The Future of Nuclear Energy

Brian Toren

Glossary of Terminology

Fission – Split Into Two Parts, Creates Radioactive Waste– Split Into Two Parts, Creates Radioactive WasteFusion – Combine Two (or more) Parts, Little Radioactive Waste– Combine Two (or more) Parts, Little Radioactive WasteFission/Fusion Video Pebble Bed Reactor - small pebble size fuel bits- small pebble size fuel bitsAneutronic Reactor – Fewer Neutrons, Less Radioactive Waste – Fewer Neutrons, Less Radioactive Waste Reshuffling - Replacing old cores with new and rearranging- Replacing old cores with new and rearrangingNuclear Reactor Generations –Acronym List on Page 33 –Acronym List on Page 33Generation I Reactors – Early Prototype Generators E. G. Hanford Wash– Early Prototype Generators E. G. Hanford WashGeneration II Reactors – Commercial LWRs includes ABWR, EPR, AP600 System 80 – Commercial LWRs includes ABWR, EPR, AP600 System 80 ++Generation IV Reactors – High Temperature, Liquid Salt Pebble Bed, SMRs– High Temperature, Liquid Salt Pebble Bed, SMRsGeneration V Reactors - - theoretically Power Reactors includes LWP. PWR, BWR, Power Reactors includes LWP. PWR, BWR, CANDUCANDUGeneration III Reactors – Advanced – Advanced possibleBreeder Reactors - Excess Neutrons Breeds Radioactive Fuel- Excess Neutrons Breeds Radioactive FuelThorium Reactors – Reactors using Thorium as a fuel – Reactors using Thorium as a fuelMolten Salt Reactors Reactors using Molten salt as a coolant Reactors using Molten salt as a coolantTokomak - Magnetic Containment Reactor- Magnetic Containment ReactorInertial Confinement (laser) Reactors (ICR) (ICR)National Ignition Facility ICR facility at Livermore ICR facility at LivermorePressure Containment Spheromak Contains Video Contains VideoCold – Never Proven– Never ProvenLow Energy Nuclear Reactions (LENR)Thermal Reactors Fast Reactors

Breeder Reactor

A breeder reactor is a nuclear reactor capable of generating more fissile material than it consumes[1] because its neutron economy is high enough to breed fissile fuel from fertile material like uranium-238 or thorium-232.

In more recent decades, breeder reactors are again of research interest as a means of controlling nuclear waste and closing the nuclear fuel cycle.

Fast breeder reactor or FBR uses fast (unmoderated) neutrons to breed fissile plutonium and possibly higher transuranics from fertile uranium-238.

Thermal breeder reactor use thermal spectrum (moderated) neutrons to breed fissile uranium-233 from thorium (thorium fuel cycle). Due to the behavior of the various nuclear fuels, a thermal breeder is thought commercially feasible only with thorium fuel, which avoids the buildup of the heavier transuranics

Thorium Fueled Reactor

The thorium fuel cycle is a nuclear fuel cycle that uses the naturally abundant isotope of thorium, 232Th, as the fertile material. In the reactor, 232Th is transmuted into the fissile artificial uranium isotope 233U which is the nuclear fuel. Unlike natural uranium, natural thorium contains only trace amounts of fissile material (such as 231Th), which are insufficient to initiate a nuclear chain reaction. Additional fissile material or another neutron source are necessary to initiate the fuel cycle.

In a thorium-fueled reactor, 232Th absorbs neutrons eventually to produce 233U.

This parallels the process in uranium breeder reactors whereby fertile 238U absorbs neutrons to form fissile 239Pu. The used nuclear fuel is formed into new nuclear fuel.

Thorium Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages: (1)thorium's greater abundance, (2)superior physical and nuclear properties, (3)better resistance to nuclear weapons proliferation[1][2][3] (4)reduced plutonium and actinide production.[3]

Disadvanages(1) Startup fuel. Require a considerable amount of U-233 for the initial start up. Currently there is very little of this material available.(2) Salts freezing. The fluoride salt mixtures have high melting points, of 300 to over 600 degrees Celsius. (3) Beryllium toxicity. The proposed salt mixture FLiBe, contains large amounts of beryllium, a poisonous element(3) Radiation. primary fuel salt will produce highly radioactive fission products that produce a high gamma and neutron radiation field.(4) Waste management – Radioactive waste less suited long term storage form

Molten Salt Reactor

Primary coolant, or even the fuel itself, is a molten salt mixture.

MSRs run at higher temperatures than water-cooled reactors

The nuclear fuel may be solid or dissolved in the coolant itself.

The fluid becomes critical in a graphite core.

Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (1965–1969) was a prototype for a thorium fuel cycle breeder reactor nuclear power plant.

One Generation IV reactor design is a molten salt-cooled, solid-fuel reactor initial reference design is 1000 MW

Generation 4 Reactors

Theoretical nuclear reactor designs currently being researchedFocus is on the six most promising technologies

Three systems are nominally thermal reactorsThermal Reactors use slow or or thermal neutrons In a thermal reactor a neutron moderator is used to slow the neutrons, These are more likely to be captured by the fuel..Three are fast reactorsA fast reactor directly uses the fast neutrons, no moderation. It requires fuel rich in fissionable material

Both can cooled with gas, sodium, lead and other methods

Pebble Bed Reactor Gen 4 Reactorr

Graphite-Moderated, Gas-Cooled, Nuclear reactor.

The Pebbles Are Spherical Uranium Fuel Elements

Gas Cooled, E.G, Hydrogen Nitrogen or CO2

Passively Safe

No Danger of Releasing Radioactive Gas

Mobile

Small 15Mw Reactor in Germany from 1966 to 1988

China Building Commercial Plant by 2017

Pressure Containment Spheromak 5 Min Video

Pneumatic pistons ramming a metal sphere create an acoustic wave in molten metal

The resulting shock wave compresses a plasma target, called a spheromak, to trigger a fusion burst

Thermal energy is extracted with a heat exchanger and creates steam

Process repeated every second to create continuous power

Demo 24 piston machine in two years 200 piston machine in 4 years

Other General Fusion Projects

By 2020 (Maybe)Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC ) Beam Fusion Reactor -., fuels that produce little or no radioactivity. Magnetized Focus Fusion.

Fusion

Fusion is to be the savior of Nuclear Energy.

Much research is ongoing from building lab models to building commercial demonstrable sites

Estimated times for commerical operation varies from 20 to 40 years.

Aneutronic Reactor Three Min, First VideoThree Min, First Video

Fewer Or No Neutrons Fewer Or No Neutrons Little or No Radioactive WasteLittle or No Radioactive WastePlasma requires containment, That’s The Rub Plasma requires containment, That’s The Rub

Laser Containment

National Ignition Facility ICR facility at Livermore

Video of Ignition Five Min

Example – Tokomac Magnetic Confinement

Tokamak Video - Six Min

Fusion at the Skunk Works14 Min, Second Video

Buid on An Assembly LinePortableDemo by 2022

Cold Fusion

Chemical Fusion at room temperatures has been claimed in many experiments, but has never been duplicated

Low Energy Nuclear Reactions (LENR)

Lenr status

The Strong Force Particle physicists have evidently been correct all along. "Cold Fusion" is not possible. However, via collective effects/ condensed matter quantum nuclear physics, LENR is allowable without any "miracles." The theory states that once some energy is added to surfaces loaded with hydrogen/protons, if the surface morphology enables high localized voltage gradients, then heavy electrons leading to ultra low energy neutrons will form-- neutrons that never leave the surface. The neutrons set up isotope cascades which result in beta decay, heat and transmutations with the heavy electrons converting the beta decay gamma into heat. - See more at: http://futureinnovation.larc.nasa.gov/view/articles/futurism/bushnell/low-energy-nuclear-reactions.html#sthash.3XTiklpB.dpuf

Beta decay releases energy

Reactor Comparison Table

Chart on Page Nine of 70

Summary Video Mark Helpar 19 Minutes Video 3rd on page

Emerging Nuclear Innovations

Triaga, a nuclear reactor designed for teaching purposes.

Accerator- Driven Thorium reactors, high-current, high-energy accelerators or cyclotrons used to produce neutrons from heavy elements.