the importance of community participation in … · community participation in on going primary...

This Master Thesis is carried out as a part of the education at the University of Agder and is

therefore approved as a part of this education. However, this does not imply that the

University answers for the methods that are used or the conclusions that are drawn.

University of Agder, 2010

Faculty of Economics and Social Sciences

Centre for Development Studies

THE IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNITY

PARTICIPATION IN ONGOING

CONSTRUCTION OF PRIMARY SCHOOLS

MOROGORO, TANZANIA – A CASE OF MLALI AND MZUMBE WARDS

THERESIA LEONARD MNARANARA

Master Thesis in Development Management

Master thesis

The importance of community participation in ongoing construction of primary Schools: Morogoro, Tanzania - A Case of Mlali and Mzumbe Wards

By

Theresia L. Mnaranara

The master thesis is carried out as a part of the education at the University of Agder and is therefore approved as such. However, this does not imply that the

University answers for the methods that are used or the conclusions that are drawn.

Supervisor:

KJELL HAVNEVIK

The University of Agder, Kristiansand

May 2010

ii

Master Thesis in Development Management

Centre for Development Studies

Faculty of Economics and Social Sciences

University of Agder

The importance of community participation in ongoing construction of primary Schools: Morogoro, Tanzania.

A Case of Mlali and Mzumbe wards

Theresia Leonard Mnaranara

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ABSTRACT

The purpose of this study was to examine the importance of community participation in on going construction of primary schools. A case study of Mzumbe and Mlali wards in Mvomero District. The study was guided by the four objectives which were, to assess the roles of local community participation in on going construction of primary schools, to find out the extent to which the Government supported in on going construction of primary schools, to identify the benefits of community participation in on going primary schools construction, to examine the Challenges which encountered during the ongoing construction of primary schools.

Four data collection methods were employed which were observation, interview, questionnaire and documentary review.

The analysis showed that the community were participated in on going primary school construction through, provision of money and materials contribution for example stone, sand and burnt bricks, in terms of decision making on the construction projects, in terms of labour offering, in terms of paying tax.

The analysis also showed that, the government supported the on going primary school construction through provision of fund, provision of expertise e.g. civil engineer and provision of standard artectual drawings.

The study showed the benefit of community participation in on going primary school construction includes ownership of the project, high enrollment of pupils in primary school, short distance to schools, meet construction of school target and participating in decision through school committee.

The study showed the challenges encountered during the on going construction of primary school as follows, misuse of government fund, fund released for on going school construction was not enough to do all the planned activities, slow community participation in the contribution of materials, presence of famine, fluctuation of price of building materials, existence of multiple projects, HIV AIDS, and political ideology.

The study concluded that Community mobilization is very crucial because it creates awareness among stakeholders, people become aware of their material resources, their leadership, their technical expertise and the kind of help they are likely to need from outside, people should be mobilized through education and training on the importance of their projects and to make them feel that projects belongs to them, with mobilization, various village resources should be identified and daily recognized within the rules and institutions that creates predictable and transparent framework of both private and public sector. In this manner, people will be in a position to make decision on matters concerning their social development.

Involvement of people in on going primary school construction gives them power to make decisions pertaining to their social development, where people enjoy awareness of all the processes related to their social economic needs and inclinations.

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The study recommended that, at community level the school committees be strengthened in order to enable grassroots stakeholders including the poor women, young people and others who are by passed or marginalized to be able to influence decision making and transform schools through facilitating meaningfully participation, and there are many politicians within communities who can be very usefully in uniting peoples efforts to bring about primary education development .This includes ministers, members of parliament, respected retired officers and councilors. This people should be used to inspire and mobilized other people to bring about educational changes. They have the ability to create sustainability and development of primary school project in their localities.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

A number of people contributed in one way or another toward success of this thesis report. However any few will be mentioned to represent all those who assisted me both morally and materially toward my academic success.

First of all I thank my Lord for enabling me in all ways to achieve this stage. Secondly, I would

like to express my sincerely appreciation to Prof. Henvik kjell, a Lecturer at University of Agder,

being my Major Supervisor, and the management of Agder University for providing with me the

scholarship for this course, with special thanks to Prof. Arne Olav Oyhus, Mrs Jannik Timeness

and Ms.Camilla Michalsen.

Also, I am highly indepted to Prof. Kamuzora, Dr. S. Kinemo, Dr. Kihombo, Dr. Makombe, Mr.

Simon Njovu (Coordinator of the course) and Mr. D. Bahasha of Mzumbe University for

motivating me through out the study and providing valuable comments and advice. Mr. F.

Mtelesi and Mr. W. Dossa are appreciated for their assistance in obtaining data, analyzing and

doing final settings to this paper.

I would also like to convey my sincere thanks to Leadership of Mvomero District for their supportive cooperation and permission to reproduce documentary materials which have been helped in fulfilling this work.

I am deeply indebted to my husband Deogratias Shabani for his prayer and support from the beginning to the end of this course.

Finally, I would like to stress that, the entire above are no way associated with any errors that may be found in this work, all the shortcomings of this study are entirely the author’s responsibility.

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DECLARATION BY CANDIDATE

I hereby declare that the thesis:

The importance of community participation in ongoing construction of primary Schools in Morogoro, Tanzania - A case of Mzumbe and Mlali wards

has not been submitted to any other Universities than University of Agder for any type of academic degree.

25th May 2010

_________________ ___________________

Theresia L. Mnaranara Date

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DEDICATION

This work is dedicated to the sincere and everlasting love of my parents, Mr. and Mrs Leonard S. Kapongo, my mother Yuster Barnaba, my mother in-law Mrs. Anna Shabani and my Husband Deogratius Shabani for their devotion in assisting me to pursue this study and their tolerance when they missed my physical presence due to my studies and preparation of this work.

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TABLE OF CONTENT ABSTRACT ................................ ................................ ......................... iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ................................ ................................ ......v

DECLARATION BY CANDIDATE................................ ..................... vi

DEDICATION................................ ................................ ......................vii

TABLE OF CONTENT................................ ................................ ...... viii

LIST OF FIGURES ................................ ................................ ..............xii

LIST OF PHOTOS ................................ ................................ ...............xii

CHAPTER ONE................................ ................................ ..................... 1

1.0 Introduction................................ ................................ .................... 1

1.1 Background of the Problem and Choice of the study ................................ ................................ ... 2

1.2 The Research Objectives................................ ................................ ................................ ............. 3

1.2.1 General Objective................................ ................................ ................................ ................ 3

1.2.2 Specific Objectives................................ ................................ ................................ ............. 3

1.3 Research Questions................................ ................................ ................................ ..................... 3

CHAPTER TWO ................................ ................................ .................... 5

2.0 Literature Review and Theoretical Framework .............................. 5

2.1 Introduction ................................ ................................ ................................ ............................... 5

2.2 The concept of community................................ ................................ ................................ .......... 5

2.3 The Idea of Participation ................................ ................................ ................................ ............... 6

2.4 Community participation................................ ................................ ................................ ............. 9

2.5 Forms of community participation................................ ................................ ............................... 9

2.6 Community Participation in Education ................................ ................................ ...................... 10

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2.7 Importance of community participation................................ ................................ ..................... 11

2.8 Obstacles to Community Participation................................ ................................ ....................... 12

2.9 Factors Influencing Community Participation................................ ................................ ............ 13

2.9.1 Attitude................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ . 13

2.9.2 Leadership qualities ................................ ................................ ................................ .............. 14

2.9.3 Centralization of decision-making ................................ ................................ ......................... 14

2.9.4 Transparency................................ ................................ ................................ ......................... 15

2.9.5 Resources................................ ................................ ................................ .............................. 15

2.9.6 Rules................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ..... 15

2.9.7 Personal attributes ................................ ................................ ................................ ................. 16

2.9.8 Pre-requisites of effective participation................................ ................................ .................. 16

2.9.9 Usefulness of participation in project development ................................ ............................... 16

2.10 Empirical Literature Review ................................ ................................ ................................ ..... 18

2.10.1 Idea and Experiences of Participatory Approach from other countries................................ .. 18

CHAPTER THREE ................................ ................................ ..............21

3.0 Research Methodology................................ ................................ .21

3.1 Introduction ................................ ................................ ................................ .............................. 21

3.2 Research Design ................................ ................................ ................................ ....................... 21

3.3 The area of the study................................ ................................ ................................ ................. 21

Table 3.1: Distribution of Administrative Units in Mvomero District...22

3.4 Population of the study................................ ................................ ................................ .............. 22

3.5 Sample Size and Sampling Procedure................................ ................................ ........................ 22

3.5.1 Sample ................................ ................................ ................................ ............................. 22

3.5.2 Method of Sampling ................................ ................................ ................................ ......... 23

Table 3.2: Sample size for the study ................................ ................................ ............................... 23

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3.6 Methods of Data Collection................................ ................................ ................................ ....... 24

3.6.1 Interviews................................ ................................ ................................ ......................... 24

3.6.2 Questionnaires ................................ ................................ ................................ .................... 24

3.6.3 Observation................................ ................................ ................................ ......................... 24

3.6.4 Documentary Review ................................ ................................ ................................ .......... 25

3.7 Data analysis and Interpretation ................................ ................................ ................................ ..... 25

3.8 Challenges of the study................................ ................................ ................................ .................. 26

CHAPTER FOUR................................ ................................ ................. 29

4.0 Research Findings, Analysis and Discussion ............................... 29

4.1 Introduction ................................ ................................ ................................ .............................. 29

4.2 Assessment of the Roles of Local Community Participation in ongoing Construction of Primary Schools ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ................. 29

4.2.1 Assessment of the Roles of Local Community Participation in on Going Construction of Primary Schools................................ ................................ ................................ ............................. 29

4.2.2 Community participation in terms of decision making Attendance of meetings ...................... 39

4.2.3 Community participation in terms of labour offering ................................ ............................. 40

4.2 The Extent of Government Support in ongoing Construction of Primary Schools ........................ 45

4.2.1 Provision of funds for school construction ................................ ................................ ............. 45

4.2.2 Provision of expertise e.g. civil engineer ................................ ................................ ............... 46

4.2.3 Provision of standard for classroom construction and artectual drawing ................................ . 46

4.3 Identification of Benefits of Community Participation in ongoing Primary Schools Construction .. ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ................. 47

4.3.1 Ownership of the project ................................ ................................ ................................ ....... 47

4.3.3 Short distance to sampled schools................................ ................................ .......................... 51

4.3.4 Meet construction of school targets ................................ ................................ ....................... 51

4.3.5 School committee................................ ................................ ................................ .................. 52

4.4 The Challenge Encountered During the ongoing Construction of Primary Schools ........................ 52

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4.4.1 Misuse of Government fund ................................ ................................ ................................ .. 52

4.4.2 Fund Released for ongoing school construction was not enough to do all the Planned Activities................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ...................... 52

4.4.3 Slow community participation in the contribution of materials................................ ............. 54

4.4.4 Presence of famine ................................ ................................ ................................ .............. 55

4.4.5 Fluctuation of prices of building materials ................................ ................................ ............. 55

4.4.6 Existence of multiple projects................................ ................................ ................................ 55

4.4.7 HIV/AIDS Impacts ................................ ................................ ................................ ............... 55

4.4.8 Political Ideology ................................ ................................ ................................ .................. 56

CHAPTER FIVE ................................ ................................ .................. 57

5.0 Conclusion and Recommendation................................ ............... 57

5.1 Introduction ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ . 57

5.2 Conclusions ................................ ................................ ................................ .............................. 57

5.3 Recommendations................................ ................................ ................................ ....................... 57

5.3.1 The Government should allocate enough funds earlier to achieve the planned in on going primary school construction. ................................ ................................ ................................ .......... 57

5.3.2 There is a need to involve the Communities to the Greater Extent ................................ ..... 58

5.3.3 Coordinating multiple projects ................................ ................................ ............................ 58

5.3.4 At community level................................ ................................ ................................ ............. 58

5.3.5 The politicians................................ ................................ ................................ ..................... 58

LIST OF REFERENCE ................................ ................................ ........59

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LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. 4.1: Enrollment for age going Children (7 years old) – Mlali Ward ................................ ....49

Fig. 4.2: Enrollment for Children with 7 years old in Mzumbe Ward................................ .........51

Fig. 4.3: Percentage Approval for Budget Released by Components for financing different sections in Mzumbe ward................................ ................................ ................................ .......... 54

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LIST OF PHOTOS

Photo 3.1: The researcher’s means of transport during data Collection in the sampled Primary Schools. ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ....26

Photo 4.1: Burnt bricks contributed by the community at Vikenge Primary school in Mzumbe Ward. ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ........30

Photo 4.2: Stone contributed by community at Kipera Primary school in Mlali Ward................ 32

Photo 4.3: Sand Contributed by the community at Masanze Primary School in Mzumbe Ward.34

Photo 4.4: On going Classroom construction at Kipera Primary school in Mlali ward............... 35

Photo 4.5: Ongoing teachers’ house at Vikenge Primary school in Mzumbe Ward .................... 37

Photo 4.6: Ongoing toilets construction at Lugono primary school in Mlali Ward ..................... 39

Photo 4.7: The foundation construction stage at Masanze primary school in Mzumbe Ward......41

Photo 4.8: Wall construction stage at Kimambila primary school in Mzumbe Ward .................. 43

Photo 4.9: The finishing construction stage at Lugono Primary School in Mlali Ward............... 44

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1: Distribution of Administrative Units in Mvomero District ................................ ........22

Table 3.3: Summary of variables, indicators and data source ................................ ..................... 28

Table 4.4: Enrollment for age going Children (7 years old) – Mlali Ward................................ ..47

Table 4.5: Enrollment for Children with 7 Years Old Mzumbe Ward ................................ ........50

Table 4.6: Percentage Approval for Budget Released by Components for financing different sections in Mzumbe ward................................ ................................ ................................ .......... 53

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LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix 1: Questionnaires for Villagers at Mlali and Mzumbe Ward in Mvomero Districts ....64

Appendix 2: Interview Guide ................................ ................................ ................................ ....67

Appendix 3: Documentary Review Guide ................................ ................................ ................. 68

Appendix 4: Observation Guide ................................ ................................ ................................ 69

Appendix 5: Standard Map for classrooms ................................ ................................ ................ 70

Appendix 6: Standard Map for classrooms ................................ ................................ ................ 71

Appendix 7: Letter of permission for data collection from Mzumbe University ......................... 72

Appendix 8: Letter of acceptance for data collection from Mvomero Districts........................... 73

Appendix 9: Map of Mvomero District................................ ................................ ...................... 74

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

REPOA Research on Poverty Alleviation

SEDP Secondary Education Development Programme

UNICEF United Nation Children’s Fund

UNESCO United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural organization

URT United Republic of Tanzania

UK United Kingdom

USA United State of America

PEDP Primary Education Development Plan

NSGPR National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty

NGO Non Government Organization

WEO Ward Executive Officer

WEC Ward Education Coordinator

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CHAPTER ONE

1.0 Introduction The Government of the United Republic of Tanzania recognizes the central role of education in achieving the overall development goal of improving the quality of life for its citizens. It considers the provision of quality Universal Primary Education for all the most reliable way of building a sustainable future for the country.

Lessons learned from developed and newly industrialized countries point to the fact that investing in education leads to faster growth. Further, countries that have equalized their education achievements for men and women in the last several decades have on average grown faster. It is for this reason that developing countries especially in Sub-Sahara African are now paying greater attention to investment in education Tanzania included (REPOA, 2003).

The Government of Tanzania adopted the Tanzania Development vision 2025 in May 1999.In building a competitive and dynamic economy, the vision underscores five main attributes:

(i) A high quality livelihood based on sustainable and shared growth, and free from abject poverty.

(ii) Peace, political stability, national unity and social cohesion in an environment of democracy, political and social tolerance.

(iii)Good Governance and the rule of law which ensures that Tanzanians are empowered with the capacity to make their leaders and public servants accountable.

(iv) A well educated and learning society whose people are ingrained with development mindset and competitive spirit to face development challenges and globalization.

(v) A strong and competitive economy which can effectively cope with the challenges of development and adaptation on the changing market and technological conditions in the regional and global economy (NSGRP:2005).

The Framework for the implementation of vision underlines the imperative of good governance which builds accountability and transparency, development mindset and competitiveness, democratization and popular participation, development of human capital, promotion of investment and infrastructure and putting in place of frame work on monitoring and evaluation. The vision underscores that only through participatory process and effective leadership that Tanzania will promote people’s development and its management by themselves.

Structural reform, economic and political liberation have put in place the necessary conditions for tackling poverty and sustainable development the necessary and apparent, also sufficient conditions for an effective development policy for developed and African countries in general. Among those conditions is to enhance the ownership of the development agenda, which enables

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to determine the priorities and capabilities of the economy to achieve the targets of development plans strategies.

Unleashing the potential of broad based growth with participation of all actors and stakeholders in the economy to achieve high rates of sustained economic growth and sustainable development was another condition.

Therefore, in order to achieve sustainable development, Tanzania had to change the nature and character of economic system by improving access and quality of service delivery, strengthening local government financially through local taxation aimed at reducing dependency on the government and increasing local contribution through community development policy, which ultimately increase community participation (empowerment) in development activities in implementing and decision making process.

Oakley and Marsden (1999) observed that though there was high people’s participation in development activities in the 1980s, attention in education was still low. There was therefore, a need for deliberate attention by the government of Tanzania to make sure that people participated fully in education development.

There has been a deliberate initiative by the government to make sure that every child in the country attains primary education for free, and that people participate in the building of infrastructure for primary schools. To what extend peoples participation has accrued is still a question.

1.1 Background of the Problem and Choice of the study

Tanzania has a long history in participatory development. Since independence the focus of the government has been in enhancing people’s participation in various development projects. Effort to promote citizen participation was reflected in various policies and projects that were adopted during that time. These include establishment of Local Government system and abolition of the non- elected native authorities in 1972.

The Arusha Declaration of 1967 introduced socialism and self reliance and laid down general principles to be followed in all spheres of social economic development in Tanzania. To facilitate active participation of the people, the government passed out the ujamaa Villages Act in 1975. This legislation required all people in villages to live in planned settlements so that they could be served easily by the government and that participation in various development activities would be enhanced.

In 1972 the government introduced major changes in local governance. The changes were stipulated in the decentralization policy of 1972 (Fundi 2005:3). Under these changes the central government resumed full responsibility in implementation of all policies. This situation hindered effective participation because now people were turned to passive recipients of government orders instead of key players in social-economic development.

To enhance the role of Local Authorities and people’s participation in development activities the government adopted comprehensive reform in local government system since the year 2000.

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Local authorities are envisaged to facilitate the participation of the people in deciding on matters affecting their lives, planning and executing their development programmes and fosters partnership with civic groups (Policy paper on Local Government Reform, 1998)

Despite the long-lived intention by the government to enhance participation, in many parts of Tanzania participation is still inadequate. Involvement of people in the development process usually results in lack of ownership and sustainability of development programs. This often causes the communities to lose interest in these programmes, which in turn increases dependency on government resources. A number of questions need to be addressed to make participation effective, among them include the capacity of people to participate and their preferences in participation. With the ongoing local government reform, there is an indication that, people’s participation in all planning and implementation might become a reality. Nevertheless, the local authorities and people are not capacitated in this effort.

This paper therefore, aims at examining the importance of community participation in ongoing construction of primary schools in Mvomero district, specifically Mlali and Mzumbe wards in Morogoro, Tanzania.

1.2 The Research Objectives

1.2.1 General Objective

The general objective of this study is to examine the importance of community participation in ongoing construction of primary schools in Mzumbe and Mlali wards in Mvomero District.

1.2.2 Specific Objectives There are fourfold specific objectives for this study. These include:

(i) To assess the roles of local community participation in on going construction of primary schools.

(ii) To find out the extent to which the Government supports the ongoing construction of primary schools.

(iii)To identify the benefits of community participation in ongoing primary schools construction.

(iv) To examine the Challenges encountered during the ongoing construction of primary schools.

1.3 Research Questions

This study focused on four questions which include the following:

(i) What are the roles of community participation in ongoing construction of primary schools?

(ii) To what extent has the government supported the ongoing construction of primary schools?

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(iii)What are the benefits of community participation in ongoing primary schools construction?

(iv) What are the challenges which were encountered during the ongoing construction of primary schools?

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CHAPTER TWO

2.0 Literature Review and Theoretical Framework

2.1 Introduction This chapter reviews the literature on theoretical and empirical framework concerning the concepts of community participation and development activities, as presented by the various writers and practical experiences on “Community Participation” in development projects and their perception in relation to its effectiveness. on the part of theoretical literature review will focus on the definition of community, meaning of participation, community participation, forms of community participation, community participation in education, importance of community participation, obstacles to community participation, Pre-requisites of effective participation, Usefulness of participation in project development and factors influencing community participation, on the other hand of empirical literature review will focus on experiences of community participation in primary education in selected countries and development of community participation in Tanzania.

2.2 The concept of community Communities are typically, although not universally, defined on the basis of their geographical foundations, as occupying a particular geographical space (Dalby and Mackenzie, 1997; Fortmann and Roe, 1993). Communities can be defined by characteristics that the members share, such as culture, language, tradition, law, geography, class, and race. As Shaeffer (1998) argues that, some communities are homogeneous while others are heterogeneous; and some united while others conflictive. Some communities are governed and managed by leaders chosen democratically who act relatively autonomously from other levels of government, and some are governed by leaders imposed from above and represent central authorities. Bray (1996) identifies three types of communities. The first is geographic community, which is defined according to its members’ place of residence, such as a village or district. The second type is ethnic, racial, and religious, in which membership is based on ethnic, racial, or religious identification, and commonly cuts across membership based on geographic location. The third one is communities based on shared family or educational concerns, which include parents associations and similar bodies that are based on families’ shared concern for the welfare of students. Zenter (1964) points out three aspects of communities. First, community is a group structure, whether formally or informally organised; in which members play roles which are integrated around goals associated with the problems from collective occupation and utilization of habitational space. Second, members of the community have some degree of collective identification with the occupied space. Lastly, the community has a degree of local autonomy and responsibility. In this study, a community is defined as a village or more than one village or group of people within a village who share common characteristics (URT, 1999).

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2.3 The Idea of Participation Many researchers, academicians and practitioners have provided various insights to understand the concept of participation with a common definition. To find an ideal definition is difficult, as it is historically related with different ideologies, thus acquiring different meanings. While some view participation as a result of a bottom up empowering process, others see it more in a project context.

The World Bank defines participation as “a process through which stakeholders’ influence and share control over development initiatives, decisions and resources. However the amount of literature and the popular widespread use of participatory methods make it difficult to give a definition of the concept that would cover all its different ways of conceiving and applying it. Oakley (1991) has gathered four different statements on participation that illustrate the range of interpretations with regard to the relationship between people and project as follows:-

(a) Participation as a voluntary contribution by the people in one or another of the public programmes supposed to contribute to national development, but the people are not expected to take part in shaping the programme or criticizing its content (Economic Commission for Latin America (1973).

(b) In the perspective of rural development, participation implies/includes people’s

involvement in the decisions making process, in implementing programmes, and their sharing in the benefit f development programmes (Cohen and Uphoff 1972).

(c) At the social level, Pearse and Stiefel (1979) see participation as an organized

effort to increase control over resources and regulative institutions in given social situations on the part of groups and movements of those hitherto from such control.

(d) At the project level Paul (1987) generally sees participation as an active process

by which beneficiary or client groups influence the direction and execution of a development project with a view to enhancing their well-being in terms of income, personal growth, self-reliance, or other values they cherish.

Though the given statements are not necessarily mutually exclusive, they represent different forms of participation. They range from seeing participation merely as people’s involvement in a project where they can obtain economic and social benefits. This implies participation in decision making through – and/or empowering weak groups.

Participation is a versatile powerful imagery but whose interpretation remains elusive. It can be virtually used by different authors to serve individual needs. In this respect Carry and Lee (1970) have identified the following meanings to participation:-

(i) Passive Participation – people participate by being told what is going to happen or has already happened. It is a unilateral announcement by an administrator or project management without listening to people’s responses. The information being shared belongs only to external professionals.

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(ii) Participation in information giving – people participate by answering questions

passed by extractive researchers using questionnaires surveys or similar approaches. People do not have the opportunity to influence proceedings, as the findings of the research are neither shared nor checked for accuracy.

(iii) Participation by consultation – people participate by being consulted, and external people listen to their views. These external professionals define both problems and solutions, and may modify these in the light of people’s responses. Such a consultative process does not concede any share in decision-making and professionals are under obligation to take on board peoples views.

(iv) Participation for material incentives – people participate by providing

resources, for example, labour in return for food, cash or other material incentives. Much of farm research fall in this category as farmers provide the field but are not in the experimentation or the process of learning. It is very common to see this called participation, yet people have no stake in prolonging activities when the incentives end.

(v) Functional participation – participation is seen as a means to achieve project

goals, especially reduce costs. Their involvement may be interactive, but the major decisions tend to be made in advance by external agents.

(vi) Interactive participation – people participate in joint analysis, development of

action plans using local institutions. Participation is seen as their right. As people take control over local decisions and determine how available resources are used, so they have a stake in maintaining the structures or practices.

(vii) Self mobilization – people participate by taking initiatives independent of

external institutions to change systems. They develop contacts with external institutions for resources and technical advice they need, but retain control over how resources are used. Such self initiated mobilization and collective action may or may not challenge existing inequitable distribution of wealth and power. These interpretations of participation outlined above have the weakness of being project oriented while others are a smoke screen to the community intended. Listing information giving a passive participation denies the community the ability to decide, implement and responsibility. Community members become passive recipients of decisions made by others. In this study we anticipate interactive participation for an education process.

This type of participation will increase efficiency in the use of available resources participation can for example, help minimize misunderstanding or possible disagreements and thus time and energy, often spent by professional staff explaining or convincing people of project benefits. Interactive participation is also cost effective since, if rural people are taking responsibility for a project less external resources will be required while highly paid professional staff will get tied down in the details of project administration. Participation, therefore allows for more efficient use of the resources available to a project (Oakley, 1991).

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(viii) Secondary participation increases the effectiveness of a project especially in rural areas. People see the project as “theirs” rather than something externally generated. Participation allows these people to have a voice in determining objectives, support project administration and make use of their local knowledge, skills and resources available. A major reason why many projects have not been effective in the past in achieving objectives is because local people were not involved. Participation by consultation – people participate by being consulted, and external people listen to their views. These external professionals define both problems and solutions, and may modify these in the light of people’s responses. Such a consultative process does not concede any share in decision-making and professionals are under obligation to take on board peoples views.

(ix) Participation for material incentives – people participate by providing

resources, for example, labour in return for food, cash or other material incentives. Much of farm research fall in this category as farmers provide the field but are not in the experimentation or the process of learning. It is very common to see this called participation, yet people have no stake in prolonging activities when the incentives end.

(x) Functional participation – participation is seen as a means to achieve project

goals, especially reduce costs. Their involvement may be interactive, but the major decisions tend to be made in advance by external agents.

(xi) Interactive participation – people participate in joint analysis, development of

action plans using local institutions. Participation is seen as their right. As people take control over local decisions and determine how available resources are used, so they have a stake in maintaining the structures or practices.

(xii) Self mobilization – people participate by taking initiatives independent of

external institutions to change systems. They develop contacts with external institutions for resources and technical advice they need, but retain control over how resources are used. Such self initiated mobilization and collective action may or may not challenge existing inequitable distribution of wealth and power.

These interpretations of participation outlined above have the weakness of being project oriented while others are a smoke screen to the community intended. Listing information giving a passive participation denies the community the ability to decide, implement and responsibility. Community members become passive recipients of decisions made by others. In this study we anticipate interactive participation for an education process.

This type of participation will increase efficiency in the use of available resources participation can for example, help minimize misunderstanding or possible disagreements and thus time and energy, often spent by professional staff explaining or convincing people of project benefits. Interactive participation is also cost effective since, if rural people are taking responsibility for a project less external resources will be required while highly paid professional staff will get tied

9

down in the details of project administration. Participation, therefore allows for more efficient use of the resources available to a project (Oakley, 1991).

Secondary participation increases the effectiveness of a project especially in rural areas. People see the project as “theirs” rather than something externally generated. Participation allows these people to have a voice in determining objectives, support project administration and make use of their local knowledge, skills and resources available. A major reason why many projects have not been effective in the past in achieving objectives is because local people were not involved.

Interactive participation also promotes the spirit of self reliance. Self reliance refers to positive effects on rural people of participating in development projects. Participation helps to break the mentality of dependence that characteristics much development work and as a result promotes self-awareness and confidence causing rural people to examine their problems and to think positively about solutions. Participation is concerned with human development and increases people’s sense of control over issues which affect their lives, helps them to learn to plan and implement their development activities (Oakley 1999). Another critical/crucial advantage of participation is the ability to increase sustainability of the project through awareness and possible ownership feelings.

2.4 Community participation The term community participation also carries different interpretations and inclinations although the interpretations and inclinations cannot be divorced from the broader aim of encouraging the active participation of local people in the process as a whole (Oakley, 1989). Community involvement ranges from participation in activities defined by outsiders to the management and ownership of activities developed primarily by community members themselves (Aubel and Samba, 1996). The cornerstone of community-based development initiatives is the active involvement of members of a defined community in at least some aspects of project design and implementation (Mansuri and Rao, 2004). Colletta and Perkins (1995) illustrate various forms of community participation: (a) research and data collection; (b) dialogue with policymakers; (c) school management; (d) curriculum design; (e) development of learning materials; and (f) school construction.

2.5 Forms of community participation

Basing on different authors arguments, participation can take different forms and can be active or passive in nature. Ulderfer (1998) sees participation in six forms of passive, contractual, consultative, and collaborative, community self-mobilisation and participation among colleagues. According to Uldefer (1998) passive participation is practiced when a group of people receive information about something that will occur or has already occurred. The idea for community participation comes from outside the community. The participatory interaction occurs in only one direction from those who have made decisions towards those who must listen. Contractual participation is when community’s participation takes place through a formal arrangement. Consultative participation refers to a situation when the initiative to participate comes from outside basing on the desires and needs of the people. The agent from outside defines the problems and solutions. In collaborative participation an agent and community

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participate in diagnosing the problem till implementation, monitoring and evaluating the initiatives. Participation “among colleagues” emphasises on activities that can increase the abilities of local people. Another form of community participation is called community self-mobilisation whereby the community self-mobilises in the identification of a problem and its solution without the existence of an outside initiative. Shaeffer (1994) provides different degrees of participation as follows: involvement through the contribution (or extraction) of money, materials, and labour; involvement through ‘attendance’ (e.g. parents’ meetings at school, implying passive acceptance of decisions made by others; involvement through the mere use of a service (such as enrolling children in school or using a primary health care facility); involvement through consultation on a particular issue; participation in the delivery of a service, often as a partner with other actors; participation as implementers of delegated powers; and participation “in real decision-making at every stage,” including identification of problems, the study of feasibility, planning, implementation, and evaluation.

Shaeffer (1994) clarifies that the first four definitions connote largely passive collaboration, whereas the last three items means a much more active role. Shaeffer further provides activities that involve a high degree of participation in a wider development context, which can also be applied in the education sector, including: collecting and analyzing data; defining priorities and setting goals; assessing available resources; deciding on and planning programmes; designing strategies to implement these programmes and dividing responsibilities among participants; monitoring progress of the programmes; and evaluating results and impact.

2.6 Community Participation in Education Heneveld and Craig (1996) recognize parent and community support as one of the key factors to determine school effectiveness in Sub-Saharan Africa. They identify five categories of parent and community support that are relevant to the region: (i) children come to school prepared to learn; (ii) the community provides financial and material support to the school; (iii) communication between the school, parents, and community is frequent; (iv) community has a meaningful role in school governance; and (v) community members and parents assist with instruction.

Williams (1994) argues that there are three models of Education and Community. The first one is traditional community-based education, in which communities provide new generations of young people with the education necessary for transmitting local norms and economic skills. In this model, education is deeply embedded in local social relations, and school and community are closely linked. The second model is government-provided education, in which governments have assumed responsibility for providing and regulating education. The content of education has been largely standardized within and across countries, and governments have diminished the role of the community. However, a lack of resources and management incapability has proven that governments cannot provide the community with adequate resources for education delivery, fully-equipped school buildings, and a full range of grades, teachers and instructional materials. This triggers the emergence of the collaborative model, in which community plays a supportive role in government provision of education. Williams further presents a model that shows the relations between the role of community and local demand.

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Epstein (1995) summarizes various types of involvement to explain how schools, families, and communities can work productively together:

• Parenting – to help all families to establish home environments that support children’s learning at school;

• Communicating – to design effective forms of school-to-home-to-school

communication that enables parents to learn about school programmes and their children’s progress in schools as well as teachers to learn about how children do at home;

• Volunteering – to recruit and organise parents’ help and support;

• Learning at home – to provide information and ideas to families about how to help

students at home with home-work and other curriculum-related activities, decision, and planning;

• Decision-making- to include families in school decisions, to have parent leaders and

representatives in school meetings; and

• Collaborating with the community – to identify and integrate resources as well as services from the community in order to strengthen school programmes, family practices, and student learning.

Bray (1996) provides the following degrees of participation in education; designing policy, curriculum development, teachers hiring/firing, supervision, payment of teachers, teacher training, textbook distribution, certification, building and maintenance of classrooms and mobilizing resources. Rose (2003) argues that there is potentially a range of areas in which communities can be involved in education from mobilizations of resources and constructing classrooms, to supporting the development of curriculum and design of policy.

Drawing from the above one can conclude that community participation in education varies widely in different areas. However, community participation in education in this study will refer to construction of classrooms, teacher’s houses, school toilets and teachers’ offices. Furthermore, participation is used to refer to attendance of meetings, contribution of cash, contribution of labour and involvement in decision-making in the sense elaborated by Shaeffer (1994). More specifically, participation in this study is focused on the construction of classrooms, teachers’ houses and school toilets.

2.7 Importance of community participation It is now widely accepted that community participation contributes a lot to the development of projects. Specifically, community participation in education can improve the educational delivery in primary schools. Extensive literature search has identified the importance of community participation in education.

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Lancaster (2002) points out the importance of community participation as follows: the approach helps the project to be sustainable as communities themselves learn how to adopt and correct changes resulting from the project; partnership or participation helps to protect interest of the people concerned; it enhances dignity and self reliance among people, that is, they are enabled to obtain and do things by themselves; communities become aware of the project implementation as they have a great store of wisdom and skills. They understand their local needs and the nature of their environment better than outsiders; participation makes local people to act as multiplier of new project which they achieve. They can easily transmit the new knowledge they acquired to other communities, thus cause a rapid increase in growth of the new idea; participation promotes a sense of ownership among the community of equipment used in the project, and even projects itself. For example, they will protect and maintain the project through their own means e.g. school buildings; it also enhances empowerment to community members by building their capacity to identify, define, solve and implement various social an economic issues that affect their lives; and participation creates sense and attitude of self reliance; this especially happens when the project developer leaves the project to the indigenous community.

It is believed that participation ensures success as people get involved when they have a sense of ownership of project and feels that the project meets their needs. This makes them willingly oversee construction and then take care of the facilities to ensure their sustainability (Tacconi and Tisdell, 1992; Narayan, 1995). In addition it is suggested that participation can lead to greater community empowerment in the form of strengthened local organisations, a greater sense of pride and the undertaking of new activities (Oakley, 1991). Community participation creates an enabling environment for sustainability by allowing users not only to select the level of services for which they are willing to pay, but also to make choices and commit resources in support of the choices made by the community (Sara and Katz, 1998).

Community participation in project initiation, implementation and management, apart from creating a sense of ownership and responsibility within communities, is an important factor in developing an effective and long-lasting project (Kaliba, 2002). As a means to an end, community participation in education is seen as way to increase resources, improve accountability of schools to the community they serve, ensure the most cost-effective use of resources and importantly be responsive to local needs (Rose, 2003).

2.8 Obstacles to Community Participation As participation in any form involves and concerns people, it is established in a social and cultural context given that participation is more than a physical in put in development projects. It thrives within a social cultural context and it is exposed to negative influences by the forces that mould that context. Oakely (1991) suggests three major obstacles to be aware of for community participation be effectively achieved. These obstacles are as follows:-

(i) Structural – a centralized political ideology encouraging central control rather than people centered development and existence of social stratification with inbuilt dominant relations of power and production that obstruct people’s participation. Also existence of ant participatory structures like modern technology, bureaucracies, industrial enterprises, ant participatory character of ideologies (stereotypes and myths of class; caste race, gender), also hinder participation. In addition, the inherent bias in legal system to maintain status quo

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and ignorance by rural poor of their rights are some other obstacles to people’s participation.

(ii) Administrative – a centralized administrative structure retains/hinders control over decision-making, resource allocation and information that rural people require to participate in development activities thus hinders participation. This kind of obstacle is seen and justified in the words of Robert (1997) when he said:

“We can’t do without dominating others, or being served even the man on the bottom rung still has wife or his child, if he’s a bachelor his dog. The essential thing, in sum, is being able to get angry without the other person being able to answer back, Robert (1997:58)”

(iii) Social and Cultural – further the ignorance of people about their rights, the prevalent social, economic and gender stratification alienate the people from the development process, strengthening their dependence on the elite. The existing cultural norms and values like the culture of silence, the women’s role are some of such processes. The mentality of dependence and feeling of inferiority of many poor people has deep historical roots. For generations, poor people have been dominated by the elite, and depended on them to make decisions. These feelings leave people without initiative and self esteem needed for participation.

2.9 Factors Influencing Community Participation It is widely documented that community participation depends on many factors amongst them are individual attitude towards participation, leaders’ qualities, centralisation of decision-making, transparency, rules, availability of resources and personal attributes. Below are some of the factors and their influence on community participation.

2.9.1 Attitude The term attitude is frequently used in describing people and explaining their behaviour. More precisely according to Luthans (2005), an attitude can be defined as a persistent tendency to feel and behave in a particular way toward some object. Attitudes are evaluative statements either favorable or unfavorable concerning objects, people or events (Robbins, 2005). Luthans (2005) provides three components of attitude as emotional, informational and behavioural. The emotional component involves the persons’ feelings or affect- positive, neutral, or negative about an object. The informational component consists of beliefs and information an individual has about the object. It makes no difference whether or not this information is empirically real or correct. He proceeds by saying that the third component of attitude is behavioural, which consists of persons’ tendencies to behave in a particular way toward an object. Of the three components of attitude, only the behavioural component can be directly observed. It is assumed that if you want to know someone’s beliefs, feelings, and behavioural tendencies toward an object, all you need to do is measure his or her attitude. In this study, therefore, the third component of attitude which is behavioural component was studied specifically on the individual attitude towards community participation.

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2.9.2 Leadership qualities Jain and Saakshi (2005) define leadership as a process of influencing subordinates so that they cooperate enthusiastically in the achievement of group goals. Yet another definition says leadership is the ability to influence through communication, the activities of others, individually or as a group toward the accomplishment of worthwhile meaningful and challenging goals (Ivancevich et al., 2003). It is further said that leadership occurs whenever one person attempts to influence the behaviour of an individual or group. Holt (1993) sees leadership as a process whereby other people are influenced to behave in preferred ways to accomplish organizational objectives. According to Chandan (2003) leadership can be formal or informal. Formal leadership occurs when a person is appointed or elected as an authority figure while informal leadership emerges when a person uses interpersonal influence in a group without designated authority or power. These leaders emerge in certain situations, because of their charm, intelligence, skills or other people turn for advice, direction and guidance.

On the basis of the above definitions of leadership, it shows that leadership has features of influence process, presence of followers and having common goals. In this study, the concept of leadership is used to refer to the influence of village leaders on the behaviour of villagers so that village objectives are achieved. This study refers to formal rather than informal leadership in the sampled villages.

Effective and efficient leaders are always endowed with good leadership qualities. Without having the qualities of a good leader he/she may find difficulty to direct the activities of subordinates for achieving organisational goals. Jain and Saakshi (2005) emphasise that the success or failure of an organisation to a great extent depends on the quality of leadership. Nirmal (2002) asserts that there are three broad categories of the qualities of successful leadership namely personality traits, knowledge and ability and lastly skills. Personality traits cover issues of good character, intelligence, will power, judgment, fellow feeling, faith mental and physical energy, enthusiasm and drive, emotional stability and tact, and humour. Knowledge and ability is the second category which covers aspects of good educational background, technical competence i.e. ability to plan, organise, delegate, analyse, make decisions and capacity to control and coordinate the group efforts; ability to appraise and evaluate employees’ performance as well as self appraisement. Leaders’ possession of skills is the third category of leadership qualities that focus on the following skills: problem-solving and decision-making skills, communication skills, human relations skills, conceptual skills, social skills and administrative skills. The above literature review shows that there are several qualities which need to be possessed by leaders.

2.9.3 Centralization of decision-making Cole (2004) asserts that decisions can range from those of a vital, once for all nature to those of a routine and relatively trivial in nature. He sees management as having three principal decision areas: strategic, operating and administrative. Strategic decisions are the basic long-term decisions which settle the organisation’s relationship with its environment. Operating decisions are the short term decisions which settle issues such as output level, pricing and inventory levels. These are programmed decisions which managers make in response to repetitive and routine problems (Ivancevich et al., 2003). Administrative decisions arise from and are subject to the

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conflicting demands of strategic and operational problems. They are essentially concerned with settling the organisations’ structure, e.g. by establishing lines of authority and communication.

Centralization of decision-making is the concentration of authority and decision-making at the top of an organisation. It is a structural policy in which decision-making authority is concentrated at the top of the organisational hierarchy (Koontz and Weihrich, 1998). Okali and Farrington (1994) uses the level of involvement in decision-making as a basis for classifying different types of participation and critical decision-making powers need to be transferred to communities. Decision-making is considered to be of key importance when talking about different levels of participation. Therefore, decision-making powers need to be transferred to communities. A corollary to the importance of communities sharing decision-making power is that they share development costs (Shashi, 1999). If community members have little authority over the decision made about the allocation of resources, they may lose interest and decline or fail to effectively participate in the activities planned (Paul and Demarest, 1984). Contrary to centralization of decision-making, greater decentralization yields higher peoples’ satisfaction, quicker response to problems and many people want to be involved in decisions affecting their work (Schermerhorn et al., 1982).

2.9.4 Transparency Making processes transparent is an effective way to encourage community participation as it can potentially change power relations between communities and development organisations and between interests within communities (Shashi and Kerr, 2002). Merely transferring funds to committees is not adequate to introduce community control, as communities need to be protected from the abuses of committees hastily assembled to present them. Agrawal and Ribot (1999) further say that accountability of the actors can be increased if information on the roles and obligations of the government is made available by the media.

2.9.5 Resources Resources are the organisations’ assets and are thus the basic building blocks of the organisation. They include physical assets, such as plant, equipment, and location, human assets, in terms of the number of employees and their skills, and organisational assets, such as culture and reputation (Hunger and Wheelen, 2007). Barney (1991) cited in Millmore et al. (2007) identifies three categories of resources that is physical, human and organisational. Of these categories, human resources are conceived in terms of experience, knowledge and understanding that managers bring to the context of the organisation. The third category of organisational resources includes formal organisational resources such as its structure and its systems for planning, coordinating and controlling as well as informal aspects such as the nature of internal and external relationship.

2.9.6 Rules Chandan (2003) defines a rule as a specific policy statement about conduct of certain affairs. Jones and George (2001) further narrate that rules are formal written instructions that specify actions to be taken under different circumstances to achieve specific goals. They govern specific questions, issues and circumstances (Griffin and Ebert, 1991). Some rules are positive requirements that certain actions be taken while others are prohibitions against unethical, illegal or undesirable actions (Anthony and Guvindarajan, 2004). Rules are substitutes for managerial

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direction and they may be used to specify the goals of the workers, indicate the best method for performing tasks, show which aspects of task accomplishment are most important and outline how individuals will be rewarded (Schermerhorn et al., 1982).

2.9.7 Personal attributes It is widely accepted that households’ participation depends on the characteristics of the household. Education has been reported to influence farmers’ participation and stimulates social participation (Lise, 2001). Education is a significant instrument to stimulate local participation in a variety of development management initiatives. Heads of households with primary education are more willing to participate in economic activities than illiterate farmers (Dolisca et al., 2006). However, Godquin and Quisumbing (2006) have different views regarding relationship between level of education and community participation. They argue that people with less education are less likely to participate in community projects.

Age of a head of household is another attribute influencing participation in the participatory projects. Age has a negative impact in explaining the level of participation (Dolisca et al., 2006). This means that younger people are more willing to participate than older ones. Thatcher et al. (1997) found that age has no influence on participation of households. A study done by Batwel (2008) showed that there was relationship between age of the people and their participation in communal projects whereby younger people participated more than older ones.

Gender of the head of household can also influence participation of the households. A study done in Malawi indicated that there were gender inequalities in community contribution within households especially in providing non-monetary contributions whereby females provided most of the labour than males (Rose, 2003). Salami and Kpamegan (2002) cited in Rose (2003) argue that women have been found to be involved in providing human contributions, while men contribute more in financial and material terms. On the other hand, Agrawal et al. (2006) found that females participate more in participatory projects than men regardless of their triple role they perform in community. Dresbach (1992) argues that occupation is one of the factors which can influence individual’s propensity towards participating in any communal projects.

2.9.8 Pre-requisites of effective participation The emergence of participation as a major new strategy in development links with broadly pre-requisites as summarized below:

(i) Breath of knowledge and a broad background that allow one to identify priorities and see issues in content.

(ii) The ability to learn rather quickly about problems, to make valid decision as well

as to utilize experts, most effectively, to undertake self studies in order to grasp the major issues involved and the implication of various courses of action.

(iii) The ability to act and to act effectively (Cary J. Lee, 1970:146).

2.9.9 Usefulness of participation in project development There are series of arguments which see participation as extremely useful to the functioning of development projects. These arguments are much more fragmented often extremely localized

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and are expressed in a range of quite different terms. The following are the more substantive arguments.

(i) Efficiency – participation implies a greater chance that resources available to development projects will be used more efficiently. Participation can for example help minimize misunderstanding or possible disagreements and thus the time and energy, often spent by professional staff explaining or convincing people of a project’s benefits, can be reduced. Participation is also cost-effective since, if rural people are taking responsibility for a project, then fewer costly outside resources will be required and highly paid professional staff will not get tied down in the detail of project administration. Participation, therefore allows for more efficient use of the resources available to a project.

(ii) Effectiveness – participation will also make project more effective as

instruments of rural development. Projects are invariably external instruments which are supposed to benefit the rural people of a particular area. Participation which allows these people to have a voice in determining objectives, support project administration and make their local knowledge, skills and resources available most results in more effective projects. A major reason why many projects have not been effective in the past, in achieving the purported objectives is because local people were not involved.

(iii) Self reliance – this refers to positive effects on rural people of participating in

development projects. Participation helps to break the mentality of dependence which characterizes much development work and as a result, promotes self-awareness and confidence and cause rural people to examine their problem and to think positively about solutions. Participation concerned with human development and increases people’s sense of control over issues which affect their lives, help them to learn how to plan and implement and, on a broader front, prepares them for participation at regional or even national level [Oakley 1999:17)].

(iv) Coverage – in many instances delivery services have contract with only a

fraction of the rural population. Participation will extend this coverage in that it would bring more rural people within the direct influence of development activities. Participation will increase the number of rural people who potentially can benefit from development and could be the solution to broadening the mass appeal of such services [Ibid. (1999:18)].

(v) Sustainability – participation is seen as the antidote in that it can ensure the

local people maintain the project dynamics.

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2.10 Empirical Literature Review

2.10.1 Idea and Experiences of Participatory Approach from other countries Studies on participation indicate that the social-cultural and historical backgrounds of a country influences the way people perceive or interpret it (Suzuki, 2000; Uemura, 1999). In the United Kingdom (U.K) and United States of America (USA), for example, the current debate has been focusing on parental participation in terms of choice of schools and school governance, while in developing countries the debate centres on community participation in school construction, financing and management (Bray, 1996; Suzuki, 2000). The experiences with decentralization in giving room to community participation have been very mixed in a numbers of countries that have committed themselves to participation.

People in Chad value education highly and, therefore local contributions to the cost of education have been a long standing tradition in the country. This explains the efforts of local communities to play a greater role in financing and operating schools even when the education system deteriorated due to the civil war of 1979-82. The government had been aware of the reality that the communities play an important role in the school system and, requested the World Bank to prepare a project to involve local people and respond to their real needs. In order to ensure various stakeholders participation, the project preparation was carried out involving various groups of people. First the government organized four regional conferences, inviting members of local school associations, representatives of NGOs, Women’s groups as well as ministry officials, schools inspectors, school directors and teachers. At the meetings participants discussed the local primary education problems and strategies to overcome them. The discussion helped reveal that Chadians at the local level are seriously committed to and closely involved in educating their children (Uemura, 1999).

In El-Salvador after twelve years of civil war that ended in 1992 ravaged the fabrics of society including education the government was incapable of delivering public services to its citizens. Primary education services were not delivered in rural areas. In these critical circumstances, communities organized themselves and developed a self managed, private form of education administered by an association of rural workers who hired and paid teachers directly from their own financial resources. In 1991, the government started to transfer its funds to these innovative community managed schools (Education Con Participation de La Comunided EDUCO) (World Bank 1997). Until now EDUCO schools are operated by the Community Education Association (ACE) comprising of parents of the children served by the schools. ACEs responsibilities include:-

a) Hiring teachers

b) Monitoring teachers performance

c) Ensuring teachers attendance

d) Providing feedback of parents on children’s progress

e) With funds disbursed by Ministry of Education Act as accounts, and

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f) Contributing to the maintenance and equipment of schools

ACEs are further charged with raising additional financial resources if necessary, and mobilizing parents and community members to provide voluntary service in support of school (World Bank 1997)

Another example of community participation in primary education development can be traced in Malawi where, in June 1994, the Government of Malawi announced that all primary school fees would be abolished as of the beginning of the new school year in October 1994. This created a flood of over one million additional pupils in the primary schools. Classrooms were over-crowded, and thousands of children had to take their lessons in temporary facilities such as churches and mosques. Thousands more assembled in the open air or under trees. It was common to see classes of two or three hundred children in a small shed called a classroom.

In view of the new imperatives, a primary education project was developed, focusing on the following urgently needed activities.

(i) Construction of classrooms and associated infrastructure,

(ii) Pedagogical support and in-service training particularly focusing on the newly recruited teachers and

(iii) Provision of teaching and learning materials

Community participation was incorporated in attempts to realize the first objective of school construction. The notion of integrating community participation into the project was considered from the preparation stage of the project. Through that, the importance of all stakeholders including the bank, the Government, and communities were satisfied with the achievements gained through community participation (World Bank 1995).

Further, community members were participating in the above activity by contributing funds and forming school committees to monitor school performance. Community members were willing to make cash contributions because the community really cared about their children and wanted to provide good education for their children. This has been the case because the government delegated more responsibilities to local community. Communities were encouraged to participate in the development of their schools through all phases, including planning, construction and operation (World Bank, 1995).

In Kenya there are three types of schools: public/government schools, private schools and community schools. Public/government schools constitute the largest proportion of schools in the country. The government is responsible for payment of teachers’ salaries and providing subsidies in terms of textbooks and school feeding in public/government schools. They also receive support in terms of supervision, curriculum development and pedagogical development. Community involvement consists of construction of school buildings, salaries for non-teaching staff and operational costs. Private schools are owned by private entrepreneurs, companies, churches and other recognised bodies. Parents participate through paying school fees for their children. Community schools are built, financed, managed and maintained by the communities.

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It is the communities that are responsible for paying teachers’ salaries, teaching learning materials and other recurrent costs (Nyamoita et al., 2004).

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CHAPTER THREE

3.0 Research Methodology

3.1 Introduction This chapter presents the methods deployed in carrying out the study. The aspects which are included here are the study area, research design, research instruments, sample size, sampling techniques, summary of variables, indicators and data sources, and analysis techniques.

3.2 Research Design Research design is an arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in such a way that it aims to combine relevance with the research purpose with economy, or is a plan for doing a research Chamwali (2007). On the other hand Orodho (2003) defined a research design as the, outline or plan that is used to generate answers to research problem. Research design is also defined by Kothari (1990) as the detailed blue print used to guide a research study towards its objectives. It is a detailed plan of work to be done to achieve the research objectives. Research design is a science (and art) of planning procedures for conducting studies so as to get the most valid findings (Vogt, 1993:166). According to Chamwali (2007), a case study is used to describe a unit in detail (when, how, and why questions are being imposed when the investigation has no control over events and when the focus is on a contemporary phenomenon within some real life context). Other types include survey design and experimental design. The Research design adopted in this study was a case study. This design was chosen due to its flexibility in terms of data collection and analysis, also due to its depth and breadths of the study variables. To achieve the requirement for a case study, this research focused on specific places of study which were Mzumbe and Mlali wards in Mvomero district.

3.3 The area of the study

Mvomero is a new district split from the former Morogoro District. Mvomero district is among the six councils of Morogoro Region. The district boundaries are as follows: to the north is Handeni district, to the east Bagamoyo, and to the south Morogoro municipal and Morogoro district. Also, to the west there is Kilosa district. Mvomero District is located at North East of Morogoro Region between 8000 and 10,000 latitudes south of equator also between Longitudes 37,000 and 28,022 East. The District has the total area of 7,325 square kilometers. Administratively, Mvomero district has divided into 4 Divisions and 17 wards and 101 villages as shown by the table 1.

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Table 3.1: Distribution of Administrative Units in Mvomero District

No Division Wards Villages Harmlets

1 Mvomero 4 31 154

2 Turiani 5 27 158

3 Mgeta 4 22 156

4 Mlali 4 21 109

Total 17 101 577

Source: Mvomero District Council 2010.

This study will be conducted in Mlali division and specifically in Mlali and Mzumbe wards.

3.4 Population of the study Unit of inquiry includes population of councillors, community members, village leaders, District Commissioner and District Council officials. From this group data was collected on the level of awareness of political leaders and District Council officials on the importance of community members to participate into different development activities like construction of on going primary schools. The last unit of inquiry was the community members. This was an important unit of inquiry as it was the centre of the researcher because the researcher collected data directly from them on how they are or they are not involved or participate in different development activities and decision making process.

3.5 Sample Size and Sampling Procedure

3.5.1 Sample Population is a target group to be studied, it is the total collection of elements about which we wish to make inferences, and a member of a population is an element .It is a unit of study. Apart of the population is known as a sample. The process of drawing a sample from a larger population is called sampling. The purpose of sampling is to obtain fairly accurately the characteristic of the population. The chief aim of sampling was to make an inference about unknown parameters from a measurable sample statistics (Krishnaswami (2002). Mvomero district it has a total of 17 Wards out of which Mlali and Mzumbe was randomly selected the reason for selection the sample was homogeneous i.e. the sample was more or less the same and on going school construction was implemented in all 17 wards at the same time also the study area was reached easily by the researcher. The total number of school in each Ward was 9 in which three schools was randomly selected from each Ward. Three was taken because is the suitable representative of the sample i.e. was more than 30% of the population. In Mzumbe Ward, the schools selected were Masanze, Kimambila and Vikenge, while in Mlali Ward the schools selected were Mlali, Lugono and Kipera.

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3.5.2 Method of Sampling Bearing the fact the purpose of the study was to examine local community participation in on going school construction in Mzumbe and Mlali wards. Purposively sampling was used to obtain key people in the construction of ongoing schools at District and Ward levels. The reason for selecting these key people is that they are more informed about ongoing school construction.

At the District level four people were selected. District Education Officer, District Administrative secretary, one member of Basic Education Support Board and One Education Officer, at the Ward level two people were selected Ward Education Co-coordinator and Ward Executive Officer, at the village level four people were selected which were village chairperson, village executive officer, head teacher, hamlet leader. Randomly sampling was applied to obtain representative of villagers.

Table 3.2: Sample size for the study Respondent Population Size of

Sample % of Sample

Ward Education Co-coordinators 2 2 100%

Ward Executive Officer 2 2 100%

Education Officers 5 2 40%

Head Teachers 6 6 100%

District Administative secretary 1 1 100%

Village chairperson 6 6 100%

Hamlet Leaders 6 6 100%

Villagers 500 150 30%

Village executive officer 6 6 100%

Member of Basic Education Support Board

5

2

40%

Councilors 2 2 100%

Source Field Data 2010

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3.6 Methods of Data Collection

The nature of the research design, determines the data collection method. In this study the researcher used data collection methods such as questionnaires, interviews, documentary sources and observation. The use of more than one data collection method enables the researcher to combine strengths and correct some of the deficiencies of one technique. In so doing, it increases the validity and reliability of data collected. (Bond, 2006:34-39)

3.6.1 Interviews Interview is a major data collection technique, partly because most of the respondents are semi literate. Questionnaires may have few answers; interviews are flexible and allow the respondent to express him or herself freely and exactly. Moreover using structured interview technique the researcher can be able to control the research process by close administration of the interviews through the structured questionnaires and recording all the responses. Present questions helped to keep interviewees on the subject.

Depending on information being sought unstructured interview in the form of dialogue were used to allow full participation of the respondents and solicit more information. This will be useful in terms of gathering information that needed more time and thorough explanations. For example on the awareness level the technique is useful in revealing how much people understand the importance of community participation in development activities such as construction of ongoing construction of schools in their Ward. Interview was administered by using interview guide to the following people, W ard Education Co-coordinators, Ward Executive Officer, Education Officers, Head Teachers, District Administrative secretary, Village chairperson, Hamlet Leaders, Village executive officer, Member of Basic Education Support Board, and Councilors.

3.6.2 Questionnaires The structured questionnaire was administered to the villagers. Randomly sampling was applied to obtain 150 representatives of villagers. Structured questionnaire is that questionnaire which poses definite, concrete and preordained questions; that is they are prepared in advance (Rwegoshora, 2006). The purpose of pre-testing the questionnaire was to test wording, sequencing, questionnaire layout, and fieldwork arrangement, test analysis procedure and estimate response rate (Veal, 1997). Furthermore, the pretesting of the questionnaire was important because it enabled the researcher to check the validity and reliability of the data collected (Rwegoshora, 2006). Pretesting questionnaires is also important because it allows generating an understanding of the concepts and theories held by the people being studied. Pretesting of a questionnaire was conducted in 14th Dec up to 8th Jan 2010 at Vikenge Hamlet, Mikongeni village, in Mvomero District.

Initially, the questionnaire was prepared in English but was later translated into Kiswahili so that villagers could understand the questions well.

3.6.3 Observation Krishnaswami, (2002:205) defined observation as a systematic viewing of a specific phenomenon in its proper setting for the specific purpose of gathering data for a particular study.

25

Observation is the most obvious method of data collection, an accurate record of what people do and say in real-life situations White(2002:34).The method was selected due to its advantages, it is cheap, you can do it on your own, and it does not need expensive complex technology. This helps to experience a situation at the first hand and this may give you a better insight when you interpret the data White (2002:37), the observer can understand the observed group, and get a deeper insight of the observed, needs less active cooperation between researcher and respondent and it is suitable for respond with no verbal ability Krishnaswami (2002:206). Observation was employed in studying on casual phenomena as they occur in real life situations.

The type of data generated through observation included construction at different levels. Observable infrastructure and facilities included classroom, teachers’ houses, and toilets that observed quality of facilities. Field photographs were used to justify reality of some observable facilities and infrastructures during the field work.

3.6.4 Documentary Review Documentary data help in cross-checking the consistence of information coverage of data that other gathering techniques overlooked. Through this method the researcher were able to access information from the minutes of meetings and reports on various decisions made, and other rural development activities. This information was found in villages, wards and district offices, to get accurate concrete and reliable data, several documents were examined from various sections such as Planning, and community development. The document focus on the following elements: Number of community people involved in decision making about school construction, Number of community people who contributed in school construction in terms of money or materials, Number of community people who participated in school construction in terms of labour offering, Number of community people who are active in paying tax for school construction, Number of school construction areas which was provided by the community, the government support on school construction in Mlali and Mzumbe wards, the benefit obtained through community participation in school construction and the challenges encountered during school construction in Mlali and Mzumbe wards.

3.7 Data analysis and Interpretation The researcher collected qualitative and quantitative data which was processed and summarized into appropriate tables for the consumers of the research findings.

The researcher securitized validity of the data collected as well as the corrective ness and relevance to the study. In data processing, the researcher ascertained the reliability of the data by making cross checking on the information obtained from secondary data and observation and how they responded.

The information collected enabled the researcher to interpret the research questions and fulfill the study objectives from which the conclusion and recommendation were drawn.

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3.8 Challenges of the study (i) Transport problem, some of the primary schools were allocated in remote areas where

transport and accessibility was difficult. For instance schools like Lugono and Kimambila Primary Schools were only accessible through motorbike. This added extra transport cost to the researcher. See Figure 1.

Photo 3.1: The researcher’s means of transport during data Collection in The sampled Primary Schools.

Source: Researcher

(ii) WEO and WEC were very busy with supervision of standard four and seven mock examinations; therefore it was difficulty for the researcher to obtain required information from these key informants. Researcher was forced to use mobile phone

27

interview and making frequent appointment with them. Despite all these the researcher managed to get hold of them and obtained required information.

(iii) At District level the Education Officers were reluctant to give out information for the fear of being misused by the researcher. To alleviate this problem the researcher adhered to the research ethics. This includes obtaining permission of data collection from the relevant authorities such as Director of District Council, and obtaining a letter of introduction from Mzumbe University. See appendix 7

In some schools, head teachers were reluctant to release information to the researcher for the notion that the information will not help them. The researcher informed them that the result of the study might be used by policy makers and other stake holders to rectify the existing conditions.

3.8 Summary of variables, indicators and data source

Different variables and their indicators are herein summarised in table 3.

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Table 3.3: Summary of variables, indicators and data source Research Question

Variables Indicators Data Sources

1 Community participation

(a) Community participation in terms of decision making

(b) Community participation in terms of commitment e.g. to provide money and materials

(c) Community participation in terms of labour offering

(d) Community participation in terms of provision of area for school construction

(e) Community participation in terms of paying tax

Questionnaire\ Interview and documentary review, observation

“

“

“

2 Government Support

(a) Provision of fund for construction

(b) Provision of expertise e.g. Civil Engineer

(c) Provision of standard of classroom construction and aertectual drawing

“

“

“

3 Benefit of community participation

(a)Meet of school construction target

(b) School construction ownership

(c)Active community participation in school construction

“

“

“

4 Challenges on school construction

(a) Community awareness

(b) Low income of household in the community

(c) Political interference

(d) Misuse of fund

(e) Poor labour provision

“

“

“

“

“

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CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 Research Findings, Analysis and Discussion

4.1 Introduction

This chapter attempts to make analysis and summarization of the key findings and makes a systematic and comprehensive overview of the importance of Community participation in ongoing construction of primary schools in Mlali and Mzumbe wards. The chapter is organized into four areas which are: the roles of local community participation in ongoing construction of primary schools, the extent to which the Government supported the ongoing construction of primary schools, the benefits of community participation in ongoing primary schools construction and the challenges which were encountered during the ongoing construction of primary schools.

Tanzania can achieve primary education development through true people’s involvement in education projects. This needs an interactive kind of participation that encourages people to participate in joint analysis, development of action plans and local institutions. In this situation, participation is seen as people’s right. As people take control over local decisions and determine how available resources are used, they become stakeholders and ultimately become responsible in maintaining structures and the educational system.

In accordance with the idea of Beer and Swanepoel (1998), the government should not bulldoze people in participation. People need to be empowered in any kind of participation. However, the kind of empowerment must be a bottom up process. In other words the people must assume power in order to take full responsibility for their own development. By so doing, the end result will make people enjoy ownership of development they execute in a responsible and enlightened way.

4.2 Assessment of the Roles of Local Community Participation in ongoing Construction of Primary Schools The community participated in ongoing primary school construction in various ways as follows:

4.2.1 Assessment of the Roles of Local Community Participation in on Going Construction of Primary Schools Participation for material contribution was observed when communities in Mzumbe and Mlali wards in Mvomero Districts were required to contribute labour in terms of fetching water, collecting stones and sand, assisting masonry during the construction of classrooms, teachers’ houses and school toilets. The advantage of material contribution as a form of participation is that it incorporates local knowledge regarding quality of materials needed for the construction of primary schools.

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In the sample of 150 villagers the overall findings shows that 30 (20%) of the villagers contributed in cash, 90(60%) did not contribute in cash but rather they contributed in terms of materials and 30 (20%) respondents did not respond to the questions.

The findings indicate that participation of communities in terms of contribution in cash was not encouraging because many villagers did not contribute in cash. The majority of the villagers were economically poor, but they were strong and had different skills through which they could participate in the building of schools.

The form of participation demonstrated here contained elements of collaborative participation; in this case both parties participated in the same manner in diagnosing the problem, analyzing data, designing solution and implementing. Basing on Pretty’s (1995) this form of participation is regarded as highly active. Collaborative participation contributes to commitment on the part of the villagers in the implementation of ongoing primary school construction.

The interview which was made to the Ward Education Coordinator, Ward Executive Officers, village Chairpersons, village Executive Officers, Head teachers, Education Officers, District Administration secretary and hamlet leaders revealed that the materials contribution was in form of burnt brick, sand, stones, fetch water, and fire wood. A few people contributed in terms of cash, this was done by villagers who were employed by the government or NGOs, who were living in the villages and a few business men who were doing business in the villages.

Photograph 4.1 shows burnt bricks that were contributed by villagers of Vikenge in the process of building Vikenge primary school which was expected to be complete by June 2011. Contributions in terms of materials as seen here, was done by villagers who could not contribute cash and those who did not have some professions. In some cases, villagers who had building professions contributed by direct involvement in the building process while some times they also had to contribute money or otherwise bricks. Some of the cash which was contributed by other community members was used to hire people to make bricks while other part of the money was used to buy timber, cement and corrugated iron sheets.

Material contribution was successful for collection of stones, water, and firewood, and to a lesser extent, sand. It was a great challenge when bricks had to be collected in this way because people had to collected bricks of different dimensions which could lead to technical problems to crafts men in the process of raising walls. Related to this problem when every individual was required to collect bricks regardless of the location of production, bricks collected were of different qualities, and ultimately the entire building would be of low quality due to different qualities of the bricks.

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Photo 4.1: Burnt bricks contributed by the community at Vikenge Primary school in Mzumbe Ward

Source: Researcher’s Observation

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Photography 4.2 shows some of the stones which were collected for raising one class building at Kipera Primary School. Kipera had many business men and peasants who were dealing with tomato production and sale. In this regard it was difficult for the majority to participate through direct involvement, thus, they contributed in terms of cash which was converted into materials and used to pay crafts men.

Photo 4.2: Stones contributed by community at Kipera Primary school in Mlali Ward


Stones for were found in many quantities at the mountains near Mgeta about 7 kilometers from Kipera village. The problem was how to collect them from that far distance to the collection centre. Part of the cash contributed by some villagers was used to hire Lorries for ferrying stones

33

whereby some villagers who were unable to contribute money were directly involved in the loading and unloading of the stones.

Sand was collected from Kasanga River near Morogoro town about 10 kilometers from Masanze primary school. In the same way as the collection of stones, Lorries were hired to ferry sand, the cost of which was twenty thousand Tanzanian shillings equivalent to fifteen dollars per trip. Like wise, members of Sangasanga village who were the main stakeholders of Masanze primary school were involved in contributing money and some in loading the sand.

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Photo 4.3: Sand Contributed by the community at Masanze Primary School in Mzumbe Ward


The Mlali and Mzumbe education annual report 2008 and Mvomero district education report 2008 signified that most of the villagers contributed in ongoing school construction through

35

materials offering and in cash. The contribution was in terms of indigenous knowledge, labour offering and digging of foundations.

Observation was made at the six sampled schools which were three in Mlali ward and three schools in Mzumbe ward. Observation was made specifically on construction of classrooms, teachers’ houses and toilets at Kipera primary schoo, Vikenge primary school and Lugono primary school.

At Kipera primary school two classrooms were complete up to a roof stage while one classroom was ready for roofing. See photo 4.4.

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Photo 4.4: Ongoing Classroom construction at Kipera Primary school in Mlali ward


37

Classroom construction went on together with the construction of teacher’s houses. It was seen that at Vikenge village houses were of such a low quality that teachers were not ready to hire, and if they did then it was because they had no alternative. The result for this was teachers’ movement to places where services including housing were good. It is for this reason that leaders took the necessary efforts to mobilize community force so as to build houses for teachers. Photo 4.5 shows one of the teachers’ houses in Vikenge primary school.

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Photo 4.5: Ongoing teachers’ house construction at Vikenge Primary school in Mzumbe Ward


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Photo 4.6: Ongoing toilets construction at Lugono primary school in Mlali Ward


The figure above showed exactly how the community participated fully on the ongoing primary school construction.

4.2.2 Community participation in terms of decision making Attendance of meetings Attendance of villagers in the ongoing school construction meeting at the village level the villagers were asked to mention whether they had attended the ongoing school construction meeting at the village or not. The Overall attendance of the ongoing school meetings in Mlali

40

and Mzumbe wards showed that 120 (80%) of the villagers attended and 30 (20%) did not attend. Among those who attended 30 (37.5%) were male and 50 (62.5%) were female this shows that More females attended school meetings because they were anxious to enroll their children to school.

Reasons raised by the villagers who could not attended the meeting in Mlali and Mzumbe wards were: not informed, traveled, and just laziness.

The interview which were made to the Ward Education Coordinator, Ward Executive Officers, village Chairpersons, village Executive Officers, Head teachers, Education Officers, District Administration secretary and hamlet leaders reveled that villagers were involved in decision making through attending different meeting. The meetings were as follows monthly village meeting, Quarterly village meeting and annually village meeting. The agenda was discussed where by all villagers were given equal chance to contribute towards the agenda, then at the end people vote to pass the agenda or agreement, this made the decision to communal. To our case people were involved in the decision of construction of classrooms, teachers’ houses and toilets, when the construction will takes place?, how much will be contributed by people in the village?, and which other stakeholders will be involved in the construction of schools.

Documentary review was made by using document guide, where by monthly village meeting report, quarterly village meeting report, and annually meeting reports were analyzed. The document showed that villagers were fully involved in decision making in the on going primary school construction.

4.2.3 Community participation in terms of labour offering The responses of the villagers on whether they contributed labour or not for the construction of classrooms, teachers’ houses and toilets, the analysis shows that about 120 (80%) of the villagers contributed labour and 30 (20%) did not. This analysis shows that many people participated in the construction of primary schools in terms of contribution in labour more than any other form of participation.

Of those who contributed labour, 40 (33.3%) were male and 80 (66.7%) were female. These findings suggest that more female contributed labour than males. The fact of females making labour contributions are a result of the way in which participatory process is set in existing social structures and the way society categorizes activities for females and males. In theses villages it was found that fetching water, collecting stones and sand was mostly the role of females. Labour contributed was in the form of making bricks, fetching water, collecting sand and stones and sending them to the construction site, digging foundation, and quarrying.

Interview was made to Ward Education Coordinator, Ward Executive Officers, village Chairpersons, village Executive Officers, Head teachers, Education Officers, District Administration secretary and hamlet leaders using an interview guide, 90% of villagers have been a member of the village for more than 5 years while 10% of the village have been in the village for less than 5 years. It was also found that every village has a single primary school. The community member contributed in on going school construction by offering manpower like masonry, helping the civil technicians, this was done by male while female was fetching water, cooking food for workers, collecting stones and sands for construction of classroom, teachers houses and school toilets.

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The observation was made in ongoing primary school construction, where by primary school construction was observed at different stages like foundation stage, wall construction stage and finishing stages. The foundation stage was observed at Masanze primary school. See Photo 4.7.

42

Photo 4.7: The foundation construction stage at Masanze primary school in Mzumbe Ward


43

The wall construction stage was observed at Kimambila, Vikenge and Masanze primary schools see Photo 4.8.

Photo 4.8: Wall construction stage at Kimambila primary school in Mzumbe Ward


44

The finishing construction stage of teachers’ houses was observed at Lugono primary school see Photo 4.9.

Photo 4.9: The finishing construction stage at Lugono Primary School in Mlali Ward


The community was actively participated in all three stages of construction by offering their labour, this was observed throughout the study areas.

Information found from Ward Education report, Village Education report, and School Education reports showed that 40% of villagers were participated in school construction through materials construction like burnt bricks, stones, sands and foods while 60% of villagers were participated in terms of labour provision on the ongoing primary school construction. Ward Education report (2008)

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4.1.4 Community participation in terms of provision of areas for school construction

The analysis showed that at Mlali ward two primary schools (Mlali and Kipera) areas were provided by the village government, while one primary school (Lugono) area were provided by the individual villager. To the other hand of Mzumbe ward two schools (Masanze and Vikenge) schools areas were provided by the village government, while one school (kimambila) the school area were provided by the individual villager. This shows that the villagers and village government were fully participated in school construction through provision of areas.

Information observed by the researcher from ward Education report, Village Education report, school Education report and interview which the researcher made to Ward Education Coordinator, Ward Executive Officers, village Chairpersons, village Executive Officers, Head teachers, Education Officers, District Administration secretary and hamlet leaders both agreed that two schools in each wards of Mzumbe and Mlali were provided by the village government and one school area in Mlali and Mzumbe ward were provided by the individual villagers.

4.1.5 Community participation in terms of paying tax.

The analysis showed that both at Mlali and Mzumbe wards there were a special tax provision which were charged by the village government in the markets, for people who purchased goods in bulk. In turn that tax contribute to the ongoing primary school construction, the same experience were observed in (Shinyanga and Kilimanjaro region in Tanzania) whereby the farmer were supposed to pay tax for ongoing primary school construction.

The Information obtained from documentary review and interview showed that tax was collected at the markets e.g. Mlali market the tax was collected in three day per week i.e. Wednesday, Friday and Sunday. The tax collected partly was used to support in ongoing school construction, at kipera village which is a famous village of tomatoes farming each tomato box is charged 200 Tanzanian shilling for village development.

4.2 The Extent of Government Support in ongoing Construction of Primary Schools

4.2.1 Provision of funds for school construction Through documentary review which found in the wards and schools report, the researcher found that the Government of Tanzania through its Primary Education Development programme (PEDP) it offer funds to support ongoing school construction where by a total of 3,600,000 Tanzania shillings were contributed for teachers houses construction and a total of 3,200,000 Tanzania shillings for the classroom construction. The Government also provides materials for the construction of toilets like iron sheets, iron bars and cements (PEDP 2003).The amount provided for classroom and teachers houses was made for purchasing of Iron sheet, timber, cements, Iron bars and nails. The rest of the materials were to be contributed by the community i.e. sand, stones, water, and provision of labour.

The Information obtained from questionnaire showed that the school in Mzumbe and Mlali wards received a total of 3,600,000 Tanzania shilling as a government support for the construction of teachers’ houses and a total of 3,200,000 Tanzania shillings for the construction

46

of a classroom. The fund was intended to purchase building materials which were not obtained locally like Iron sheet, Iron bars, nails and timber.

Through interview made to Ward Education Coordinators, Ward Executive Officers, village Chairpersons, village Executive Officers, Head teachers, Education Officers, District Administration secretary and hamlet leaders the analysis also agreed with the information which found in the questionnaire and documentary review that the government was supporting in terms of fund for the ongoing school construction.

4.2.2 Provision of expertise e.g. civil engineer The Government of Tanzania has role of provision of expertise in the on going primary school construction. At District level there were civil District engineer who were accompanied with civil technician, the role of the engineer and technician was to make a close supervision in on going school construction. All stages of school construction must supervise and passed by the District Engineer or technician, the major stages were foundation, wall, and roofing. (PEDP REPORT 2003)

The results from questionnaire showed that 140 villagers agreed that the school construction was supervised by the civil engineer from the district council while 10 villagers were not aware of the presents of engineer on the school construction.

Through interview the information showed that all people were aware of the presents of council civil engineer in ongoing school construction.

4.2.3 Provision of standard for classroom construction and artectual drawing The information found from the documentary review showed that the government provides standards for classroom, teachers houses and toilets construction, the ministry of Education and culture has issued a technical hand book which describes the construction works of standard primary school buildings and artectual drawing. The handbook explain the principle, standard and sizes of building facilities of a primary school as well as furniture that would suffice the needs of a conducive learning environment for pupils. The building process has been subdivided into eight (8) categories of works, reflecting the operational circle i.e. site layout and preparation, foundation, floor slab, masonry and ring beam, roofing, joinery, building services, finishing, furniture and external works (SEDP 2004-2009) see appendix 5.

The findings from questionnaire showed that 145 respondents agreed that artectual drawings are obtained from the local government and 5 respondents are not aware of where the artectual drawing are coming from.

The information found from the interview, which was made to Ward Education Coordinators, Ward Executive Officers, village Chairpersons, village Executive Officers, Head teachers, Education Officers, District Administration secretary and hamlet leaders showed that all interviewee agreed that they have seen aertectul drawing for primary school which were provided by the government through local government authorities at council level. Engineers and technicians help mansorns to interpret the drawing and set the building foundation see appendix 6.

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4.3 Identification of Benefits of Community Participation in ongoing Primary Schools Construction The data analyzed from the questionnaire revealed that 120 (80%) respondents’ comments that the community participation was very crucial because it creates awareness among stakeholders. people become aware of their material resources, their leadership, their technical expertise and the kind of help their likely to need from outside. Also the findings show that community participation in ongoing school construction gives them power to make decision pertaining to their social development, where people enjoy awareness of the all processes related to their social economic needs and inclinations.

4.3.1 Ownership of the project The effectiveness and efficiency of any education project depend much on mass support. This assertion has also been recognized by Uemura (1999) Uemura argued that, no matter how good a plan is, if the people for whom it is made fail to feel that its key features belong to them, will not successfully Uemura (1999:77).

The analysis from questionnaire, interview and documentary review revealed that, 40% of the respondents have been involved in development of school activities through consultation, 30% of the community members were involved in planning and decision making while 30% of the communities were involved through parent day meeting.

Recognition of the role of communities and giving them a central role in implementation enhances not only ownership but also the quality of education provision.

4.3.2 High enrollment in primary school

In the past parent fail to enroll their pupils into primary school education due to in adequate classroom for standard one. The increase of the number of classrooms through a community participation in ongoing primary school construction had increased primary school enrollment.

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Table 4.4: Enrollment for age going Children (7 years old) – Mlali Ward

Year Target Number Actual Number Deficit/Surplus % Above or Below Target

2002 532 702 170 32%

2003 622 682 60 9.6%

2004 405 598 193 47.7%

2005 425 449 24 5.6%

2006 460 574 144 31.3%

Total 2,444 3,005 561 23%

Source: Field Data 2010

The enrollment rate in Mlali ward for children with 7 years old was above target. The overall target enrollment has been exceeded by 23%. This means that enrollment was very successfully in the wards which were contributed by the increase of classrooms.

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Fig 4.1: Enrollment for age going Children (7 years old) – Mlali Ward

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

Year

No.

of C

hild

ren

Enro

lled

TargetNumber

ActualNumber

Source: Researcher’s analysis

The enrollment rate for children of 7 years old in Mzumbe ward was above target by 3.7%. The five years trend of enrollment shows that number of children enrolled each year was greater than the targeted number. This led to overcrowding of pupils within classes, since there was limited number of classes. This is because the number of classes built depended on the targeted number to be enrolled.

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Table 4.5: Enrollment for Children with 7 Years Old Mzumbe Ward

Year Target Number Actual Number Deficit/Surplus % Above or Below Target

2002 371 382 11 3%

2003 403 422 19 4.7%

2004 432 443 11 2.6%

2005 441 452 11 2.5%

2006 398 422 24 6%

Total 2,045 2,121 76 3.7%

Source: Ward Education Report, 2006

Despite the success for enrollment, for equity purposes especially in high demand areas and in pastoralist and nomadic areas where community participation is very low, mechanism for providing additional support should be developed, more resources should be directed towards classroom construction so as to meet demand created by the increased enrolment.

Results in table 4.5 can clearly be understood as shown in fig. 4.2.

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Fig. 4.2: Enrollment for Children with 7 years old in Mzumbe Ward

0

50100

150200

250

300350

400450

500

2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

Year

No.

of C

hild

ren

Enro

lled

Target Number Actual Number

Source: Researchers analysis

4.3.3 Short distance to sampled schools In the past a ward having a number of villages used to have a single primary school where by pupils have to travel very long distance to school, but through primary education development programme (PEDP) and community participation in ongoing primary school construction, currently almost each village had at least one primary school, other had more than one primary school. This made them to travel very short distance from home to the school as the results it is very possible for primary schools to have lunch breaks and pupils are able to go home for lunch and comeback after one hour. In the sampled schools every village had a school.

4.3.4 Meet construction of school targets All primary schools in Mlali and Mzumbe wards are owned by the government through a village government. The people in the village participated in school construction in all stages i.e. planning, decision making, and implementation. By being involved at that level the community participation has resulted to meet their primary school construction target. At Mlali ward the target for classroom construction, teachers’ houses, and toilets was meet by 90%, whereby at

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Mzumbe ward the target was meet by 95%. This indicates that community participation had a big role in implementation of construction of classroom, teachers’ houses and toilets.

4.3.5 School committee School committee is the governing body of the primary school where by the head teacher is the secretary of the committee. All villagers in Mlali and Mzumbe wards are involved in school administration through selecting of school committee members to run the school for three years. All decision for school development is made through this committee.

4.4 The Challenge Encountered During the ongoing Construction of Primary Schools

4.4.1 Misuse of Government fund Government fund provided for school construction were misused by the school committee the fund was used for their personal use, claiming that items bought for the construction were more expensive than anticipated. The interview made to Ward Education Coordinators, Ward Executive Officers, village Chairpersons, village Executive Officers, Head teachers, Education Officers, District Administration secretary and hamlet leaders revealed that the price for building materials iron sheet, iron bar, and timber was exaggerated three to four times from a normal price.

This situation creates Mistrust and conflict between villagers and school committee members which resulted in delays in the construction of the classrooms because villagers were reluctant to contribute.

4.4.2 Fund Released for ongoing school construction was not enough to do all the Planned Activities Ongoing school construction in Mlali and Mzumbe wards was being funded Primary by the Government of Tanzania, the Pooled Fund Partner, the LGAs, and members of the Communities, the amount of funds actually approved in the budget for ongoing school construction Implementation were just under 92% of the projected programme costs (URT: 2006 b, 37).The basic educational problem of African states since 1980, has been that resources available to African Government have declined dramatically. And when something like 40% of the National budget has to be allocated to debt servicing, even while arrears continue to make debt larger, and the annual interest higher ,there is no much left for the Governments other responsibilities…Increasingly, it is possible for Governments to choose any between evils”(Nyerere:1997).

Not only are the approved budget amounts below projected costs, but the amount of funds actually released fallen short of the approved budget. For the 2005/2006 Financial Year, just 89.4% of the approved funds were released. It is interesting to note that there has been wide variation in the percent of funds released from the budget for the various strategic components of on going school construction (URT: 2006).

Table 4.6 shows the percentage of approved budget released by components for financial year 2005/2006

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Table 4.6: Percentage Approval for Budget Released by Components for financing different sections in Mzumbe ward Item Percentage

Personnel Emolument 100%

Administration 98.9%

Enrolment Expansion 96.5%

Quality Improvement 60.5%

Cross-Cutting Issues 33.0%

Total 89.4%

Source: Adapted from URT: (2006 b).

No school has received the full US$ 10.00 dollar capitation grant. The sizes of disbursements to school are erratic and the amounts disbursed are unpredictable, even within individual district.

Development grant funding is slow to process with the result that may partially build buildings wait council funding in order to complete them. The information flow is downwards, schools are effectively excluded from discussions on priorities and on the amounts to be disbursed.

The information obtained from Majira news paper (2003) reported that the Government has failed to provide 10 US Dollars per pupil as promised under PEDP Implementation. Stakeholder from Arumeru District they have condemned the Government for failure to allocate/provide the fund as promised. Giving an example, Sekei Primary school in Arusha Tanzania has a total of 1,870 pupils but has given only 4,999,788/25. The average for each pupil is provided Tsh 2,673/05 or equal to 2.67 US dollars.

Recommending on PEDP fund, the Morogoro District Administrative Secretary Mr. Bruno Njovu said PEDP fund are not enough, they need community support in order to meet the targets. There is a need for the community to contribute Burnt bricks, sand, water and labour during the construction part. Majira News paper (2003).

It was observed on the visited Primary school that all teachers houses constructed was incomplete, more fund were needed to make them complete, the book ratio also is still low compared to the target due to lack of enough fund to purchase more books. The classroom construction, most classrooms was incomplete without good floor this was observed at Kimambila and Lugono Primary schools. The deficit of classrooms, teachers’ houses and textbook may be eliminated or reduced through release of enough fund and close supervision for on going primary school construction. Fig. 4.6 clearly shows the percentage budget approved for use by different sections

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Fig. 4.3: Percentage Approval for Budget Released by Components for financing different sections in Mzumbe ward

100

98.996.5

60.5

33PersonnelEmolumentAdministration

EnrolmentExpansionQualityImprovementCross-CuttingIssues

Source: Researcher’s Analysis as adapted from URT: (2006 b).

4.4.3 Slow community participation in the contribution of materials Discussions with key interviewee and questionnaire from both Mlali and Mzumbe wards revealed that at the beginning of the primary school construction some of the villagers were reluctant to contribute labour as well as fetching water, sand and contributing money for opening a bank account for the construction primary schools. Some of the people had a notion that Government was supposed to meet all costs for the school construction. This implies that ample time was needed to educate communities on the role of government in the whole process of constructing primary schools. Sufficient and clear information to the communities is one of the factors influencing participation.

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4.4.4 Presence of famine The interview with Ward Education Coordinator, Ward Executive Officers, village Chairpersons, village Executive Officers, Head teachers, Education Officers, District Administration secretary and hamlet leaders and questionnaire which were given to villager revealed that during school construction activities initiated there was famine in the villages and the situation was very critical. At Mlali ward, village gave an example that during critical famine they failed to contribute to the school construction. Furthermore, people were busy searching for food and others had no food at all. This situation resulted in slow participation of the community in the construction of classrooms, toilets and teachers’ houses. The impact of hunger on community participation as revealed in the village corresponds to those observed by Ngowi (2007) in Iringa District on community participation in building irrigation canals. In the study, Ngowi found that even though communities were supposed to contribute materials like stones, labour and sand, they could not do so during periods of hunger. It appears that hunger in the communities was among the factors affecting community participation in the construction of classrooms, teachers’ houses, school toilets, and teachers’ offices. This finding suggests that areas where communities experience frequent famine are unlikely to fully participate in community development initiatives.

4.4.5 Fluctuation of prices of building materials Interview made to Ward Education Coordinator, Ward Executive Officers, village Chairpersons, village Executive Officers, Head teachers, Education Officers, District Administration secretary and hamlet leaders, also the information obtained from documentary review such as ward education report and school reports showed that prices of building materials were changing now and then and this resulted in inadequacy of funds. Inadequacy of funding resulted in slow construction of classrooms, teachers’ houses, teachers’ offices and school toilets. They responded that by the time fund was released by government the prices of items needed for the construction of buildings were higher than what was budgeted for.

4.4.6 Existence of multiple projects There was an Existence of multiple project in the wards and villages key informants complained that sometimes they were required to participate in two different projects at the same time, for example primary school construction, dispensary and ward secondary schools and this resulted in people participating in one project and leaving the other one or participating partially. At Mlali and Mzumbe wards villages gave examples whereby they were required to participate in the construction of primary schools funded by Government as well as in the construction of ward secondary schools. This shows that there was no coordination of activities which needed community participation in different participatory projects. For the achievement of community participation, coordination of actors such as villages, local government authorities, Donors and ministries is needed.

4.4.7 HIV/AIDS Impacts The impact of HIV/AIDS on education is being felt in many African Low Development countries. Evidence on how the pandemic affects the process of education is shown in the enrolment and school dropout for age group of (15-49) (UNAIDS/ECA, 2000). This is the most active working force and thus a high rate of prevalence weakens the ability to support children in

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schools, leaving possible support to economically weak and parents or no support at all. High drop-out rates and absenteeism would naturally be the consequences. In Mlali and Mzumbe Wards some parents were not able to support primary school construction because they have been affected by HIV/AIDS.

4.4.8 Political Ideology In some localities the communities were reluctant to contribute through physical participation on the basis that funds disbursed by the Government were enough. This was the result of political opposition parties which were campaigning to the community not to contribute or participate in school construction. This situation was observed at Mlali, Masanze Lugono and Vikenge Primary school. According to the information obtained from the Daily News (2009).The Prime Minister of Tanzania ordered the Regional Commissioners and District Commissioners to terminate from work immediately all Government employee i.e. Ward Executive Officers, who put in rock up members of the society for failure of contributing on Primary classroom construction. This is against the Rule of law and this also will create a loophole for people not to contribute on Development programme

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CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 Conclusion and Recommendation

5.1 Introduction The main objective of this chapter is to conclude on the key findings of the research title “The importance of Community participation in ongoing construction of primary schools: A case of Mlali and Mzumbe wards” and to provide readers with a systematic and comprehensive overview of the progress of ongoing primary school construction. The conclusion is organized according to the four objectives of the report which were to assess the roles of local community participation in ongoing construction of primary schools, to find out the extent to which the Government supported in ongoing construction of primary schools, to identify the benefits of community participation in ongoing primary schools construction and to examine the Challenges which encountered during the ongoing construction of primary schools. Data was collected from several categories of respondents ranging from the level of District, Ward and school through, interview, observation, and documentary review. Purposely sampling was convenient and simple randomly.

5.2 Conclusions The findings revealed that the degree of involvement and empowerment of communities in ongoing primary school construction was minimal. The community were involved in manual labour, collecting stones, sands, burnt bricks, and cash, but were not involved fully in planning process and decision making.

Community mobilization is very crucial because it creates awareness among stakeholders, people become aware of their material resources, their leadership, their technical expertise and the kind of help they are likely to need from outside, people should be mobilized through education and training on the importance of their projects and to make them feel that projects belongs to them, with mobilization, various village resources should be identified and daily recognized within the rules and institutions that creates predictable and transparent framework of both private and public sector. In this manner, people will be in a position to make decision on matters concerning their social development.

Involvement of people in ongoing primary school construction gives them power to make decisions pertaining to their social development, where people enjoy awareness of all the processes related to their social economic needs and inclinations.

5.3 Recommendations

5.3.1 The Government should allocate enough funds earlier to achieve the planned in on going primary school construction. The responsibility of National Government in the education sector has to be seen both from market failure perspectives (Chinopah et,al 2005; UNRISD, 2000) and human rights

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perspectives, especially for primary education (UNICEF, 2000; UNESCO, 2001). They must potent intervention in education is through the budget. It has been demonstrated that times of cuts in public spending are associated with low enrolment, and poor quality (Casswell, 1994, Colclough and Al Samarrai, 2000).

A good school has decent infrastructure and adequate supplies .It has good classroom, functioning toilets, sufficient, relevant and inspiring books, a library and plenty of opportunity for recreation.

5.3.2 There is a need to involve the Communities to the Greater Extent Much more sensitization and awareness to other stakeholder is needed so that in their collaboration the set objectives could be attained on time. Partnership in the mobilization of both international and national resources and energies for the betterment of the education system is of great importance. The potential for greater participation and contribution of other actors such as NGO’s, Development Partners, Communities and Individual is enormous than hitherto recognized, and tapped (Omari 2002:820).

5.3.3 Coordinating multiple projects Partial participation of the villagers in ongoing primary school construction was observed in Mlali and Mzumbe Ward in Mvomero District due to existence of multiple participatory projects like Secondary school construction and dispensary. Projects requiring community participation are implemented at the same time resulting in poor participation of the villagers because community members feel over stretched. The study therefore recommends that there is need for the District to coordinate participatory projects activities in such a way that they should not be implemented concurrently. Implementing participatory projects at different times will give communities opportunity to participate fully in all participatory projects in the village.

5.3.4 At community level

It is recommended that, the school committees be strengthened in order to enable grassroots stakeholders including the poor women, young people and others who are by passed or marginalized to be able to influence decision making and transform schools through facilitating meaningfully participation.

5.3.5 The politicians

There are many politicians within communities who can be very usefully in uniting peoples efforts to bring about primary education development .This includes ministers, members of parliament, respected retired officers and councilors. This people should be used to inspire and mobilized other people to bring about educational changes. They have the ability to create sustainability and development of primary school project in their localities.

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Appendix 1: Questionnaires for Villagers at Mlali and Mzumbe Ward in Mvomero Districts

1. What is your Name:_____________________________________________________ 2. Sex (i) Male [ ] (ii) Female [ ]

3. What is your Education Level (i) Standard Four [ ]

(ii) Standard Seven [ ]

(iii) Form Four [ ]

(iv) Form six [ ]

(v) Never Attend School [ ]

4. How long you have stayed in this village (i) Less than a Year [ ]

(ii) One year [ ]

(iii) Two years [ ]

(iv) Three years [ ]

(v) Four years [ ]

(vi) Above four years [ ]

5. Have you participated in decision making on school construction in your village? (i) Yes [ ]

(ii) No [ ]

(iii) No respond [ ]

(iv) Don’t know [ ]

6. How Frequently have contributed in school construction in terms of money and materials (i) Never [ ]

(ii) Sometime [ ]

(iii) Often [ ]

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(iv) Frequently [ ]

How frequently have you participated in school construction through Labour Offering?

(i) Never [ ]

(ii) Sometimes [ ]

(iii) Often [ ]

(iv) Frequently [ ]

7. Who provide the area for school construction in your village? (i) Villagers [ ]

(ii) Village Government [ ]

(iii) Religion Leaders [ ]

8. Is there any fat collected in your village for the purpose of school construction? (i) Yes [ ]

(ii) No [ ]


(iv) Don’t Know [ ]

9. If the answer is yes in Question 9 please mention how many:____________________ 10. How much fund has been contributed by the Government for school construction in your

village/ward:______________________________________________________

11. Is the school construction was supervised by the Government civil Engineer? (i) Yes [ ]

(ii) No [ ]


(iv) Don’t know [ ]

12. Who provide the artectual drawing for the school construction (i) Government [ ]

(ii) NGos [ ]

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(iii) Village [ ]

13. Who was the daily supervisor of the school construction (i) Head teacher [ ]

(ii) V.E.O [ ]

(iii) W. E .O [ ]

(iv) Councilor [ ]

15. Who provide the policy for the school construction?

(i) NGOs [ ]

(ii) Community [ ]

(iii) Government [ ]

16 What benefit can be obtained through community participation in school construction

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

17. What are the challenges encountered during school construction in Mlali and Mzumbe

Ward?

____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

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Appendix 2: Interview Guide

1. If introduction from the researcher

2. For how long you have been a member in this community?

3. How many schools are present in your Village?

4. What are the roles of community participation in on going construction of primary

schools?

5. Is the government support enough in the construction of on going primary schools?

6. What are the benefits of community participation in on going primary schools

construction?

7 What are the challenges which were encountered during the on going construction of primary schools?

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Appendix 3: Documentary Review Guide

1. Number of community people involved in decision making about school construction

2. Number of community people who contributed in school construction in terms of

money or materials

3. Number of community people who participated in school construction in terms of

labour offering

4. Number of community people who are active in pay tax for school construction

5. Number of school construction areas which was provided by the community

6. What was the government support on school construction in Mlali and Mzumbe ward

7. What benefit was obtained through community participation in school construction

8. What are the challenges were encountered during school construction in Mlali and

Mzumbe ward

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Appendix 4: Observation Guide

1. School Construction at various stages

2. Community participation in various stages

3. Observation of different report about community participation in various ways.

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Appendix 5: Standard Map for classrooms

Source: Documentary data

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Appendix 6: Standard Map for classrooms


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Appendix 7: Letter of permission for data collection from Mzumbe University


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Appendix 8: Letter of acceptance for data collection from Mvomero Districts


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Appendix 9: Map of Mvomero District

Source: Documentary data (Mvomero District Office)

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