TheFoundationsof19thCenturyLiterature

are,notsurprisingly,inthe18thcentury

EnglishLiteraturethroughtheages

1.  1400’sChaucer-verse2.  1600’sShakespeare–stageplays3.  1720–177018thcenturyclassics-books4.  1770–180018thcenturygenrefiction-books5.  1800–190019thcenturyliterature,booksand

periodicals

Somegreat19thcenturyliteratureSenseandSensibility(JaneAusten)

1811PrideandPrejudice(JaneAusten)

1813MansfieldPark(JaneAusten)

1814Frankenstein(MaryShelley)

1818LastoftheMohicans(JamesCooper)

1826LastDaysofPompeii(Bulwer-Lytton)

1834PitandthePendulum(EAPoe)

1842 CountofMonteCristo(AlexanderDumas) 1846

JaneEyre(CharlotteBronte) 1847WutheringHeights(EmilyBronte) 1847TenantofWildfellHall(AnneBronte) 1848VanityFair(WilliamThackeray) 1848WomaninWhite(WilkieCollins) 1860GreatExpectations(CharlesDickens) 1861LornaDoone(RDBlackmore) 1869FarfromtheMaddingCrowd(ThomasHardy) 1874DanielDeronda(GeorgeEliot) 1877

AnnaKarenina(LeoTolstoy) 1877

BodySnatcher(RLStevenson) 1884

WomaninGreen(ArthurConanDoyle) 1886

ThePictureofDorianGray(OscarWilde) 1891TheTimeMachine(HGWells) 1895

TheImportanceofBeingEarnest(OscarWilde) 1895

Dracula(BramStoker) 1897

LordJim(JosephConrad) 1900

Mydiscussiontodayof18thcenturyliteraturewillbein3parts…

1.  Thecontextof18thcenturyliterature–whatwashappeningintheworldthatinfluencedliterature

2.  Periodicalsofthe18thcenturyandtheireffectsonprintingandonnovels

3.  Thecontentof18thcenturyliterature–thetopicsandformsthatevolvedinliteraturea.  Theclassicnovels,1720-1770b.  Thegothicromancenovels,1765-1800

DomesticEnglishEconomicChanges

•  Theindustrialrevolution,1760-1830,madesweepingchangestotheEnglisheconomy

•  Spinningjenniestookthespinningofwool(andcotton)fromcrofterstofactories;loomspoweredbywaterwheelsinthosefactorieswovecloth,trainsandcanalsmovedfinishedproducttocitiesandports

•  Thisindustrycreatedthefirstindustrialists,increasedEnglishexports,andincreasedEnglishimports

•  Anditcreatedtheworkingclass–inmilltowns,whosetimeandmoneybecameavailabletobuyperiodicalsandbooks

Religiouschanges•  TheReformation,leadbyMartinLuther,wasinitiallyareactiontocorruptionintheCatholicchurch,particularlythesaleof‘indulgences’– Note:theprintingof‘indulgences’wasalucrativepartoftheprintingtradeintheearlydays

•  TheReformationcreatedademandforprintedpropagandapromotingallelementsofthisschismwithinChristianity

•  Jacobism–themovementinEnglandtoplaceaCatholickingonthethrone–alsoincreaseddemandforprintedpropaganda

PoliticalChanges

•  TherepercussionsoftheEnglishcivilwar(1642)involvedmuchprintedmaterial

•  TheFrenchrevolutionof1789-1799involvedtheuseofmuchprintedmaterial

•  TheAmericanrevolution(1776-1780)alsoinvolvedmuchprintedpoliticalmaterial

•  Authoritiesattemptedtosuppresscivilunrestbydirectcensorshipandbytaxationofpoliticalliterature–neitherofwhichwassuccessful

•  Newspapers(andperiodicals)flourished,andservedthehungerofthepopulaceforinformation

SocialChanges(literacy)•  Compulsory,taxpaid,primaryeducationwasnotapartofthe18thcenturyinBritain(oranywhereelse)

•  Butnewswasnowinprint,sothedemandforliteracygrew

•  Thatdemandwasfilledbyindividualteachers-for-pay:–  Inavillage,aninstructorcouldbepaidtoteachreadingskillstochildrentooyoungtoworkthefieldsorthefactories.Forthewealthy,governessestaughtreading.

–  Everyfamilysoonhadoneyoungmemberabletoread,andthatpersonwouldread(usuallythebibleorthenewspaper)tothefamilyintheevening.Achangefromtellingstories.

SocialChanges(humanrights)

•  TheBritishEmpireabolishedslaveryin1833,butwellintothe19thcenturywomenhadessentiallynorightsandlittleaccesstopayingjobs

•  Howeverwritingnovelswasremunerativeandrespectableforwomen

Technologicalchanges(books)

–  Relativelyinexpensiveprintingpresseswithmoveabletypereplacedhandletteringandfixed-blockletteringforprintingallkindsofmatterincludingbooks

–  Papermakingevolvedfromcottonbase,tolinen(flax)base,topulpwoodbase

–  Sellingbooksevolvedfromprintshopstolendinglibraries(andlatertobookandpapershops)

–  Printer/publishersbeganpurchasingmanuscriptsfromauthors,printingbooksattheirownexpense,thenofferingthemforsale

JohannGensfleischzumGutenberg1394–1468

•  Jobprintingbeganwiththemoveabletypeprintingpress

•  Asdiduniformeditions,proof-readtext,andlargequantitiesofbooksorpamphletsprintedquickly

•  Establishmentof‘standard’fonts•  Resultingthefastspreadofknowledgeacrosspoliticalboundaries

•  LossofLatinasthelingafrancaofEuropeamongeducatedpeople

InEngland,moveabletypeprintingpresseswereintroducedbyWilliamCaxton

•  CaxtonwasasuccessfulbusinessmaninBrugesandin1471startedprintinghisownbooks

•  In1477CaxtonissuedthefirstbookprintedinEngland

•  DuringhislifetimeCaxtonpublished90books,74ofwhichwereinEnglish,therestinFrench,German,andLatin

•  By1500hisheirshadprintedover800items,40%ofwhichwereforgrammarschoolstudents

Someunexpectedchanges

•  Printedbooksandperiodicalssustainedregionallanguagesifbookswereprintedinthatlanguage.Forexample:Welshsurvived,Cornishdidnot.

•  PrintedbooksstandardizedEnglishgrammar.

Ahandoperatedmoveabletypeprintingpresses

Papertrivia…

•  cast-offclothing(madeofwoolandcotton)wastheoriginalbasematerialforthepaperontowhichbooks,periodicals,andnewspaperswereprinted

•  ragpickerscouldmakeagoodlivingin18thcenturyBritain

Periodicals

Periodicalsplayedacentralroleintheliteratureofthe18thcentury,andanevengreaterroleintheliteratureofthe19thcentury

BritishnewspapersThefirstdailynewspaper,TheDailyCourantbeganPublicationinLondonin1702JonathanSwiftandDanielDefoewere‘journalistpublishers’intheearly18thcenturyIn1720therewere12LondonNewspapers,by1767therewere53newspaperspublishinganincredible11,000,000copiesannually(thepopulationofBritainAtthetimewasonly10,000,000)TheLondonTimes,begunin1788,grewtobecomethemostinfluentialnewssourceontheplanet

Inthe18thcenturynewspaperswerenotreadonceanddiscarded

•  Incities,newspaperscouldberentedforanhour

•  Acopyofanewspapermightbereadbyfourorfivepeopleoverthecourseofaweek,beforeitwasdiscarded

•  Inremoteareas,anewspapermightstillbesaleableweeksafterpublicationsinceitwasoftentheonlysourceofnewsandentertainment

Britishnewspapertrivia

•  This is Times New Roman font

•  It was invented by The London Times to aid legibility in the days of low tech printing

ThecontentofEnglishLiteratureevolvedquicklyinthe18thcentury

•  1721–1761‘theclassics’:Defoe,Richardson,Smollett,Fielding,Sterne

•  1765–1790thebirthofgothicfiction:WalpoleandReeve

•  1790-1800:Theproliferationofgothicromances,epitomizedbythenovelsofAnnRadcliffe

‘theclassics’of18thcenturyliterature

(ThePilgrim’sProgressbyJohnBunyan1684)RobinsonCrusoebyDanielDefoe1719ClarissabySamuelRichardson1740RoderickRandombyTobiasSmollett1748TomJonesbyHenryFielding1749TristamShandybyLawrenceSterne1761

TheBirthoftheGothicRomanceasagenreofliterature

TheCastleofOtranto,byHoraceWalpolepublishedin1765TheOldEnglishBaron,byClaraReeve,publishedin1777

Thegothicromance•  Thefirstgenredominatedbyfemaleauthors•  Combined,history,travel,andromancewith,forthefirsttime,thesupernatural

•  Painterlyscenery(oftengoingonforpageswhilethestoryisonhold)

•  Theywereusually:setinthepast,incontinentalEurope,involvingamolderingcastle,amysteriousvillain,evilpriests,ahero,avirtuous,lacrymoseheroine,andyes,attheend,virtuewasrewarded

•  SirWalterScottwasa‘romance’writerthoughnotagothicromancewriter(andhewasafanofAnnRadcliffe)

Terror

•  ThegothicnovelswereRomances,buttheyreliedonterror,andthesupernatural,fortheirsuspense

TheReignofTerror,1793-1794,shookthemonarchiesofEuropemorethantheFrenchrevolutionitself

Inliterature,terrorisfear,oftenoftheunknownorthesupernatural,whilehorrorincludesrevulsion

HoraceWalpole

•  HisnoveltheCastleofOtrantoprovidedthestagesettingforvirtuallyallgothicnovels:theancientcastle,withsecretpassages,dungeons,torturechambers,ghostswithclankingchains,mysteriousevilinhabitantsand/orprisoners,deepforests,andcraggymountains,ashininghero,andvirtuousheroine

•  Intheend,virtuousbehaviorisrewarded,andreasonovercomessuperstition

ClaraReevesaidthatshedesiredherbookstoinclude…

“…asufficientdegreeofthemarveloustoexciteattention,enoughofthemannersofreallifetogiveitanairofprobability,andenoughofthepathetictoengagetheheart…”

‘novel’versus‘romance’

•  The(primarilyrealistic)‘novel’hadprobability,truth,andauthenticity,whichthegothicromancedidnothave.

TheMysteriesofUdolphobyAnnRadcliffe

Themostfamous,andmostinfluential,gothicromanceofthe18thcenturyIthasremainedcontinuouslyinprintsincefirstpublishedin1794Mrs.Radcliffereceived500BritishPoundsforthemanuscript–anunheardoffigureforthedayHerbookwasfavorablyreviewedbycriticsincludingSirWalterScott,JohnKeats,andSamuelTaylorColeridge

TheItalianbyAnnRadcliffePublishedin1796,whenshewas33andattheheightofherpopularity,shewaspaid800poundssterlingforthemanuscriptItwasher5thbookin8yearsandthelastshepublishedinherlifetime–althoughshelived26moreyearsSetinsouthernItalyin1750afeudalareawithaforeignking,andTheInquisition,butwiththepeoplereadyforrevolutionandfreedomThestoryisadefenseofromanticloveand,asalways,Radcliffeexplainsthesupernatural

Radcliffe’sinfluenceAsachildtheyoungFyodorDostoyevskywasdeeplyimpressedbyAnnRadcliffebooks.InDostoyevsky’sWinterNotesonSummerImpressions(1863)hewrites:"Iusedtospendthelongwinterhoursbeforebedlistening(forIcouldnotyetread),agapewithecstasyandterror,asmyparentsreadaloudtomefromthenovelsofAnnRadcliffe.ThenIwouldravedeliriouslyabouttheminmysleep."AnumberofscholarshavenotedelementsofGothicliteratureinDostoyevsky'snovels.

Radcliffe’sinfluence

•  JaneAusten,ofcourse.NorthangerAbbeyisalovingparodyofGothicsingeneralandTheMysteriesofUdolphoinparticular.

•  Balzac’snovelofthesupernaturalL’HeritagedeBirague(1822)followsthetraditionofRadcliffe'sstyleandparodiesit.

•  EdgarAllenPoe’sshortstoryTheOvalPortraitdrewfromUdolphoandmentionsRadcliffebyname(somewhatdisparagingly)intheintroduction.

RadcliffetriviaInthe2007filmBecomingJaneActressHelenMcCroryplaysAnnRadcliffe.ThefilmdepictsRadcliffeasmeetingtheyoungJaneAustenandencouraginghertopursuealiterarycareer

ClermontbyReginaMariaRocheIrishborn,Mrs.Rochewrote16novelsoverthecourseofherlonglife,romances,gothicsand,lateinhercareer,regionalIrishstories.HerthirdnovelTheChildrenoftheAbbeyoutsoldRadcliffe’sUdolphoTodayherbestknownworkisClermont,agentlegothicromance.She,likeRadcliffe,includeddidacticpurpose,butunlikeRadcliffe,leftthesupernaturalunexplained

FromReginaMariaRoche’sobituary

“…thisdistinguishedwriterhadretiredfromtheworld,andtheworldhadforgottenher.Butmanyyounghearts,nowold,willremembertheeffectuponthemofhergracefulandtouchingcompositions,andacknowledgeherlosswithamelancholyfeelingofregret...”

FromGentleman’sMagazine,July1845

TheMonkbyMatthewLewisTheMonkdirectlyreflectsthehorrorsoftheFrenchrevolutionandRobespierre’sReignofTerrorMatthewLewisreadbothOtrantoandUdolpho,butTheMonkismuchmoregraphicandviolentthanothergothicromancesofthedayLewiscompleteTheMonkwhenhewasonly21yearsoldin1796.ItbecameanimmediatebestsellerItdescribesthefallfromgraceofex-monkAmbrosioandincludesblasphemy,blackmagic,torture,rape,andmurder

WereGothicRomancesdetrimentaltomoreseriousliterature?

•  No,becausetheybuiltareadershipthatmoreseriousliteratureneededtosurvive–forexample,JaneAustenwasnotabest-seller

•  Genreliteraturedidnotdisappearinthe19thcentury-the‘pennydreadfuls’ofthe1890’swerevastlypopular

•  ‘serious19thcenturyliterature’includedtalesoffantasyandterrorthatdrewonthetropesofthegothics–WomaninWhite,JekyllandHyde,Dracula,etc.

JaneAusten’sfirstbookmarkedtheendof18thcenturyliteratureandthebeginningof19thcenturyliterature

Everythingchangedin1811

Insummary•  Inthelate18thcentury,moveabletypeprintingpressesandthe

availabilityofpaper,revolutionizedtheproductionofprintedmaterial

•  Thephysicalform,methodofcontractingforpublication,andmethodsofdistribution,ofthepopularnovelwereestablishedinthelate18thcentury

•  Periodicalsandnewspapersbegantheirastronomicalgrowthinthelate18thcentury

•  Bookcontentevolvedveryquicklyfrom1765to1800,culminatinginthegothicromancenovel,whichestablishedalargereadershipforallliterature

•  Womenwriterswrotethemajorityofthegothicromances•  19thcenturyEnglishliteraturebeganwithJaneAusten,whoseroots

weredeepin1790’sgothicromance

Tworeferences

Anoldbook,firstpublishedin1932,butafascinatingsurveyofaveryobscuretopic

A1955,verythorough,surveyoftheevolutionofprinting