). Sage.
Ericson, T., Kjønstad, B. G., & Barstad, A. (2014). Mindfulness and sustainability. Ecological Economics, 104, 73–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2014.04.007
Escartín, J., Salin, D., & Rodríguez-Carballeira, Á. (2011). Conceptualizations of
295
workplace bullying: Gendered rather than gender neutral? Journal of Personnel Psychology, 10(4), 157–165. https://doi.org/10.1027/1866-5888/a000048
Feng, X. J., Krägeloh, C. U., Billington, D. R., & Siegert, R. J. (2018). To what extent is mindfulness as presented in commonly used mindfulness questionnaires different from how it is conceptualized by senior ordained Buddhists? Mindfulness, 9(2), 441–460. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-017-0788-9
Field, A. (2013). Discovering statistics using IBM SPSS statistics (4th ed.). Sage.
Flanagan, J. C. (1954). The critical incident technique. Psychological Bulletin, 51(4), 327–358.
Flick, U. (2014). An introduction to qualitative research (5th ed.). Sage.
Flook, L., Goldberg, S. B., Pinger, L., Bonus, K., & Davidson, R. J. (2013). Mindfulness for teachers: A pilot study to assess effects on stress, burnout, and teaching efficacy. Mind, Brain, and Education, 7(3), 182–195. https://doi.org/10.1111/mbe.12026
Forbes, D. (2016). Modes of mindfulness: Prophetic critique and integral emergence. Mindfulness, 7(6), 1256–1270.
Fortney, L., Luchterhand, C., Zakletskaia, L., Zgierska, A., & Rakel, D. (2013). Abbreviated mindfulness intervention for job satisfaction, quality of life, and compassion in primary care clinicians: A pilot study. The Annals of Family Medicine, 11(5), 412–420. https://doi.org/10.1370/afm.1511
Franco, C., Mañas, I., Cangas, A. J., Moreno, E., & Gallego, J. (2010). Reducing teachers’ psychological distress through a mindfulness training program. The Spanish Journal of Psychology, 13(02), 655–666. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1138741600002328
Fredrickson, B. L., Cohn, M. A., Coffey, K. A., Pek, J., & Finkel, S. M. (2008). Open hearts build lives: Positive emotions, induced through loving-kindness meditation, build consequential personal resources. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95(5), 1045–1062. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013262
Fry, L. W. (2003). Toward a theory of spiritual leadership. The Leadership Quarterly, 14(6), 693–727. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2003.09.001
Geary, C., & Rosenthal, S. L. (2011). Sustained impact of MBSR on stress, well-being, and daily spiritual experiences for 1 year in academic health care employees. The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 17(10), 939–944. https://doi.org/10.1089/acm.2010.0335
Geisz, S. (2016). Body practice and meditation as philosophy: Teaching qigong, taijiquan, and yoga in college courses. Teaching Philosophy, 39(2), 115–135. https://doi.org/10.5840/teachphil201651346
Gethin, R. (2001). The Buddhist path to awakening: A study of the Bodhi-Pakkhiya
296
Dhamma. Oneworld Publications.
Gethin, R. (2011). On some definitions of mindfulness. Contemporary Buddhism, 12(1), 263–279.
Gill, J., & Johnson, P. (2010). Research methods for managers (4th ed.). Sage.
Gillham, B. (2000). Developing a questionnaire. Continium.
Gilpin, R. (2008). The use of Theravada Buddhist practices and perspectives in mindfulness-based cognitive therapy. Contemporary Buddhism, 9(2), 227–251.
Gini, A. (1997). Moral leadership: An overview. Journal of Business Ethics, 16(3), 323–330. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1017959915472
Gino, F., Schweitzer, M. E., Mead, N. L., & Ariely, D. (2011). Unable to resist temptation: How self-control depletion promotes unethical behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 115(2), 191–203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2011.03.001
Glasersfeld, E. von. (1995). Radical constructivism: A way of knowing and learning. Falmer Press.
Gliem, J. A., & Gliem, R. R. (2003). Calculating, interpreting, and reporting Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficient for Likert-type scales. Midwest Research-to-Practice Conference in Adult, Continuing, and Community Education.
Glomb, T. M., Duffy, M. K., Bono, J. E., & Yang, T. (2011). Mindfulness at work. Research in Personnel and Human Resources Management, 30, 115–157.
Golafshani, N. (2003). Understanding reliability and validity in qualitative research. The Qualitative Report, 8(4), 597–606.
Goldman Schuyler, K. (2010). Increasing leadership integrity through mind training and embodied learning. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 62(1), 21–38.
Gombrich, R. (2009). What the Buddha thought. Equinox Publishing.
Good, D. J., Lyddy, C. J., Glomb, T. M., Bono, J. E., Brown, K. W., Duffy, M. K., Baer, R. A., Brewer, J. A., & Lazar, S. W. (2016). Contemplating mindfulness at work: An integrative review. Journal of Management, 42(1), 114–142.
Goodman, M. J., & Schorling, J. B. (2012). A mindfulness course decreases burnout and improves well-being among healthcare providers. The International Journal of Psychiatry in Medicine, 43(2), 119–128. https://doi.org/10.2190/PM.43.2.b
Goodman, R. J., Plonski, P. E., & Savery, L. (2018). Compassion training from an early Buddhist perspective: The neurological concomitants of the Brahmavihāras. In L. Stevens & C. C. Woodruff (Eds.), The neuroscience of empathy, compassion, and self-compassion (pp. 235–266). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-809837-0.00009-X
297
Gray, D. E. (2014). Doing research in the real world (3rd ed.). Sage.
Greenberg, M. T., & Mitra, J. L. (2015). From mindfulness to right Mindfulness: The intersection of awareness and ethics. Mindfulness, 6(1), 74–78. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-014-0384-1
Greene, J. C., Caracelli, V. J., & Graham, W. F. (1989). Toward a conceptual framework for mixed-method evaluation designs. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 11(3), 255–274. https://doi.org/10.2307/1163620
Greenleaf, R. (1977). Servant Leadership: A journey into the nature of legitimate power and greatness. Paulist Press.
Grégoire, S., & Lachance, L. (2015). Evaluation of a brief mindfulness-based intervention to reduce psychological distress in the workplace. Mindfulness, 6(4), 836–847. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-014-0328-9
Grossman, P. (2015). Mindfulness: Awareness informed by an embodied ethic. Mindfulness, 6(1), 17–22. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-014-0372-5
Grossman, P. (2008). On measuring mindfulness in psychosomatic and psychological research. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 64(4), 405–408. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2008.02.001
Grossman, P. (2011). Defining mindfulness by how poorly I think I pay attention during everyday awareness and other intractable problems for psychology’s (re)invention of mindfulness: Comment on Brown et al. (2011). Psychological Assessment, 23(4), 1034–1040. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022713
Grossman, P., & Van Dam, N. T. (2011). Mindfulness, by any other name…: Trials and tribulations of sati in western psychology and science. Contemporary Buddhism, 12(1), 219–239.
Guba, E. G. (1990). The paradigm dialog. Sage.
Guba, E. G., & Lincoln, Y. S. (2004). Competing paradigms in qualitative research: Theories and issues. In Sharlene Nagy Hesse-Biber & P. Leavy (Eds.), Approaches to qualitative research: A reader on theory and practice (pp. 17–38). Oxford University Press.
Guillén, J. L., & Fontrodona, J. (2017). Mindfulness and its impact on ethical behavior in companies. In J. A. Mercado (Ed.), Personal flourishing in organizations (pp. 121–140). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-57702-9_7
Gunaratana, H. (2001). Eight mindful steps to happiness: Walking the path of the Buddha. Wisdom Publications.
Gunaratana, H. (2011). Mindfulness in plain English. Wisdom Publications.
Gunaratana, H. (2012). The four foundations of mindfulness in plain English.
298
Wisdom Publications.
Gyatso, G. K. (2001). Introduction to Buddhism: An explanation of the Buddhist way of Life (2nd ed.). Tharpa.
Hallinger, P. (2004). Meeting the challenges of cultural leadership: The changing role of principals in Thailand. Discourse, 25(1), 61–73. https://doi.org/10.1080/0159630042000178482
Hamlyn, D. W. (1995). Epistemology, history of. In T. Honderich (Ed.), The Oxford companion to philosophy (pp. 242–245). Oxford University Press.
Hanh, T. N. (1999). The heart of the Buddha’s teaching. Harmony Books.
Hansen, S. D., Alge, B. J., Brown, M. E., Jackson, C. L., & Dunford, B. B. (2013). Ethical leadership: Assessing the value of a multifoci social exchange perspective. Journal of Business Ethics, 115(3), 435–449. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-012-1408-1
Harris, A. R., Jennings, P. A., Katz, D. A., Abenavoli, R. M., & Greenberg, M. T. (2016). Promoting stress management and wellbeing in educators: Feasibility and efficacy of a school-based yoga and mindfulness intervention. Mindfulness, 7(1), 143–154. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-015-0451-2
Harris, H. (2014). Ethics training for corporate boards. Research in Ethical Issues in Organizations, 12, 113–131. https://doi.org/10.1108/S1529-209620140000012003
Hart, R., Ivtzan, I., & Hart, D. (2013). Mind the gap in mindfulness research: A comparative account of the leading schools of thought. Review of General Psychology, 17(4), 453–466. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035212
Harvey, P. (2000). An introduction to Buddhist ethics: Foundations, values and issues. Cambridge University Press.
Harvey, P. (2013). An introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, history and practices (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Harvey, P. (2015). Mindfulness in Theravada samatha and vipassana meditations, and in secular mindfulness. In E. Shonin, W. Van Gordon, & N. N. Singh (Eds.), Buddhist foundations of mindfulness (pp. 115–137). Springer.
Haver, A., Akerjordet, K., & Furunes, T. (2013). Emotion regulation and its implications for leadership: An integrative review and future research agenda. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 20(3), 287–303. https://doi.org/10.1177/1548051813485438
Hayes, A. M., & Feldman, G. (2006). Clarifying the construct of mindfulness in the context of emotion regulation and the process of change in therapy. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 11(3), 255–262. https://doi.org/10.1093/clipsy.bph080
Hede, A. (2010). The dynamics of mindfulness in managing emotions and stress.
299
Journal of Management Development, 29(1), 94–110.
Helm, S., & Subramaniam, B. (2019). Exploring socio-cognitive mindfulness in the context of sustainable consumption. Sustainability, 11(13), 3692. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11133692
Hesse-Biber, S. N., & Leavy, P. (2004). Distinguising qualitative research. In Sharlene Nagy Hesse-Biber & P. Leavy (Eds.), Approaches to qualitative research: A reader on theory and practice (pp. 1–15). Oxford University Press.
Hickey, W. S. (2010). Meditation as medicine: A critique. CrossCurrents, 60(2), 168–184. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-3881.2010.00118.x
Hofmann, S. G., Grossman, P., & Hinton, D. E. (2011). Loving-kindness and compassion meditation: Potential for psychological interventions. Clinical Psychology Review, 31(7), 1126–1132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2011.07.003
Hofstede, G. H. (1980). Culture’s consequences: International differences in work-related values. Sage.
Hofstede, G. H. (2001). Culture’s consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions and organizations across nations. Sage.
Hopf, C. (2004). Qualitative interviews: An overview. In U. Flick, E. Von Kardorff, & I. Steinke (Eds.), A companion to qualitative research. Sage.
Hossain, F., Kumasey, A. S., Rees, C. J., & Mamman, A. (2020). Public service ethics, values and spirituality in developing and transitional countries: Challenges and opportunities. Public Administration and Development, 40(3), 147–155. https://doi.org/10.1002/pad.1890
Howell, A. J., Dopko, R. L., Passmore, H. A., & Buro, K. (2011). Nature connectedness: Associations with well-being and mindfulness. Personality and Individual Differences, 51(2), 166–171. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2011.03.037
Howell, R., Pykett, J., Lilley, R., Whitehead, M., & Jones, R. (2016). Mindfulness, behaviour change and decision making: An experimental trial. ESRC Negotiating Neuroliberalism Project Report.
Huang, L., & Paterson, T. A. (2017). Group ethical voice: Influence of ethical leadership and impact on ethical performance. Journal of Management, 43(4), 1157–1184. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206314546195
Hughes, P., Suwanbubbha, P., & Chaisri, J. (2008). The nature of spirituality among young people in Australia and Thailand. Social Compass, 55(3), 359–372. https://doi.org/10.1177/0037768608093697
Hülsheger, U. R., Alberts, H. J. E. M., Feinholdt, A., & Lang, J. W. B. (2013). Benefits of mindfulness at work: The role of mindfulness in emotion regulation,
300
emotional exhaustion, and job satisfaction. Journal of Applied Psychology, 98(2), 310–325. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031313
Hülsheger, U. R., Feinholdt, A., & Nübold, A. (2015). A low-dose mindfulness intervention and recovery from work: Effects on psychological detachment, sleep quality, and sleep duration. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 88(3), 464–489. https://doi.org/10.1111/joop.12115
Hülsheger, U. R., Lang, J. W. B., Depenbrock, F., Fehrmann, C., Zijlstra, F. R. H., & Alberts, H. J. E. M. (2014). The power of presence: The role of mindfulness at work for daily levels and change trajectories of psychological detachment and sleep quality. Journal of Applied Psychology, 99(6), 1113–1128. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037702
Hutcherson, C. A., Seppala, E. M., & Gross, J. J. (2008). Loving-kindness meditation increases social connectedness. Emotion, 8(5), 720–724. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013237
Huxter, M. (2015). Mindfulness and the Buddha’s Noble Eightfold Path. In E. Shonin, W. Van Gordon, & N. N. Singh (Eds.), Buddhist foundations of mindfulness (pp. 29–53). Springer.
Huxter, M. J. (2007). Mindfulness as therapy from a Buddhist perspective. In D. A. Einstein (Ed.), Innovations and advances in cognitive behaviour therapy (pp. 43–53). Australian Academic Press.
Hyland, P. K., Lee, R. A., & Mills, M. J. (2015). Mindfulness at work: A new approach to improving individual and organizational performance. Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 8(04), 576–602.
Hyland, T. (2017). McDonaldizing Spirituality: Mindfulness, Education, and Consumerism. Journal of Transformative Education, 15(4), 334–356.
Ie, A., Ngnoumen, C. T., & Langer, E. J. (2014). Origins and theory. In A. Ie, C. T. Ngnoumen, & E. J. Langer (Eds.), The Wiley Blackwell handbook of mindfulness (pp. 1–5). Wiley.
Jamieson, S. D., & Tuckey, M. R. (2017). Mindfulness interventions in the workplace: A critique of the current state of the literature. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 22(2), 180–193. https://doi.org/10.1037/ocp0000048
Jayasaro, A. (2014). Without and within: Questions and answers on the teachings of Theravada Buddhism (2nd ed.). Amarin Printing and Publishing.
Jazaieri, H., Jinpa, G. T., McGonigal, K., Rosenberg, E. L., Finkelstein, J., Simon-Thomas, E., Cullen, M., Doty, J. R., Gross, J. J., & Goldin, P. R. (2013). Enhancing compassion: A randomized controlled trial of a compassion cultivation training program. Journal of Happiness Studies, 14(4), 1113–1126. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-012-9373-z
Jha, A. P., Morrison, A. B., Dainer-Best, J., Parker, S., Rostrup, N., & Stanley, E. A. (2015). Minds “at attention”: Mindfulness training curbs attentional lapses in
301
military cohorts. PLoS ONE, 10(2), e0116889. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0116889
Jha, A. P., Stanley, E. A., Kiyonaga, A., Wong, L., & Gelfand, L. (2010). Examining the protective effects of mindfulness training on working memory capacity and affective experience. Emotion, 10(1), 54–64. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018438
Jick, T. D. (1979). Mixing qualitative and quantitative methods: Triangulation in action. Administrative Science Quarterly, 24(4), 602–611. https://doi.org/10.2307/2392366
Jingjit, R., & Fotaki, M. (2010). Confucian ethics and the limited impact of the new public management reform in Thailand. Journal of Business Ethics, 97(S1), 61–73. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-011-1073-9
Johanson, G. A., & Brooks, G. P. (2010). Initial scale development: Sample size for pilot studies. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 70(3), 394–400.
Johnson, J. M. (2002). In-depth interviewing. In J. F. Gubrium & J. A. Holstein (Eds.), Handbook of interview research context & method. Sage.
Johnson, P., & Duberley, J. (2000). Understanding management research: An introduction to epistemology. Sage.
Johnson, R. B., & Onwuegbuzie, A. J. (2004). Mixed methods research: A research paradigm whose time has come. Educational Researcher, 33(7), 14–26. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X033007014
Johnson, R. B., Onwuegbuzie, A. J., & Turner, L. A. (2007). Toward a definition of mixed methods research. Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 1(2), 112–133. https://doi.org/10.1177/1558689806298224
Jones, M. E. (2013). Buddha’s beacon and the long shadow of Thai culture: Spirituality and education in Thailand. In J. Watson, M. de Souza, & A. Trousdale (Eds.), Global perspectives on spiritual education (pp. 204–215). Routledge.
Jordan, J., Brown, M. E., Treviño, L. K., & Finkelstein, S. (2013). Someone to look up to: Executive-follower ethical reasoning and perceptions of ethical leadership. Journal of Management, 39(3), 660–683.
Kabat-Zinn, J. (1982). An outpatient program in behavioral medicine for chronic pain patients based on the practice of mindfulness meditation: Theoretical considerations and preliminary results. General Hospital Psychiatry, 4(1), 33–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/0163-8343(82)90026-3
Kabat-Zinn, J. (1994). Wherever you go, there you are: Mindfulness meditation for everyday life. Piatkus.
Kabat-Zinn, J. (2003). Mindfulness-based interventions in context: Past, present,
302
and future. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 10(2), 144–156.
Kabat-Zinn, J. (2011). Some reflections on the origins of MBSR, skillful means, and the trouble with maps. Contemporary Buddhism, 12(1), 281–306. https://doi.org/10.1080/14639947.2011.564844
Kabat-Zinn, J. (2016a). Dharma. Mindfulness, 7(2), 567–569. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-015-0483-7
Kabat-Zinn, J. (2016b). Dukkha. Mindfulness, 7(1), 277–278. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-015-0472-x
Kalshoven, K., Den Hartog, D. N., & De Hoogh, A. H. B. (2011). Ethical leadership at work questionnaire (ELW): Development and validation of a multidimensional measure. The Leadership Quarterly, 22, 51–69.
Kang, C., & Whittingham, K. (2010). Mindfulness: A dialogue between Buddhism and clinical psychology. Mindfulness, 1(3), 161–173. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-010-0018-1
Kanungo, R. N. (2001). Ethical values of transactional and transformational leaders. Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences, 18(4), 257–265. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1936-4490.2001.tb00261.x
Karelaia, N., & Reb, J. (2015). Improving decision making through mindfulness. In J. Reb & P. W. B. Atkins (Eds.), Mindfulness in organizations: Foundations, research, and applications (pp. 163–189). Cambridge University Press.
Karunamuni, N., & Weerasekera, R. (2019). Theoretical foundations to guide mindfulness meditation: A path to wisdom. Current Psychology, 38(3), 627-646.
Keck, N., Giessner, S. R., Van Quaquebeke, N., & Kruijff, E. (2020). When do followers perceive their leaders as ethical? A relational models perspective of normatively appropriate conduct. Journal of Business Ethics, 164(3), 477–493. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-018-4055-3
Khoury, B., Knäuper, B., Pagnini, F., Trent, N., Chiesa, A., & Carrière, K. (2017). Embodied mindfulness. Mindfulness, 8(5), 1160–1171.
Khuntia, R., & Suar, D. (2004). A scale to assess ethical leadership of Indian private and public sector managers. Journal of Business Ethics, 49(1), 13–26. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:BUSI.0000013853.80287.da
Kim, S. (2014). Does a money-is-all attitude cause alienation? A cross-cultural comparison of Korea, the US and Sweden. International Journal of Consumer Studies, 38(6), 650–659. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijcs.12137
King, E., & Haar, J. M. (2017). Mindfulness and job performance: A study of Australian leaders. Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources, 55(3), 298–319. https://doi.org/10.1111/1744-7941.12143
Kirchgässner, G. (2014). On self-interest and greed. Journal of Business Economics,
303
84(9), 1191–1209. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11573-014-0737-1
Kirk, J., & Miller, M. L. (1986). Reliability and validity in qualitative research. SAGE.
Kitiarsa, P. (2012). Mediums, monks, and amulets: Thai popular Buddhism today. Silkworm Books.
Kligyte, V., Connelly, S., Thiel, C., & Devenport, L. (2013). The influence of anger, fear, and emotion regulation on ethical decision making. Human Performance, 26(4), 297–326. https://doi.org/10.1080/08959285.2013.814655
Ko, C., Ma, J., Bartnik, R., Haney, M. H., & Kang, M. (2018). Ethical leadership: An integrative review and future research agenda. Ethics & Behavior, 28(2), 104–132. https://doi.org/10.1080/10508422.2017.1318069
Konecki, K. T. (2017). Contemplation for economists. Towards a social economy based on empathy and compassion. Economics & Sociology, 10(3), 11–24. https://doi.org/10.14254/2071-789X.2017/10-3/1
Koning, L. F., & Van Kleef, G. A. (2015). How leaders’ emotional displays shape followers’ organizational citizenship behavior. Leadership Quarterly, 26(4), 489–501. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2015.03.001
Koonmee, K., Singhapakdi, A., Virakul, B., & Lee, D.-J. (2010). Ethics institutionalization, quality of work life, and employee job-related outcomes: A survey of human resource managers in Thailand. Journal of Business Research, 63(1), 20–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JBUSRES.2009.01.006
Krägeloh, C. U. (2016). Importance of morality in mindfulness practice. Counseling and Values, 61(1), 97–110.
Krägeloh, C. U. (2019). Phenomenological research fails to capture the experience of nondual awareness. Mindfulness, 10(1), 15–25. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-018-0995-z
Krekels, G., & Pandelaere, M. (2015). Dispositional greed. Personality and Individual Differences, 74, 225–230. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.10.036
Kuenzi, M., Mayer, D. M., & Greenbaum, R. L. (2020). Creating an ethical organizational environment: The relationship between ethical leadership, ethical organizational climate, and unethical behavior. Personnel Psychology, 73(1), 43–71. https://doi.org/10.1111/peps.12356
Kuhn, T. S. (1996). The structure of scientific revolutions. University of Chicago Press.
Kumar, S. M. (2002). An introduction to Buddhism for the cognitive-behavioral therapist. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 9(1), 40–43.
Kumasey, A. S., Bawole, J. N., & Hossain, F. (2017). Organizational commitment of public service employees in Ghana: Do codes of ethics matter? International
304
Review of Administrative Sciences, 83(1_suppl), 59–77. https://doi.org/10.1177/0020852316634447
Lambie, G. W., & Haugen, J. S. (2019). Understanding greed as a unified construct. In Personality and Individual Differences (Vol. 141, pp. 31–39). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2018.12.011
Langer, E. (1992). Interpersonal mindlessness and language. Communication Monographs, 59(3), 324–327. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637759209376274
Langer, E. J. (1989). Mindfulness. Da Capo Press.
Lee, K., Ashton, M. C., & Shin, K.-H. (2005). Personality correlates of workplace anti-social behavior. Applied Psychology, 54(1), 81–98. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1464-0597.2005.00197.x
Lee, K. C. (George). (2018). Demystifying Buddhist mindfulness: Foundational Buddhist knowledge for mindfulness-based interventions. Spirituality in Clinical Practice, 5(3), 218–224. https://doi.org/10.1037/scp0000133
Leelavanichkul, S., Chamratrithirong, A., Jampaklay, A., & Gray, R. (2018). Religiosity, the practices of religions, and the perception of older people among Muslims and Buddhists in Thailand. The International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 86(2), 131–151. https://doi.org/10.1177/0091415017699937
Lehnert, K., Park, Y. hwal, & Singh, N. (2015). Research note and review of the empirical ethical decision-making literature: Boundary conditions and extensions. Journal of Business Ethics, 129(1), 195–219. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-014-2147-2
Leroy, H., Anseel, F., Dimitrova, N. G., & Sels, L. (2013). Mindfulness, authentic functioning, and work engagement: A growth modeling approach. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 82(3), 238–247. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2013.01.012
Lewis, K. M. (2000). When leaders display emotion: How followers respond to negative emotional expression of male and female leaders. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 21(2), 221–234. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-1379(200003)21:2<221::AID-JOB36>3.0.CO;2-0
Liang, L. H., Lian, H., Brown, D. J., Ferris, D. L., Hanig, S., & Keeping, L. M. (2016). Why are abusive supervisors abusive? A dual-system self-control model. Academy of Management Journal, 59(4), 1385–1406. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2014.0651
Lim, D., Condon, P., & DeSteno, D. (2015). Mindfulness and compassion: An examination of mechanism and scalability. PLOS ONE, 10(2), e0118221. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0118221
Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E. G. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. Sage.
Lindahl, J. R. (2015). Why right mindfulness might not be right for mindfulness.
305
Mindfulness, 6(1), 57–62. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-014-0380-5
Lindahl, J. R., Fisher, N. E., Cooper, D. J., Rosen, R. K., & Britton, W. B. (2017). The varieties of contemplative experience: A mixed-methods study of meditation-related challenges in Western Buddhists. PLOS ONE, 12(5), e0176239. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0176239
Linder, S., Sohn, M., & Tanner, C. (2021). Moral commitment and corruption: Who is more likely to resist corrupt behavior? SSRN, 3530305. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3530305
Lomas, T. (2016). Nourishment from the roots: Engaging with the Buddhist foundations of mindfulness. In I. Ivtzan & T. Lomas (Eds.), Mindfulness in positive psychology: The science of meditation and wellbeing (pp. 265–279). Routledge.
Lomas, T. (2017). Recontextualizing mindfulness: Theravada Buddhist perspectives on the ethical and spiritual dimensions of awareness. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 9(2), 209–219. https://doi.org/10.1037/rel0000080
Lomas, T., Hefferon, K., & Itai Ivtzan. (2014). Applied positive psychology: Integrated positive practice. Sage.
Lomas, T., & Jnanavaca. (2015). Types of mindfulness, orders of conditionality, and stages of the spiritual path. In Buddhist foundations of mindfulness (pp. 287–310). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-18591-0_14
Lomas, T., Medina, J. C., Ivtzan, I., Rupprecht, S., Hart, R., & Eiroa-Orosa, F. J. (2017). The impact of mindfulness on well-being and performance in the workplace: An inclusive systematic review of the empirical literature. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 26(4), 492–513.
Longshore, K., & Sachs, M. (2015). Mindfulness training for coaches: A mixed-method exploratory study. Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology, 9(2), 116–137. https://doi.org/10.1123/jcsp.2014-0038
Loy, D. R. (2016). The challenge of mindful engagement. In A. B. Ronald E. Purser, David Forbes (Ed.), Handbook of mindfulness: Culture, context, and social engagement (pp. 15–26). Springer International Publishing Switzerland. http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-319-44019-4_2
Ludwig, D. S., & Kabat-Zinn, J. (2008). Mindfulness in medicine. JAMA, 300(11), 1350–1352.
Maak, T. (2007). Responsible leadership, stakeholder engagement, and the emergence of social capital. Journal of Business Ethics, 74(4), 329–343.
Maak, T., & Pless, N. M. (2006). Responsible leadership in a stakeholder society - a relational perspective. Journal of Business Ethics, 66(1), 99–115.
Mack, N., Woodsong, C., MacQueen, K. M., Guest, G., & Namey, E. (2005).
306
Qualitative research methods: A data collector’s field guide. Family Health International.
Malikhao, P. (2017a). Self-reliance and sustainability from a Thai perspective. In P. Malikhao (Ed.), Culture and communication in Thailand (pp. 89–102). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-4125-9_6
Malikhao, P. (2017b). Thai Buddhism, the mass media, and culture change in Thailand. In Culture and communication in Thailand. Communication, Culture and Change in Asia, vol 3 (pp. 1–16). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-4125-9_1
Malinowski, P., & Lim, H. J. (2015). Mindfulness at work: Positive affect, hope, and optimism mediate the relationship between dispositional mindfulness, work engagement, and well-being. Mindfulness, 6(6), 1250–1262. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-015-0388-5
Marques, J. (2015). Business and Buddhism. Routledge.
Martin, G. S., Keating, M. A., Resick, C. J., Szabo, E., Kwan, H. K., & Peng, C. (2013). The meaning of leader integrity: A comparative study across Anglo, Asian, and Germanic cultures. The Leadership Quarterly, 24(3), 445–461. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2013.02.004
Martineau, J. T., Johnson, K. J., & Pauchant, T. C. (2017). The pluralist theory of ethics programs orientations and ideologies: An empirical study anchored in requisite variety. Journal of Business Ethics, 142(4), 791–815. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-016-3183-x
Marx, R., Strauss, C., Williamson, C., Karunavira, & Taravajra. (2014). The eye of the storm: A feasibility study of an adapted Mindfulness-based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT) group intervention to manage NHS staff stress. The Cognitive Behaviour Therapist, 7(e18), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1754470X14000300
McGarrigle, T., & Walsh, C. A. (2011). Mindfulness, self-care, and wellness in social work: Effects of contemplative training. Journal of Religion & Spirituality in Social Work: Social Thought, 30(3), 212–233. https://doi.org/10.1080/15426432.2011.587384
Meland, A., Fonne, V., Wagstaff, A., & Pensgaard, A. M. (2015). Mindfulness-based mental training in a high-performance combat aviation population: A one-year intervention study and two-year follow-up. The International Journal of Aviation Psychology, 25(1), 48–61. https://doi.org/10.1080/10508414.2015.995572
Mendis, P. (1994). Buddhist economics and community development strategies. Community Development Journal, 29(3), 195–202.
Menzel, D. C. (2015). Research on ethics and integrity in public administration: Moving forward, looking back. Public Integrity, 17(4), 343–370. https://doi.org/10.1080/10999922.2015.1060824
307
Mihelič, K. K., & Culiberg, B. (2019). Reaping the fruits of another’s labor: The role of moral meaningfulness, mindfulness, and motivation in social loafing. Journal of Business Ethics, 160(3), 713–727. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-018-3933-z
Mikulas, W. L. (2018). Buddhist ethics, spiritual practice, and the three Yanas. In S. Stanley, R. E. Purser, & N. N. Singh (Eds.), Handbook of ethical foundations of mindfulness (pp. 101–119). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76538-9_6
Miller, W. L., & Crabtree, B. F. (2004). Depth interviewing. In Sharlene Nagy Hesse-Biber & P. Leavy (Eds.), Approaches to qualitative research: A reader on theory and practice (pp. 185–202). Oxford University Press.
Mohiuddin, G., & Hossain, M. (2016). Ethical leadership: Its issues and impacts in organization. International Journal of Islamic Management and Business, 2(2).
Monteiro, L. M., Musten, R. F., & Compson, J. (2015). Traditional and contemporary mindfulness: Finding the middle path in the tangle of concerns. Mindfulness, 6(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-014-0301-7
Montgomery, K., Kane, K., & Vance, C. M. (2004). Accounting for differences in norms of respect. Group & Organization Management, 29(2), 248–268. https://doi.org/10.1177/1059601103252105
Moody, K., Kramer, D., Santizo, R. O., Magro, L., Wyshogrod, D., Ambrosio, J., Castillo, C., Lieberman, R., & Stein, J. (2013). Helping the helpers: Mindfulness training for burnout in pediatric oncology - A pilot program. Journal of Pediatric Oncology Nursing, 30(5), 275–284. https://doi.org/10.1177/1043454213504497
Morais, C., & de Moura, G. R. (2018). The psychology of ethical leadership in organisations: Implications of group processes. In The psychology of ethical leadership in organisations. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-02324-9
Morgan, D. L. (2007). Paradigms lost and pragmatism regained. Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 1(1), 48–76. https://doi.org/10.1177/2345678906292462
Morse, J. M., Barrett, M., Mayan, M., Olson, K., & Spiers, J. (2002). Verification strategies for establishing reliability and validity in qualitative research. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 1(2), 13–22. https://doi.org/10.1177/160940690200100202
Mostafa, A. M. S., & Abed El-Motalib, E. A. (2020). Ethical leadership, work meaningfulness, and work engagement in the public sector. Review of Public Personnel Administration, 40(1), 112–131. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734371X18790628
Murphy, J. P. (1990). Pragmatism: From Peirce to Davidson. Westview Press.
308
Mutebi, A. M. (2008). Explaining the failure of Thailand’s anti-corruption regime. Development and Change, 39(1), 147–171. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7660.2008.00472.x
Naemiratch, B., & Manderson, L. (2009). Pity and pragmatism: Understandings of disability in northeast Thailand. Disability & Society, 24(4), 475–488. https://doi.org/10.1080/09687590902879106
National Statistical Office. (2015). The 2014 survey on conditions of society, culture and mental health (Thai happiness). http://web.nso.go.th/en/survey/other social/data/2014_Full Report.pdf
Neff, K. D., & Pommier, E. (2013). The relationship between self-compassion and other-focused concern among college undergraduates, community adults, and practicing meditators. Self and Identity, 12(2), 160–176. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2011.649546
Neves, P., Almeida, P., & Velez, M. J. (2018). Reducing intentions to resist future change: Combined effects of commitment-based HR practices and ethical leadership. Human Resource Management, 57(1), 249–261.
Newcombe, M. J., & Ashkanasy, N. M. (2002). The role of affect and affective congruence in perceptions of leaders: An experimental study. Leadership Quarterly, 13(5), 601–614. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1048-9843(02)00146-7
Nguyen, L. D., & Tran, Q. H. M. (2016). Working adults and personal business ethics in South East Asia: A comparative study in Thailand and Vietnam. Public Organization Review, 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11115-016-0370-2
Niemiec, R., & Lissing, J. (2015). Mindfulness-based strengths practice (MBSP) for enhancing well-being, managing problems, and boosting positive relationships. In I. Ivtzan & T. Lomas (Eds.), Mindfulness in positive psychology: The science of meditation and well-being (pp. 15–36). Routledge.
Niemiec, R. M. (2014). Mindfulness and character strengths. Hogrefe.
Nirban, G. (2018). Mindfulness as an ethical ideal in the Bhagavadgītā. Mindfulness, 9(1), 151–160. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-017-0755-5
Northouse, P. G. (2015). Leadership: Theory and practice (7th ed.). Sage.
Noy, D. (2011). Thailand’s sufficiency economy: Origins and comparisons with other systems of religious economics. Social Compass, 58(4), 593–610. https://doi.org/10.1177/0037768611423463
Nyanaponika, T. (1962). The heart of Buddhist meditation. Rider.
Nyanaponika, T. (1972). The power of mindfulness. Unity Press.
O’Keefe, D. F., Howell, G. T., & Squires, E. C. (2020). Ethical leadership begets ethical leadership: Exploring situational moderators of the trickle-down effect. Ethics and Behavior, 30(8), 581–600. https://doi.org/10.1080/10508422.2019.1649676
309
Office of the National Economic and Social Development Board. (2017). The twelfth national economic and social development plan (2017-2021). http://www.nesdb.go.th/nesdb_en/ewt_w3c/ewt_dl_link.php?nid=4345
Olendzki, A. (2014). From early Buddhist traditions to Western psychological science. In A. Ie, C. T. Ngnoumen, & E. J. Langer (Eds.), The Wiley Blackwell handbook of mindfulness (Vols. 1–2, pp. 58–73). Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118294895.ch4
Onwuegbuzie, A. J., & Leech, N. L. (2006). Linking research questions to mixed methods data analysis procedures 1. The Qualitative Report, 11(3), 474–498. http://nsuworks.nova.edu/tqr
Orazi, D. C., Chen, J., & Chan, E. Y. (2019). To erect temples to virtue: Effects of state mindfulness on other-focused ethical behaviors. Journal of Business Ethics, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-019-04296-4
Ostafin, B. D., & Kassman, K. T. (2012). Stepping out of history: Mindfulness improves insight problem solving. Consciousness and Cognition, 21(2), 1031–1036. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2012.02.014
Overholt, M., & Vickers, M. (2014). Stress management and mindfulness in the workplace. American Management Association.
Pagis, M. (2019). Inward: Vipassana meditation and the embodiment of the self. University of Chicago Press.
Palitsky, R., & Kaplan, D. M. (2019). The role of religion for mindfulness-based interventions: Implications for dissemination and implementation. Mindfulness, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-019-01253-0
Pallant, J. (2013). SPSS survival manual: A step by step guide to data analysis using IBM SPSS (5th ed.). Open University Press.
Pandey, A., Chandwani, R., & Navare, A. (2018). How can mindfulness enhance moral reasoning? An examination using business school students. Business Ethics: A European Review, 27(1), 56–71.
Parnwell, M., & Seeger, M. (2008). The relocalization of Buddhism in Thailand. Journal of Buddhist Ethics, 15, 78–176.
Patel, T., & Holm, M. (2018). Practicing mindfulness as a means for enhancing workplace pro-environmental behaviors among managers. Journal of Environmental Planning and Management, 61(13), 2231–2256. https://doi.org/10.1080/09640568.2017.1394819
Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative research and evaluation methods (3rd ed.). Sage.
Paulson, J., & Kretz, L. (2018). Exploring the potential contributions of mindfulness and compassion-based practices for enhancing the teaching of undergraduate ethics courses in philosophy. Social Science Journal, 55(3), 323–331.
310
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soscij.2017.12.003
Payutto, P. A. (2018). Buddhadhamma: The laws of nature and their benefits to life (2nd ed.). Buddhadhamma Foundation.
Peacock, J. (2014). Sati or mindfulness? Bridging the devide. In M. Bazzano (Ed.), After mindfulness: New perspectives on psychology and meditation (pp. 3–22). Palgrave Macmillan.
Pelletier, K. L., & Bligh, M. C. (2006). Rebounding from corruption: Perceptions of ethics program effectiveness in a public sector organization. Journal of Business Ethics, 67(4), 359–374. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-006-9027-3
Perry, S. E. (2001). Appropriate use of pilot studies. Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 33(2), 107.
Petchsawang, P., & Duchon, D. (2012). Workplace spirituality, meditation, and work performance. Journal of Management, Spirituality & Religion, 9(2), 189–208. https://doi.org/10.1080/14766086.2012.688623
Petchsawang, P., & McLean, G. N. (2017). Workplace spirituality, mindfulness meditation, and work engagement. Journal of Management, Spirituality & Religion, 14(3), 216–244. https://doi.org/10.1080/14766086.2017.1291360
Pimpa, N., & Hooi, E. (2017). Modern leadership in Singaporean and Thai organizational contexts. In Information Resources Management Association (Ed.), Organizational culture and behavior: Concepts, methodologies, tools, and applications (pp. 1389–1405). IGI Global. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-5225-1913-3.ch066
Pipe, T. B., Bortz, J. J., Dueck, A., Pendergast, D., Buchda, V., & Summers, J. (2009). Nurse leader mindfulness meditation program for stress management. JONA: The Journal of Nursing Administration, 39(3), 130–137. https://doi.org/10.1097/NNA.0b013e31819894a0
Pless, N., Sabatella, F., & Maak, T. (2017). Mindfulness, reperceiving, and ethical decision making: A neurological perspective. In S. Savur & S. Sandhu (Eds.), Responsible leadership and ethical decision-making (pp. 1–20). Emerald Group Publishing Ltd.
Ponemon, L., & Felo, A. (1996). Key features of an effective ethics training program. Management Accounting, 78(4), 66–68.
Pope, C., Ziebland, S., & Mays, N. (2000). Qualitative research in health care: Analysing qualitative data. BMJ, 320, 114–116. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.320.7227.114
Potipiroon, W., & Ford, M. T. (2017). Does public service motivation always lead to organizational commitment? Examining the moderating roles of intrinsic motivation and ethical leadership. Public Personnel Management, 46(3), 211–238. https://doi.org/10.1177/0091026017717241
Purser, R. E. (2019). McMindfulness: How mindfulness became the new capitalist
311
spirituality. Repeater Books.
Purser, R., & Loy, D. (2013, January 7). Beyond McMindfulness. Huffington Post. https://www.huffingtonpost.com/ron-purser/beyond-mcmindfulness_b_3519289.html
Purser, R.E., & Milillo, J. (2015). Mindfulness revisited: A Buddhist-based conceptualization. Journal of Management Inquiry, 24(1), 3–24.
Purser, R. E. (2015). Clearing the muddled path of traditional and contemporary mindfulness: A response to Monteiro, Musten, and Compson. Mindfulness, 6(1), 23–45. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-014-0373-4
Qiu, J. X. J., & Rooney, D. (2017). Addressing unintended ethical challenges of workplace mindfulness: A four-stage mindfulness development model. Journal of Business Ethics, 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-017-3693-1
Quirk, G. J., & Beer, J. S. (2006). Prefrontal involvement in the regulation of emotion: convergence of rat and human studies. In Current Opinion in Neurobiology (Vol. 16, Issue 6, pp. 723–727). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conb.2006.07.004
Ralston, D. A., Hallinger, P., Egri, C. P., & Naothinsuhk, S. (2005). The effects of culture and life stage on workplace strategies of upward influence: A comparison of Thailand and the United States. Journal of World Business, 40(3), 321–337. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JWB.2005.05.007
Rapgay, L., & Bystrisky, A. (2009). Classical mindfulness: An introduction to its theory and practice for clinical application. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1172(1), 148–162.
Ratnayake, S., & Merry, D. (2018). Forgetting ourselves: Epistemic costs and ethical concerns in mindfulness exercises. Journal of Medical Ethics, 44(8), 567–574. https://doi.org/10.1136/medethics-2017-104201
Reb, J., Chaturvedi, S., Narayanan, J., & Kudesia, R. S. (2018). Leader mindfulness and employee performance: A sequential mediation model of LMX quality, interpersonal justice, and employee stress. Journal of Business Ethics, 1–19.
Reb, J., & Choi, E. (2014). Mindfulness in organizations. In N. N. Singh (Ed.), The psychology of meditation (pp. 278–308). Nova Science Publishers. http://ink.library.smu.edu.sg/lkcsb_research/4199
Reb, J., Narayanan, J., & Chaturvedi, S. (2014). Leading mindfully: Two studies on the influence of supervisor trait mindfulness on employee well-being and performance. Mindfulness, 5(1), 36–45.
Reb, J., Sim, S., Chintakananda, K., & Bhave, D. P. (2015). Leading with mindfulness: Exploring the relation of mindfulness with leadership behaviors, styles, and development. In J. Reb & P. W. B. Atkins (Eds.), Mindfulness in organizations:
312
Foundations, research, and applications (pp. 256–284). Cambridge University Press.
Redfern, D. C., Rees, C. J., & Rowlands, K. E. (2008). Occupational stress: consensus or divergence? A challenge for training and development specialists. Industrial and Commercial Training, 40(6), 287–294. https://doi.org/10.1108/00197850810900039
Reitz, M., Chaskalson, M., Olivier, S., & Waller, L. (2016). The mindful leader: Developing the capacity for resilience and collaboration in complex times through mindfulness practice. In Ashridge executive education at Hult international business school: Vol. November. http://ashridge.org.uk/Media-Library/Ashridge/PDFs/Publications/Ashridge-Mindful-Leader-for-web-low-res.pdf
Resick, C. J., Hanges, P. J., Dickson, M. W., & Mitchelson, J. K. (2006). A cross-cultural examination of the endorsement of ethical leadership. Journal of Business Ethics, 63(4), 345–359. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-005-3242-1
Resick, C. J., Martin, G. S., Keating, M. A., Dickson, M. W., Kwan, H. K., & Peng, C. (2011). What ethical leadership means to me: Asian, American, and European perspectives. Journal of Business Ethics, 101(3), 435–457. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-010-0730-8
Rhys Davids, T. W. (1881). Buddhist Suttas. Clarendon Press.
Ridderinkhof, A., de Bruin, E. I., Brummelman, E., & Bögels, S. M. (2017). Does mindfulness meditation increase empathy? An experiment. Self and Identity, 16(3), 251–269. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2016.1269667
Riessman, C. K. (2008). Narrative methods for the human sciences. Sage Publications.
Riskin, L. L. (2009). Awareness and ethics in dispute resolution and law: Why mindfulness tends to foster ethical behavior. South Texas Law Review, 50(3), 493–504.
Robbins, S. P., Judge, T., & Campbell, T. T. (2010). Organizational behaviour. Pearson.
Robson, C., & McCartan, K. (2016). Real world research (4th ed.). John Wiley & Sons.
Roche, M., Haar, J. M., & Luthans, F. (2014). The role of mindfulness and psychological capital on the well-being of leaders. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 19(4), 476–489. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037183
Roeser, R. W., Schonert-Reichl, K. A., Jha, A., Cullen, M., Wallace, L., Wilensky, R., Oberle, E., Thomson, K., Taylor, C., & Harrison, J. (2013). Mindfulness training and reductions in teacher stress and burnout: Results from two randomized, waitlist-control field trials. Journal of Educational Psychology, 105(3), 787–804. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032093
Rosenberg, E. L. (2004). Mindfulness and consumerism. In T. Kasser & A. D. Kanner
313
(Eds.), Psychology and consumer culture: The struggle for a good life in a materialistic world. (pp. 107–125). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/10658-007
Rossman, G. B., & Wilson, B. L. (1985). Numbers and words: Combining quantitative and qualitative methods in a single large-scale evaluation study. Evaluation Review, 9(5), 627–643. https://doi.org/10.1177/0193841X8500900505
Rost, J. C. (1995). Leadership: A discussion about ethics. Business Ethics Quarterly, 5(1), 129–142.
Rubin, H. J., & Rubin, I. (2004). Qualitative interviewing: The art of hearing data (2nd ed.). Sage.
Ruedy, N. E., & Schweitzer, M. E. (2010). In the moment: The effect of mindfulness on ethical decision making. Journal of Business Ethics, 95(S1), 73–87. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-011-0796-y
Runglertkrengkrai, S., & Engkaninan, S. (1987). The pattern of managerial behaviour in Thai culture. Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 5(1), 8–15. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01712571
Sagarik, D., Chansukree, P., Cho, W., & Berman, E. (2018). E-government 4.0 in Thailand: The role of central agencies. Information Polity, 23(3), 343–353. https://doi.org/10.3233/IP-180006
Salerno, J. M., & Peter-Hagene, L. C. (2015). One angry woman: Anger expression increases influence for men, but decreases influence for women, during group deliberation. Law and Human Behavior, 39(6), 581–592. https://doi.org/10.1037/lhb0000147
Samuels, W. J. (2000). Signs, pragmatism, and abduction: The tragedy, irony, and promise of Charles Sanders Peirce. Journal of Economic Issues, 34(1), 207–217. https://doi.org/10.1080/00213624.2000.11506254
Sanko, J., Mckay, M., & Rogers, S. (2016). Exploring the impact of mindfulness meditation training in pre-licensure and post graduate nurses. Nurse Education Today, 45, 142–147.
Sarantakos, S. (2013). Social research (4th ed.). Palgrave Macmillan.
Saunders, M. N. K., Lewis, P., & Thornhill, A. (2019). Research methods for business students (8th ed.). Pearson.
Schedneck, B. (2017). Religious encounters in Thailand: International meditation centers within transnational settings. In Eastspirit: Transnational spirituality and religious circulation in East and West (pp. 279–298). Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004350717_015
Schober, P., Boer, C., & Schwarte, L. A. (2018). Correlation coefficients: Appropriate use and interpretation. Anesthesia and Analgesia, 126(5), 1763–1768.
314
https://doi.org/10.1213/ANE.0000000000002864
Schuh, S. C., Zheng, M. X., Xin, K. R., & Fernandez, J. A. (2017). The interpersonal benefits of leader mindfulness: A serial mediation model linking leader mindfulness, leader procedural justice enactment, and employee exhaustion and performance. Journal of Business Ethics, 1–19.
Schwandt, T. A. (2007). SAGE dictionary of qualitative inquiry (3rd ed.). SAGE Publications.
Seale, C. (2012). Sampling. In C. Seale (Ed.), Researching society and culture (3rd ed., pp. 134–152). Sage.
Sedlmeier, P., Eberth, J., Schwarz, M., Zimmermann, D., Haarig, F., Jaeger, S., & Kunze, S. (2012). The psychological effects of meditation: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 138(6), 1139–1171. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028168
Segal, Z. V., Williams, J. M. G., & Teasdale, J. D. (2002). Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for depression : A new approach to preventing relapse. Guilford Press.
Sekerka, L. E. (2009). Organizational ethics education and training: A review of best practices and their application. International Journal of Training and Development, 13(2), 77–95.
Sekhar, S., Uppal, N., & Shukla, A. (2020). Dispositional greed and its dark allies: An investigation among prospective managers. Personality and Individual Differences, 162, 110005. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110005
Seuntjens, T. G., Zeelenberg, M., Breugelmans, S. M., & van de Ven, N. (2015). Defining greed. British Journal of Psychology, 106(3), 505–525. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjop.12100
Seuntjens, T. G., Zeelenberg, M., van de Ven, N., & Breugelmans, S. M. (2019). Greedy bastards: Testing the relationship between wanting more and unethical behavior. Personality and Individual Differences, 138, 147–156. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2018.09.027
Shakeel, F., Kruyen, P. M., & Van Thiel, S. (2019). Ethical leadership as process: A conceptual proposition. Public Integrity, 21(6), 613–624. https://doi.org/10.1080/10999922.2019.1606544
Shapiro, S. L., Astin, J. A., Bishop, S. R., & Cordova, M. (2005). Mindfulness-based stress reduction for health care professionals: Results from a randomized trial. International Journal of Stress Management, 12(2), 164–176. https://doi.org/10.1037/1072-5245.12.2.164
Shapiro, S. L., & Carlson, L. E. (2009). The art and science of mindfulness: Integrating mindfulness into psychology and the helping professions (1st ed.). American Psychological Association.
Shapiro, S. L., Carlson, L. E., Astin, J. A., & Freedman, B. (2006). Mechanisms of mindfulness. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 62(3), 373–386.
315
Shapiro, S. L., Jazaieri, H., & Goldin, P. R. (2012). Mindfulness-based stress reduction effects on moral reasoning and decision making. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 7(6), 504–515.
Sharma, A., Agrawal, R., & Khandelwal, U. (2019). Developing ethical leadership for business organizations: A conceptual model of its antecedents and consequences. Leadership and Organization Development Journal, 40(6), 712–734. https://doi.org/10.1108/LODJ-10-2018-0367
Shonin, E., Van Gordon, W., Compare, A., Zangeneh, M., & Griffiths, M. D. (2015). Buddhist-derived loving-kindness and compassion meditation for the treatment of psychopathology: A systematic review. Mindfulness, 6(5), 1161–1180. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-014-0368-1
Shonin, E., Van Gordon, W., Dunn, T. J., Singh, N. N., & Griffiths, M. D. (2014). Meditation awareness training (MAT) for work-related wellbeing and job performance: A randomised controlled trial. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 12(6), 806–823. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-014-9513-2
Shonin, E., Van Gordon, W., & Griffiths, M. D. (2014). The emerging role of Buddhism in clinical psychology: Toward effective integration. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 6(2), 123–137.
Shonin, E., Van Gordon, W., & Griffiths, M. D. (2016). Mindfulness and wellbeing: Towards a unified operational approach. In I. Ivtzan & T. Lomas (Eds.), Mindfulness in positive psychology: The science of meditation and wellbeing (pp. 280–292). Routledge.
Shonin, E., Van Gordon, W., & Singh, N. N. (2015). Mindfulness and Buddhist practice. In E. Shonin, W. Van Gordon, & N. N. Singh (Eds.), Buddhist foundations of mindfulness (pp. 1–6). Springer.
Singer, T., & Klimecki, O. M. (2014). Empathy and compassion. Current Biology, 24(18), R875–R878. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2014.06.054
Singhapakdi, A., Salyachivin, S., Virakul, B., & Veerayangkur, V. (2000). Some important factors underlying ethical decision making of managers in Thailand. Journal of Business Ethics, 27(3), 271–284. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1006111004721
Sivaraks, P. (2011). Civil service system in Thailand. In E. M. Berman (Ed.), Public administration in Southeast Asia: Thailand, Philippines, Malaysia, Hong Kong, And Macao (pp. 113–137). CRC Press.
Small, C., & Lew, C. (2019). Mindfulness, moral reasoning and responsibility: Towards virtue in ethical decision-making. Journal of Business Ethics, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-019-04272-y
Sosik, J. J., Chun, J. U., Ete, Z., Arenas, F. J., & Scherer, J. A. (2019). Self-control puts
316
character into action: Examining how leader character strengths and ethical leadership relate to leader outcomes. Journal of Business Ethics, 160(3), 765–781. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-018-3908-0
Spencer, L., Ritchie, J., O’Connor, W., Morrell, G., & Ormston, R. (2014). Analysis in practice. In J. Ritchie, J. Lewis, C. McNaughton Nicholls, & R. Ormston (Eds.), Qualitative research practice: A guide for social science students and researchers (2nd ed., pp. 295–346). SAGE.
Srichannil, C., & Prior, S. (2014). Practise what you preach: Counsellors’ experience of practising Buddhist counselling in Thailand. International Journal for the Advancement of Counselling, 36(3), 243–261. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10447-013-9204-x
Srinivasan, V. (2011). Business ethics in the South and South East Asia. Journal of Business Ethics, 104(S1), 73–81. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-012-1264-z
Stanley, S. (2012). Mindfulness: Towards a critical relational perspective. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 6(9), 631–641.
Stanley, S. (2013). ‘Things said or done long ago are recalled and remembered’: The ethics of mindfulness in early Buddhism, psychotherapy and clinical psychology. European Journal of Psychotherapy & Counselling, 15(2), 151–162.
Stanley, S. (2014). Mindfulness, overview. In T. Teo (Ed.), Encyclopedia of critical psychology (pp. 1186–1192). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-5583-7_589
Stanley, S. (2015). Sīla and sati: An exploration of ethics and mindfulness in Pāli Buddhism and their implications for secular mindfulness-based applications. In E. Shonin, W. Van Gordon, & N. N. Singh (Eds.), Buddhist foundations of mindfulness (pp. 89–113). Springer.
Stanley, S., Purser, R. E., & Singh, N. N. (2018). Ethical foundations of mindfulness. In S. Stanley, R. E. Purser, & N. N. Singh (Eds.), Handbook of ethical foundations of mindfulness (pp. 1–29). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76538-9_1
Sternberg, R. J. (2000). Images of mindfulness. Journal of Social Issues, 56(1), 11–26.
Stevulak, C., & Brown, M. P. (2011). Activating public sector ethics in transitional societies: The promise of integrity. Public Integrity, 13(2), 97–112. https://doi.org/10.2753/PIN1099-9922130201
Stouten, J., Van Dijke, M., Mayer, D. M., De Cremer, D., & Euwema, M. C. (2013). Can a leader be seen as too ethical? The curvilinear effects of ethical leadership. The Leadership Quarterly, 24, 680–695.
Sumedho, A. (1992). The Four Noble Truths. Amaravati Publications.
Sun, J. (2014). Mindfulness in context: A historical discourse analysis. Contemporary Buddhism, 15(2), 394–415.
317
Surinrut, P., Auamnoy, T., & Sangwatanaroj, S. (2016). Enhanced happiness and stress alleviation upon insight meditation retreat: Mindfulness, a part of traditional Buddhist meditation. Mental Health, Religion & Culture, 19(7), 648–659.
Sutamchai, K., Rowlands, K. E., & Rees, C. J. (2020). The use of mindfulness to promote ethical decision making and behavior: Empirical evidence from the public sector in Thailand. Public Administration and Development, 40(3), 156–167. https://doi.org/10.1002/pad.1872
Sy, T., Côté, S., & Saavedra, R. (2005). The contagious leader: Impact of the leader’s mood on the mood of group members, group affective tone, and group processes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90, 295–305. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.90.2.295
Tanner, C., Gangl, K., & Witt, N. (2019). The German Ethical Culture Scale (GECS): Development and first construct testing. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 1–17. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01667
Tashakkori, A., & Teddlie, C. (2010). SAGE handbook of mixed methods in social and behavioral research. In Sage handbook of mixed methods in social and behavioral research (2nd ed.). Sage.
Tavakol, M., & Dennick, R. (2011). Making sense of Cronbach’s alpha. International Journal of Medical Education, 2, 53–55.
Taylor, C., Harrison, J., Haimovitz, K., Oberle, E., Thomson, K., Schonert-Reichl, K., & Roeser, R. W. (2016). Examining ways that a mindfulness-sased intervention reduces stress in public school teachers: A mixed-methods study. Mindfulness, 7(1), 115–129. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-015-0425-4
Teasdale, J. D., & Chaskalson, M. (2011). How does mindfulness transform suffering? I: the nature and origins of dukkha. Contemporary Buddhism, 12(1), 89–102. https://doi.org/10.1080/14639947.2011.564824
Teddlie, C., & Tashakkori, A. (2005). Mixed methods: Contemporary issues in an emerging field. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), SAGE Handbook of qualitative research (3rd ed.). Sage.
Thailand Science Research and Innovation. (2018). จะโกงไหมถาไฟเขยว? บททดสอบในหองทดลองวชาโกง [Will you cheat if you can? An experiment of students’
examination cheating]. Knowledge Farm. http://www.knowledgefarm.in.th/cheatexperiment/
The Government Public Relations Department. (2017). National moral promotion master plan enhances awareness against corruption. http://thailand.prd.go.th/1700/ewt/thailand/ewt_news.php?nid=5394
The Government Public Relations Department. (2019). Developing integrity
318
indicators to help curb corruption in Thai society. https://thailand.prd.go.th/mobile_detail.php?cid=4&nid=8046
The Mindfulness All-Party Parliamentary Group. (2015). Mindful nation UK. The Mindfulness Initiative. http://themindfulnessinitiative.org.uk/images/reports/Mindfulness-APPG-Report_Mindful-Nation-UK_Oct2015.pdf
The Mindfulness Initiative. (2016a). Building the case for mindfulness in the workplace. The Mindfulness Initiative. http://themindfulnessinitiative.org.uk/publications/building-the-case
The Mindfulness Initiative. (2016b). Mindfulness All-Party Parliamentary Group. The Mindfulness Initiative. http://www.themindfulnessinitiative.org.uk/about/mindfulness-appg
The National Board of Ethics. (2018). การสงเสรมคณธรรมพอเพยง วนย สจรต จตอาสา สรางคนดสสงคม [Promotion of the sufficiency, discipline, honesty and volunteer virtues
for developing moral citizen in society]. The Moral Center.
Thera, P. (2010). The threefold division of the Noble Eightfold Path. Bodhi Leaves.
Thorne, D. M., Ferrell, O. C., & Ferrell, L. (2008). Business and society: A strategic approach to social responsibility. Houghton Mifflin.
Thornton, L. F. (2009). Leadership ethics training: Why is it so hard to get it right? Training and Development, 63(9), 58–61.
Titmuss, C. (2018). Co-arising of ethics, mindfulness and truth for freedom of action. In S. Stanley, R. E. Purser, & N. N. Singh (Eds.), Handbook of ethical foundations of mindfulness (pp. 187–204). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76538-9_10
Tourism Authority of Thailand. (2020). Language & culture. https://www.tourismthailand.org/Articles/plan-your-trip-language-and-culture
Transparency International. (2020). Corruption Perceptions Index 2019. www.transparency.org/cpi
Trapp, N. L. (2011). Staff attitudes to talking openly about ethical dilemmas: The role of business ethics conceptions and trust. Journal of Business Ethics, 103(4), 543–552. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-011-0879-9
Tremblay, M., Martineau, J. T., & Pauchant, T. C. (2017). Managing organizational ethics in the public sector: A pluralist contingency approach as an alternative to the integrity management framework. Public Integrity, 19(3), 219–233. https://doi.org/10.1080/10999922.2016.1230688
Treviño, L. K., & Brown, M. E. (2014). Ethical leadership. In D. V. Day (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of leadership and organizations (pp. 524–538). Oxford University Press.
Treviño, L. K., Brown, M., & Hartman, L. P. (2003). A qualitative investigation of
319
perceived executive ethical leadership: Perceptions from inside and outside the executive suite. Human Relations, 56(1), 5–37. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726703056001448
Udomratn, P. (2009). Psychiatry and Theravada Buddhism. In P. Verhagen, H. M. Van Praag, J. J. López-Ibor, J. Cox, & D. Moussaoui (Eds.), Religion and psychiatry: Beyond boundaries (pp. 193–207). John Wiley & Sons. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470682203.ch11
UN. (2012). Southeast Asia. https://www.un.org/Depts/Cartographic/map/profile/seasia.pdf
UN. (2019). Thailand. https://data.un.org/en/iso/th.html
Vago, D. R., & David, S. A. (2012). Self-awareness, self-regulation, and self-transcendence (S-ART): A framework for understanding the neurobiological mechanisms of mindfulness. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 6(OCTOBER 2012), 296. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2012.00296
Vallabh, P., & Singhal, M. (2014). Buddhism and decision making at individual, group and organizational levels. Journal of Management Development, 33, 763–775. https://doi.org/10.1108/JMD-09-2013-0123
Van Berkel, J., Boot, C. R. L., Proper, K. I., Bongers, P. M., & Van Der Beek, A. J. (2014). Effectiveness of a worksite mindfulness-related multi-component health promotion intervention on work engagement and mental health: Results of a randomized controlled trial. PLoS ONE, 9(1), e84118. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0084118
Van Den Muyzenberg, L. (2014). The contribution of Buddhist wisdom to management development. Journal of Management Development, 33(8/9), 741–750. https://doi.org/10.1108/JMD-10-2013-0128
Van Gordon, W., Shonin, E., & Griffiths, M. D. (2015). Towards a second generation of mindfulness-based interventions. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 49(7), 591–592. https://doi.org/10.1177/0004867415577437
Van Gordon, W., Shonin, E., Griffiths, M. D., & Singh, N. N. (2015a). Mindfulness and the Four Noble Truths. In E. Shonin, W. Van Gordon, & N. N. Singh (Eds.), Buddhist foundations of mindfulness (pp. 9–27). Springer.
Van Gordon, W., Shonin, E., Griffiths, M. D., & Singh, N. N. (2015b). There is only one mindfulness: Why science and buddhism need to work together. Mindfulness, 6(1), 49–56. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-014-0379-y
van Teijlingen, E. R., & Hundley, V. (2001). The importance of pilot studies. Social Research Update, 35.
Verhaeghen, P. (2015). Good and well: The case for secular Buddhist ethics. Contemporary Buddhism, 16(1), 43–54.
320
https://doi.org/10.1080/14639947.2015.1006802
Vikaraman, S. S., Mansor, A. N., Hamzah, M. I. M., Medina, N. I., Gurusamy, V., & Nor, M. Y. M. (2020). Understanding the practice of ethical leadership amongst school principals: Evidence from Malaysia. International Journal of Innovation, Creativity and Change, 11(4), 374–388.
Wallace, B. A., & Shapiro, S. L. (2006). Mental balance and well-being: Building bridges between Buddhism and Western psychology. American Psychologist, 61(7), 690–701. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.61.7.690
Wallmark, E., Safarzadeh, K., Daukantaitė, D., & Maddux, R. E. (2013). Promoting altruism through meditation: An 8-week randomized controlled pilot study. Mindfulness, 4(3), 223–234. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-012-0115-4
Walumbwa, F. O., & Schaubroeck, J. (2009). Leader personality traits and employee voice behavior: Mediating roles of ethical leadership and work group psychological safety. Journal of Applied Psychology, 94(5), 1275–1286.
Wang, L., & Murninghan, J. K. (2011). On greed. Academy of Management Annals, 5(1), 279–316. https://doi.org/10.1080/19416520.2011.588822
Wang, Z., & Xu, H. (2019). When and for whom ethical leadership is more effective in eliciting work meaningfulness and positive attitudes: The moderating roles of core self-evaluation and perceived organizational support. Journal of Business Ethics, 156, 919–940. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-017-3563-x
Watson, D. C. (2018). Self-compassion, the ‘quiet ego’ and materialism. Heliyon, 4(10). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2018.e00883
Webb, W. N. (2012). Ethical culture and the value-based approach to integrity management: A case study of the department of correctional services. Public Administration and Development, 32(1), 96–108. https://doi.org/10.1002/pad.1602
Wei, Y. S., O’Neill, H., & Zhou, N. (2020). How does perceived integrity in leadership matter to firms in a transitional economy? Journal of Business Ethics, 167, 623–641. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-019-04168-x
Weick, K. E., & Putnam, T. (2006). Organizing for mindfulness: Eastern wisdom and western knowledge. Journal of Management Inquiry, 15(3), 275–287.
Weisz, J. R., Chaiyasit, W., Weiss, B., Eastman, K. L., & Jackson, E. W. (1995). A multimethod study of problem behavior among thai and american children in school: Teacher reports versus direct observations. Child Development, 66(2), 402–415.
West, C. P., Dyrbye, L. N., Rabatin, J. T., Call, T. G., Davidson, J. H., Multari, A., Romanski, S. A., Hellyer, J. M. H., Sloan, J. A., & Shanafelt, T. D. (2014). Intervention to promote physician well-being, job satisfaction, and professionalism. JAMA Internal Medicine, 174(4), 527. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2013.14387
321
Wilhelm, W. J., & Gunawong, P. (2016). Cultural dimensions and moral reasoning: A comparative study. International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy, 36(5/6), 335–357. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJSSP-05-2015-0047
Williams, J. M. G., & Kabat-Zinn, J. (2011). Mindfulness: Diverse perspectives on its meaning, origins, and multiple applications at the intersection of science and dharma. Contemporary Buddhism, 12(1), 1–18.
Winzer, L., & Gray, R. S. (2018). The role of Buddhist practices in happiness and health in Thailand: A structural equation model. Journal of Happiness Studies, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-017-9953-z
Wolever, R. Q., Bobinet, K. J., McCabe, K., Mackenzie, E. R., Fekete, E., Kusnick, C. A., & Baime, M. (2012). Effective and viable mind-body stress reduction in the workplace: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 17(2), 246–258. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027278
Wongtes, S. (2000). The Thai people and culture. The Public Relations Department, Foreign Office, Thailand.
Wongtongkam, N., Lampoo, S., Choocherd, P., & Chiangkuntod, S. (2018). Partial efficacy of Vipassana mindfulness approach in alcohol-dependent persons. Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly, 36(1), 3–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/07347324.2017.1355224
Wongtongkam, N., Ward, P. R., Day, A., & Winefield, A. H. (2014). A Trial of mindfulness meditation to reduce anger and violence in Thai youth. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 12(2), 169–180. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-013-9463-0
Wynne, A. (2007). The origin of Buddhist meditation. Routledge.
Yiengprugsawan, V., Seubsman, S., Khamman, S., Lim, L. L.-Y., Sleigh, A. C., & Team, the T. C. S. (2010). Personal wellbeing index in a national cohort of 87,134 Thai adults. Social Indicators Research, 98(2), 201–215. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-009-9542-6
Yin, R. K. (2013). Validity and generalization in future case study evaluations. Evaluation, 19(3), 321–332. https://doi.org/10.1177/1356389013497081
Yin, R. K. (2014). Case study research: Design and methods (5th ed.). Sage.
Yin, R. K. (2016). Qualitative research from start to finish (2nd ed.). Guilford Press.
Young, S. (2016). What is mindfulness? A contemplative perspective. In Kimberly A. Schonert-Reichl & R. W. Roeser (Eds.), Handbook of mindfulness in education (pp. 29–45). Springer-Verlag.
Yukongdi, V. (2010). A study of Thai employees’ preferred leadership style. Asia Pacific Business Review, 16(1–2), 161–181. https://doi.org/10.1080/13602380903168962
322
Yun, D., Jung, H., & Ashihara, K. (2020). Dimensions of leader anger expression unveiled: How anger intensity and gender of leader and observer affect perceptions of leadership effectiveness and status conferral. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 1237. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01237
Zoghbi-Manrique-de-Lara, P., & Viera-Armas, M. (2019). Does ethical leadership motivate followers to participate in delivering compassion? Journal of Business Ethics, 154(1), 195–210. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-017-3454-1
323
APPENDICES
Appendix 1: Guideline for Interview Questions
Opening and Introduction
• Researcher introduces herself.
• Explain the purpose of the interview.
• Ensure anonymity.
• Explain the interview structure.
• Ensure the right to withdraw from the study at any time without having to give
any reasons.
• Ask permission to record the interview to avoid misinterpretation and missing
key points.
• Ask permission to contact for any follow-up work/questions.
• Receive consent to participate in this study.
Main Interview Questions
Research Question 1: What are the core principles underlying Buddhist mindfulness
as understood by Thai organisational executive leaders who practise mindfulness in
the Thai Buddhist context, and how do they apply those principles in their
mindfulness practices?
1. Currently, how often do you practise mindfulness?
2. How do you practise mindfulness?
Probing questions:
- Please explain by giving an example of the way/method that you use to
practise mindfulness.
- How long does it take for each practice session?
- Do you normally go to meditation retreat?
- If yes, please explain how they teach mindfulness and how the
programme is organised.
3. From your own understanding, what Buddhist principles do you perceive as
most fundamental to BM practices?
Probing questions:
- Please briefly explain about the principle you mentioned from your
understanding.
- Why do you think this principle is fundamentally related to mindfulness
practices in Buddhism?
324
4. Do you apply the principles you mentioned earlier to your own mindfulness
practice?
Probing questions:
- Please explain how you apply the principle in your mindfulness practices.
Research Question 2: To explore the extent to which Buddhist mindfulness principles
and practices influence Thai organisational executive leaders’ ethical values and
behaviours.
5. What are the ethical values and behaviours that you think are most
important to you as a leader, and that you personally adhere to?
Probing questions:
- Why such value/behaviour is important for being an ethical leader?
- Please give examples of situations or actions from your own experience
where you put the ethical value into action.
6. To what extent do mindfulness practices influence the ethical values and
behaviours you have identified earlier?
Research Question 3: How does Buddhist mindfulness influence ethical values and
behaviours of Thai organisational executive leaders who are Buddhist mindfulness
practitioners?
7. Please describe how does mindfulness practices influence the ethical values
and behaviours you have identified earlier?
Probing questions:
- Please provide real situations in which you find mindfulness practices are
relevant.
325
Appendix 2: Research Questionnaire Items
Dear Respondent,
I am a PhD candidate at the Global Development Institute, School of
Environment, Education and Development, University of Manchester, United
Kingdom. I am currently working on the research project which focuses on ethical
leadership and mindfulness practices of Thai leaders. In this regard, it is
necessary to collect data from employees’ perspective towards their Thai leaders.
In accordance with the PhD research project conduction, I am writing to request
for your kind cooperation for my doctoral thesis by voluntarily filling this
questionnaire. This data collection has already been approved by your
supervisor/manager. Your responses will be kept strictly confidential and
anonymous. The results will only be applied in academic analysis only.
If you have any further enquiries regarding any aspects of this research, please
contact the researcher without any hesitations at telephone no. +66 84 634 9569,
or email: [email protected]
I am highly grateful for your assistance in this research.
Yours faithfully,
Kunkanit Sutamchai
326
The questionnaire composes of 2 sections as follows:
1) Perception towards the leader
2) Personal information of the respondent
Section 1: Perception towards the leader
Name of Leader: ________________________________
This questionnaire is to describe the behaviours and attitudes of the
abovementioned individual as you perceive it. Please answer all of the questions by
ticking in the boxes below according to the degree of agreement of how well each
of the following statements on the left-hand column describes this leader.
Items
Degree of agreement to statement
Strongly
disagree Disagree Neither Agree
Strongly
agree
1 2 3 4 5
Ethical Leadership Overall
1
The leader conducts his/her
personal life in an ethical
manner.
2
The leader defines success not
just by results but also the way
they are obtained.
3 The leader listens to what
employees have to say.
4 The leader disciplines employees
who violate ethical standards.
5 The leader makes fair and
balanced decisions.
6 The leader can be trusted.
7 The leader discusses business
ethics or values with employees.
8
The leader sets an example of
how to do things the right way in
terms of ethics.
327
Items
Degree of agreement to statement
Strongly
disagree Disagree Neither Agree
Strongly
agree
1 2 3 4 5
9 The leader has the best interests
of employees in mind.
10
When making decisions, the
leader asks "what is the right
thing to do?"
Humane
11 The leader treats others with
dignity and respect.
12 The leader has full recognition of
the rights of others.
13
The leader sees their
subordinates as ends not as
means.
14 The leader is concerned about
employees’ well-being.
Justice
15
The leader makes unbiased
decisions by gathering and
employing accurate information
before making a decision.
16
The leader applies his/her
decisions consistently regarding
people and time.
17
The leader respects diversity and
shows non-discriminatory
treatment of others with regard
to sexual differences, nationality,
religion, political beliefs,
economic or social status.
Responsibility and Sustainability
18 The leader is concerned for the
welfare of society, environment
328
Items
Degree of agreement to statement
Strongly
disagree Disagree Neither Agree
Strongly
agree
1 2 3 4 5
and the needs of future
generations.
19
The leader considers the
consequences of his/her actions,
and always tries to carefully
choose actions that are harmless
to others and society.
20
The leader volunteers to do
things beyond their work for the
benefit of others, society and the
country without expecting
anything in return.
Moderation
21 The leader is able to restrain
his/her emotions.
22 The leader can restrain his/her
personal desires and interests.
23 The leader is modest and humble.
24
The leader attempts to find a
balance between organisational
interests and stakeholders’
interests.
25
The leader is self-sufficient by
living moderately and avoiding
exploitation of others and
environment.
Discipline
26
The leader is disciplined and
takes responsibility for his/her
role.
27
The leader adheres to the law
and the organisation’s codes of
ethics and regulations.
Honesty
329
Items
Degree of agreement to statement
Strongly
disagree Disagree Neither Agree
Strongly
agree
1 2 3 4 5
28 The leader is honest and has
integrity.
29 The leader has the courage to
resist dishonest actions of others.
The Five Precepts of Buddhism
30 The leader abstains from killing
and harming others’ lives.
31 The leader abstains from stealing.
32
The leader always speaks skilfully,
abstaining from lying, malicious
words, harsh language, and
useless talk.
33 The leader abstains from sexual
misconduct.
34
The leader abstains from
misusing alcohol or other
intoxicants.
Continued …
330
Section 2: Personal information of the respondent
Please tick (✓) in the relevant boxes below as appropriate
1. Gender: Female Male
2. Age: Less than 20 years old 20 – 30 years old
31 – 40 years old 41 – 50 years old
51 years old and above
3. How long have you worked in this organisation?
Less than 1 year 1 – 3 years 4 – 9 years 10 – 15 years
Over 16 years
4. How long have you worked with the leader as identified in this questionnaire?
Less than 1 year 1 – 3 years 4 – 9 years 10 – 15 years
Over 16 years
Thank you very much for your kind cooperation
331
Appendix 3: Participant Information Sheet
Participant Information Sheet (For Leaders)
Title of research: The influence of mindfulness on ethical leadership: A study of Buddhist mindfulness practices among organisational leaders in Thailand Introduction You are being invited to take part in a research study as an informant of my doctoral research. This document outlines your role and rights as a participant in this study. Before you decide whether to take part, it is important for you to understand why the research is being conducted and what it will involve. Please take time to read the following information carefully and please do not hesitate to ask me if there is anything that is not clear or if you would like more information. Please take time to decide whether or not you wish to take part. If you agree to participate in this research, the researcher will provide the consent form for you to sign later on. Thank you for taking the time to read this. Who will conduct the research? The study will be conducted by Ms. Kunkanit Sutamchai, a PhD Candidate under the supervision of Dr. Kate Rowlands and Dr. Chris Rees, of the Global Development Institute, School of Environment, Education and Development, the University of Manchester. What is the purpose of the research? The study aims to augment empirical understanding of mindfulness practices in the Eastern Buddhist context, with a particular focus on the extent to which Buddhist mindfulness can influence leaders’ ethical values and behaviour, through the examination of mindfulness practices among Thai organisational executive leaders in the Thai Buddhist context.
332
The objectives of this research are as follows: 1. To examine the understanding and application of the core principles underlying Buddhist mindfulness among Thai organisational executive leaders who practise mindfulness in the Thai Buddhist context. 2. To explore the extent to which Buddhist mindfulness principles and practices influence Thai organisational executive leaders’ ethical values and behaviours. 3. To propose prospective implications of ethical leadership development through mindfulness interventions. Why have I been chosen? You have been selected to participate in this study in view of your experience in mindfulness practices in the Thai Buddhist context, together with your leadership position in the organisation. Your experience in mindfulness practices and recognition of your position in the top management of an organisation in Thailand would provide rich information and valuable knowledge, which would help establishing the evidence-based data for the development of my research area, and your contribution will assist me to attain the objectives of this study. You will be among 40 - 50 participants (Thai organisational executive leaders) chosen for this study. What would I be asked to do if I take part? By accepting to participate in this study, you agree to the following:
1) Be interviewed by the researcher for a period of approximately 2 hours. 2) Allow your direct employees, who work under your direct line of command,
to anonymously respond to the questionnaires on their voluntary basis. What will happen to my personal information and data collected?
In order to undertake the research project, the researcher will need to collect the following personal information/data about you:
• Your name
• Your age
• Your educational background
• Your career background (e.g. your current position, the duration in management position, and your leadership span)
Your personal and organisational data will be strictly kept as confidential, which will not be known to other organisations and participants in this study. Likewise, other participants’ information will not be made known to you.
The interviews will be recorded for voice only (audio recorded). The audio record will be used for transcribing for data analysis. Only the researcher and the supervisory team of this study will have access to this.
We are collecting and storing this personal information in accordance with the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) and Data Protection Act 2018 which
333
legislate to protect your personal information. The legal basis upon which we are using your personal information is “public interest task” and “for research purposes” if sensitive information is collected. For more information about the way we process your personal information and comply with data protection law please see our Privacy Notice for Research Participants.
The University of Manchester, as Data Controller for this project, takes responsibility for the protection of the personal information that this study is collecting about you. In order to comply with the legal obligations to protect your personal data the University has safeguards in place such as policies and procedures. All researchers are appropriately trained, and your data will be looked after in the following way:
Only the researcher and the supervisory team of this study will have access to personal identifiable information, that is data which identify you, but the researcher will anonymise it as soon as possible.
However, your anonymised data, consent form, and contact details will be retained for up to 5 years in the University of Manchester driver with the protection of password, which can only be accessed by the researcher.
You have a number of rights under data protection law regarding your personal information. For example, you can request a copy of the information we hold about you, including audio recordings. This is known as a Subject Access Request. If you would like to know more about your different rights, please consult our privacy notice for research and if you wish to contact us about your data protection rights, please email:
[email protected] or write to The Information Governance Office, Christie Building, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, M13 9PL, and we will guide you through the process of exercising your rights. You also have a right to complain to the Information Commissioner’s Office, Tel +44 303 123
1113
Will my participation in the study be confidential?
Your participation in the study will be kept confidential to the study team and those with access to your personal information as mentioned above. For audio records:
• The recordings will be used to create transcripts.
• The personal information will be removed in the final transcript.
• The audio will be saved in the University driver with the protection of password, which can only be accessed by the researcher.
• The personal information will be kept in the University driver for up to 5 years, and will be digitally altered by the researcher.
What happens if I do not want to take part or if I change my mind?
334
Your participation as respondent in the study is entirely voluntary. You are not obliged to participate if you do not wish to do so. If you do decide to take part, you will be given this information sheet to keep and be asked to sign a consent form. You are free to decline the audio recordings. If you are not comfortable with the recording process at any time, you are free to ask to stop recording. If you decide to take part, you are still free to withdraw at any time without giving a reason and without detriment to yourself. However, it will not be possible to remove your data from the project once it has been anonymised and formed part of the dataset as we will not be able to identify your specific data. This does not affect your data protection rights. Will I be paid for participating in the research? Unfortunately, research participants will not be paid any allowances. What is the duration of the research? The entire research is a 4-year process, and the data gathering is anticipated to last between 4 - 6 months. However, your participation is limited to a maximum of two hours for the interview. Please kindly be noted that after checking the data from your interview and questionnaire, the researcher may ask you to take part in a follow up interview if further information is needed. Where and when will the research be conducted? Given that the data collection of this study is between December 1, 2018 to May 31, 2019, the researcher will appoint to collect data with you on the date and time of your preference within this period, and will take place wherever is most convenient to you. For example, your organisation or any other public spaces deemed to be safe and appropriate. Will the outcomes of the research be published?
The final result of this research will be presented in the form of a thesis to the University for Assessment for the award of a PhD degree. Other than that, some parts of the study data may be presented at academic conferences or published in in peer-reviewed journals. Nonetheless, conscious effort will be made to ensure anonymity, thus ensuring that your identity will not be disclosed in present or future discussions or publications. Who has reviewed the research project? This study has been reviewed by the researcher’s supervisory team and has gone through the ethical review process specified by the University of Manchester Research Ethics Committee. This research has been given a favourable opinion to commence the study.
What if I want to make a complaint?
335
If during the research process, there are issues, concerns, questions or if you want to make a formal complaint about the conduct of the research, please contact with the person/organisation: Minor complaints If you have a minor complaint then you need to contact the researcher(s) in the first instance.
1) MS. KUNKANIT SUTAMCHAI Address: Global Development Institute, School of Environment,
Education and Development, Arthur Lewis Building, University of Manchester, Manchester, M13 9PL, UK
Email: [email protected] Mobile No: +66 846349569 (Thailand), or +44 7428276617 (UK)
2) Dr. Kate Rowlands
Address: Global Development Institute, School of Environment, Education and Development, Arthur Lewis Building, University of Manchester, Manchester, M13 9PL, UK
Email: [email protected] Formal Complaints If you wish to make a formal complaint or if you are not satisfied with the response you have gained from the researchers in the first instance then please contact: The Research Governance and Integrity Manager, Research Office, Christie Building, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PL, by emailing: [email protected], or by telephoning 0161 275 2674. What Do I Do Now? If you have any queries about the study or if you are interested in taking part then please contact the researcher:
MS. KUNKANIT SUTAMCHAI
Address: Global Development Institute, School of Environment, Education and Development, Arthur Lewis Building, University of Manchester, Manchester, M13 9PL, UK
Email: [email protected] Mobile No: +66 846349569 (Thailand), or +44 7428276617 (UK)
Signature …………………………………………..… Date………………………..
This Project Has Been Approved through the ethical review process as specified by
the University of Manchester’s Research Ethics Committee
336
Appendix 4: Consent Form
The influence of mindfulness on ethical leadership: A study of Buddhist mindfulness practices among organisational
leaders in Thailand
CONSENT FORM (Interview)
If you are happy to participate please complete and sign
the consent form below Please initial box
I agree to take part in the above project.
Name of participant
Date Signature
Name of researcher
Date Signature
This Project Has Been Approved by the School of Environment, Education and
Development, University of Manchester, England, UK
1. I confirm that I have read the attached information sheet on the
above project and have had the opportunity to consider the
information and ask questions and had these answered
satisfactorily.
2. I understand that my participation in the study is voluntary
and that I am free to withdraw at any time without giving a
reason and without detriment to any treatment/service/self.
3. I understand that the interviews will be audio-recorded.
4. I agree to the use of anonymous quotes.
5. I agree that any data collected may be passed as anonymous data to other researchers.
6. I agree to my data being retained for the next five years for further research.