Sol Iustitiae: The History of the Motto of Rutgers

by Jessica Shao

Senior Honors Thesis Submitted to the

Department of Classics in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the Bachelor of Arts degree with Honor

Rutgers University April 15, 2009

Adviser: Professor Corey Brennan

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Rutgers’ Visual Identity

In April of 2008, Rutgers University reformed its

visual identity. The goal was to standardize and regulate the

use of the Rutgers’ logotype, seal, and other symbols

representing the school. Among the new additions of the

reform is an informal seal, which is a simplified version of the official seal. This informal seal

contains a “bolder rendition of the central sunburst”1 with the name of the university and the

founding year on its outer ring. However, the Latin motto of Rutgers is

absent from this simplified version. It was created so that it might be

used more frequently in less restricted mediums, since the official seal

may primarily only be used on official university documents.

One may wonder upon seeing this informal seal, why Rutgers

is represented by a sun. The sun is, in fact, alluding to the content of the Rutgers motto: “Sol

iustitiae et occidentem illustra”, which means, “Sun of righteousness, shine also on the West”.

From where did this motto originate and what is its significance and meaning? To answer this

question, I will examine in four sections the use and interpretation of this phrase throughout

history, beginning with its biblical origin, then examining its usage by the early Christian church

fathers and medieval theologians. Moving forward to the time of the Reformation, I will then

proceed to give a survey of the thoughts and teachings of several major theologians. Finally, I

will discuss how the motto came to Rutgers and conclude with a discussion of the manifestations

of the motto in a broader cultural context.

1 Rutgers Visual Identity System: http://identity.rutgers.edu/

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Biblical Sources

The motto of Rutgers and the symbol which represents it actually originate from a

biblical context. The motto is taken from Malachi 4:2 and Matthew 13:43 in the Bible. Malachi

was a Jewish prophet from the 5th century BC. He was a contemporary of Ezra and Nehemiah,

who worked to restore Jerusalem and the Jewish temple after the Israelites were exiled to

Babylon and permitted to return under King Cyrus’ rule. Although the Jewish people were

released from captivity by King Cyrus, their homeland was not the way it had used to be. There

was a general sense of spiritual depression as they seemed to feel a lack of God’s presence and

work after returning from exile. The Jews struggled with drought and crop failure, as well as

hostility from neighboring nations.

The textual context from which Malachi 4:2 is found starts from Malachi 3:13 and ends

at Malachi 4:3. In this section, the prophet Malachi voices the hopelessness of the Jewish people

who have lost faith in God’s covenant to them. The people complain in 3:14-15, “It is vain to

serve God. What is the profit of our keeping his charge or of walking as in mourning before the

Lord of hosts? And now we call the arrogant blessed. Evildoers not only prosper but they put

God to the test and they escape.” The people have become disillusioned with the law of God, that

is, the covenant God made with the Jewish people back in Egypt. The covenant that God made

with the Jewish people states, “If you will indeed obey my voice and keep my covenant, you

shall be my treasured possession among all peoples, for all the earth is mine; and you shall be to

me a kingdom of priests and a holy nation”.2 The terms of the covenant were simple: If the

people obeyed God’s commands, they would be blessed and prosper, but if they disobeyed, there

would be punishments. Now back home from exile, the Jewish people believe that their

obedience does not bring about any results, whereas those who show contempt for God’s law 2 Exodus 19:5 (English Standard Version)

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seem to lead a prosperous life. They are essentially asking if there is any difference in the way

God treats the righteous and the unrighteous.

Not that the people have been completely obedient in their observance of the law.

Malachi lists in the preceding chapters all the sins that the Jewish people have been committing –

lack of sincerity in offerings and worship, idolatry, and interracial marriage (i.e., intermarrying

with the idolatrous nations around Israel) to name a few. On account of these offenses, the

Jewish people were experiencing less of God’s blessings and comparing their standard of living

to their “neighbors” who had moved into their land while they were gone. Consequently, a

general depression, hopelessness, and lack of religious fervor pervaded the community.

It was in this historical context that Malachi lived and wrote an exhortation to the people

to be faithful to the Lord. Malachi 4:2 states, “But for you who fear my name, the sun of

righteousness shall rise with healing in its wings. You shall go out leaping like calves from the

stall.” This verse is actually quoting the words of God who is promising his people that he will

indeed judge evildoers and reward the righteous on the “Day of the Lord”. It is a reminder of his

covenant to them. The day of the Lord was to be a great day of judgment when God would come

to earth and separate the righteous from the wicked. Although many Bible commentaries equate

the “sun of righteousness” to Christ, it may also refer more generally to this “Day of the Lord”.

The evidence can be found in the previous verse where the Lord says, “For behold, the day is

coming, burning like an oven, when all the arrogant and all evildoers will be stubble. The day

that is coming shall set them ablaze…” Thus the use of the word “sun” in the following verse

may be a descriptive term in reference to the proclamation that the Day of the Lord will set all

ablaze. When the sun of righteousness comes on the Day of the Lord, it will set all evildoers

ablaze.

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In addition to the imagery of the sun setting ablaze the wicked, the sun does double duty,

also rising on the righteous “with healing in its wings”. The sun in this case can be dually

interpreted to be a prophecy of Christ who is “the Light of the world”3 and who would come a

few centuries later to live a completely perfect life. He would come as righteousness, making a

substitutionary death and thereby, making those righteous – that is, “healing” – all those who

would accept him. The word “righteousness” here is used in the genitive in the sense of quality.

To the wicked, the sun would essentially be a sun of judgment, whereas to the righteous, it will

be a purifying light.

There has been some debate over the precise translation of the word “righteousness”.

Malachi was originally written in Hebrew then translated into Greek along with the rest of the

Old Testament. This Greek text is called the Septuagint. Finally, Saint Jerome gave us the Latin

translation of the Bible called the Vulgate. In Rutgers’ history, the motto has sometimes been

translated as “sun of justice”. The original Hebrew word for “righteousness” is tsedaqah which is

translated as “righteousness” 158 times in the Old Testament and translated as “justice” only 15

times. All the major translations of the Bible (e.g. KJV, NIV, ESV, and NASB) translate this

word in Malachi 4:2 as “righteousness”. The primary definition according to Swanson’s Hebrew

dictionary is: “the state of doing what is required according to a standard”. Since the word for

“sun” is in the construct form, it is dependent on tsedaqah which, in turn, would make tsedaqah

in the genitive case. In the Septuagint, the word used is dikaiosune which is also translated as

“righteousness” or more specifically, “the act of doing what God requires” (Swanson). Saint

Jerome uses the word iustitiae in the Vulgate. This version, undoubtedly, is where the University

of Utrecht4 got their Latin “sun of righteousness”. It is uncertain whether Saint Jerome translated

3 John 1:9 4 This will be discussed in further detail below. Rutgers University adopted its motto from Utrecht.

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the Vulgate from the Hebrew or the Greek text, but in either case, the meaning of iustitiae would

be the same. Thus, the correct translation of sol iustitiae is “sun of righteousness” as opposed to

“sun of justice”.

“Sol iustitiae et occidentem illustra” also references Matthew 13:43, not only in regards

to the sun, but also to the word “illustra” which means “shine”. Matthew 13:43 is another quote,

this time of Jesus, who says, “Then the righteous will shine like the sun in the kingdom of their

Father…” The context in which Jesus says this is from his explanation to his disciples of the

parable of the weeds. In this parable, Jesus tells a story of a wheat field that gets sown with

weeds by the owner’s enemy. The owner tells his servants to wait until harvest time to separate

the weeds from the wheat so that the wheat would not be damaged, and afterwards, to burn the

weeds. Jesus later explains this parable to his disciples, saying that at the “end of the age” – that

is, the Day of the Lord or Day of Judgment – all law-breakers and those who cause sin (weeds)

will be burned in the fiery furnace. But those found righteous (wheat) will shine like the sun.

The book of Matthew was written in Greek and also translated into Latin by Saint

Jerome. The word used in the Greek for “shine” is “eklampsousin” which is the only occurrence

of this word in the NT. Saint Jerome translates this word in the Vulgate as “fulgebunt”. It is

interesting to note, then, that the University of Utrecht deliberately chose to use the word

“illustra” in its motto instead of “fulge”, which would have been more accurate to the Vulgate.

The reason for this deliberate choice of the word will be discussed in further detail below.

Early Church Fathers

The concept of the “sun of righteousness” continued to live on after biblical times. The

phrase was used quite regularly among the early church fathers, although each of their

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interpretations of it may have differed slightly. Contextual clues from each author help to

determine the usage and meaning of the phrase.

It was Clement of Alexandria (c.150-215) who first equated the sun of righteousness to

Christ. In his Exhortation to the Heathen, Clement makes it very clear that the sun of

righteousness is the one who brought light to the world through the cross. “For the Sun of

Righteousness, who drives His chariot over all, pervades equally all humanity, like ‘His Father,

who makes His sun to rise on all men,’ and distils on them the dew of the truth. He hath changed

sunset into sunrise, and through the cross brought death to life…”5 Here Clement is praising

Christ for bringing salvation to the world through his death on the cross. In that paragraph, he

rejoices that he has received the light from Christ so that he could find the way to God. Thus, he

calls Christ the “sun of righteousness”.

Another early commentary on the “sun of righteousness” is by Origen (185-254). In his

Commentary on Matthew, Origen gives a brief exposition of the parable of the weeds as well as

his interpretation of the shining of the righteous. He states that the whole world is the field and

that the weeds are evil opinions from the devil. At the end of the world, the angels of the Lord

will harvest up all the weeds to purge the kingdom of Christ and remove all stumbling-blocks for

the righteous.

When Origen reaches verse 43, he gives a rather unique interpretation of the “sun of

righteousness”. Instead of equating the sun to Christ, as is understood by most theologians,

Origen equates the sun to the collective body of the righteous ones left after the world has been

purged. He interprets Jesus’ words to mean that “…the righteous having become one light of the

sun [shall] shine in the kingdom of their Father,” and in another place, “the righteous will shine

not differently as formerly, but as one sun.” Origen presses his point that at the end of the age, 5 Clement of Alexandria, Exhortation to the Heathen, Chapter 11

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the righteous will shine as one collective group and not as shining individuals that imitate the

sun. He wraps up by making absolutely clear that this collective body of righteous ones will

actually be the sun in God’s kingdom, and not just like it. “The light of the disciples of Jesus

shines before the rest of men…and all become one sun.” 6

It is not hard to see how Origen arrived at this interpretation, for the verse itself is a little

ambiguous as to what the “sun” is referring to. It simply states that the righteous will shine “like

the sun”. The word for “like” in Greek is hos which in this context means “like” or “as” in the

comparative sense or as an adverb of manner. However, this word can easily be mistaken to

function as an adverb equating one word to another. In this case, Origen may have interpreted the

word hos to be an equating adverb rather than an adverb of comparison or manner, thereby

concluding that the shining righteous will actually function collectively as the sun.

Another reason why Origen’s interpretation of the sun is unlikely is because it would not

make much sense in the context of Malachi 4:2, the only other verse in the Bible that compares

righteousness to the sun. Malachi writes that the sun of righteousness will rise on “those who

revere [God’s] name”. If Origen’s sun of righteousness is composed of the remaining righteous

on earth themselves, it would be unable to shine upon the righteous.

St. John Chrysostom (347-407) also mentions the sun of righteousness in his Eight

Homilies Against the Jews. Chrysostom was a Greek Christian living in the 4th century who was

priest at Antioch and eventually become priest of Constantinople in 387. He had a deep-seated

hatred against the Jews, who mingled with the Christians at Antioch probably because of his

disapproval of Jewish practices and non-Christian lifestyle, whether past or present.7 The feasts

and religious customs that were still being observed by the Jews at Antioch were a “disease” to

6 Origen, Commentary on the Gospel of Matthew, Book X. 7 James Parkes, The Conflict of the Church and the Synagogue: A Study in the Origins of Antisemitism (New York: JPS, 1934) 163-166.

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the church, according to Chrysostom, because the Christians were joining the Jews in these

practices and he wished “to drive this perverse custom from the Church right now”.8 In his first

Homily, he calls the Jewish people “pitiable” because they have rejected the light of the Sun of

Justice. He says of the Jews: “When so many blessings from heaven came into their hands, they

thrust them aside and were at great pains to reject them. The morning Sun of Justice arose for

them, but they thrust aside its rays and still sit in darkness. We, who were nurtured by darkness,

drew the light to ourselves and were freed from the gloom of their error.” The Jews were pitiable

because they rejected the sun and chose to continue in darkness, that is, in their sinful practices,

according to Chrysostom, whereas the Christians to whom Chrysostom was speaking accepted

the light and were free from the darkness.

Chrysostom’s version of the sun of righteousness, therefore, acts as an agent that brings

righteousness. The Bible often uses the metaphor of darkness and light to describe the righteous

and the unrighteous. Those who accept Jesus as Savior are considered righteous and have entered

into the light, whereas those who have not done so are still in darkness. Differing from Origen

who equates the sun to the body of righteous ones, Chrysostom seems to interpret the sun as an

agent that brings the quality of righteousness to those upon whom it shines. Those who reject the

sun of righteousness continue living in darkness, while those who are willing to come into the

light become righteous. This understanding of the role of the sun of righteousness, then, means

that Chrysostom is referring to Christ as the sun, since in Christianity, Jesus Christ alone holds

the power of making people righteous. Chrysostom’s sun of righteousness has the property of

bringing righteousness to those who accept its rays. Therefore, the sun is figuratively referring to

Christ.

8 Saint John Chrysostom, Eight Homilies Against the Jews, Homily 1.

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Perhaps one of the most important and widely published church fathers who has also

written several comments concerning the sun of righteousness is Saint Augustine of Hippo (354-

430). Augustine seems to use the phrase with familiarity throughout his works, especially in the

City of God. In Chapter 35, Augustine writes a commentary on the last three books of the Old

Testament. However, he only mentions one sentence about the passage in Malachi 4: “This day

is the Day of Judgment, of which, if God will, we shall speak more fully in its own place.” He

clearly states that the “day that is coming” is the Day of Judgment. In Chapter 27, Augustine

writes of the separation of the good and evil on the Day of Judgment. “When this diversity

between the rewards and punishments which distinguish the righteous from the wicked shall

appear under that Sun of righteousness in the brightness of life eternal,—a diversity which is not

discerned under this sun which shines on the vanity of this life,—there shall then be such a

judgment as has never before been.” In this context, the sun of righteousness works to

differentiate the righteous from the unrighteous on the last day since the present sun does not

distinguish between the two. The differentiation that Augustine describes probably comes about

as a result of the sun of righteousness shining only on the righteous and not on the wicked.

Augustine writes in chapter 16, “There rises not the sun on the good and the evil, but the Sun of

Righteousness protects the good alone.” This takes place in the “city of God” which Augustine

describes is for those saints who long to reach it. In Against the Epistle of Manichaeus, Called

Fundamental, Augustine writes about the Manicheans, a religious group that started around the

3rd century and constructed their worldview on the duality of light and darkness. Augustine

instructs Christians to deal with them gently, mainly stating reasons of ignorance on the part of

the Manichaens. One piece of ignorance concerns the way Christians wish to gaze upon the sun.

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Then Augustine qualifies the sun by explaining that it is not the physical sun but the sun of

righteousness, which is equivalent to the “true light” the Apostle John mentions in his gospel.

One last church father who worked and wrote in the 8th century is St. Bede the Venerable

(672-735) who is best known for his Ecclesiastical History of England. In it, he mentions the sun

of righteousness once, actually quoting the passage from Malachi 4:2. He explains that the sun

of righteousness signifies Christ and that the Holy Spirit signifies the moon. “…‘the Sun of

Righteousness, with healing in His wings,’ that is, our Lord Jesus, by the triumph of His

Resurrection, dispelled all the darkness of death, and so ascending into Heaven, filled His

Church, which is often signified by the name of the moon, with the light of inward grace, by

sending down upon her His Spirit. Which order of our salvation the prophet had in his mind,

when he said ‘The sun was exalted and the moon stood in her order.’”9 The prophet whom St.

Bede quotes is Isaiah, who writes: “…the light of the moon will be as the light of the sun, and the

light of the sun will be sevenfold.”10 Thus, St. Bede understood the sun of righteousness to be the

exalted Son of God. This fact is significant to point out because Bede thus interprets Malachi’s

“day of the Lord” to mean the time when Jesus died and ascended to heaven rather than the end

of the world as it is often interpreted. The Son of God was exalted at the right hand of God when

he ascended to heaven.

The concept of the sun of righteousness was important and often mentioned in the

teachings of the early church fathers. Although the interpretations and its application to

Christians varied slightly from one church father to another, it was still regarded with importance

and honor. This treatment of the metaphor continues on in medieval thought although it appears

sparsely.

9 St. Bede, Ecclesiastical History of England Book V, Chapter 21 10 Isaiah 30:26

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Medieval period

Walter of Chatillon, a poet from the 12th century who is best known for his epic

Alexandreid, uses the phrase in his Carmen III as a recurring chorus line. The exact line is “De

tenebris historiae processit sol justitiae”, which translates as, “The sun of righteousness advances

from the darkness of history”. The song itself is composed of some thirty-seven stanzas, all with

varying meter and length.

Hildegard of Bingen (1098-1179), a German abbess and prophetess, mentions the sun of

righteousness in a letter to Elizabeth of Schönau. The topic of correspondence concerns the

progress of mankind’s relationship with God. She gives a brief history, stating that mankind was

created by God, but was deceived by the devil and became proud and disobedient. However, God

preserved mankind by giving strength to some to be resistant to deceit. This was the state of

mankind “until that time came in which the word of God was manifest as it is said: Beautiful in

form beyond the sons of men.”11 The “word of God manifest” refers to Christ whom John the

apostle says is the “Word”. She then writes, “Then the sun of righteousness appeared and

illuminated men with good works in faith and in act…”The original Latin for “with good works”

includes the preposition “cum” which means that this phrase would be an ablative of quality or

characteristic as opposed to means. Thus, Hildegard of Bingen’s sun of righteousness shines on

those who are already righteous, that is, the men who have done good works both inwardly and

outwardly, in faith and deeds.

There does not seem to be as much teaching on the sun of righteousness in the medieval

period. Although the sun of righteousness appears very scarcely in the medieval period, the

writings of major theologians beginning with the Reformation more than make up for it.

11 Hildegard of Bingen, Epistolarium, ed. L. Van Acker, Corpus Christianorum, Continuatio Mediaevalis, vol.91A (Turnholt: Brepols, 1993), 456-57

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Theologians of the Reformation and Beyond

When Martin Luther (1483-1546) emerged onto the Christian scene with his Ninety-Five

Theses and caused the protestant movement to explode, there began a great shift in Christian

theology’s emphasis from works to grace. Up until the Protestant Reformation which began in

1517, the Catholic Church was becoming increasingly focused on ritualistic practices and

established rules for absolving sins. Luther was one of the first men to speak out against these

practices and thus became the main leader of Protestantism.

In his Treatise on Good Works, Luther teaches on the topic of good works versus faith.

He begins his treatise by explaining that good works done without faith, that is, without “good

conscience toward God”, is nothing. He rebukes the attitude of some believers who continually

carry out the traditional good works of their religion without faith, such as praying and fasting,

and yet still considering them to be good works. Luther states that “every one can note and tell

for himself when he does what is good or what is not good; for if he finds his heart confident that

it pleases God, the work is good, even if it were so small a thing as picking up a straw.” In other

words, a good work is one that is done in confidence of God’s pleasure, and not by rote practice.

After he makes this point, Luther mentions the “sun of righteousness” in a quote from the

Wisdom of Solomon: "We have wearied ourselves in the wrong way; and have gone through

deserts, where there lay no way; but as for the way of the Lord, we have not known it, and the

sun of righteousness rose not upon us.”12 By quoting this verse in this context, Luther is saying

that those who labor to observe all the outward symbols of Christianity still fail to receive the

light of the sun of righteousness, since they have labored “in the wrong way”, that is, without

faith. Luther’s sun of righteousness, then, is a symbol of justification. It shines on the righteous

12 The Catholic Bible, Wisdom of Solomon 5:6

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only. And justification, according to Luther, does not come solely from the outward observances

of traditional good works, but requires a sincere faith.

Among those who were influenced by Luther’s teachings and leadership in the Protestant

movement is John Calvin (1509-1564), another major leader in the Reformation. He writes a

commentary on Malachi 4:2 and clearly states that the sun of righteousness refers to Christ.

“There is indeed no doubt but that Malachi calls Christ the Sun of righteousness.”13 He qualifies

this claim by quoting from the prophet Isaiah. The entire chapter of Isaiah 60 is composed of

God’s words about Christ. In it, he says that Christ would shine as a light on the world to display

God’s glory, and that the physical sun would no longer be needed, because the light of Christ

would be the light for the world.14 Therefore, since this light metaphor is used consistently

throughout the Old Testament to refer to Christ, Calvin continues this metaphor by interpreting

the sun of righteousness as Christ, the light of the world.

The interpretation of this verse can actually be taken in two ways: the light that Isaiah

mentions could either metaphorically refer to Jesus’ first appearance on earth, or it could refer

literally to Jesus’ shining glory when he returns on the Day of Judgment. Since Jesus was

proclaimed by John the Baptist as the “Light of the world”, he was essentially proclaiming that

the Old Testament prophecies pertaining to light had been fulfilled in Jesus’ presence on earth.

Therefore, any biblical mention of light or the sun would refer to Jesus’ first appearance on earth.

The second interpretation is related to the fact that many of the passages referring to light also

refer to the Day of Judgment, such as the one in Malachi 4. Jesus himself says to his disciples

that when he returns, “the sun will be darkened, and the moon will not give its light, and the stars

will fall from heaven, and the powers of the heavens will be shaken… they will see the Son of

13 John Calvin, Commentary on Malachi, Chapter 4 14 See Isaiah 60:19-20

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Man coming on the clouds of heaven with power and great glory.”15 Glory in scripture is often

symbolized with light, as the pillar of fire was a symbol of God’s glory in Egypt.16 Thus, the Day

of Judgment will occur when Jesus returns to earth and becomes the light of the world.

Calvin evidently takes the former interpretation since he states that “God has always

given light to his Church, but Christ brought the full light,” and, “when therefore the heavens

became at length opened and clear by means of the gospel, it was through the rising of the

Sun…” Calvin not only speaks in the past tense, indicating that the light has already come, but

he also connects the rising of the Sun to Jesus’ work in clearing the way to heaven. This isn’t the

only indication that Calvin believes the sun of righteousness to have risen when Jesus first

arrived.

Calvin continues his commentary by expounding on each key word. The sun is a

metaphor of Jesus’ guidance for those who follow him. “Christ performs towards us the office of

a sun, not to guide our feet and hands as to what is earthly, but that he brings light to us, to show

the way to heaven.” Just as the physical sun gives guidance by lighting up the world, Jesus gives

spiritual guidance through the gospel. In this statement, Calvin makes a clear contrast between

the light as a metaphor and actual physical light, further emphasizing the fact that Jesus is the

metaphorical sun of righteousness who provided the way to heaven when he lived on earth.

Calvin further emphasizes the fact that “this spiritual light cannot be separated from

righteousness” because Christ only becomes the sun to those who have been made righteous

through him. Here Calvin agrees with Luther that the sun of righteousness shines only on the

righteous. In one of Calvin’s prayer lectures, Calvin also implies that the sun of righteousness

has the ability to make a distinction between the righteous and the unrighteous. He prays that

15 Matthew 24:21 (English Standard Version) 16 See Exodus 13:21-22 and Exodus 24:17

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God would “set before our eyes thine only begotten Son as a Sun of righteousness to rule us and

hast deigned to separate us from the whole world.”17 The role of the sun of righteousness is two-

fold: to act as a ruling authority and to distinguish the righteous from the rest of the world.

In the second half of the seventeenth century, William Beveridge lived and served as a

respected preacher in England. At the age of twenty-three, Beveridge wrote a list of practical

Christian resolutions for his own benefit now published as Private Thoughts Upon a Christian

Life. In it, he dedicates a section to his thoughts on Christ as the sun of righteousness. He asserts

that the sun of righteousness is a metaphor of Christ, explaining why human beings need

metaphors for spiritual matters – we learn primarily through our senses, and since spiritual

matters cannot be felt through the senses, metaphors are useful in conveying these spiritual ideas.

Right from the outset then, Beveridge makes it clear that the Sun is a metaphor and does not

describe Christ’s literal shining.

However, Beveridge takes a rather novel view of the role of the sun of righteousness.

Differing from Luther and Calvin, Beveridge considers the sun to have double duty. The sun of

righteousness heals those who are righteous, but it holds dire consequences for those who are

not. He writes, “It will be a terrible Day to those that shall obstinately refuse to walk in the light

of it… He shall arise to all, but to the other with such a scorching Heat as shall burn them up.”

The passage in Malachi does not specifically state how the evil are burned up, but Beveridge

links the sun of righteousness to judgment, to the burning up of those who “refuse to walk in the

light of it”.

Not only does this Sun carry out judgment on the unrighteous, but its light is also

invisible to them according to Beveridge. This invisibility would have to be in the spiritual sense

since Beveridge has already established that the sun cannot be experienced with human senses 17 John Calvin, Commentaries on the Book of the Prophet Daniel, Prayer Lecture 40

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but is something spiritual. It is only logical to conclude that the sun of righteousness would then

be invisible to those who reject Christ.

Perhaps one of the most prolific writers and influential theologians of America was

Jonathan Edwards (1703-1758), who lived and preached in the 18th century during the first Great

Awakening. He was a firm believer of the teachings of Calvin, teaching that one cannot earn

salvation through works. He taught that God was sovereign and extended his grace to whomever

he chose, so that good works was not a cause but an effect, that is, that salvation is given and not

earned. His theological perspective can be clearly illustrated in his teachings on the sun of

righteousness.

Throughout his voluminous works, Jonathan Edwards refers to the sun of righteousness

quite often. There are several prevailing thoughts concerning the sun of righteousness. First, that

it makes those it shines on to become righteous and purified; second, that those who receive the

light become little suns themselves; Edwards also gives his opinion that the sun of righteousness

will rise from the west and not from the east like the natural sun.

The first and most significant concept from Edwards is that the sun of righteousness

brings justification on those upon whom it shines, rather than the more common idea of the sun

of righteousness shining only on those already righteous. In his notes on the Bible, Edwards

writes that “the soul, the more it is fitted for Christ, is more and more emptied of itself that it

may be filled with Christ… so the soul sees more and more of its own sinfulness, and vileness,

and misery, that it may be swallowed up in the rays of the Sun of righteousness.”18 Edwards is

describing here the concept of unmerited grace, namely, that no one can, by any amount of

goodness, earn the right to have the sun of righteousness shine on them. In fact, Edwards

compares a Christian’s conversion to a lunar eclipse. The moon gets darker the closer it gets to 18 Jonathan Edwards, Notes on the Bible, Leviticus to Deuteronomy

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the sun and eventually, its light becomes swallowed up or hidden by the sun. In the same way,

Edwards states, “…we must come to Christ as wholly sinful and miserable”, dark and devoid of

any light. This teaching keeps to his theological view of grace over works.

Edwards also presents the unique idea that those who receive the light of the sun of

righteousness become little suns themselves. “The soul of a saint receives light from the Sun of

righteousness, in such a manner, that its nature is changed, and it becomes properly a luminous

thing; not only does the sun shine in the saints, but they also become little suns, partaking of the

nature of the fountain of their light.”19 These must be figurative little suns since Edwards says

this transformation takes place at conversion. It is a transformation of one’s nature, becoming a

little replica of the original sun of righteousness with a “like divine power and energy in them”.

This is a unique interpretation since the major theologians previous to Edwards only taught that

the sun of righteousness alone provides the light. Edwards, however, takes it a step further to

show that those who receive the light do not simply reflect it but are transformed to become like

the sun of righteousness itself.

Edwards makes one other small though significant point concerning the sun of

righteousness. He believes that it will rise from the West – that is, America, -- contrary to the

normal order of the natural sun. By this, Edwards is talking about the end times when Christ

returns and becomes the sun for the new heaven and new earth. “The sun after it is risen ascends

up to the midst of heaven, and then at that end of its race descends again to the earth; so Christ

when he rose from the grave ascended up to the height of heaven, and far above all heavens, but

at the end of the gospel-day will descend again to the earth.”20 The sun of righteousness, now in

heaven, arose when Christ first walked the earth, and will descend upon the earth again during

19 Jonathan Edwards, Religious Affections, Part 3 Chapter 7 20 Jonathan Edwards, Notes on the Bible, Psalms

18

the end times. And this sun will descend on the West first. He comes to this conclusion from

Isaiah 9:9, drawing parallels between the ships from Tarshish, a major Mediterranean trade port,

and the Western continents of Europe and America. Adding to this belief that the sun of

righteousness would descend on the West first is the fact that the First Great Awakening was

occurring in the New England colonies and such a major revival in the church may have helped

to convince Edwards of the possibly imminent return of Christ.

The last of the major theologians after the Reformation that I will examine is Charles

Spurgeon (1834-1892). Spurgeon delivered a sermon on November 12th, 1871 on the topic of the

sun of righteousness. He equates Jesus as the Sun, using Psalm 19:4-6 as his main argument.

Spurgeon explains that the Lord has set up a tent for the Sun, that is, Jesus, where he sits after

resurrecting and ascending to heaven. Thus, according to Spurgeon, the sun of righteousness

arose on the day of Christ’s resurrection and has been shining ever since in heaven. It will then

descend on the earth again on the last day. Spurgeon explains that, like the natural sun, the

influence of the sun of righteousness reaches the entire world. “He rules in providence over all

people, whether they believe in him or not, and if men do not accept the gospel, yet they are

affected by it, in some way or other.”21 In other words, this sun of righteousness shines equally

on believers and unbelievers alike without distinction. Its effects, however, are different

depending on each individual’s reception. “Christ is Master, and if you bring the gospel before

his enemy, he will be made to feel its power, either so as to yield to it a willing submission, or

else to be condemned by it”. The idea of judgment and condemnation is once again brought up

here. Although the influence of Christ the Sun reaches everyone, Spurgeon clarifies that each

individual has the right to choose whether to accept or reject him, reaping the consequences of

the choice he makes. 21 Charles Spurgeon, The Sun of Righteousness, Sermon on Nov. 12th, 1871

19

This last point makes the ultimate difference between Spurgeon’s exposition and those of

the theologians preceding him. Both Luther and Calvin believed that the sun of righteousness

only shines on the righteous and that only the righteous can see it and feel its warmth. Edwards

taught that the sun of righteousness brings justification to those upon whom it shines. Spurgeon,

however, based on his interpretation of Psalm 19:6 and the phrase “nothing is hidden from its

heat”, taught that the Sun shines on all equally, but that its effects would be in consequence to

each individual’s reactions to it.

Having looked at the various interpretations and usages of the phrase “sun of

righteousness” throughout church history, one common thread is evident throughout the nineteen

centuries in which this phrase has survived – the agreement that Christ is the Sun of

righteousness. This interpretation, then, can be applied in understanding the meaning and origin

of the motto of Rutgers.

Utrecht’s Motto

In order to thoroughly discuss the history of the Rutgers motto, it is necessary to start

with the University of Utrecht. But first, an explanation of the Dutch education system with

regard to illustrious schools is in order. Illustrious schools flourished in the Netherlands in the

late sixteenth to early seventeenth centuries. They were designed to be a type of preparatory

school for the university, bridging the gap between the Latin schools and a full-fledged

university and offering instruction in all the traditional subjects of a university, but without the

ability to grant degrees. The purpose of these illustrious schools was to provide a more

affordable and accessible opportunity for higher education in local towns.

20

The city of Utrecht turned Protestant in the 16th century, when many churches were being

established throughout Europe out of the Reformation. The churches based in the Netherlands

were called the Dutch Reformed Church and followed the teachings of John Calvin. The Dutch

Reformed Church wished to establish schools and seminaries for the purpose of educating their

children in the theology and values of the Dutch Church and to train future ministers in the

Netherlands. Since Utrecht was unable at first to obtain a university charter, an illustrious school

was founded there in 1634, and it became a full university two years later on the 20th of March,

1636.

The motto of the University of Utrecht is “Sol iustitiae illustra nos” – “Sun of

righteousness, shine upon us”. The motto dates all the way back to 1634, when the illustrious

school at Utrecht was founded. Evidence comes from the fact that the school’s first professor of

classical studies, Justus Liraeus, used the motto in his inaugural speech, and the phrase comes up

again in the school’s opening ceremony. The motto addresses the sun of righteousness, who

according to John Calvin, is Christ. Since the Dutch Reformed Church adhered to the teachings

of Calvin, they would have understood whom they were addressing. The word illustra is also in

the imperative mood. Thus, this motto would be a prayer addressed to

Christ. Roelof van den Broek, the first professor of classical studies at

Utrecht University, suggests that the motto is actually addressing God the

Father and not Christ.22 He gives Psalm 84:11 as the verse from which

Utrecht’s motto was derived: “For the Lord God is a sun and shield...” Since the university seal

contains the shield of the town of Utrecht inside the sun, Van den Broek believes that this verse

is the one Utrecht used in creating their motto. The verse from the Psalm specifically states that

22 Roelof van den Broek, Hy leeret ende beschuttet. Over het wapen en de zinspreuk van de Universiteit Utrecht (1995)

21

the Lord is the sun, and not Christ specifically. However, the fact that the motto contains sol

iustitiae is evidence that Malachi 4:2 is equally a source. Since Calvin firmly taught that Christ

was the sun of righteousness, the church in the Netherlands would follow suit in equating the sun

to Christ.

William Elliot Griffis, an 1869 Rutgers graduate, wrote an article in The Christian

Intelligencer, explaining how Utrecht’s motto is used as a prayer. The Eighty Year’s war with

Spain was just about to come to an end when the illustrious school in Utrecht was established.

The motto, then, was firstly a prayer for vindication from their past revolution against Spain, and

that Christ would look favorably upon this new republic. Secondly, it was a “prayer for guidance

in the future”. The Republic of the United Netherlands knew that “a republic cannot endure

without both elementary and advance education.”23 Thus, Utrecht’s motto is a suitable prayer for

future success in a time of revolution and new beginnings.

The use of the word illustra for “shine” is a rather curious choice. As noted above, St.

Jerome translates the word “shine” in Matthew 13:43 of the Vulgate as fulgebunt. Utrecht’s

deliberate use of the word illustra instead of the word found in the Vulgate seems to be a play on

the university’s origin as an illustrious school. It not only makes for a more pleasant-sounding

motto, but the motto certainly would also carry more history.

Another possible though less credible reason for using the word illustra could stem from

a desire to avoid association with the context of judgment found in Malachi and Matthew. The

word itself can be translated not only as “shine” but also as “illuminate”, the latter of which can

also mean to be intellectually enlightened. Since this motto was created for a school and was

meant to be a prayer, using the word illustra would make a more suitable prayer for a school:

23 William Elliot Griffis, “The Motto of Rutgers College a Prayer,” The Christian Intelligencer, 8 Nov. 1916

22

“Sun of Righteousness, illuminate us.” It is a prayer addressed to Christ for truth in their pursuit

of knowledge.

Rutgers’ Motto

In about another century and a half, the Dutch Reformed Church in America would begin

the same process of establishing a university for the education of ministers. After obtaining a

charter, the school was first called Queen’s College. The motto of Queen’s College, now Rutgers

University, is “Sol iustitiae et occidentem illustra” which translates as, “Sun of righteousness,

shine also on the West”. It was adopted by Rev. John H. Livingston from the motto of the

University of Utrecht. Evidence for this fact comes from the letter which Utrecht University sent

to Rutgers for its one hundred fiftieth anniversary celebration. It states, “It was he, too, who gave

you your motto… a motto derived with but a slight alteration from that of our own university.”24

Since Rutgers originated as a college of the Dutch Reformed Church, this motto is consistent

with the values of the church as well as the University of Utrecht from which Rev. Livingston

graduated and which Rutgers looked to for guidance.

Rev. John H. Livingston and the Dutch Reformed Church

Rev. John H. Livingston’s ministry in the Dutch Reformed

Church served as a catalyst in the establishment of Queen’s College.

Rev. John H. Livingston was born in the year 1746 in Poughkeepsie,

NY. He received a bachelor’s degree from Yale University and had

originally intended to study law. However, the divisions and factions that

24 Joseph Volney Lewis, ed. The Celebration of the One Hundred and Fiftieth Anniversary of Its Founding as Queen’s College, 1766-1916 (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University, 1917) 334.

23

were happening in the Dutch Church at the time laid an impression on his heart and urged him to

turn towards ministry. Since there were no seminaries in America where he might study to

become a Dutch minister, he went to Holland from 1766-1770 to study theology at the

University of Utrecht. Livingston earned his degree of Doctor of Divinity, and then accepted a

call to be the pastor of the Dutch Church in NY.

Back in NY, Rev. Livingston played an important role in unifying the two factions of the

Dutch Church in America – the Coetus and the Conferentie. The conflict of interests between

these two groups was a major cause of the slow progress in establishing a university for the

education of Dutch ministers in America. The Coetus wished to gain independent authority to

confer degrees and ordain ministers in America. They wished to establish a western version of

the University of Utrecht in order to provide a Christian education for their children and to train

ministers for the church without sending them all the way to Holland. After much effort, they

had managed to obtain a second charter for Queen’s College in 1770, the first one not being

completely satisfactory to the Board of Trustees. The opposing party, the Conferentie, wished to

remain dependent on and loyal to the authority of the Dutch Church in Holland. However, in

1771, Rev. Livingston called together an assembly of the key leaders from both factions and

presented to them a new Constitution of the Dutch Reformed Church, which was unanimously

agreed upon and approved of in Holland as well. Thus, he succeeded in healing the division of

the church, the goal which had induced him to enter into ministry in the first place, and an

American Dutch Church was formed. After this unification, progress on the establishment of

Queen’s College was able to proceed.

The motto of Rutgers University may have played a role in the negotiations between the

two parties. According to Sig Scheier, Livingston’s use of “et occidentem” helped to end the

24

conflict between the Coetus and Conferentie parties. This slight variation to the motto would

have provided a connection with the University of Utrecht and helped to convince the

Conferentie party of their continued submission or indebtedness to the church in Holland. This

would explain the slight variation in the college motto, “Sun of righteousness, shine also on the

West”.

When compared to the Utrecht motto, the motto of Rutgers seems most appropriately

chosen, as the circumstances surrounding its founding are remarkably similar to those of

Utrecht’s founding. Rev. Livingston had just returned from Holland and managed to reconcile

the two factions of the Dutch Church, creating a classis in America and becoming independent

from the Old World Church. It is another revolution in a sense, a declaration of independence. It

seems most appropriate then, to follow Utrecht’s example in adopting a motto for the new

university that is also a prayer for justification and future success.

One of the conditions of the Classis of Amsterdam for approving the American classis

was that an educational institution be founded. Thus, Rev. Livingston not only reconciled the

division in the church, but he also helped to facilitate the progress towards establishing Queen’s

College. The Board of Trustees sought Rev. Livingston for position of president as early as 1772,

but he declined, choosing to stay at the Dutch church in NY. Although he declined the

presidency, it is evident that Livingston had dealings with Rutgers as early as 1771, when he

presented the new constitution of the Dutch Church. This fact is an important asset to the dating

of the Rutgers motto.

25

When the Motto Was Adopted

Since the adoption of the motto for Queen’s College is attributed to Livingston, even by

Utrecht herself, the earliest that the motto could have been adopted is 1771. Although the first

university charter was received in 1766, there is no permanent record of this first charter, and the

motto is not contained in the second charter. It would have been impossible for the motto to be in

the first charter, since Livingston did not return from Utrecht

until 1770. On the other hand, the latest the motto could have

been adopted is 1776. There is an original copy of the diploma of

a student named Simeon DeWitt who graduated in that year,

complete with the Queen’s College Seal bearing the Latin motto

on it. Thus, we have physical evidence of the motto appearing as

early as 1776. However, the earliest record of a graduate from Queen’s College is Matthew

Leydt in 1774, and the following year, a much larger class of twelve graduated. Therefore, it

would be very likely that the motto could already have been in use in 1774, and certainly much

more necessary for the diplomas of the large graduating class in 1775. Therefore, the motto is

almost certainly to date from between 1771 and 1776, with a very likely chance of its being in

use as early as 1774.

Within the history of Rutgers alone, the motto has taken a life of its own in heated

debates concerning its Latin construction and correct translation. Much of the content of these

debates have fortunately been preserved in the Targum, the Rutgers student newpaper. In 1870,

Gustavus Fischer claimed that the Latin motto would have made no sense in Ancient Rome. He

wrote a satirical dialogue between Cicero and Sartor (nickname for a Latin professor named John

Taylor at Rutgers) which poked fun at the poor use of Latin. He argues that “ ‘justice’ is not an

26

attribute of the sun”, “the light of the sun cannot be invoked according to pleasure”, and “in

classic Latin, ‘knowledge’ is not associated with enlightenment, but with ‘the night owl of

Minerva’”. Fischer’s boldness evidently caused an uproar among faculty members, but no effort

was made to defend the motto until 1917 when William E. Griffis wrote an article in the Alumni

Monthly. He agrees that such a grouping of Latin words would not be heard of in Ancient Rome,

but he pointed out the fact that the writers of the motto would not have consulted Ciceronian

Latin but rather, the Latin Vulgate which was the Bible read in Europe at that time. Griffis makes

the point that the phrase “sun of righteousness” comes straight from the Hebrew Bible, and that

St. Jerome translated the Hebrew literally.

Despite Griffis’ excellent article exploring the historical context of the motto, confusion

still arose more than thirty years later over the precise translation of the motto. A heated debate

raged in the Letters to the Editors column of the Targum in 1951. Finally, two attempts were

made to offer the official translation of the motto. The first was by Charles Barker in the April

1951 edition, who offered, “Sun of Justice, shine on the West.” However, it turns out to have

been an inaccurate translation of sol iustitiae and there was no attempt at translating the added

word et. The following month, Richard P. McCormick, the University historian, gave a brief

word study of the original Hebrew and ended up with “Sun of Righteousness, shine also on the

West”.

Even a phrase as tiny as this and with such an obscure origin has managed to not only

survive through numerous centuries, but also to remain a lively topic of discussion and analysis

even in the twenty-first century. However, the concept of the “sun of righteousness” has not only

appeared in literary and academic circles, but has manifested itself in many forms of artistic

expression as well.

27

Artistic expressions

One of the oldest artistic expressions of the sun of righteousness with healing in its wings

is the ancient symbol of the winged sun-disk. This symbol apparently originated from Assyria

and ancient Egypt, thus existing even before Malachi.

The Assyrians used it as a symbol of their chief god,

Ashur, who is depicted in a relief as carrying an arrow

with the winged sun disk behind him. The ancient Egyptians used it as a symbol of their sun god.

It is often found above the entrances to the temples of the sun god. The Phoenicians also used

this symbol to represent their own version of the sun-god, Baal. The Hebrews themselves

adopted this winged sun-disk imagery for their own use as seen in King Hezekiah’s seal.25 In

Greek mythology, the god Hermes is often depicted carrying a messenger stick with a version of

the winged sun at the tip. Thus, the winged sun disk was used by many Near Eastern civilizations

as a symbol of power and divinity.

The fact that this symbol of a winged sun existed in the Near East before Malachi’s time

and spread to several different cultures makes it most likely that Malachi was evoking this image

of the sun disk in his prophecy. Although there is no sun god in Christianity, the Christian God is

often compared with light and the sun. Since the winged sun disk symbolized both divinity and

power, and since many cultures surrounding the Jewish people at the time were using this

symbol for their own gods, Malachi’s description would have probably evoked this symbol in the

minds of its readers at the time.

There also exists a famous piece of artwork directly depicting Malachi’s sun of

righteousness – Albrecht Dürer’s wood-block painting, Sol Justitiae. Dürer was a German

25 See Frank Moore Cross, “King Hezekiah’s Seal Bears Phoenician Imagery”, Biblical Archaeology Review March-April, 1999

28

painter born in the late 15th century. Dürer spent the early years of his career working in the

German art tradition but was open to Renaissance ideas and techniques. He worked mainly with

woodblock engravings in Germany. Later he would travel to Italy to study and become greatly

influenced by Italian and classical art. Sol Justitiae was created in 1499, before he went on his

travels to Italy, so its style looks similar to his earlier wood-block paintings, such as the

Apocalypse series. In Sol Justitiae, also called “The Judge”, Dürer depicts a man holding a

sword in his right hand and a set of scales in his left. He is sitting on the back of a fierce-looking

lion, and a halo of light shines behind his head.

There are several clues that help to confirm that the man

depicted is Christ, albeit in an untraditional representation. First,

the halo of light beaming from behind his head is not only typical

of Renaissance religious art but emphasizes the title of the work.

Second, Dürer paints eyes that are “blazing like fire”. This phrase

is used to describe the Son of God in Revelation 2:18: “These are

the words of the Son of God, whose eyes are like blazing fire and

whose feet are like burnished bronze.” Dürer also paints the same

blazing eyes on Christ in his Apocalypse series. Third, the lion on which the man is sitting most

likely refers to the “Lion of Judah”, another name for Christ found in Revelations 5:5: “…Do not

weep! See, the Lion of the tribe of Judah, the Root of David, has triumphed.” All three of these

symbols help to confirm the identity of the man in the painting. The addition of the sword and

scale illustrate the meaning of “Sol Justitiae”, which, in Dürer’s interpretation, carries a spirit of

judgment. Both items are common symbols of judgment throughout the Bible. The symbol of the

scale, in specific, can be traced back to Daniel 5:27 when the prophet Daniel is interpreting the

29

supernatural writing on Belshazzar’s wall. One of the words meant: “You have been weighed on

the scales and found wanting” – a warning of impending judgment. The collection of symbols

that Dürer used in this piece communicates his interpretation of “sol justitiae” which focuses on

judgment.

One of the most amazing representations of the sun of righteousness is found on a gold

coin, a half-noble, from the Spanish Netherlands. It dates from ca. 1600-1602 and has images on

both the front and back. The front depicts a king standing on a ship and

holding a sword and shield. The sun of righteousness is engraved on the

back. This coin is significant because not only is it from the Spanish

Netherlands around the time when Utrecht University was born, but it also

contains similar subject material to the university. Both contain a shield and a sun. Perhaps the

gold coin also contributed to the creative idea of Utrecht’s seal.

Not only have there been visual representations of the sun of righteousness, but there

have also been attempts on this subject in musical compositions, of which Rutgers contributed

two. The first attempt to set the Rutgers motto to music was by an 1856 Rutgers graduate named

William Rankin Duryee. Fortunately, the original manuscript of the song has been preserved.

The song was written for the very first Charter Day Celebration at Rutgers. It is entitled Charter

Day Hymn and sung to the tune of “Meribah”. The lyrics of the verse are very telling of

Duryee’s understanding of the history and meaning behind the motto. Duryee used the motto in

his song as a prayer for guidance and truth. The first and fourth stanzas are as follows:

O God, to Whom our fathers came,

When here they lit the glowing flame

To guide the path of youth

30

They wrought with Thee to give success.

Today their children praise and bless

Thy faithfulness and truth.

…………………………………….

“O Sun of Righteousness, still glow

Upon our West,” to make us know

More of Thy truth divine;

Here lead Thy children as of yore,

Enriched with Wisdom’s noblest lore

To own their treasures Thine.

In more recent years, Robert Moevs, a Rutgers music professor beginning 1964, wrote a

work entitled Et Occidentem Illustra. This work was written in celebration of the two hundredth

anniversary of Rutgers and first performed on Feb. 24, 1967 by the Boston Symphony and the

Rutgers University Choir. Robert Moevs grew up right around the time when avant-garde

compositional techniques such as serialism took center stage in the musical scene. Moevs did not

completely use serialism in his compositions, since he did not believe in atonality. Rather, he

combined the use of a tonal center with serialism to create a new style which he termed

“systematic chromaticism”. It was in this style that Et Occidentem Illustra was composed. The

piece is written for mixed chorus and orchestra, and contains an arrhythmic speaking part and the

liberal use of harmonics in the strings section. The actual lyrics do not consist solely of the

motto. Moevs includes texts from the commission of Theodore Frelinghuysen in1755 and from

Dante’s The Divine Comedy. Since this work was written for Rutgers’ two hundredth

anniversary, the lyrics take on an exhortational tone. For example, the last line the chorus sings

31

is, “You were not formed to live like unto brutes but to press on toward virtue and knowledge.”

It is a relatively large work lasting about twenty minutes and a great tribute to Rutgers.

These are only a few examples of the vast amount of artwork that bears testimony to the

extensive influence the “sun of righteousness” has had on the artistic world. The image appears

in all time periods and in all sorts of contexts from ancient temples to the Vatican ceiling to

organization logotypes. In most cases, its usage is kept in a religious context and thus, continues

to extend its religious heritage.

It can be said without a doubt that the motto of Rutgers is full of history. There is at least

twenty centuries of history behind “Sol iustitiae et occidentem illustra” not counting the winged

sun-disks of ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt. Malachi probably did not realize how far reaching

his prophecy would become after his lifetime. The image of Christ as the sun of righteousness

seems to have been a rather important metaphor throughout church history beginning with the

early church fathers and continuing through the centuries to Charles Spurgeon and beyond. Even

today, the metaphor is still being preached on. John Piper, a prominent pastor who ministers in

Minnesota has dedicated an entire sermon to this metaphor. The image has become so far-

reaching that it has even had a life in the artistic world. Although the motto itself consists of only

five words, it bears direct reference all at once to the Bible, to the University of Utrecht, and to

the history of Western civilization on account of its Latin heritage. If ever a motto fulfilled its

purpose, the Rutgers motto certainly does so with distinction.

Unfortunately, not all mottos are as eloquent or as flawless as the Rutgers motto. The

Greek motto of Douglass College (founded 1918) that is inscribed on the campus welcome sign,

for instance, has two distinct mistakes in it. The accent marks in “Sophia kai Sophrosune” seem

to have gone awry. The grave accent mark over sophia should be an acute, and the accent mark

32

over sophrosune is missing altogether. While it is a well-meant motto, perhaps the mistakes will

stand as an indicator of the deplorable condition of the study of the classics in our time and will

provide an impetus to rediscover the lost art of classical language.

33

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