the following sessions include posters: tuesday 8 august...
TRANSCRIPT
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INTRODUCTION
This volume of Congress proceedings includes summaries of oral presentations in Group Sessions
and Poster/Panel Sessions received by 31 May 2000. Minor changes may have occurred since that
date. The Session moderator will mention them when opening the Session.
The following Sessions include posters:
Tuesday 8 August :
* 8.05.00. Forest fires (I). Southeast Asia
* 8.05.00. Forest fire (II). South-east Asia and other tropical regions
Wednesday 9 August
* 1.09.00. Short-rotation forestry for biomass production (II)
* 1.17.03. Tropical forest restoration (I) and (II)
* 6.03.02. Forest terminology
* 8.00.00. Environment forest science in the 21st Century
* 8.05.00. Forest fire (III). Temperate and boreal forests
If provided to the CSC in due time, corresponding poster summaries are included once in this
volume, in the Session where they are presented first and additionally in the second section of the
poster summary volume of the proceedings.
Special thanks to the authors for their contributions to the scientific programme of this Congress.
Enjoy your stay in Malaysia.
Eric Teissier du Cros, Chairman of the CSC
Note: The summaries have been published as received by the authors and reviewers, respectively,
who have sole responsibility for their content.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
DIVISION 1 SILVICULTURE 1
1.07.00 Tropical Silviculture 3
1.07.09 Silviculture in Latin America 5
1.07.00 / 1.15.00 / 1.17.00 International markets for carbon sequestration from tropical forests 8
1.09.00 Short rotation forestry for biomass production 9
1.15.04 Agroforestry 14
1.17.01 Rehabilitation of mined lands 16
1.17.03 Tropical forest restoration 20
DIVISION 2 PHYSIOLOGY AND GENETICS 29
2.01.00 Physiology of tropical and temperate trees 31
2.01.17 Vegetative propagation 33
2.02.00 / 2.08.00 Future of breeding and plantations in asustainability-oriented world 36
2.02.00 / 2.08.00 Genetic variation 40
2.02.00 / 2.08.00 Genetic improvement 43
2.02.00 / 2.08.00 Future of breeding and plantations in asustainability-oriented world 2 47
2.04.01 Conservation and management of forest gene resources 47
2.04.02 Genetics and traits 49
2.09.00 Seed physiology and technology 52
DIVISION 3 FOREST OPERATIONS AND TECHNIQUES 57
3.02.00 Effects of nursery and silvicultural operations on theenvironment and society 59
3.04.00 Operational planning and control; work study 61
3.05.00 Forest operations in the tropics 64
3.06.00 Forest operations under mountainous conditions 67
3.07.00 Ergonomics 1+2 69
3.08.00 Small-scale forestry 73
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3.09.00 Economics and harvesting of thinning 76
3.10.00 Harvesting, wood delivery and utilisation 1+2 78
3.11.00 Forest operations and environmental protection 82
DIVISION 4 INVENTORY, GROWTH, YIELD, QUANTITATIVEAND MANAGEMENT SCIENCES 87
4.01.04 Using models for forest growth and stand dynamics toevaluate sustainability 89
4.01.08 Effects of environmental changes on forest growth 93
4.01.00 / 4.02.00 / 1.07.00 Using growth models for better forestmanagement in the tropics 96
4.02.01 Forestry products collection and sustainable forest management 100
4.02.03 / 4.02.06 Update calibration and enhancement of forest inventoriesthrough the inclusion of remotely sensed data 109
4.02.05 Remote sensing and forest monitoring 115
4.02.07 Scenario approaches, models and assumptions behind theforestry analysis used in regional, national and global policy making 119
4.02.00 / 4.11.00 Design of small and large scale multipurpose forest inventories 122
4.02.00 / 4.11.00 Forest resources assessment 2000 125
4.04.00 Advances in combining productity and sustainability inforest management 126
4.04 Recent advances in forest resource management and economics 133
4.11.00 / 4.01.03 Planning of long-term observations 134
4.12.00 Integration of GIS and Remote Sensing for Assessment of Forestsand Landscapes 135
4.04.02 /4.13.00 Sustainable forest management under conditionsof growing global pressures 142
DIVISION 5 FOREST PRODUCTS 147
5.01.00 Wood quality 149
5.02.00 Timber engineering 153
5.03.00 Protection of Wood from decay and fire 155
5.04.00 Wood processing into the next millenium (I) 158
5.04.00 Wood processing into the next millennium. II 163
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5.04.00 / 5.05.00 Innovations in wood bonding and utilisationof wood residues 166
5.05.00 Composite and reconstituted products 172
5.06.00 Properties and utilization of tropical woods 173
5.06.02 Quality teak timber from plantations 177
5.07.00 Energy and chemicals from forest biomass 181
5.07.01 Fundamentals of wood carbonization 183
5.08.00 Production and utilization of bamboo and related species.Challenges for the new millenium 185
5.09.00 Tree ring analysis 190
5.10.00 Forest products marketing 194
5.11.00 Non-wood forest products 197
5.12.00 Sustainable wood industry 206
DIVISION 6 SOCIAL, ECONOMIC, INFORMATION,AND POLICY SCIENCES 211
6.01.00 Tools to integrate nature conservation and recreationfor landscape management 213
6.01.00 Nature experiences and sustainable management of landscapesand recreation resources 216
6.03.00 Forest information services for foresters and society 219
6.03.02 Forest Terminology: How to get society understand forest terminology 223
6.06.00 Research driven by scientists' wish or society's demand? 226
6.06.02 How are innovations applied in sustainable forestry 229
6.06.03 Targeting the real forest managers 231
6.07.00 Tropical Forest History 235
6.07.00 Social changes and forests 238
6.11.01 Forest Resources and Human Welfare in Developing Countries 243
6.11.01 Poverty and management of forest resources 246
6.11.04 Bridging the gap between monetary and non-monetary valuationof environmental amenities 251
6.11.07 Social Dimensions of Forest Protection (Africa, Europe, North America) 254
6.11.07 Social Dimensions of Forest Protection (Asia) 257
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6.12.03 Sustainable land use as precondition for sustainable forestry 259
6.13.00 The response of law to changing social demands onforests and the environment 263
6.14.00 Urban forestry 271
6.15.00 Reconsidering study objectives and teaching methods 274
6.16.00 Modelling forest managers environmental decisions 282
6.16.00 Example of forest sector issues 283
DIVISION 7 FOREST HEALTH 287
7.01.02 Mechanisms of tree resistance to phytophageous insects 289
7.02.07 Impacts od diseases on the sustainability of tropical forests 291
7.02.10 Global spreading of pine wilt 296
7.02.10 Epidemic factors of pine wilt 299
7.03.00 Review of recent developments in the management ofmajor tropical forest insect pests. Theory and practice 301
7.03.03 Insect Pest Problems in Replanted Forests 303
7.03.07 Biological Invasion of Forest Insect Pests -Agents of global change 305
7.04.00 Air Pollution Impacts on Forest Ecosystems 312
DIVISION 8 FOREST ENVIRONMENT 315
8.00.00 Forest and environment 317
8.01.00 Ecosystems 326
8.02.00 Site: soil carbon 328
8.03.00 Forest Hydrology and Water Quality 333
8.04.00 Natural disasters 340
8.05.00 Forest Fire 344
8.06.00 Wildlife 350
8.07.00 Biodiversity 352
8.08.00 Forest and Climate 356
8.09.00 Human impacts on tropical rain forests with long term view 362
TASK FORCE 1 ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE 367
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TASK FORCE 2 FOREST IN SUSTAINABLEMOUNTAIN DEVELOPMENT 373
TASK FORCE 3 SUSTAINABLE FOREST MANAGEMENT 381
TASK FORCE 4 MANAGEMENT AND CONSERVATIONOF FOREST GENE RESOURCES 389
TASK FORCE 5 WATER AND FORESTS 393
TASK FORCE 6 INTERNET RESOURCES 399
TASK FORCE 7 GLOBAL FOREST INFORMATION SERVICE 403
TASK FORCE 8 SCIENCE/POLICY INTERFACE 409
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Division 1Silviculture
CoordinatorLisa SENNERBY-FORSSE
The Forestry Research Institute
SkogForsk, Glunten
S-75183 Uppsala, Sweden
fax: +46-18-188600
tel (direct): +46-18-188560
tel (org): +46-18-188500
e-mail: [email protected]
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1.07.00 Tropical Si lviculture
Forest Destruction in Brazil andCameroon, a Comparative Analysis of
the Actors of the Deforestation ProcessHerwig Cleuren
Leiden University, Centre of Environmental Studies(CML) Programme Environment and Development, Post
Box # 9518, 2300 RA Leiden, NetherlandsTel: +31 71 527 74 69, FAX: +31 71 527 74 96, Email:
To understand why forest destruction continues inthe Amazon every year with a dazzling rate and whythe Congo Basin is seriously threatened, the paperanalyses the local context of forest dwellers and theinteractions with the regional and national level. inBrazil field data from South-Para show the linkbetween small farmers, loggers and large-estateowners at the forest frontier and their relationshipwith the urban centre and the different governmentallevels. This context tries to describe the influence ofpowerful actors and their interests, which decidewhy the Amazon forest burns every year again. inthe East Province of Cameroon, selective logging byforeign companies is the main industrial activity,provoking serious confrontations with the traditionalfarming and gathering practices of local people. Therent-seeking behaviour of the central governmentwith its opaque concession policy is the main playerand its links with loggers and local elites is decisiveto understand the fate of the Cameroonian forest.This research uses an actors' view to show that localactors choose mostly the option of forest destructionas a result of activities of other actors at regional ornational levels. This view explains why this is, fromtheir point of view, the best and most efficient wayof using their resources. The practical use of anactors' perspective is that it identifies the obstaclesthat local actors are confronted with and whichcause the bottlenecks for the sustainable options offorest conservation, agroforestry and NTFPs. Itshould help policy-makers and international donorsto combine more adequately their forces resulting ina sound forest management policy, and to developinstruments for forest protection adapted to the localcontext.
The comparative perspective enables to anticipateand to compare trends, e.g. the presence of Asiantimber companies in both countries. It also helped todiscern the different cultural and policy context andits consequences for the future of the forest. On theone hand, the booming logging industry, which isalready established in Cameroon is something manyBrazilian state governments want to promote. Onthe other hand, the empowerment of Indians and
landless farmers in Brazil has already resulted in theacquirement of land for local people, while this isstill the largest challenge for forest dwellers inCameroon. Especially for international donors andpolicy-makers, a comparative analysis gives gripsand indications to decide for new projects and whichmeasures are strategically the most accurate in aspecific context at a certain time.
Tools for a sustainable management ofAfrican closed rain forest
Bernard DupuyCIRAD-Forêt, Campus international de Baillarguet. BP
5035, 34032 Montpellier Cedex 1, FranceFAX: (33) 4 67 59 37 33, Email: [email protected]
African production forests are being exposed toever-increasing pressure from logging. It should bepossible to make logging compatible withsustainable management. Logging must become areal silvicultural tool followed by thinning. Theyrepresent two basic silvicultural operations designedto improve natural forest productivity. The intentionis to take advantage of the growth dynamics of thetrees by means of thinning operations affecting non-commercial species to balance the logging ofcommercial species.
Mean volume increment of 75 commercial species,whose diameter is superior to 50 cm, is includedbetween 0,5 and 1,5 cu.m/ha/an. An optimumloggable diameter must be set for each species ontechnical, economic and ecological criteria. Thisdiameter will be decided upon after analysis of thediameter structure. The loggable volume per hectaremust be limited to 25-30 cu.m/ha. Beyond thisthreshold logging damage becomes considerable.This maximum loggable volume must take intoaccount the growth of the stand during the chosenrotation. The regeneration shoots damaged bylogging must be coppiced. After logging,recruitment of commercial species, reaching 10 cmof diameter, is about 3-5 stems/ha/an. Modelinggrowth, of semi-deciduous forests, shows thatwaiting periods of 30 years are necessary toreconstitute a stock of 2 or 3 commercial stems(diameter > 60 cm). 30 to 50 years are necessary torestore the initial stock of logged stems.
By means of a thinning operation in non-commercial species it is possible to speed up therestoration of the loggable commercial species stockand to reduce the period between two successivelogging operations to around 20 years with partialrestoration of initial commercial stock. in forestspreviously logged, logging rotation of 30-50 years isrecommended, depending on the richness ofcommercial species stock. Systematic thinning mustbe banned. Selective thinning will be carried out
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within a radius of about 10 metres around selectedfuture trees (diameter < 50 cm).
Some recommendations can be made for naturalregeneration. For commercial species, it is importantto keep seed-bearing trees evenly distributed for allspecies. Non logged clumps, for example, may bekept within logged plots, as can large trees. Openingup the cover should be done carefully in order tolimit the spread of creepers and other undesirableadventitious plants in the holes made. Large holes inthe cover often give rise to a mediocre regenerationof commercial species (except for Okoum‚ Ayousand Limba). Main damage in the regenerationoccurs during hauling which must be carefullycarried out and monitored.
Keywords: Africa, rain forest, management,silviculture, thinning.
The Sustainability of Short-RotationPlantation Forests in Indonesia
Eko B. HardiyantoGadjah Mada University, Faculty of Forestry, 55281
Yogyakarta, IndonesiaTel: 62-274-901400, FAX: 62-274-902220, Email:
Short-rotation plantation forests for pulp productionhas increased significantly in the last few years inIndonesia. More than 800 000 ha plantations havebeen established and 13 pulp plantation projectshave been approved. While many of the recentlydeveloped pulp mills have been using mixedtropical hardwood for their raw materials, woodsfrom plantations are becoming available. The bulkof recent plantation forest is established mostly onsoil relatively having inherent poor fertility and highacidity. Acacia mangium is the principal species tobe planted due to its fast growth, high adaptability toexisting site conditions and suitability of its woodfor pulp and paper making. Current development ofplantation forest and plantation management isdiscussed in great detail. This paper also presentsthe preliminary results of site management andproductivity studies and discusses the long-termsustainability of short-rotation plantation forests inIndonesia. It is believed that the sustainability canbe attained through the adoption of improvedsilvicultural practices including organic matterretention, attention to weed control, amelioration ofsoil nutrition, genetically improved planting stockand improved harvesting practices that minimisephysical damage to site and that conserve organicmatter, while in the mean time taking into accountthe social and economic conditions of local peoplein the management of plantation. Dispute on land
ownership of the plantation must also be resolvedproperly.
Keywords: short-rotation plantation, productivity,sustainability, second rotation, Indonesia.
Silvicultural Principles: SynthesizingTemperate and Tropical Forestry
ResearchSusan Stevens Hummel
USDA Portland Forestry Sciences Lab, Post Box # 3890,OR 97208 Portland, USA
Tel: (503) 808-2084, FAX: (503) 808-2020, Email:[email protected]
Silviculture focuses on understanding and managingforests for human values and should, therefore, becentral to any discussion of forests and society. Thispaper considers how silvicultural principles could beused to generate focus within the discipline,communicate with specialists from other disciplines,guide research investment decisions, and speeddevelopment of management systems for lesserknown species. The paper focuses on thesilvicultural principle of size-density relations andhow it has been investigated in temperate andtropical forests. A review of key studies emphasizesthe consistencies and contradictions of experimentalresults, as well as gaps in research. Appliedtechniques, such as density management diagramsare based on size-density relations. The extent towhich these and other techniques can be adapted todifferent species and latitudes depends on thegenerality of underlying principles.
Keywords: size-density relations, competitiondensity, self-thinning
Growth of plantation-grown Azadirachtaexcelsa (Jacobs.) three years after
plantingAhmad Zuhaidi Yahya, Rosdi Koster & Ab Rasip Ab
GhaniForest Research Institute Malaysia, Forest PlantationDivision, Kepong, 52109 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Tel: 03-6302101, FAX: 03-6302105
The growth performance of plantation grownAzadirachta excelsa four years after planting isdiscussed. The site is located in Sime DarbyPlantation, Malacca, South of Peninsular Malaysia.The soil is derived from granitic rock and isclassified as Rengam series (Typic Palaeudults),with sandy clay, slightly firm and compact.Formerly, the area consists of an old rubberplantation, which was manually cut and burned. Theslope gradient ranges from 2 - 6 percent. Theseedlings were collected from three different seed
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sources: Field 2D1, Bukit Lagong Forest Reserve,Forest Research Institute Malaysia, Selangor,Central Kedah and South Thailand. Two hundredseedlings from each location were monitored. Theoverall growth results from Field 2D1, BukitLagong Forest Reserve, Forest Research InstituteMalaysia, Selangor, show the best performance interms of average diameter at breast height and totalheight of 11.0 cm and 11.45 m and survival rate at78 % followed by Central Kedah; average diameterat breast height and total height of 10.2 cm and11.20 m and survival rate at 87 %, South Thailand;average diameter at breast height and total height of9.9 cm and 10.85 m and survival rate was 71 %respectively. There was no distinct different in termof average height from each location. An averageannual diameter increment of more than 3.0 cm forthe PCT was achieved for each plot.
Keywords: Growth performance-Azadirachtaexcelsa- average diameter at breast height-averageheight-survival rate
1.07.09 Si lviculture in Latin America
The ecological basis for themanagement of Central American
lowland rain forests: an ecoregionalapproach
Bryan FineganTropical Agricultural Centre for Research and Higher
Education (CATIE), 7170 Turrialba, Costa RicaTel: +506 556 04 01, FAX: +506 556 24 30, Email:
The broadleaved lowland rain forests (LRF) ofCentral America are of considerable social,economic and environmental importance to theregion, and an ecoregional overview of biophysicalaspects of their management for production is nowboth possible and timely. This review draws heavilyon research carried out by CATIE during the last 15years, concentrating on the most extensive LRFecoregion in Central America, the Central AmericanAtlantic Moist Forest (Dinerstein et al., 1995),which stretches from central Panama to Belize andGuatemala. Bioregionally outstanding andvulnerable from the conservation standpoint, thisecoregion is also the main source of timber incountries such as Costa Rica and Nicaragua.Frequent hurricane impacts in the centre andnorthwest of the ecoregion contribute to thediversity of forest types within it, as forest structureand composition in the "hurricane belt" showevidence of long-term adjustment to hurricanedisturbance. Work on the north coast of Hondurasindicates that the regeneration of certain particularlyimportant commercial tree species may be
dependent on such disturbance, though hurricane-impacted forests are compositionally very distinctfrom true secondary forest (SF) regenerating onabandoned agricultural land. Throughout theecoregion, SF is characterised by a well-definedgroup of long-lived pioneer species, most withuseable wood. The low elevation forests of thesector from southern Nicaragua through Costa Ricato western Panama are quite well-documentedregarding local differentiation of forest types, standdynamics and silviculture. Primary forest of well-drained soils on undulating or hilly terrain is usuallydominated by Pentaclethra macroloba, though innorthern Costa Rica, this species is infrequent inforests near the western boundary of the ecoregion.The characteristic canopy species associated withPentaclethra on soils developed on old alluvialterrace are different from those of residual soils onancient lava flows. Pentaclethra is also present inwetland (mainly floodplain) forests, whichnevertheless show their own characteristic suite ofdominant canopy trees. On both well-drained andwetland sites, forest may show markedcompositional variation over short distances inrelation to substrate factors. The use of existinginformation on forest types could greatly facilitateplanning for forest management and conservation inthe ecoregion.
Pentaclethra forests appear to be among the world'smost dynamic tropical forests, and monitoring ofstands managed for timber production indicates theyare both resilient and productive. Liberationthinning produces marked increases in commercialdiameter increments and under this treatment, manycommon commercial species show medianincrements in the range 0.5 - 1.5 cm yr-1. Mortalityrates may increase following such treatment,however; in addition, non-commercial speciesstrongly impacted by silvicultural treatment alsotend to be slow-growing, factors which maycontribute to long-term decline of their populations.Mortality rates in wetland stands appear similar tothose of Pentaclethra forest. The commerciallyimportant wetland dominant Carapa guianensis isnevertheless slow-growing, though it may growfaster in wetlands than on well-drained sites.Vochysia spp., Inga spp. and Goethalsia meianthaare among the characteristic long-lived pioneers ofSF in this sector of the ecoregion. SF in smallpatches on undegraded sites, with adequate seedsources, is highly productive even on Ultisols,primary forest basal area being reached in < 30 yr,and tree species of this guild may reach harvestabledbh in 15-30 yr; patterns of stand dynamics and treegrowth indicate that monocyclic silviculture isparticularly appropriate in such situations. Larger
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SF patches, on sites degraded by activities such ascattle ranching, exhibit more complex standdynamic patterns, however, and significant within-patch variations of site quality may become evident.SF will probably maintain a species compositioncompletely different from that of primary forest for>100 yr.
Research-based Approaches toSustainable Tropical Forest
Management in BoliviaTodd S. Fredericksen, Bonifacio Mostacedo CatalyudProyecto BOLFOR, Casilla 6204, Santa Cruz, Bolivia
Tel: 591-3-480766, FAX: 591-3-480854, Email:[email protected]
Tropical lowland forests occupy more than half ofBolivia and represent some of the largest remainingtracts of South American tropical forest outside ofthe Brazilian Amazon. Where access has beenavailable, many of these forests have been subjectedto highly selective logging of mahogany (Swieteniamacrophylla King.) and a few other highly valuablespecies. Almost uniformly, this logging has beenunplanned with little thought for future harvests.Now, Bolivia is embarking on the implementationof a new forestry law that, if successful, will bringthe national forests closer to sustainable forestmanagement. It will be important that forestmanagement plans are based on forest researchconducted in Bolivia or in adjacent countries withsimilar forest types to achieve sustainability. For thepast six years, research in ecology and silviculturehas been carried out by Proyecto BOLFOR, asustainable forest management project located in thelowlands of Bolivia. Research during this period hasbeen conducted in many areas, but most studieshave had some common themes. These includebasic research on the silvics of forest tree species todetermine appropriate silvicultural treatments,testing silvicultural systems that provide forprofitable and efficient harvesting while promotingregeneration, and reducing the impacts of forestharvesting and other silvicultural treatments onbiodiversity. This research has provided informationon the phenology, environmental preferences,growth rates and regeneration ecology of a largenumber of lesser-known species that may increaseoptions for forest management and increase thevalue of Bolivian forests. Without this information,forest managers have conducted forest harvestingthat has been inappropriate for securing theregeneration of the timber species. For example,highly selective logging has almost uniformly beenapplied in Bolivia, regardless of the fact that themajority of most valuable timber species have lowdensities in mature forests and require large
disturbances for regeneration. Furthermore, pre- orpost-harvesting cultural treatments, such as vinecutting, prescribed fire or release treatments, havenot been applied to promote regeneration andgrowth of timber species. The result has been agradual trend towards the commercial extinction ofthe most valuable forest tree species. Deforestationin Bolivia has occurred when forests have beendegraded of their economic or ecological valuethrough unplanned logging or the application ofinappropriate silvicultural systems. Subsequently,forests have then been converted for other uses, suchas agriculture, cattle-grazing, or communitysettlements. To prevent forest conversion, researchmust provide information on how to profitablyharvest forests while promoting regeneration andprotecting the ecological integrity of forests. Animportant challenge will be to disseminate theresults of research successfully and promote the useof appropriate silvicultural systems in a countrywith little experience in forestry other thanunplanned logging.
Forecasting sustainable cutting cyclesin a Venezuelan lowland forest with the
process-based model FORMIND2.0Ludwig Kammesheidt, Peter Köhler, Andreas Huth
University of Göttingen, Institute of Tropical Silviculture,Büsgenweg 1, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
FAX: +49 551 39 4019, Email: [email protected]
1. We simulated growth and yield of logged-overforest under different logging scenarios over aperiod of 240 years and compared results withan unlogged stand using the process-basedmodel FORMIND2.0.
2. Stability and sensitivity analysis showed that thestand dynamic was simulated in a realisticrange.
3. In the absence of further logging, the logged-over stand approached the stand structure ofmature forest in terms of bole volume and basalarea after about 50-100 years.
4. Thirty year cutting cycles with conventionallogging methods and net extraction volumes of45 and 60 m3 ha did not provide sustainableyields under both minimum felling diameter(MFD; 35 and 50 cm, respectively) applied.
5. Only 60 year cutting cycle showed sustainableyields under both logging methods(conventional and reduced-impact logging) withthe different MFDs and the whole range of netvolumes extracted (30 - 60 m3 ha-1).
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6. Scenarios with reduced-impact logging provideda significantly higher timber volume than underconventional logging.
7. With the longest cutting cycle (60 years), bolevolume recovered to levels similar to the matureunlogged stand, while species compositiondiffered significantly.
Keywords: functional groups, logging scenarios,simulation, sustainable timber harvest, tropicalforest
Development of Preliminary StandGrowth Scenarios Based on theRelationship Among the Crown
Composition, the Crown Structure andthe Productivity of Tectona grandis and
Bombacopsis quinata Plantations inCosta Rica
Luis D. Pérez Cordero, Luis A. Ugalde Arias and MarkkuKanninen
CATIE, 7170 Turrialba, Costa RicaTel: (506)556-0026, FAX: (506)556-2427, Email:
Projects and private companies in Central Americaurgently need relevant information on the growthand productivity of priority species used inreforestation, such as Tectona grandis (teak) andBombacopsis quinata (pochote). Determiningproduction at the end of the rotation is particularlynecessary in the case of advanced aged trees (over20 years). Spatial competition among plantationtrees is one of the decisive factors for adequategrowth. One means of evaluating the effect ofreduced competition is to monitor tree development.Research was carried out on forest plantationdynamics (study of tree development through time),identifying the composition of crown biomass as animportant indicator of competition within a stand,and the effect of this competition on other growthvariables. The main objective of this study is todevelop preliminary forest management proposalsfor Tectona grandis and Bombacopsis quinataplantations to ensure high stand productivity.Models were developed for different relationshipsamong the variables, crown composition, crownstructure, growth and productivity, usinginformation from advanced aged teak and pochoteplantations in Costa Rica. The basis for the standgrowth simulation models included growth andproductivity information obtained from the plotsmeasured in the field, results from stem analysis, therelationships among composition and crownstructure, growth and productivity. Eight scenariosare presented for each species, using intensivemanagement criteria of a maximum basal area of 18,
20, 22 and 24 m2/ha, and two initial plantationdensities: 1111 and 816 trees/ha. in the preliminarygrowth scenarios for teak, rotations periods between25 and 28 years were evaluated, with final densitiesof 97 to 125 trees/ha, average diameters of 45 to 50cm, and total average heights of 30 to 34 m. Theproductivity at the end of the rotation variesbetween 10.2 and 13.3 m3/ha/year, yielding a totalvolume of 270 to 380 m3/ha. For pochoteplantations, scenarios were developed for rotationperiods between 24 and 29 years, using finaldensities between 110 and 130 trees/ha. Expectedresults include trees with average diameters of 45 to52 cm, and total average heights of 30 to 35 m,equivalent to a total volume of 220 to 331 m3/ha,and an annual productivity rate of 9.0 to 11.3m3/ha/year. Cost comparisons for intensive versustraditional management practices indicate that theformer requires a 25 to 33% higher investment thantraditional management. The Pipe Model Theorywas tested for Tectona grandis, confirming its usefor advanced age trees of up to 46 years, evaluatingthe relationship between the sapwood area at thebase of the tree (cm2) and at the crown base (cm2),with the foliage weight (kg). in the case of pochote,there is a relationship between the sapwood basalarea at the tree base and the crown base with thefoliage weight. in addition, for 10 to 23 year oldtrees, the next to last growth ring of the tree base isstrongly correlated with dry foliage weight. For teakplantations, it was possible to carry out stemanalysis on trees from dry zone plantations, usingthe clearly formed rings resulting from a markedseasonality in the area. However, for pochote it wasmore difficult to identify growth rings in manycases, despite the marked seasonality in the areassuch as Jicaral and Samara in Guanacaste. Theevaluation of growth scenarios, based on reliabledata for plantation growth in the country, was auseful tool to make predictions for plantationmanagement over time. The scenarios allow for theanticipation of future productivity and yields, basedon current and potential growth in terms of basalarea in the site. Tectona grandis and Bombacopsisquinata are species with medium to rapid growth,but require intensive management. The presentstudy seeks to contribute to management strategiesfor these species. Recommendations includereinforcing the results obtained with more data fromadvanced age plantations, particularly for thoseolder than 20 years.
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Silviculture in humid lowland forests oftropical America: assessment of current
practices and recommendations forfuture improvement
César Sabogal, Gonzalo de las Salas, J. Natalino M. SilvaCenter for International Forestry Research (CIFOR),
Conveno EMBRAPA, 66095-780 Belém BrazilTel: +55 91 276-0041, FAX: +55 91 276-0041, Email:
The paper reviews and synthesizes past and currentsilvicultural research and practice for themanagement of humid primary and secondaryforests as well as degraded forest lands in tropicalAmerica. This is used to derive some practicallessons to be learned and to identify successful casesand contributing factors. The analysis then focuseson the current application of common silviculturalpractices in the region to assess their merits andconstraints. A set of guiding principles and "bestsilvicultural practices" is proposed for two broadmanagement scenarios for silvicultural work (i.e.primary logged-over forests and secondary forests).The last part addresses some ways to improve theadoption of best silvicultural practices in the region.The discussion considers, among other aspects, thepotential of on-farm (participatory) silviculturalresearch, the market prospects for promising timberspecies, the incentives for forest management, andthe need for revision in policy and legislation.
Tropical silviculture: where should weinvest?
Rudi Arno SeitzUniversidade Federal do Parana, Rua Bom Jesus 650,
80.035-010 Curitiba, BrazilTel: +55-41-232-9084, FAX: +55-41-253-2332, Email:
Looking at the international literature, the overallperception is that tropical silviculture meansplantation forestry. But plantation forestry is not theonly alternative for management of forests for woodproduction in tropical regions. in terms of economicreturn in short time, no doubt that plantations are thebest choice. If other values like biodiversity,environmental conservation or sound utilization ofnatural resources are aimed, focus should be put onmanagement of natural forests. Very important fortropical silviculture are secondary forests, whichmay have two origins: overlogged primary forests ora secondary forest succession on former forest landswhich were used for agriculture or pastures.Silvicultural treatments are quite distinct for thistwo types of forests. in the first case, normallybiodiversity was not to heavy affected, but wood
quality of the trees is poor. in the second case, theforests have a very simple structure, but with theabsence of the valuable, slow growing tree species.Silviculture means the manipulation of the forest toachieve objectives, which may be a special product(e.g. wood), service (e.g. carbon fixation) or othercommodity. For correct actions we need knowledgeof a lot of relationships, between tree species (likeallelopathy), between trees and soil organisms (likemycorrhiza), and between trees and animals(insects, birds and rodents). Also the growthreactions to interferences in forest structures must beknown. and manipulation of the forest needs labor.Mechanization is highly developed for plantationforests, but nearly zero in terms of silviculturaltreatments in tropical forests. Therefore,governments, industries and researchers shouldinvest much more efforts in the development oftropical forest knowledge, in terms of research aswell as practical applications in forest areas.
If forest certification is aimed, still more knowledgeis needed. in the guidelines for certification,expressions like "minimization of changes instructure and species composition", "minimizationof damages due logging operations" or "ecologicalfunctions are kept intact" are quite common andshould be combined with improvement of income,for the forest workers as well as for the forestowner. But how to achieve this was never explainedby practical demonstrations on the long run. Again,much expertise is required, for the millions hectaresof secondary forests in tropical regions.
1.07.00 / 1 .15.00 / 1 .17.00 Internationalmarkets for carbon sequestrat ion from
tropical forests
International Markets for CarbonSequestration from Tropical Forests:Principles and guidelines to EnsureBeneficial Local Development and
Environmental Impacts.Sara J. Scherr, Jeffrey Sayer, Joyotee Smith
University of Maryland, Agricultural and ResourceEconomics Department,
2200 Symons Hall, 20742 College Park, MD, USATel: (301) 405-3860, FAX: 301) 314-9091, Email:
[email protected] or [email protected]
Decisions taken at Kyoto in 1997 and Buenos Airesin 1998 pave the way for international financial andtechnological transfers to support forest-basedactivities that enhance carbon storage andsequestration and thus mitigate the build-up ofcarbon concentrations in the atmosphere. Carbon-related services of tropical forests may be more
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cost-effective than emission reduction in energyprojects, and various international marketmechanisms being discussed could potentiallycontribute large financial resources for ruraldevelopment and forest management in project sites.
However, there is widespread concern among theinternational forestry community that poorly-designed forest carbon projects could pose a majorthreat to the welfare of forest-dependent people,non-carbon environmental services, and sustainablemanagement of forest resources for nationaldevelopment, and that successful localimplementation may not be feasible.
The University of Maryland and the Center forInternational Forestry Research are organizing aninternational policy workshop in spring of 2000 toidentify conditions and organizational principlesunder which trade in carbon sequestration serviceswould have positive local socioeconomic andenvironmental impacts. Recommendations willaddress selection of project site, types of carbonprojects, integration of management with nationaland regional forest and environmental strategies,mechanisms for distribution of benefits among localpeople, and incorporation of local interests inproject planning.
A presentation based on workshoprecommendations will be presented at the proposedIUFRO Group Session, followed by comments fromtwo expert panelists, and then broader discussion.Possible panelists are Dr. Jagmohan S. Maini, of theUN Secretariat of the Intergovernmental Forum onForests and Dr. Roger Sedjo of Resources for theFuture. The presentation will be revised in the lightof this discussion, and submitted for publication in aleading environmental policy journal. A policy briefwill also be published and disseminated widely byCIFOR.
1.09.00 Short rotat ion forestry for biomassproduct ion
The Status and Future of Short-RotationWoody Crops in the U.S.
L.P. Abrahamson, Wright, L.LState Univ. of New York, College of Environmental
Science and Forestry, Syracuse, N.Y., USAEmail: [email protected]
Short Rotation Woody Crop production systems,involving rotations of 10 years or less, reached acommercial production level of approximately55,000 ha in the United States by 1999. Hybridpoplars and cottonwoods dominate, but willows,sycamore and sweetgum are also being planted. Thiswood is produced almost entirely as fiber for pulp
and paper and fibreboard. The majority of thecommercial production exists in the PacificNorthwest and Southern portions of the U.S. Newactivity for fibre and energy crops is occurring in theNorth Central and Northeastern U.S. Experienceshows that early success of commercial venturesdepends greatly on the existence of well-integratedresearch programs incorporating breeding,physiology and silviculture and close partnershipsbetween industry, government and academia.Research on short rotation wood fibre crops is in avery active phase and production levels areanticipated to increase. Recent policy decisions bythe U.S. government will provide additionalresearch funding and incentives for production ofwoody crops for energy in addition to fibre.
Research on short-rotation crops by the authors issponsored by the U.S. Department of Energy, undercontract DE-AC05-96OR22464 with LockheedMartin Energy Research Corporation, by theDepartment of Energy's Golden Operations Office,by the New York State Energy Research andDevelopment Agency, and by numerous other pubicand private sector partners.
Productivity and Sustainability ofWastewater Irrigated Tree Plantations
Michael J. Duncan, T. G. Baker, J. D. Morris, P.Hopmans, D.J. Stackpole, G.C. Wall
Protection Silviculturalist, Centre for Forest TreeTechnology, Post Box # 137, 3084 Heidelberg, Victoria,
AustraliaTel: +613-94508666, FAX: +613-94508644, Email:
Keywords: Wastewater; Biomass; Sustainability;Short rotation; Nutrient sequestration
The utility of tree plantations for the disposal ofwastewater has been well established and continuesto be investigated throughout Australia, particularlywith respect to: the profitable reuse of wastewater,rather than simple disposal; the sustainability ofland use under wastewater irrigation; thesilvicultural management of plantations to achievespecific objectives such as the production of high-value sawlogs; and the optimisation of nutrientsequestration and water use.
A major concern with wastewater irrigation is thefate of nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) in theenvironment since these nutrients can causepollution of surface and groundwaters. Municipalwastewaters treated to primary or secondary leveloften contain greater amounts of these nutrients thancan be sequestered by the trees at the rate ofirrigation needed to meet the water requirements oftrees, particularly in semi-arid environments. While
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P will not usually be a problem in the short tomedium term, particularly on soils with high Padsorption capacity, there is always potential forleaching of N (as nitrate) to groundwater.
Fast growing trees initially accumulate significantamounts of N in foliage, but the net N requirementof the plantation declines after canopy closure, andas N is recycled through the decomposition of litterand internal translocation. Therefore removal of Nand other nutrients by plantations can be maximisedby growing trees in short rotations (e.g. <6 years).However, such rotations may compromise wateruse, and also limit the potential products to biomassfuels rather than higher value wood products.
A second concern with wastewater irrigation arisesfrom the often high concentrations of sodium (Na).Therefore, long-term irrigation has the potential todeleteriously affect soil structure through changes insoil chemistry, and ultimately reduce theproductivity of the site and its utility for wastewaterdisposal.
A wastewater irrigated, short rotation coppice trialwas established at the Goulburn Valley RegionWater Authority (GVRWA) Shepparton WastewaterTreatment Complex in 1993, with the aim ofdetermining whether the long-term irrigation of treeplantations with wastewater is sustainable withinalternative silvicultural treatments, by measuringchanges in soil properties, the input of water andnutrients in wastewater, tree growth, sequestrationof nutrients and salts in trees and soil, andmonitoring groundwater depth. The trialincorporates comparisons of coppice rotation length(3, 6 or 12 years), planting density (1333 or 2667sph) and tree species (Eucalyptus globulus or E.grandis).
During the first six years of the planned 12-yearexperiment, growth rates and biomass production inthis trial are amongst the highest reported inAustralia with mean annual increments of up to 40m3 ha-1 yr-1. During this period up to 550 kg ha-1 ofN was accumulated in the above-ground biomass.However, some marked changes in soil propertieswere apparent within the first three years, includingsignificant loss of carbon (C) and N, and increasesin the sodicity of the surface soil.
A Study on the Pollen Morphology of SixSections in Subgenus Salix L.
(Salicaceae)Kae-Hwan Kim, Louis Zsuffa
Chonbuk National University, Faculty of Forest Science,College of Agriculture, Korea
The pollen morphology of 15 species, 2 varietiesand 1 forma belonging to 6 sections of the subgenusSalix was investigated by means of light andscanning electron microscopy. From a pollen-morphological point of view, subgenus Salix isstenopalynous. Species from six sections have beendistinguished on the basis of pollen morphology,and a key for their identification using pollen ispresented. Based on pollen morphology, S.jessoensis (section Subalbae) is the most distinct ofthe species studied. Species of sectionHumboldtianae appear to be the most evolved in thissubgenus with a closer relationship to sectionAmygdalinae than any other section of thissubgenus.
Keywords: Salix; Salicaceae; pollen morphology
Short Rotation Forestry in KoreaDon Koo Lee, Yong Kwon Lee
Seoul National Univ., Dept. of Forest Resources, 103Seodun-Dong, Kwonsun-Gu, 441-744 Suwon, Korea R.
Tel: +82-331-290-2337, FAX: +82-331-293-1797, Email:[email protected]
Keywords: short rotation forestry, fuelwood,biomass, caloric value, Robinia pseudoacacia,hybrid poplars
Short rotation forestry in Korea has started since late1950s and 1960s when Korean Government initiatedestablishing fuelwood plantations for rural villagedwellers. Most of the planting woody species forfuelwood were fast-growing Robinia pseudoacacia,Pinus rigida, Populus species and Lespedezaspecies, which show good sprouting andadaptability in various sites.
Started in 1959, the total area of fuelwoodplantation to be needed was 1.2million ha, based ona total of 2.4 million households. Of these 1.2million ha, 400,000 ha from existing forests to beused for fuelwood production and the other 800,000ha to be established by artificial planting. However,the target for the establishment of fuelwoodplantation was revised to be 643,000 ha due tofailure in plantations. The total area of 643,000 hafor fuelwood was successfully established in 1977,of which 127,000 ha done by IBRD loan project.
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In 1980s, research on short rotation intensive culturehas started to examine the biomass production byplanting densities and species. Tree species fortesting were Populus alba x P. glandulosa, Populusnigra. X P. maximowiczii, Robinia pseudacacia andAlnus species. Planting densities examined rangedform 10,000 trees/ha to 40,000 trees/ha. Caloricvalues, sugar and ethanol contents were alsocompared for 27 hardwoods and 3 conifers, ofwhich the highest values were shown by Populusand Morus species. Among the planting densities atnursery sites, the density of 40,000 trees/ha showedthe highest above ground dry matters of 20tons/ha/year from Populus alba x P. glandulosa andPopulus nigra x P. maximowiczii. However, athillside sites, the density of 4,000 trees/ha exhibitedthe highest dry matters of 7.7 tons/ha from P. alba xP. glandulosa compared to densities of 1,000, 2,000and 3,000 trees/ha.
In 1978, Robinia pseudacacia was planted atvarious planting densities of 3,000, 6,000, 9,000 and12,000 trees/ha in the hillside mountain area to testthe biomass production for 18 years. During theperiod, 6-year, 9-year and 18-year rotations wereapplied for all of the densities. Under 6-6-6-yearrotation, the density of 9,000 trees/ha showed thegreatest biomass production (37.5 tons/ha), whilethat of 12,000 trees/ha did the best (60.9 tons/ha)under 9-9-year rotation. Under 18-year rotation, thedensity of 3,000 trees/ha exhibited the bestproduction (85.8 tons/ha). The greatest total biomassproduction (108.4 tons/ha) was shown by thedensity of 9,000 trees/ha under 9-9-year rotation for18 years.
A survey of short rotation willowgrowing in Sweden
Anders Roos, Hakan RosenqvistSwedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Departmentof Forest Management and Products, Post Box # 7054, S-
750 07 Uppsala, SwedenTel: +46 18 671564, FAX: +46 18 673522, Email:
This paper presents an evaluative study of short-rotation willow plantations for energy purposes insouthern and central Sweden. The results arepresented statistically and in GeographicInformation Systems (GIS). Willow growing isdescribed according to owner characteristics, farmtype, size, land use, willow area and management.Since the two issues of how to increase the share ofrenewable energy and how to reduce surplus cropproduction are relevant in many countries, realisticpredictions about potential energy-crop growers areneeded. Better knowledge about the adoptionpatterns of willow production in Sweden during the
early 1990s could help policy makers, in Swedenand in other countries where short rotation energyforests are being considered, to design effectiveenergy and agricultural policies and to identifytarget groups for information campaigns.Commercial willow plantations in Swedenexpanded in the early 1990s when two main policydecisions were made. First, the implementationphase of a deregulated food policy between 1991and 1996 made subsidies available for plantingwillows and for fencing. Second, environmental andenergy taxes on fossil fuels increased considerablyin 1991, improving the competitiveness of biofuelsin the energy market. Data about the 1000 farms insouthern Sweden with a farming area of more than 2hectares and with more than 0.1 hectares underwillow cultivation were obtained from the 1995Farm Register compiled by Statistics Sweden. Forcomparison, a stratified sample of 535 non-willowfarmers from the same geographical region was alsoused. A postal survey was also conducted of asample of the willow-growers. The willow growersin southern and central Sweden, were growing about13,000 hectares of willows in 1995. in relative terms2% of the farmers in the region grew willows on 0.5% of the total area of arable land. Willow growing ismost common in regions where biofuel use (e.g. ofresidues from logging and forest industries andimported biofuels) in district heating plants isalready high. Willow plantations are generallycommon on large farms and on crop-producingfarms. Willows are less common on small farms andon farms with many animals. The survey questionsconcern information about the willow growingfarmer, motives for planting willows, willowplantation management and harvesting, economicaspects and evaluation.
Turkish Energy Forestry for SustainableForest Management and Energy
Nedim SaracogluZonguldak Karaelmas University, Bartm Forestry
Faculty, TurkeyFAX: 90 378 2277421
Much of the world today is well on its way towardscreating an unsustainable environmental situation. Itis still possible to solve some of our environmentalproblems in a efficient and perhaps even a costeffective way by utilising suitable, located forestland and former agricultural land for energy, fibreand timber production. At the same time, somewaste products of the community can be added intothe cycle again. Biomass production for energypurposes through the cultivation of fast growing,broad-leaved trees will result in an ecologicallysound and economically viable crop in Turkey. inthis way, unproductive land can be converted to
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productive energy plantations where wood isharvested as a crop and used for energy purpose andindustry. The importance of biomass in Turkeytoday is indisputable since the traditional biomassfuel wood, charcoal, crop residues and dung are stilla primary cooking fuel for some parts in Turkey.For a variety of reasons like rising prices of oil andgrowing population, biomass fuel might not longersupply the demanded needs. At the same time theshortage of local biomass are increasing. Therefore,the establishment of fast growing plantations wouldhave multipurpose. There is a need to collect andanalyse prior experiences in local wood productionand consumption in order to design efficientmeasures to reach the desired situation of localcontrol, cost and the efficient use of energy frombiofuels.
Forest land in Turkey constitutes 26.5% of thecountry, that is about 20.7 million hectares. 12.8%of Turkey is covered by productive forests and theremaining 13.8% is degraded land. Turkey hasabout 4 million hectares of land subject to theactivities of energy forest establishment. Thecoppice rehabilitation projects have beencommenced especially in east and southeasternAnatolia regions since 1978 to control degradation,to rehabilitate and to make the degraded coppicesland reproductive. With the realization of projectobjectives, new job opportunities will be created aswell as supplying animal fodder in the region.
The gap between wood production and demand willreach 3.5 million m3 in per year. If necessary actionsare not taken, the shortage in wood production willbe even more serious. Thus, the establishment ofindustrial plantations with fast growing species suchas poplar, willow, Eucalyptus, acacia, alder and oakspecies are of great importance. Until 1998, energyforest activities with coppice regeneration wasundertaken on an area 517 000 hectares andproduction of fire wood is used for heating andcooking purposes.
A specific goal is to increase the use of wood andwood based residues for energy generationincreased at combined heat and power generationplants being established by private sector inlocations where coppices and natural forests areavailable by 2003.
Keywords: Energy forestry, forest management,sustainable environment and energy, power
Sustainable Management of AbandonedFarm Lands for Energy Forestry UsingDomestic Nitrogen-fixing Tree Species
Hardi Tullus, Veiko Uri
Estonian Agricultural University, Institute of Silviculture,Faculty of Forestry, Kreutzwaldi 5, EE2400 Tartu,
EstoniaTel: (372) 7 421373, FAX: (372) 7 421053, Email:
Keywords: Alder species (Alnus sp.), biomassproduction, nutrient cycling, cultivation methodsenergy forestry, short-rotation forestry
In transition countries the volume of agriculturalproduction has fallen considerably over recent years.in addition to agriculture, a large number ofimportant changes have also occurred in forestmanagement and energetics. A need has arisen forthe compilation of new economically andecologically justified agricultural and silviculturalrecommendations and sustainable managementsystems.
Estonia is situated in an intermediate zone betweenthe boreal coniferous forest and the deciduous,broad-leaved forest. Forests cover more than 47% ofthe total area, in 1992-1996 some 30% of arableland was left uncultivated. With the exception of oilshale deposits, Estonia does not have any majorsources of fossil fuels, and a substantial proportionof such fuels must therefore be imported. To ensurethe energy supply and improve the environmentalconditions a programme of converting boilers fromfossil fuels to domestic biofuels was started. Theresults will help to optimise land utilisation bychoosing soils suitable for the cultivation of alders(particularly grey alder energy stands), thereby in anatural way making such areas fertile with the futureobjective of returning the areas to agricultural use orof cultivating conifer stands.
Purpose of the work was to create yield tables and todetermine the rotation period for alder stands asenergy forests depending on forest site types. Asecond objective was to investigate nutrient cyclingin alders and thereby their effect on soil fertility. Asalders are in symbiosis with actinomycete Frankiamicroorganisms, which fixate aerial nitrogen andthe nitrogen content of alder leaves is therefore high,it can be presumed that the cultivation of alders willhave a positive effect on soil fertility.
Silvicultural, ecological and economical aspects ofthe management of grey alder (Alnus incana),hybrid alder (Alnus incana x Alnus glutinosa) andblack alder (Alnus glutinosa) stands are analysed.Different cutting and regeneration systems areexamined. For the development of rational methodsof afforestation of abandoned agricultural land byalders, the experimental plantations were establishedwhere various planting materials were used. in orderto find out the influence of alder forest, grown as
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energy forest, on the surrounding environment,above all on soil, and its ability for uptake ofchemical elements, as well as to evaluate thepossible loss of nutrients after felling and theremoval of trees from the place of growth, theconcentration of basic nutrients in different plantfractions was analysed annually.
Short Rotation Forestry in EuropeTheo Verwijst
Department of Short Rotation Forestry, P.O.Box 7016,SE-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden
Tel: +46 18 672550, FAX: +46 18 673440, Email:[email protected]
Short rotation forestry (SRF) in Europe has a longtradition and originally aimed at providing a supplyof fuel, fodder and convenience wood, usually bymeans of coppice systems. The main generainvolved are Populus, Salix, Eucalyptus, Robinia,Betula, Alnus, Castanea and Quercus. Eucalypt isconfined to the Mediterranean parts of Europe,whereas willow and birch mainly are found in thenorthern parts. SRF systems both are employed inforestry and agriculture and have integratedfunctions in agroforestry, shelterbelt- andenvironmental applications such as vegetation filtersystems. Modern SRF has developed towards anindustry which needs large volumes and acontinuous supply. Consequently the focus is onspecies with a high initial growth rate and breedingprogrammes are directed towards resistance ortolerance against pathogens. With the actual rangeof final products in mind (biomass for energypurposes, paper pulp, particle board, veneer,construction wood) a wide range of growingsystems has been developed, ranging from denselyplanted willow coppice (2x104 stools ha-1 andharvested each 2 to 4 years) to widely spaced single-stem poplars ( 100 stems ha-1 and harvested after 25years). Major developments of European SRFduring this century are envisaged in the fields ofspecialised high quality products and in the field ofbioremediation. The increasing amounts of sewagesludge, slurry and other organic waste products fromthe society form an excellent resource for biomassproduction by means of SRF.
Comprehensive silviculture anddevelopment strategies for pulpwood
plantation in ChinaShougong Zhang, Sun xiaomei
Chinese Academy of Forestry, Forintek Canada Corp,319 rue Franquet, Sainte-Foy, G1P 4R4 Quebec, Canada
Tel: 86-10-62884229, FAX: (418)-659 2922, Email:[email protected]
In pace with the growing economy and population,and improvement of the living standard in China,the demand for paper and paper products willincrease continuously, while wood as the main rawmaterial in the pulp industry is decreasing gradually.Development of fast-growing, short rotationplantations for pulpwood production, which arehighly productive through adopting sustainableforest management in relatively small areas of forestland, can make a significant contribution to woodsupply. This will replace wood supplies from naturalforests in response both to economic developmentand environmental problems. The status of thesilviculture for pulpwood plantation in China isreviewed and its development strategies arediscussed as follows:
1) According to the selection of appropriateafforestation species, and the estimation ofproductivity for pulpwood purposes, the pulpwoodbases will be properly planned.
2) Under the guidance of the principle forsustainable forest management and forest ecosystemmanagement, plantation establishment is focused onspecific goals of industrial use, i.e. fast growth, highproductivity, superior quality, stability, and highprofit. Based on systematic research of treeimprovement (careful selection of tree species andgenetically improved materials with superior vigour,fibre property, and pest and disease resistance), sitecontrol (suitable site quality and the maintenance ofhigh soil fertility), stand density control (rationalinitial density and thinning technology) andeconomic considerations, the intensive silviculturaltechnologies will be promoted.
3) Based on clonal selection and vegetativepropagation with commercial utilization, optimalcombination of the site and clones, the ecologicalstability and adaptability and genetic variation ofpulpwood properties are studied, and thecomprehensive cultivation system for clonalplantation will be perfected for development oflarge-scale clonal forestry.
4) The development avenues towards integration offorest management and the pulp industry will beexplored in relation to the Chinese situation, and thepulpwood raw base for a relatively stable supply to
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the industry will be established, simultaneously withreasonable development on resource use andfinance.
5) Aided by the geo-information system andadvanced forest technology, the informationmanagement system for pulpwood bases will be setup to serve as the basic tool of planning,management and decision-making, and gradually tomake the development of pulpwood plantationssustainable.
1.15.04 Agroforestry
Why Use Agroforestry in EuropeanMountains?
Philippe Balandier, Helene Rapey, Felix RuchaudGroupement de Clermont-Ferrand, Division Forêt et
Agroforesterie, BP 50085 24, Av. des Landais, F-63172Aubiere cedex, France
Tel: +33-4-73440623, FAX: +33 4 73 44 06 98, Email:[email protected]
Keywords: Agroforestry, Europe, mountains,silvopastoral systems
As far as agricultural products are concerned, thecontext of high economic competition in WestEurope has led to the abandonment of the lessproductive plots of land. This has been particularlythe case for the mountain areas throughout theregion. As agricultural products were the maineconomic resource for those mountain areas, oneimportant result has been out-migration ofpopulation. There is then a trend towards adesertification of mountain areas, as people fail tolook after the rural space. Abandoned plots of landare rapidly colonized by a dense shrubby vegetationand afterwards by a closed forest. However,mountain areas are an important tourist attraction,which is not an insignificant income source.However, tourists often give preference to openedlandscape and pastures. There is consequently aneed to manage the rural space and landscape.
Agroforestry - the association of an agriculturalproduction with tree culture on the same unity - is apossible way to maintain a rural activity, diversifythe production and look after the landscape in themountain areas. in particular, silvopastoral systems -the association of grazing animals with tree culture-are well adapted. Animals maintain extensively thevegetation to a low level, providing an openedlandscape. At the same time, the trees provide anadditional income to the farmer through timber, firewood, forage, honey, and other products.
Experiments were undertaken with two silvopastoralsystems: the plantation of forest trees in pasture and
the opening of dense forests or brushwoods tograzing animals. in both cases, only a low numberof trees were planted or kept to allow sufficientgrass production to support the flock. Experimentaldetails are presented.
Data were collected for the two kinds ofsilvopastoral systems for ten years includingtechnical, ecological and economic characteristicsand performance. Results of experiments and farmerevaluations are presented. Both silvopastoralsystems have proved feasible and interesting froman economic point of view. Grazing animals arereally a cheap mean of maintain an openedlandscape. On-going research is analysing howthose silvopastoral systems can fit into the farmers'exploitations and particularly what are the economicand environmental consequences of introducingtrees.
Computer-Based Data-ManagementTechnologies in Agroforestry
James M. Knowles, P.K.R. NairUniversity of Florida, School of Forest Resources and
Conservation, Post Box # 110410, Gainesville, FL, USATel: (352) 846-0880, FAX: (352) 846-1277, Email:
The past decade has witnessed dramatic progress inthe use and deployment of computers for rapid andefficient acquisition, management and analysis ofdata to support development and dissemination ofland-use technologies. This paper will evaluate thedevelopments of computer use within agroforestry,discuss the potentials and suggest future directionsin this exciting approach to research.
The major computer-based tools and methods inland-use system research are database managementsystems (DBMS), decision support systems (DSS),geographic information systems (GIS), andcomputer modeling. DBMS's are used for the input,storage and retrieval of relational data. With thedevelopment of the CD-ROM and the Internet,access to and distribution of large amounts of datahave become easier. Databases have been developedcontaining information related to natural resourcessuch as climate, tree species, and soils. Thesedatabases provide information that can be used byplanners and managers in making land-usedecisions. Decision support systems integrate data(often obtained from a DBMS) with decision criteriaor rules to provide users with decision options inplanning, implementing, and managing differentland-use systems. DSS's have been developed toprovide advice in several forestry and other land-useactivities; e.g.: timber management of nationalforests, pesticide application in field-crop
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cultivation, and management of citrus production.Widespread access to satellite imagery, remotesensing equipment and other sampling equipmenthas allowed for the development of GIS's to aid inland-use management. GIS's are DBMS's designedto capture, store, analyze, and display data from aspatial point of view. GIS's have been used inevaluating appropriate land uses, the developmentof precision farming, and in planning agricultural orforestry systems. Computer modeling takesadvantage of the computer's ability, often usinglinear programming techniques, to evaluate manydifferent scenarios (different levels andcombinations of inputs to a system) with a minimumof effort. Models have been developed to determineoptimum levels of fertilizer required in differentagricultural production systems and to understandthe growth of trees to more effectively manageproduction.
Recent developments have seen these technologiesapplied to problems relating to agroforestry. One ofthe first such systems was the United NationsUniversity (UNU) Agroforestry Expert System(AES). The UNU-AES is a type of DSS thatprovides management options for alley croppingunder specific conditions in the tropics andsubtropics. in response to the need for appropriateinformation relating to agroforestry tree species, theInternational Centre for Research in Agroforestry(ICRAF) developed the Multipurpose Tree & ShrubDatabase (MPTS). This DBMS contains first-hand,site specific information as well as secondary dataon over 1000 multipurpose tree species. Otherdatabases have also been developed to provideadditional information about potential and currentagroforestry tree species. GIS systems have alsobeen developed to aid in the adoption ofagroforestry. For example, a GIS-based agroforestryresearch tool was developed to determine theappropriate agroforestry systems that might beadopted in certain regions in sub-Saharan Africa.One system that models a rubber-cacao agroforestrysystem in Brazil was developed to bioeconomicallysimulate a 40-year cycle. The system exploresdifferent scenarios to achieve optimum productionand profit levels. Modeling efforts in a variety ofagroforestry themes have also produced interestingresults. As each system is reviewed, its intendedaudience (farmers, land-use decision-makers,researchers) and end-use (research, development,decision-making) will also be discussed.
Agroforestry in MalaysiaMohd Abd. Ali Razak, Mahmud A.W. and Najib Lotfy
ArshadForest Research Institute Malaysia, Kepong, 52109 Kuala
Lumpur, MalaysiaTel: 03-6302242, FAX: 03-6302105, Email:
Keywords: Agroforestry, Malaysia, NewAgriculture Policy
Agroforestry as a land use, is getting prominent inMalaysia. in 1999, the government launched theNew Agriculture Policy with agroforestry identifiesas one of two strategic approaches to meet thechallenges in the agriculture and forestry sectors. inthe New Policy, the agroforestry approach is aimedat addressing the increasingly scarce resourcesincluding land and raw material availability withagriculture and forestry viewed as mutuallycompatible and complementary. The integration ofagriculture and forestry is also aimed to create alarger productive base for both sectors. This paperdiscusses various strategic directions, action plansand recommendations on the agroforestry approachin the New Agriculture Policy.
The Effects of Population Growth andAgricultural Intensification on the Forest
Resource of Central Honduras, 1970s-1990s: A Community-Scale Analysis
Sara J. ScherrUniversity of Maryland, Agricultural and ResourceEconomics Department, 2200 Symons Hall, 20742
College Park, MD, USATel: (301) 405-3860, FAX: 301) 314-9091, Email:
[email protected] or [email protected]
Keywords: Agricultural intensification,deforestation, hillsides, Honduras, population andenvironment
The effects of agricultural intensification on forestcover, use and management are of major concern forforest policy and planning, particularly in tropicalcountries with high rural population growth.International evidence suggests that the relationshipof forest cover with population growth andagricultural intensification is not linear. Populationgrowth from low population densities typically leadsto forest clearing for extensive agriculturalproduction. But once continuous cultivationbecomes the norm, further population increasesoften result in improved management of remainingforests and on farm tree-planting to meetsubsistence needs and new market opportunities, aswell as greater action to protect locally importantwatersheds.
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However, our understanding of when and how thisprocess occurs--for different population densities,types of farming systems, physical environments,and policy contexts-is limited. Most insights intothese relationships have come from statisticalanalysis of macro-level changes in agricultural landand forest use. More sophisticated understandingand analysis of the nature, processes and impacts offorest land use and management under various typesof agricultural intensification has been lacking. Suchanalysis is constrained by lack of detailed data thatwould permit joint analysis of changes over time inagricultural economies at the local level, andassociated changes in forest cover and management.
This case study attempts such an analysis, for theCentral Hillsides of Honduras, for the period fromthe mid-1970s to the mid-1990s. By comparing theprocesses and impacts in 48 communities withvarying geographic, demographic, and economiccharacteristics and varying local governancearrangements, the study sought to identify theimpacts of regional economic trends and publicpolicies on forests at the local level. Six pathways ofagricultural development in the region (stagnation ofbasic grains, expansion of basic grains, horticulturalintensification, coffee expansion, forestryspecialization and non-farm employment) haddistinct determinants of economic change, distinctpatterns of land and forest product use, and differentconcerns about local forest resources.
Aggregate tree cover declined only slightly in thecoffee, forestry and non-farm employment pathways(which account for three quarters of regional landarea), despite rapid population growth, as annualcrop production became more intensive and lessimportant to livelihoods. Forest cover declinedsignificantly in the other three pathways, as area inannual crops expanded due to high-value vegetablemarkets (horticultural pathway), extensiveproduction systems ( the basic grains pathways) andcropland degradation (basic grains stagnationpathway).
Findings suggest that the impacts of agriculturalintensification on forest resources depend on initialresource conditions and the type of intensification.Resource scarcities relative to population andagricultural development policies have greaterimpacts on forest conditions than do forest policies.The latter need to be targeted by agriculturalpathway. The observed variations in land usedynamics raise concerns about the reliability ofmacro-scale analysis for predicting forest coverchange or informing policy action.
1.17.01 Rehabil i tat ion of mined lands
Reclamation of post-mining landscapesin Eastern Germany - The largest
environmental protection project ofEurope
Friedrich von BismarckGovernmental Program for the Rehabilitation and
Reclamation for East-German Lignite Mines,Schiffbauerdamm 17, 10117 Berlin, Germany
In East Germany an area of more than 1'000 squarekilo-metres was consumed by strip mining and openpits. With the transformation process from a plannedeconomy to market economy in East Germany mostof the mines had to close down. The lignite orbrown-coal mining had destroyed the landscape: Byremoving the over-burden the micro-organisms,vegetation, and animals, were lost. Particularly inthe 70th and 80th the mining was carried out sointensively, that the reclamation did not keep upwith the area devastated by mining. The politicalleaders had other priorities and so the state runmining companies did not receive the funds forremediation and reclamation.
The remediation is particularly difficult as theoverburden consists of sand and gravel and hardlyany topsoil. in the dumping areas a new coveringsoil need to be established and the interruptednutritional chains have to be build up again to bringback plants and animals. in addition the residual pitsare forming dangers to man and nature that appearfrom the physical properties of the pit slopes. Thedump areas are geotechnically not stable. Over longdistances the banks tend to slide down suddenly.
The East-German example demonstrates drasticallywhat enormous problems occur, if active mining andland reclamation is not integrated. in order to beable to tackle such a task, a huge amount of varioussorts of support was needed. So a firstAdministrative Agreement for a 5 year actionprogram was signed in December 1992 which wasextended in 1997 for another five years until theyear 2002. According to this new agreement, nowup to 1.2 billion DM is allocated from theGoverment yearly.
The funds are provided for safety-measures in thedisused open-cast mines restoration of the water-balance, and rehabilitation and land reclamation.
In early spring of 1999, the program is wellestablished as Europe's largest environmentalprogram, and after more than 8 years of intensivework, progress can be documented in many ways.
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Some achievements of the program are shownbelow. Area of waste-land and dump-areas to bereclaimed (without water-areas) 65.370 haaccomplished in early 1999- reclamation of forest 27.280 ha- reclamation of agricultural land 11.590 ha- natural revegetation and controlled succession5.760 haTotal reclaimed area 44.630 ha
New ecosystems are established in order to bring thepost-mining landscape on the path leading towards asustainable development and achieve as well thedesired future land use.
In the year 2002 in many areas that looked - formiles and miles - like a lunar landscape at the timeof reunification in 1990, you will find many newlakes with water of bathing quality and you will alsosee thousands of acres of young forests and newagricultural land and areas protected for wildlife,and in some areas it will already be difficult for alaymen to tell that the area once had been miningland.
The impact of industrial pollution on thevegetation of Northern Siberia
Elena Golubeva, Vera SpektorMoscow State University, Faculty of Geography, 119899
Vorobjovy Gory, Moscow, RussiaFAX: Email: [email protected]
Northern regions of Eurasia and North America arepredominantly occupied by forest-tundra ecotoneswith considerable diversity of landscapes. Alongwith hydrothermal conditions, their appearance islargely governed by the presence of permafrost andis considered to be "one of the most pronouncedboundaries in the landscape regionalization of theEarth". The biological components of forest-tundraecosystems are extremely vulnerable to climaticchanges and anthropogenic pressures. The so-called"land of small sticks", which is the local name forsuch landscapes, is characterized by larches that areless than 1 m high and branches which grow nearthe ground, protected by snow cover. 10-meter hightrees grow in the valleys, while mosses, lichens,shrubs and dwarf shrubs occupy the concaveuplands.
The natural resources of the Russian Lower Arctic,such as polymetal ores, gas, oil and coal, areintensively developed, often without due regard tocertain features such as historical sites, as well asconsideration of the importance of ecosystems. TheNorilsk industrial region demonstrates one of themore serious conflicts between nature and societytoday. Norilsk is the largest town of the PolarRegions. Nowadays it is the largest center of mining
and non-ferrous metallurgy in Russia, which isbased on the locally available rich deposits ofcopper, nickel and coal. in recent decades, the townhas also become the largest center of industrially-caused air pollution in the Arctic. Sulphur dioxideand heavy metals are of particular concern. About 2million tons of sulphur and 60,000 tons of heavymetals enter the atmosphere of this area each year.
Current research is focused on the impact area of theNorilsk mining and Metallurgical IndustrialComplex (Arctic part of Eastern Siberia). Highemissions of sulphur dioxide and heavy metals, aswell as the extreme climatic conditions of highlatitudes, have caused large-scale degradation of thesurrounding ecosystem.
The results of this investigation are based primarilyon field studies of the vegetation cover. Toxiceffects are most pronounced at the local level, in thevicinity of plants and industrial centres wherepollution accumulates in the ecosystem and entersthe biological cycle. It is in such extreme naturalconditions, with fragile structural and functionallinks, that the effects of industrial impact canrapidly be seen in the state of the ecosystem.
Ecology of Post-Mining Landscapes -Fundamental PrinciplesReinhard F. Hüttl, Edwin Weber
Brandenburg University of Technology at Cottbus, PostBox # 10 13 44, 03013 Cottbus, Germany
Tel: +49-355-69-2117, FAX: +49-355-69-2323, Email:[email protected]
Surface mining has a severe impact on landscapeecology. At many places, reestablishment ofecosystems is impeded by extreme site conditions.
Restoration of sustainable ecosystems resemblingthe situation before mining or rehabilitation towardsdesigned systems with predefined goal functionsrequires complex knowledge based on an ecosystemapproach, particularly if seminatural systems shallbe recreated, e.g. by directed succession.Unfavourable physico-chemical site factors oftenmust be actively compensated by rehabilitationmeasures, displaced target organisms must bebrought back onto the sites. Areas designed foragricultural or forestry use must be rehabilitatedconsidering the future perspectives of the users, i.e.interactions with socio-economical questions haveto be considered if successful recultivation shall beachieved.
Knowledge can be extracted from mined landrehabilitated during this century, e.g. by means ofchronosequence studies. Natural successionprocesses on post-mining sites starting from "pointzero" are not only unique events in cultivated
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landscapes, they help understand natural ecosystemdynamics - far beyond the actual post-mininglandscape.
Results from a number of research projects willhighlight the various aspects and the scope ofdevelopment of the ecology of post-mininglandscapes using as an example the lignite miningdistrict of Lower Lusatia in eastern Germany. Basedon chronosequence approaches and long-termobservations, a concept of ecosystem developmenton minesites was developed integrating variousaspects potentially altered on former minesites andcompared to ecosystems on natural, undisturbedsites: pedogenesis and organic mattertransformation, natural flora and fauna succession,water and element budgets.
However, so far the dynamical aspects ofecosystems on former minesites are still notunderstood well enough to predict their long-termfuture development. Novel methodologicalapproaches are needed to extend our knowledge andmeet the demands of decision makers and landmanagers.
Forest Rehabilitation in the BalticRegion - The Oil Shale Study Case
Ülo Mander, Elmar Kaar, Priit Kask and Hardi TullusUniversity of Tart, Institute of Geography, u, 46
Vanemuise St, 51014 Tartu, EstoniaTel: +372 7 375819, FAX: +372 7 375825, Email:
The Estonian oil-shale field is the largestcommercially exploited oil-shale deposit in theworld. It contains over 60% of explored reservesexceeding 6600 million tons. The mining of oil-shale was started in 1916 and its total outputexceeds 770 million tons of shale. Presently, 6underground mines and 4 open pit mines are inoperation. All the operating mines are located innorth-east Estonia, i.e., in the central and easternpart of the deposit. in this area, the overburdenreaches ranges 0-70 m due to gentle southwarddipping of Ordovician strata. Mining in pits startedto spread intensively in 1959 when excavators witha scoop volume of 15-20 m3 came into use toremove surface. Pits are used in digging up to depthof 40 m with a total area of 23 thousand hectares. Ifoil-shale is deeper than 50 m underground mining isused. Nowadays around 50% of oil-shale is minedin pits. Until 1999 around 11700 ha was mined. Thereclamation order of exhausted oil-shale pits wasdetermined by the Estonian government as early as23 November 1923. The planned afforestation ofoil-shale pits began in 1960. More than 365 ha ofexperimental stands are planted on smoothened oil-
shale pits to ascertain the most suitable tree speciesand bushes (all together 52 species have been used),cultivation methods, cultivation times and mostsuitable planting material sizes. The physical andchemical characteristics, water regime, microclimateand natural vegetation growth on these areas of landhave been studied. From 1978 to 1980 128permanent sample plots were established inexperimental and productive stands. The growth anddevelopment of different tree species is studied afterevery 5 to 10 years, as are the initial density of treesdepending on the species, the need for thinnings,vegetation and soil formation processes.
As of 1 September 1998 there are 8374 hectares offorest stands planted on smoothened oil-shale pits.85% of them are pine stands, 7% are birch stands,4% are spruce stands and 2% are larch stands. Otherspecies make up around 2% of the cultivated area.Fire and insects endanger spread monocultures ofPinus sylvestris. Pine stands need thinning at ayoung age. Larix europaea, L. sibirica, L. kurilensisand Betula pendula show quite good growth oncalcareous soils. They exceed pine stands of thesame age (25-30 years) by 4 to 7 metres in height.Larch stands with an initial density of 1200 - 1800plants per hectare, and birch stands with an initialdensity of 3000 - 3500 plants per hectare (2 year oldseedlings) do not need thinning at a young age. invery rocky areas (rocks compromise 50-70%) Alnusspp. are more suitable to promote the soil formationprocesses.
Trees and bushes are also suitable for cultivation ofoil-shale chemical industry residual formations likeash plateaus and coke-ash heaps with height up to100 m. Experiments have been carried out therewith 28 species. Fertilising with N and P fertilisersis necessary. in alkali conditions Betula pendula, B.pubescens, Alnus glutinosa, A. incana and Populustrichocarpa showed the best vitality.
Native Tropical Forest Rehabilitation: ACase Study from Brazil
John A. ParrottaInternational Institute of Tropical Forestry, USDA Forest
Service, Post Box # 25000, 00928-5000 Rio Piedras,Puerto Rico, USA
Tel: +1-787-766-5335, FAX: +1-787-766-6263, Email:[email protected]
Keywords: Amazonia, biodiversity, minereclamation, native species, reforestation, tropics
Restoring productive, self-sustaining tropical forestecosystems on surface mined sites is a formidablechallenge that requires the integration of provenreclamation techniques and reforestation strategies
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appropriate to specific site conditions, includinglandscape biodiversity patterns. Restorationistsworking in most tropical settings are usuallyhampered by lack of basic information on the widevariety of native tree species that characterize theseforests as well as insufficient understanding of theecology of disturbance and natural recovery that canaid in the design of effective restoration programs.A notable exception to this is the forest restorationprogram developed since the early 1980s by aBrazilian bauxite mining company operating atTrombetas in Par State in central Amazonia. Asystematic nursery and field research strategy wasused to develop a reforestation program based onmixed plantings of more than 70 native primaryforest tree species. This technique has been used toreplant about 100 ha of previously forestedminelands each year over the past 15 years.Research in recent years has evaluated this approachand other, generally simpler, techniques used at asmaller scale at this site in terms of post-plantationbiodiversity development and other indicators ofrestoration success or sustainability. The results ofthese studies have shown the overwhelmingimportance of careful site preparation and topsoilhandling/replacement practices in determining bothfuture productivity and biodiversity of developingforests irrespective of the complexity of the plantingdesign used. Beyond this, study results show that theinclusion of a wide variety of forest species,particularly later successional species, is veryimportant for long-range restoration success due tolimitations on natural recovery processes that inhibitseed dispersal and subsequent colonization of manyprimary forest species. Many of the lessons learnedat this site have implications for the design ofmineland rehabilitation and forest restorationprograms worldwide.
Ecosystem development on post-lignitemining sites: element budgets of false-
time seriesWolfgang Schaaf
Brandenburg Technical University of Cottbus, Post Box #101344, D-03013 Cottbus, Germany
Tel: +49-355-694240, FAX: +49-355-692323, Email:[email protected]
The post-lignite mining landscape in Lusatia isdominated by sandy substrates of tertiary andquaternary sediments. Lignite and pyrite contents ofvarying amounts can result in extremely phytotoxicsite conditions. To establish pine stands on thesesites, large amounts of CaO were used foramelioration. These forest ecosystems virtually startvery close to the "point zero" of development,especially with regard to soil development, plant-soil interactions, and establishment of
biogeochemical cycles. The development of theseecosystems at 2 - 60 years old pine stands on twotypical substrates in a "false-time series" approachwas studied. Water and element fluxes in differentecosystem compartments along thesechronosequences were measured, analyzed withrespect to differences between substrates, andcompared to pine ecosystems on non-mined sites ofthe region. Main objectives were to identify thedominating processes and temporal trends inecosystem development and to use flux budgets asan indicator for ecosystem functioning.
Soil solution compositions indicate very high spatialand temporal dynamics. Over time sharp depthgradients are formed due to amelioration and soilforming processes. Soil solutions are mainlycomposed of Ca, Al, Fe, and SO4 depending on soilpH and pyrite content. Dynamics in lignite-freesands are much less pronounced and show overalllower concentrations.
The results reveal fundamental differences ofelement budgets between the two substrate typesdue to their different geochemistry. The fluxes ofalmost all elements under investigation at ligniteand pyrite free sites are similar or even lowercompared to a non-mined site which can beexplained by low weathering rates of the dumpedmaterial consisting mainly of quartz and lowatmogenic input rates. in contrast, the lignite andpyrite containing sites show very high dynamics ofinitial development induced by substratecomposition and are characterized by high elementflux rates and intensive transformation processes,i.e. changes and redistribution of element pools.
The following processes could be identified asdominating factors in soil formation at the ligniteand pyrite containing sites - Prite oxidation resultingin the release of large amount of acidity, sulfate, andiron, intensive weathering of primary mineralswithin the substrate releasing considerable amountsof Al, Ca, Mg or K depending on the specificmineral composition of the substrate, andprecipitation of secondary salt and mineral phaseslike gypsum or oxides, hydroxides and sulfates ofalumnium and iron.
Since pyrite oxidation can be a rather fast processdepending on its control by chemical or microbialoxidation, a pyrite-free zone is developing from thesurface to increasing soil depths over time.
- Leaching of easily soluble or labile secondary saltand mineral phases like gypsum, anhydrite or epsomsalt. Over time this zone develops down the profile,too, forming a zone free of pyrite and salts.
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- Both processes are affected by the ameliorationmeasures taken in recultivation practice. Largeamounts of lignite ash are incorporated in thetopsoils resulting in an input of high amounts of Caand Mg, but also to a lower extent sulfur. This ofcourse introduces a large acid neutralizationcapacity compared to the substrate-internalbuffering and also enhances formation of gypsumand other sulfate salts like MgSO4 that is leachedvery fast in high amounts from the profiles. Theraising of soil pH on the other hand inducesprecipitation of Fe - and Al - oxides/hydroxides.
The chronosequence approach to study "false-timeseries" of post-mining sites has proven to be a veryuseful tool to identify dominating processes on theecosystem level.
Biodiversity and The Role of ArbuscularMycorrhizal Fungi for Enhancing
Tailings Revegetation at PT FreeportIndonesia.
Yadi Setiadi, Yahya Alkatiri, Jemmy RumainumIUC-IPB, Forest Biotechnology, Campus IPB Darmaga,
16001 Bogor, IndonesiaEmail: [email protected]
The PT Freeport Indonesia Company mill ispresently processing about 150,000 tons of ore(Gold and Cupper) per day of which about 3%becomes ore concentrate. The remaining 97% isdischarged into the Ajkwa River watershed in theform of tailings, and settles out in the AjkwaDeposition Area (ADA), which currently covers anarea of approximately 133 km2.PT FreeportIndonesia has an intensive program to rehabilitatetailing deposition area by establishing vegetationcover. However, the proposed target is difficult tobe achieved, due to several major constraints whichare related to the unfavorable environmentalconditions existing at the tailing sites. The succesfulestablishment of trees in these unfavorable tailingconditions may be enhanced by introducing theeffective and selective AMF by inoculation of theseedling in the nursery. The novel functions ofarbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) as biofertilizerinoculum for improving growth and health of plantsand as an agent for bioremediation of heavy-metalcontaminated soil are recognized. A limited surveyof local arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi species wasconducted in ADA areas at the MaurujayaReclamation Research Center (MRRC), Mile 21, PTFreeport Indonesia. Representative soil and rootsamples were collected from different rhizosphereplants. Using standard methods, the roots werestained and the AMF spores were extracted from thesoil, isolated, and identified.
Selected AMF isolates were also cultured usingdevised test tube methods and mass produced on potcultures. The local AMF isolates which wereobtained in culture, were tested for their ability toincrease the early growth of host plant grown ontailings as a substrate.
Among the 43 identified plant species grown ontailings, the root systems of 39 species (90%) arecolonized by AMF. These data show thatmycorrhizal associations are needed for plants tosuccessfully adapt to growing conditions on tailingdeposits. Among the pioneer tree species, therhizosphere of Macaranga mappa contained highAMF species richness. Thus enhancing earlyestablishment of this species by re-cultivation areexpected can enhance the improvement populationof indigenous AMF. Based on spore propagulecounts, twelve spore types included in three generaof glomalian fungi (i.e. Glomus, Acaulospora andSclerocystis) were found in the sites (early seresuccession). Three other common genera,Gigaspora, Scutelospora and Enthrophospora, werenot found at the sites. Results from pot experimentsshown that among the local AMF isolate tested,Isolate MRRC-4 and MRRC-46 gave the bestresults. These isolates can significantly (P.05)enhance the biomass of host S. grandiflora grownon tailing by 453% and 326%, respectively,compared to the controls. They can also consistentlyimprove the biomass of S. grandiflora grown oncontrol ultisol soil by 123% and 95%, respectively.Isolate MRRC-46 and MRRC-4 has yet to beidentified, however, both isolates form intensivemycelia around host plant root systems. Thismycelial network may be important as a chelatingagent and in nutrient absorption, and thus canfacilitate plant establishment on tailing sites. Thispaper will review the novel function of mycorrhizalarbuscula for tailings rehabilitation, and provide astep by step protocol how to develope and used thismycorrhizal inoculant as a clean technology forrehabilitation and bioremediation of contaminatedtailings at PT. Freeport Indonesia.
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1.17.03 Tropical forest restorat ion
Restoration of a Sri Lankan rain forest:An eight year review of experimental
trialsP. Mark S. Ashton, I.A.U.N. Gunatilleke, and C.V.S.
GunatillekeYale University, School of Forestry and EnvironmentalStudies, 360 Prospect St, CT 06511 New Haven, USA
Email: [email protected]
In the moist tropics much research has demonstratedthat many late-seral tree species of the rain forest donot establish well on forestlands that have beencleared for agriculture and subsequently abandoned.This is most acute for the site-specific and shade-tolerant timber trees of mixed-dipterocarp forests insoutheast Asia. For the last ten years we have beentesting the use of Caribbean pine (Pinus caribaea)as a nurse for establishing rain forest timber trees.We selected 9 species of trees and 4 non timberspecies in two experimental sets of treatments thatcreated microsites for planting seedlings within andadjacent to experimental openings within 20 yearold pine plantations. Initial results after two yearsrevealed that planting within the centers of canopyopenings (photon flux density of 22 mols m-2 d-1;approximately 50 % of open conditions) that were 8m wide provided conditions for greatest growth. inthese circumstances seedlings grew between 3 and15 times faster in height, depending upon speciesshade-tolerance, as compared to conditions beneaththe closed canopy of Pinus (3 mols m-2 d-1;approximately 7 % of open conditions). Seedlingplanted in the full open had very high mortalityduring the first year and exhibited the poorestgrowth. The more shade-intolerant species showedgreater response increases in all measures (dry massgain, leaf area increase, height growth) than themore shade-tolerant species. Mortality of all specieswas higher in the Pinus understory, but this wasmost significant for the shade-intolerants. Resultsafter eight years were the same but with greaterdifferences between treatments. Seedlings planted inopenings were growing at nearly 2 m yr-1 in some ofthe species, while growth of seedlings beneath thePinus canopy was not more than 25 cm yr-1. For thenon timber species, two were lianas (cane, medicinalclimber), one was a ground orchid with ornamentalvalue, and one was a herbaceous shrub (cardamom).After two years all four species grew best in theedge microsites of the canopy openings. in thesecircumstances cardamom yielded 50 g plant-1 yr-1,cane grew over 1 m yr-1, the medicinal liana grewover 50 cm yr-1, and the ground orchid produced thegreatest number of flowers (25 per plant yr-1).Results from these experiments have been used to
construct planting guidelines for the various speciestested along with an economic valuation (usingNPV, net present value) of optimum speciescombinations for restoration on formerly clearedlands that have been reforested with Caribbean pine.
Underlying Causes of Deforestation andForest Degradation and Constraints
against Rehabilitation Efforts in GhanaDominic Blay, Adu-Anning Charles
Forestry Research Institute of Ghana, University Box 63,Kumasi, Ghana
FAX: 233-51-60121, Email: [email protected]
Sustainable development of the forest resources ofwith the active cooperation of all stakeholdersincluding rural communities is one of the importantobjectives of the forest and wildlife policy ofGhana. However achieving this objective cannot bepossible without addressing the problem ofdeforestation and degradation. It is estimated thatabout 32% of forest reserves have been degraded.While there are no records for the areas outsidereserves it is assumed that more than 75 % of thoseareas are also degraded. The major contributors tothe deforestation and degradation are the people inthe rural communities. While rural communities areblamed for contributing to the problem ofdeforestation and degradation discussions on theseproblem focus mainly on the activities which havecontributed to the problem. However the ruralcommunities are driven undertake those activitiesbecause of certain factors. Therefore to solveproblem of deforestation and degradation and thushelp in the sustainable development of the forestresources in Ghana these underlying factors andefforts that motivate rural communities need to beidentified and remedies found for them.Deforestation and degradation in Ghana have beenattributed to fire, unsustainable farming practices,logging and mining. Farming for instance has led tothe loss of whole forest reserves. Efforts weretherefore made to stop the encroachment of morereserves by farmers. Thus one of the first action thatwas undertaken was the eviction of the farmersliving in the degraded reserves. Unfortunately thismet with stiff resistance from the farmers with theresult that the action was not successful.
Also in spite of the fact that deforestation iscontinuing efforts have being made to rehabilitatesome of the degraded forests through taungya,enrichment planting and plantation establishment.Taungya and enrichment planting were tried andabolished. Plantation establishment, which iscontinuing, however involves only the use of mainlyexotic species and in the past did not involve thelocal communities.
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This paper therefore takes a look at the problems ofdeforestation and degradation as well asrehabilitation by discussing the underlying factorsthat motivate deforestation and degradation. It alsodiscusses the reasons for the resistance put up by thefarmers towards their eviction as well as the reasonsfor abolishing taungya and enrichment practices aswell as the use of mainly indigenous species forplantation establishment.
The paper makes suggestions for actions that canprovide solutions for the underlying factors thatcontribute to deforestation and degradation andmeasures to overcome that will enable the farmersliving in the forest reserves contribute to therehabilitation programme. It also makes suggestionson the appropriate methods for rehabilitating forestsdegraded through different direct actions.
Forest restoration for biodiversityconservation in Northern Thailand
Stephen Elliott, Vilaiwan Anusarnsunthorn, DavidBlakesley, Puttipong Navakitbumrung, Cherdsak Kuarak
and Sudarat ZangkumChiang Mai University, Forest Restoration ResearchUnit, Biology Department, Science Faculty, 50200,
ThailandFAX: +66 53 892259, Email: [email protected]
Restoration of degraded forest ecosystems for theconservation of biodiversity requires developmentof different methods to those currently used forcommercial forestry. Research must cover a muchbroader range of indigenous trees species, instead offocussing only on those of economic value.Ecological criteria, such as ability to shade outherbaceous weeds and attract seed-dispersingwildlife, must be emphasized when selecting speciesfor planting. Furthermore, processes of naturalforest regeneration must receive greaterconsideration, to develop effective silviculturalstrategies.
This paper will present a synthesis of researchfindings aimed at developing ecologically effectiveand socially acceptable methods to restore degraded,seasonally dry, tropical forests within conservationareas in northern Thailand, where the primary aimsof management are biodiversity conservation andwatershed protection. Seasonal drought, fires andheavy human impact present special challenges tothe restoration of such forests.
The results of a research program to screen nearly400 native forest tree species for their potentialusefulness in forest restoration programs will bepresented. The program included studies of theseasonal cycles of seed production of mature trees in
undisturbed forest as well as experiments on seedgermination and seedling growth under nurseryconditions. The relative importance of variouscriteria considered for species selection will bediscussed, including: seedling performance; ease ofpropagation; ability to shade out weeds; ability tofoster regeneration of other tree species; inhibitednatural seed dispersal and rarity. Initial results willbe presented of planting trials using mixtures of 30native forest tree species and testing varioussilvicultural treatments, such as fertilizerapplication, weed control and mulching.
A program to test the applicability of new methodsdeveloped by the program within a hill tribecommunity living within a national park has alsobeen initiated. A community tree nursery wasconstructed within the village and communitymembers have participated in nursery management,tree planting, weeding, fire control and monitoringthe success of planted plots. On the basis of theexperience gained during this program, thechallenges of introducing local communities to newmethods of forest restoration will be discussed.
Rehabilitation of degraded Tropical RainForest by enrichment planting of
endemic species in a forest of Sabah,Malaysia
Jan Falck, Charles GarciaSwedish University of Agriculture Sciences, S-90187
Umea, SwedenTel: +46-90-7865884, FAX: +46-90-7867669, Email:
The valuable timber from tropical rain forestsaround the world is an essential resource often usedto meet the demand for economic development inthe local societies. Most tropical rain forests are ableto gradually recover from a selective harvest. Butrepeated harvest too early in the secondary forestand/or wild fires can call for rehabilitationplantation to speed up the recovery process. Themain objective of this effort is to improvebiodiversity. Planting and tending tree seedlings ofold growth species in the degraded forest issupposed to facilitate migration and reestablishmentof fauna and flora belonging to the natural forest. inthe current study, located to Sabah, we investigatethe feasibility of rehabilitation planting in asecondary tropical rain forest degraded by harvestand the 1983 wild fire. Under the canopy of aMacaranga- dominated pioneer forest more than 30Dipterocarp species, some non-Dipterocarps andfruit trees are planted using two different plantationconcepts i.e. line and gap plantation. The study alsoincludes tests of different techniques for seedling
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and wildling production and different regimes ofshade adjustment in the pioneer vegetation over-story. in the first phase, starting in 1998, 4500-5000ha will be planted in a 5-year period.
The main result so far is that gap plantation ischeaper than line plantation. The reason being thatonly five compass lines need to be cleared comparedto ten for line plantation. Gap plantation appears togive the new Dipterocarp forest a more naturalstructure since the seedlings are more irregularlyspaced than after line plantation. Seedling survivalwas similar following the two plantation conceptsexceeding 85 % after three months.
Funding is mainly provided by a Swedish companyand the local counterpart: Innoprise CorporationSDN BND.
Transformation of degraded farmerforests into managed semi-natural
forests in Eastern ParaguayM. Grulke, Albrecht, J.; Monges, E.; Perez de Molas, L.;
Quinteros, M.; Campos, D.; Rodriguez, L.Paraguay
Email: Proyecto Enaprena [[email protected]]
50 years ago, more than half of Eastern Paraguay(about 160.000 km2), was covered with subtropicallowland rainforests. Today the forest cover is about10 to 15 %. All residual forests have been exploitedselectively once or several times. There are noprimary forests left. As a consequence of the rapiddeforestation in the last few years the discussionover how to maintain the residual forests has arisenin political circles and in public. The approach"maintaining by managing" is favored.
Nearly half of the paraguayan population assures hereconomical existence by managing small-scalefarms with an extension of 20 ha. or less. Thesefarms are caracterized by a strongly marked mixedproduction system: Food-crop cultivation, cash-cropcultivation and livestock-breeding. Generally thefarms include small forests which are used withoutany management-plan and later on - when degradedand economically unattractive - converted intoagriculture.
Until today there is no systematical investigationsavailable on how to manage these residual small-scale forests and what economical impacts on thefarming system a sustainable management mighthave. The investigation project was initiated inSeptember 1998.
The aim of the investigation is to assess thepotential of rising farmer's income by the integrationof sustainable forest management in the farmingmixed production system.
The investigation is carried out as an integrated On-Farm-Research-Project in the bufferzone of theNational Park Ybycu¡, situated 150 km. south-eastof Asunción. in all stages of the project, which aredescribed in the following, a high level of activeparticipation of the farmer families is required:
- Development of adjusted forest managementconcepts. The management concepts should becompatible with
- the target(s) of forest production (fuelwood,construction wood for subsistency, comercialtimber, non-wood forest products) determined bythe farmers themselves.
- the farmer families personal, technical undfinancial abilities to carry out a forest management.
- the natural conditions of the residual forests for asustainable management. To respect these generalconditions in the first instance was necessary asocio-economic assessment. Elements of theParticipatory Rural Appraisal were used. Afterwardsthe forest ressources have been inventorized in threecase-study farms.
Both, the socio-economic assessment and the forestinventory, showed, that to cover the forest productneeds of the families in the long run, on-farm smallreforestations are necessary as a complement to themanagement of the residual forests.
- Implementing the forest management concepts andthe reforestations/enrichment By putting intopractice the forest management it is possible torecognise and resolve technical problems and toassess the real costs and benefits of the initialsilvicultural activities. This project stage will befinalised in the current year.
- First evaluation of the economic impact of theforest management With the cost-benefit assessmentof the initial forest activities in combination with asimulation of future forest growth and future cash-flows a first evaluation of the economic impact onthe farming-system of sustainable forestmanegement should be possible. The economicevaluation will be carried out in the year 2000.
It is expected, that the results of the investigationproject give practical assistance to the owners ofsmall-scale forests and to the forest extensionagencies. It is also expected, that political decisionmakers, for the purpose of promoting small-scaleforestry, get additional arguments based onscientific results, e.g. in the discussion aboutsubsidies for forest activities.
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The Potential Role of Plantations on theRehabilitation of Native Forest
Biodiversity in Degraded Hilly Areas ofBangladesh
Mohammed Kamal HossainChittagong University, Institute of Forestry and
Environmental Sciences, 4331 Chittagong, BangladeshTel: 880-31-726310, FAX: 880-31-610004, Email:
Keywords: Plantation, Rehabilitation, Biodiversity,Degraded areas, Bangladesh
The natural forest loss and degradation of forestlands in Bangladesh are proceeding at anunprecedented rates eroding the biological diversityand prospects for sustainable economicdevelopment of forest resources. About 0.67 millionha hill forests rich in both floral and faunal diversityand another 0.73 million ha Unclassed State Forest(USF) areas alone in the Chittagong Hill Tracts areshrinking and degrading mainly due to agriculturalexpansion, shifting cultivation, encroachments, landalienation and over exploitation. Considering themagnitude of deforestation and slow growth of theexisting natural forests, artificial plantationprograms are getting priority day by day and there isan increasing evidence that forest plantations mayplay a key role in harmonizing long term forestecosystem rehabilitation. in the past, the pooryielding heterogeneous natural forests were in thegradual process of conversion into plantation foreststhrough clear felling and artificial regeneration withdesirable exotic and indigenous tree species.Reforestation activities are also being continued indepleted and barren areas. The catalytic effect oftree plantations on native forest succession under avariety of degraded sites may be obtained andplantation forests can have the same functions assecondary forest stands.
The paper describes the necessity of the gradualconversion of the degraded hilly areas to aprospective plantations of suitable tree specieswhich will ultimately save the natural hill forests ofseveral hundred economically important species ofboth the plants and animals. The denuded hills ofChittagong, Chittagong Hill Tracts, Coxs Bazar andSylhet Forest Division areas comprising a vast landresource of the country can neither be keptunproductive barren nor can be allowed to beabused by the peoples. As early as these denudedhills are brought under permanent forest cover byafforestation of suitable tree species, the betterbenefit will be derive by the local people and thenation. The depleted hilly areas which can sustainonly forest crops, have been suggested to be sought
under afforestation programs with valuable treespecies. To restore the former biodiversity of theforested area, monocultures will be discouragewhereas, emphasis should be given to indigenousspecies. A proper species-site matching mechanismand mixed plantations of diverse end uses should begiven priority. Participation of local peoples inplantation establishment, management andprotection will also enhance the activities of treeplanting programs instead of shifting cultivation orjhum cultivation. Participatory approach and jhumiarehabilitation program will be given emphasis in anaim to rehabilitate the nomadic jhumia families andto improve their economic conditions with therestoration of native biodiversity over the denudedhilly areas.
Restoration of the Native UnderstoreyVegetation in the Plantation Forest
Areas of Chittagong UniversityExperimental Plantation Area
Mohammed Kamal HossainChittagong University, Institute of Forestry and
Environmental Sciences, 4331 Chittagong, BangladeshTel: 880-31-726310, FAX: 880-31-610004, Email:
Keywords: Restoration, Native species, Understoreyvegetation, Plantation forest, Species composition
The degraded natural forest areas of ChittagongUniversity experimental plantation area was in agradual process of conversion in to a productiveplantation forest through clear felling the existingnatural vegetation and then followed by artificialregeneration. Both the exotic and indigenous treespecies are getting preferences in the plantationprograms in an aim to restore the degraded sites to avegetation cover with valuable timber species. Thenative vegetation cover also emerged with thegrowth of the artificial plantations which restore thepartial biodiversity of the original ones. The presentstudy was an aim to survey the native understoreyvegetation by random quadrat method in differentyears plantation. Mixed plantations of Acaciaauriculiformis, Albizia procera and Cassia siameaof 1982 showed the presence of 36 different speciesin comparison to 21 species only in Eucalyptuscamaldulensis plantations. of these, 15 understoreyspecies are common in both the mixed and eucalyptplantations, whereas 21 species are solely present inmixed plantations and 6 species in the eucalyptplantations only. The index of similarity (Is) ofground vegetation in both the plantations is 0.36.The dominant species in both the plantations areClerodendrum infortunatum, Eupatorium odoratum,Lantana camara, Microcos paniculata and Vitis
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assamica. Similar survey in the 1984 mono-plantations of Artocarpus chaplasha, Swieteniamacrophylla, Acacia auriculiformis and Eucalyptuscamaldulensis showed that the presence ofunderstorey vegetation was 34, 33, 33 and 32respectively indicating that the mono-plantations ofthe different species did not significantly influenceon the restoration of the native understoreyvegetation. Clerodendrum infortunatum, Crotalariasaltiana, Eupatorium odoratum, Ichnocarpusfrutescens, Lantana camara, METLAstomamalabathricum, Microcos paniculata and Syzygiumfruticosum are common species found in all theplantations. Similarly 1987 E. camaldulensis and A.auriculiformis plantations showed the presence of32 and 26 understorey species respectively. of thespecies, 18 are common in both the plantations.
The study also revealed the presence of maximumunderstorey species (36) in the 1982 mixedplantations and lowest (21) in the E. camaldulensisplantations. The presence of understorey species inplantations also depends on the initial fieldpreparation practices, even the initial culturalpractices. The previous vegetation of the site,planting spacing and also the surface soil conditionsdetermine the intensity and species composition ofthe plantations. The proper species mixing insuitable sites and the initial silvicultural treatmentsmay restore the native understorey vegetation whichwill ultimately conserve the valuable nativebiodiversity in artificial plantation areas of thedegraded hilly areas of the country.
Comparative ecological study of naturalforest, man-made forests and grass
lands for developing sustainableforestry in Sakaerat, Northeastern
ThailandKoichi Kamo, Tosporn Vacharanghura, Sirin Tiyanon,Chingchai Viriyabuncha, Suchat Nimpila, Bunnasart
Duantsrisame, Rattana ThaingamForestry and Forest Products Research Institute, Division
of Forest Environment, Matsunosato, Kukizaki-cho,Inashiki-gun, 305-8687 Ibaraki, Japan
Tel: 0298-73-3211, FAX: 0298-73-1542, Email:[email protected]
Keywords: restoration of forest, man-made forest,biomass, net primary production, plant speciesdiversity
Man-made forests could play a crucial role in theprocess of restoring forest ecosystem to a region.However, we have not yet clearly evaluated the roleand significance of man-made forests in thisprocess. At Sakaerat, in northeastern Thailand,various stands of exotic and indigenous tree specieshave been established on grass lands during an re-
afforestation project conducted jointly by Thailandand Japan (JICA). The goals of the present studywere to evaluate the present status of re-afforestation in terms of the role of man-madeforests in restoring the forest ecosystem and todevelop suitable forest management systemscapable of enhancing the forests on a sustainablebasis. We studied biomass, productivity, and theplant species diversity of man-made forestscomposed of exotic species (Acacia mangium, A.auriculiformis, Eucalyptus camaldulensis) andindigenous species (Xylia kerri, Dalbergiacochinchinensis, Pterocarpus macrocarpus) andcompared with those from neighbouring naturalforest (dry evergreen forest) and grass lands(Imperata cylindrica, Neyraudia reynaudiana) in1998 and 1999. The results were as follows:
1) By 13 years after planting, exotic man-madeforests had accumulated above-ground organicmatters levels 20 to 30 times as great as theImperata cylindrica grassland and 1 to 1.8 times asgreat as the natural forest, whereas indigenous man-made forests accumulated 6 to 17 times as muchabove-ground organic matter as the grassland and0.3 to 0.9 times as much as the natural forest. Muchlarger biomass developed in the exotic stands thanin estimated seral forests during secondarysuccession from Imperata cylindrica grassland todry evergreen forest; these values wereapproximately equal for indigenous stands and theseral forests.
2) The leaf biomass in the man-made forests rangedfrom 2 to 5 ton/ha. This range of leaf biomass wasthe lowest measured thus far in various types offorests.
3) The annual above-ground biomass increments inthe man-made forest were 1.4 to 3.7 times as high asthe increment measured in Imperata cylindricagrassland. The annual net primary production inexotic man-made forests and indigenous man-madeforests were, respectively, 1.2 to 1.8 times and 0.6 to1.1 times as great as the level in natural forest. Thelow level of leaf biomass, combined with high turnover rates of leaf mass, was found to have enabledexotic species stands to attain high level of netprimary production.
4) More plant species with various life formsbecame established in man-made forests of exoticand indigenous species than in grass lands; thevalues range from 62 to 82 plant species per stand.Among the plant species established in the stands,seedlings and saplings of forest tree speciesaccounted for 29 to 40% of the total. A noteworthything was almost no invasion of Imperatacylindrica, Neyraudia reynaudiana in the man-made
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forests. in Sakaerat, the occurrence of surface firesdecreased greatly after establishment of the foreststands. This could be a result of the disappearanceof these shade-intolerant grasses under the standcanopies, since such grasses are a major source offires. Preventing surface fires could, in turn, haveallowed tree seedlings to become established withinthe man-made forests. in this context, the small leafbiomass in the stands created enough shade toprevent invasion of the two grasses and to provide asuitable light environment for seedlingestablishment.
From these results, it appears that re-afforestationhelped the ecosystem to accumulate large amount ofbiomass and fix large amount of carbon in arelatively short time because of high net primaryproductivity, and accelerated the forest successionfrom grass land to natural forests by increasing thestocking of advance growth of indigenous species inthe stands. Based on these results, we discusssuitable management systems for promoting forestsuccession and for enhancing the quality of forestson a sustainable basis.
Participatory restoration of a degradedlandscape in Kerala state, India with
indigenous forest tree species ofcommercial potentialK. K. N. Nair, R.C. Pandalai
Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi, 680 653 Kerala,India
FAX: 0487-782247, Email: [email protected]
While there is increasing pressure to transform moreof unproductive landscapes in India into productiveareas by the introduction of exotics like Eucalyptsand Acacias, a pilot scale experiment was conductedto restore such a wasteland using indigenous foresttree species, the products of which are ofcommercial demand in the Indian System ofMedicine. With the active participation of the ruralbeneficiaries, ensured by Participatory RuralAppraisal (PRA) method, the land capability,vegetal cover and adverse factors which operate inthe ecosystem rendering it degraded andunproductive, were understood and an area of 12 hawas adopted for development under the scheme.Species selection for artificial regeneration was alsoaccomplished through PRAs, where, acceptability tothe people and the environment were the prioritiesand long-term returns on a sustainable basis, theeconomic doctrine. The tree species, thus selectedfor the restoration programme, are Aegle marmelos(L.) Correa, Caesalpinia sappan L., Oroxylumindicum (L.) Vent., Pterocarpus santalinus L.f. andSaraca asoca (Roxb.) de Wilde, the last three
among them very rare or endangered due to over-exploitation of their medicinal products vis-a-visdegradation of their natural habitats. The restorationcomponent of the programme involved procurementof seeds, establishment of nursery, raising seedlingsof the six species in sufficient numbers, fieldplanting them and monitoring their survival andgrowth rates. The data generated during each of thephase were analysed and is presented in the paper toconclude on the success of the rehabilitationprogramme. in the nursery, Aegle marmelos andCaesalpinia sappan recorded maximum germinationrates, whereas, in the case of outplanted seedlings,better survival and growth were observed forCaesalpinia sappan and Pterocarpus santalinus. Theprogramme also generated direct employment to thebeneficiaries during its nursery and planting phases,and created awareness among them on alternateeconomically potential, indigenous species forrestoration of unproductive and degraded sites in theplace of exotics - not eco and etho-friendly.Moreover, the strategy evolved for the interventionand transfer of technology pertaining to the nurseryand plantation aspects of the species were sodesigned to facilitate the beneficiaries to undertakesuch rehabilitation activities in future, in similarareas with same or similar species, ecologicallysuitable and economically viable.
Development of Wasteland ThroughTree Plantation in Chattisgarh Region
Sunil PuriIndira Gandhi Agricultural University, Department of
Forestry, 492 012 (M.P.) Raipur (M.P.), IndiaTel: +91 771 420828, FAX: 91-771-424532
Plantation of multipurpose trees (MPT) species playan important role in restoring productivity,ecosystem stability and biological diversity todegraded lands. The choice of Plantation species islikely to influence both the rate and trajectory ofrehabilitation process. in chhattisgarth region whereentisols (red laterite) and inceptisols dominatewhich have negligible productivity; there is a needto find ways to increase productivity by includingwood perennial. Out of the total geographical areaof 144018 sq. km nearly 20 % area is under redlaterite soil, commonly known as bhata soil. Due topoor waterholding capacity, available field moistureand very poor nutrient status of these soils, theproductivity is extremely low. Beside the lowproductivity the problem of soil erosion ispredominant in the uplands. in order to conserve thesoil and increase productivity, the tree plantationprogramme was undertaken. Both forest tree speciesand horticulture tree species viz., Albizia lebbeck,Dalberiga sissoo, Gmelina arborea, Pongamia
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pinnata, Albizia procera, DendroCalamus strictus,Azadirachta indica, Anacardium occidentale,Annona squamosa, Emblica officinalis, Psidiumguajava and Zizyphus mauritiana were plantedeither as block plantation or as energy plantation.The survival and growth performance after 4 to 6years of plantation revealed that many of the treespecies could be planted in red laterite soils ofchhattisgarth region. Among the tested speciesEucalyptus tereticornis, hardwickia binata,Leucaena leucocephala and Emblica officinalis outperformed in block plantation. Growth and biomassof bole, branches, leaves and fruit after 7 years ofplantation were assessed. The highest growthperformance and biomass production were in order,L. leucocephala > E. tereticornis > A. procera > D.Sissoo > A. indica > H. binata > T. arjuna. Thevariation in soil properties at different depths of soilunder different tree species was also studied.Increased levels of nutrients (N, P and K), moisturecontent and organic carbon varied in differentspecies and nitrogen fixing trees, in general, showedhigher nutrients. Moisture and nutrient, contentsdecreased with depth. The results are discussed inthe light potential of introduction of exotics incomparison to indigenous species.
Seed and seedling demography of analien tree species Bischofia javanica in a
subtropical island forest of westernPacific
Naoko Yamashita, Nobuyuki Tanaka, Koichi Kamo,Hiromichi Kushima
Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute, TsukubaNorin-Kenkyu-Danchi, Post Box # 16, 305-8687 Ibaraki,
JapanTel: (+81)-298-73-3211 ext.494, FAX: (+81)-298-73-
3796, Email: [email protected]
Bischofia javanica Blume (Euphorbiaceae),indigenous to southeast Asia, was introduced intoBonin Island in early 1900's as a timber tree. OnBonin Island, a small Japanese island in the westernPacific, it became established in the natural forestreplacing native tree species and assumeddominance in the local forest as a canopy tree or anemergent at maturity. It is competitively replacingthe preferred native species of which 73% areendemics occurring in highly valued conservationareas. These endemic species and the native forestbiodiversity are being seriously threatened by B.javanica. Conservation measures to control B.javanica is being considered. But the ecologicalbehaviour of this species is not well known. The aimof this study is to clarify the ecological traits whichconfer an advantage in the regeneration of B.javanica over native species. We investigated theearly establishment of B. javanica including seed
fall, seedling emergence, and seedling survival bothin the field and in greenhouse experiments. Seed fallof B. javanica occurs mainly from December toFebruary and shows considerable yearly variations.A large number of seed (about 2400/m2) wasobserved in the autumn of 1995 (mast year) but forthe next 3 years, very few seed were produced. Toevaluate seed longevity in forest soil, we buriedseeds in forest soil and checked their viability atregular intervals over 2 years. About 7% of theseeds with pulp and 3% of the seeds without pulpburied in forest soil were still viable after 2 years.This suggests that B. javanica forms short-term seedbanks that will be exhausted in a few years withoutthe input of newly fallen seeds. Mortality of seedproduced in the autumn was quite low resulting inhigh seed germination in the following rainy season(middle May to June). This initial flush ofgermination produced a dense carpet of seedlings(mean 210/m2), but low numbers of seedlingscontinue to emerge for several years. Manyseedlings die after 2 months (in mid-June to July)from wilting, and to a lesser extent, from dampingoff and herbivory. Compared with B. javanica,seedling emergence and persistence of nativespecies were much lower under forest shade. Largenumbers of seedlings and saplings of B. javanicaalso dominated most forest gaps indicating acompetitive advantage over other species indisturbed sites. This is supported by findings ingreenhouse experiments where B. javanicaseedlings showed capability of high growth rates inboth high and low light environments. It appearsthat B. javanica seedlings have the ability to occupygap openings and reach maturity more quickly thannative species. Based on findings of this study, B.javanica can be characterized by its high seedoutput, low seed mortality, a large annual seedlingemergence from newly dispersed seed and short-term seed bank. It is also capable of high seedlingsurvival by maintaining high growth rates both ingaps and under canopy shade. It is likely that theseregeneration traits contribute to the success of B.javanica in the juvenile stage and to the over-abundance of this invasive species on the island.Forest management to control B. javanica,therefore, will only be effective by combining theremoval of adult trees with reducing the seedlingpopulation to a very low level. B. javanica canpersist in the shaded understorey but can not reachmaturity without canopy openings. By eliminatingthe sapling population in gaps would reduce thefurther spread of B. javanica. Suppressing its naturalincrease in the juvenile stage is probably the mostecologically and economically effective means ofmaintaining long-term control over large areas.
29
Division 2Physiology andGenetics
CoordinatorDr. Eric TEISSIER DU CROS
National Institute for Agricultural Research
Laboratory of Mediterranean Forestry Research
12, Avenue Antoine Vivaldi,
F-84000 Avignon, France
fax: +33-4-90135959
tel: +33-4-90135911
e-mail: [email protected]
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2.01.00 Physiology of tropical andtemperate trees
Within- and among-provenancevariability of Pinus ponderosa seedling
response to long-term elevated CO2
exposureJames L.J. Houpis, Paul D. Anderson, David J. Anschel
and James C. PushnikSouthern Illinois University, Department of BiologicalSciences, Box 1099, 62026 Edwardsville, Illinois, USA
Email: [email protected]
Among- and within-provenance variability ingrowth and physiological performance of Pinusponderosa Dougl ex P. Laws seedlings wereinvestigated in response to ambient or elevatedatmospheric carbon dioxide (ambient + 175 µL L-1
or ambient + 350 µL L-1 CO2) for sixteen months.Among-provenance variability was studied withbulk-collection sources from five differentphysiographic regions of California. Within-provenance variability was examined with threehalf-sibling families from a common physiographiclocale.
Regardless of source, stem volume increased atambient + 175 µL L-1 CO2, however, furtherincreases in CO2 to ambient + 350 µL L-1 resulted ina variety of stem volume responses with about equalnumbers of sources showing either no change orslight increases. Physiological responses to elevatedCO2, including decreased efficiencies ofphotochemical transfer (Fv/Fm), no change instomatal conductance, and increased photosyntheticand water-use efficiencies, were consistent amonghalf-sib families. This limited survey shows littlewithin-provenance variation in CO2 effects onseedling physiology. The within- and among-provenance variability in growth response to CO2
indicates differing genetic control of carbonacquisition and allocation mechanisms amongsources of Pinus ponderosa. Understanding theextent and source of intraspecific variation ingrowth and physiological responses to elevated CO2
is a critical need in developing managementstrategies for future atmospheric environments.
Ecophysiological studies at the Top of aLowland Rain Forest Canopy in
Southern TaiwanYau-lun Kuo
National Pingtung University of Science and Technology,Department of Forestry, China-Taipeh
FAX: +886-8-7740346, Email: [email protected]
Diurnal patterns of photosynthesis, transpiration andstomatal conductance of five species were measuredin a lowland rain forest of Nanjenshan in southernTaiwan from 1995 to 1997. These physiologicalmeasurements were taken at the uppermost canopyof Ficus benjamina, Machilus kusanoi, and Micheliacompressa. Those at the middle canopy weremonitored only in Ficus, and those of understoryspecies were represented by Psychotria rubra andAglaia elliptifolin. Under moderate weatherconditions seasonal courses of net photosynthesis inthe uppermost canopy of the Ficus tree showed apositive correlation with leaf temperature. However,when leaf temperature exceeded 33°C and leaf-to-air vapor pressure deficit exceeded 2.5 kPa, netphotosynthesis as well as stomatal conductancedeclined. Low temperatures in winter and hightemperatures in summer inhibited netphotosynthesis as well.
Photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) wasfound to be the major environmental factor affectingprimary photosynthetic productivity of plants inNanjenshan forest. Usually, diurnal courses of bothnet photosynthesis and transpiration followed thevariation patterns of PPFD. Diurnal mean PPFD andnet photosynthesis in the upper canopy of the Ficustree were 643 µmol photon m-2 s-1 and 6.94 æmolCO2 m-2 s-1, respectively. Comparatively,measurements at the middle canopy were only 14%and 30% and those of understory species were only3-6% and 7-11% of the upper canopy values. Thephotosynthesis productivity of Ficus, Machilus andMichelia were 10.8, 11.2, and 11.7 g CO2 m-2 day-1, and their transpiration rates were 1.30, 1.51, and1.53 kg H2O m-2 day-1, respectively. Netphotosynthesis at the uppermost canopy measured at9 am, or mean net photosynthesis measured at 8 amand 10 am, had significant linear correlation withthe diurnal carbon gain. This suggests that short-term measurements of photosynthesis, performed atperiodic intervals in the morning, can be used topredict the daily leaf carbon gain in a lowland foresttree.
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Dependence of biomass formation oncarbohydrate content in the leaves of
Populus tremulaÜlo Tamm, M. MAndreand H. Tullus
Estonian Agricultural University, Forest ResearchInstitute, Kreutzwaldi str. 5, 51014 Tartu, Estonia
FAX: 372-7-421 053, Email: [email protected]
Several vegetation models suggest profoundchanges may occur in the boreal forests with adoubling of atmospheric CO2 and globaltemperature rise. These forest responses may resultfrom changing competitive relationships amongspecies (Solomon, Cramer, 1993) and increases inthe wood production capacity of deciduous trees(Kellom et al., 1995). Results from FGMcalculations indicate that the competitive ability ofseveral deciduous tree species that occur in Estoniacould increase significantly with rising temperaturesin association with increases in their biomass in theforest ecosystem (Mandre, Klysheiko, 1996). Leaforientation, display and anatomy and branch type ofPopulus tremula (aspen) have suitability forenhanced CO2 acquisition with climate changesuggesting an increase in the relevance of aspen inEstonian forests.
Knowledge of carbon allocation processes isessential for understanding tree growth; however,such knowledge of the mechanisms and controls ofcarbon allocation are generally lacking.Carbohydrates are necessary for the growth andbiomass formation of a tree, and we havedetermined the carbohydrate content and nutrientstatus of aspen leaves in relation to their location inthe canopy.The canopies of aspen trees (n = 12 in each year)were sampled from ten equal horizontal layers.Canopy foliage was obtained from all canopy layersat the end of the leaf growth period in 1987-1994.The specific leaf mass (mg m-2) and the dry matterdistribution (%) increased, whereas, the area ofleaves in a canopy layer (m2) decreased withincrease in canopy height. On average aspen leavescontained 10.3% soluble sugars and 1.7% starch ona dry mass basis. The lowest content of non-structural carbohydrates was usually found in thelower canopy layers. Beginning from mid-canopythe carbohydrate content showed an upward trend.The content of non-structural carbohydrates variedwith position of the leaves in the different canopylayers and with the N, P and K contents in thetissues, reaching a maximum in the upper canopylayers. Leaves of the upper canopy layers had 15-20% more soluble sugars and 30-40% more starchthan the lowest canopy layer. The content of
hemicelluloses in aspen leaves fluctuated between40-70 g kg-1 and seemed to be higher in mid-canopy. Regression analysis showed a strongrelationship between the specific leaf mass, leaf areaand the percent carbohydrate content of foliar drymatter.
Biomass and morphological characteristics of aspenwere related to the carbohydrate content in leaves.The relatively large differences in carbohydrateconcentrations in different canopy layers of Populustremula suggests that leaves have differing abilitiesto assimilate CO2 from the atmosphere. Enhancedgrowth and acclimation of photosynthesis of severalPopulus sp. were also shown by Ceulemans andIsebrands (1996) for elevated CO2 conditions. Theseresults suggest the possibility for expansion ofPopulus tremula in Estonian forests with projectedchanges in environmental conditions.
Photosynthetic characteristics oftropical trees and their ecologicalsignificance in climate changes
Yanhong Tang, Okuda Toshinori, Manonkara N. andRahim Nik
National Institute for Environmental Studies, Onogawa16-21, 305 Tsukuba, JapanEmail: [email protected]
Tropical forests may contribute a large proportion ofthe photosynthetic CO2 uptake by terrestrialecosystems. However, the CO2 fixation contributionof tropical forests is still unclear for its quantitativeamount. Consequently, it is difficult to predict theecological role of tropical forests in regional andglobal CO2 budgets. Some studies suggest thattropical forests are significant carbon sinks, butothers reveal that some tropical forests (Amazon)can be CO2 sources, especially during dry seasons.Without further detailed understanding of thephysiological characteristics of tropical trees, itwould be difficult to quantify the contribution oftropical forests in the global carbon budget.
In this study, we evaluated whether tropical treespecies show any particular physiologicalcharacteristics in CO2 uptake that differ from theevergreen tree species of temperate forests. Wesurveyed photosynthetic data for tropical treespecies from literature, and measured photosyntheticcharacteristics for some typical tree species in thePasoh Forest Reserve, Malaysia. Particular attentionwas given to seedlings of tree species from SouthEast Asian tropical forests, since knowledge is stillrather limited for this region among tropical forestsof the world.
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We found that tree seedlings from tropical rainforests tend to use light efficiently under lowphotosynthetic photon flux density conditions,whereas their canopy leaves, exposed to directsunlight, tend to show a higher resistance tophotoinhibition in comparison with the majority oftemperate tree species. By examining the effects ofvarious environmental factors on photosyntheticparameters, we found that sunflecks may contributeto a larger proportion of leaf carbon gain for treeseedlings in tropical rain forests than in temperateevergreen forest species. We also note that the highCO2 concentration in forest floor enhanced leafcarbon gain of tree seedlings.
Our results suggest that we need to account forphysiological differences between temperate andtropical trees in model predictions of theircontributions to leaf carbon gain. We propose a setof parameters for characterizing the differences inphotosynthetic responses between tropical andtemperate trees, which may facilitate modelprediction of climate change impacts on the globalcarbon budget.
A Correction Coefficient for Dealing withVariation in Sapflow with Position in
SapwoodDaoqun Zang, C. L. Beadle and D. A. White
Chinese Academy of Forestry, 100091 Beijing, ChinaFAX: 86-10-62872015, Email: [email protected]
Sapflow sensors were used to investigate thevariation of sapflow velocity in the sapwood ofEucalyptus globulus. Sapflow velocity wasmeasured sequentially at 5 mm intervals across thesapwood by moving two probe sets simultaneouslyon two opposite radii. A second probe set wasplaced in a fixed position at right angles to the firstset. Sapflow velocity ratio was defined as thevelocity of each moving sensor divided by that ofthe static sensor. The ratio at each position wasconstant but varied across the sapwood. Thevariation was high and implied a need for largenumbers of sensors for accurate determination ofsapflux. To overcome this necessity, a correction co-efficient was determined for use in conjunction witha fixed sensor probe set. The coefficient wascalculated as a weighted average of the velocityratios obtained with depth in the sapwood.
2.01.17 Vegetat ive propagation
Recent Advances in Mass Propagationof Acacia mangium, Acacia mangium x
A. auriculiformis hybrid and Acaciacrassicarpa by Tissue Culture
Antoine Galiana, D.K.S. Goh, O. MonteuuisCIRAD-Forêt, Plant Biotechnology Laboratory, Post Box
# 60793, 91017 Tawau, Sabah, MalaysiaEmail: [email protected]
Keywords: Acacia mangium; Acacia crassicarpa;Acacia mangium x auriculiformis hybrid;micropropagation; forest plantations
Acacia species, and more specifically Acaciamangium, have become major plantation treespecies in South-East Asia during the last twodecades, particularly in Indonesia and Sabah. Thesefast-growing species are mostly used for pulpproduction but their wood can also be used forgeneral construction, furniture, particle board aswell as plywood. During the past few years and inthe context of an increasing demand of superiorplant materials by local forest companies in Sabah,the Plant Biotechnology Laboratory Project hascarried out micropropagation studies on the threemajor plantation species of Acacias: A. mangium, A.mangium x auriculiformis hybrid and A.crassicarpa. The cloning of superior genotypes ismore appropriate in the case of A. crassicarpacompared to A. mangium since the geneticvariability is known and often observed to be muchhigher within and between progenies in A.crassicarpa than in A. mangium. in the case of A.mangium x auriculiformis hybrid - that is known tohave a better growth than the A. mangium pureparent species - vegetative propagation is currentlythe only way of propagation since propagation byseeds from bi-specific orchards still remains notfeasible at the present time. Although themicropropagation method allows the cloning ofsuperior adult Acacia genotypes in a shorter timethan conventional methods of propagation,especially in the first stages of the long rejuvenationprocess, the combination of both in vitro andconventional methods of propagation is the mostcost-effective and appropriate strategy to be appliedfor large-scale afforestation programs.
Micropropagation protocols and appropriate culturemedia were developed for each of the three Acaciaspecies studied. Our tissue-culture experiments weremainly focused on the improvement of themultiplication rate through axillary budding and thein vitro rooting ability of the axillary shootsobtained. The protocols were initially developed
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from juvenile materials (seedlings) and then adaptedto mature genotypes. The in vitro introduction ofshoots directly collected from mature trees wasshown to be successful since responsive andcontaminant-free cultures were obtained on specificintroduction media for all species. The next stepconsisted in defining a suitable methodology formaintaining selected genotypes under intensivemicropropagation for long periods of time. Themultiplication rates varied strongly between andwithin each of the three species, except for A.mangium in which no genotype effect was foundamong the clones tested. Conversely, clonaldifferences were observed for adventitious rootingability in A. mangium and A. crassicarpa but not inthe A. mangium x A. auriculiformis clones studied.Overall, A. mangium displayed a weaker potentialfor in vitro root formation from microshoots than A.mangium x A. auriculiformis and A. crassicarpa. Exvitro acclimatization of in vitro rooted plantlets innursery was also less successful for A. mangiumcompared to the hybrids (50% and 90%respectively). A very low percentage of recovery (5to 10%) was obtained in the preliminaryacclimatization experiments performed on A.crassicarpa.
Prospects of tissue culture forimproving teak plantations
Doreen K. S. Goh, Antoine Galiana and OlivierMonteuuis
CIRAD-Forêt, Plant Biotechnology Laboratory, Post Box# 60793, 91017 Tawau, Sabah, Malaysia
Tel: 60-89-775-328, FAX: 60-89-762-314, Email:[email protected]
Keywords: Tectona grandis; clonal propagation;tissue culture; teak clones; forest plantations
Teak (Tectona grandis) is a high quality timbervalued for the attractiveness and durability of itswood. Increasing lack of available natural resourceshas resulted in a step up of reforestation programson teak. The conventional means of propagation isthrough the use of seeds. However, this source islimited by availability and germinability of seed lotsand further, by variability in the growth andperformance of the derived plants. Methods throughvegetative propagation aiming at the production ofimproved planting materials have been investigated.The propagation of selected clonal materials is ofimportance owing to the obvious gains that can bederived in terms of growth yield and superior woodcharacteristics as well as for traits that conferresistant to pests and diseases.
Within the joint project between InnopriseCorporation and CIRAD-Forêt, in addition to the
issuance of rooted cuttings at the nursery level, atechnique has been developed for the in vitropropagation of teak. Using the tissue cultureprotocol, it is now possible to select and introduceany outstanding or "Plus" tree for massmultiplication regardless of its age. The techniquealso allowed the germination and multiplication ofseed lots that are hard to come by or show lowviability in the nursery. Using a solemultiplication/elongation culture medium withminimal hormone addition, an exponentialmultiplication rate of 3 to 4 microcuttings perplantlet can be obtained at every six to eight weekcycle. Spontaneous rooting occurs in more than 80%of the microcuttings and in the acclimatizationphase, more than 90% survival is seen. The protocolincorporates the lowest costs possible, simplicity,and ease of manipulation, thereby making thepropagation of selected teak clones highly feasible.
The success of the protocol has so far resulted in thetransfer of more than 200,000 micro-shoots to thenurseries and subsequently to the field for furthertesting. Genetic materials comprising of fourteendifferent origins used in various trials are beingmaintained in the laboratory and will be used infuture deployments depending upon their fieldperformance. The propagation of clones from such abroad genetic base is definitely compulsory for thethe technique to be broadly and effectivelyapplicable.
To date, commercial activity involving the sales ofmaterials to local and overseas planters has beenundertaken by the project on a small scale. in viewof the successful results obtained from the transferof plantlets overseas, the use of this technology forsetting up superior quality teak clonal plantations ineven more distant countries appears to be verypromising.
Acknowledgements: The primary author of thispaper would like to acknowledge the generoussupport of the International Tropical TimberOrganisation (ITTO) for providing the funding forher participation at this Congress"
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Local Biotechnology Project"Development of micropropagationtechnology for high quality trees"
Katsuaki E. Ishii, Kiyoshi TazakiForesty and Forest Products Research Institute, P.O.Box16, Norinkenkyudanchi-nai, 305-8687 Tsukuba, Ibaraki,
JapanTel: 0298-73-3211 ex. 451, FAX: 0298-73-3795, Email:
Keywords: Micropropagation; Tissue culture; Larix,Pinus, Quercus, Prunus, Zelkova
The forest biotechnology research project wascarried out with support from the Forestry Agencyof the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fishery,Japan from 1986 to 1996. The cooperative researchgroup consists of 18 prefectural research institutes(Hokkaido, Akita, Gunma, Saitama, Ishikawa,Aichi, Gifu, Mie, Wakayama, Tottori, Hiroshima,Ehime, Kochi, Fukuoka, Kumamoto, Ohita,Miyazaki, Kagoshima) and 1 national researchinstitute(FFPRI). In this project, propermicropropagation techniques were developed forLarix hybrid, Cryptomeria japonica,Chamaecyparis obtusa, Pinus thunbergii, Pinusdensiflora, Diospyros kaki, Quercus acutissima,Quercus serrata, Quercus phyllyraeoides, Castaneacrenata, Zelkova serrata, Prunus verecunda, Prunusjamasakura, Prunus spachiana forma ascendens,Betula grossa and Melia azedarach.
Mass propagation of Larix hybrid using shootprimordium liquid culture system and direct rootingsystem of Prunus are prospective newly developedtechniques for practical application ofmicropropagation for high quality trees.Micropropagation by axillary shoot culture ofZelkova serrata has high potential forcommercialization because of its high value in themarket. Tissue culture system of a 850 years oldnatural monument Prunus tree was developed.Following these successful achievements, new localbiotechnology project « Development ofpreservation and propagation techniques of usefulforest resources using biotechnology» has startedfrom 1996. This 8 years long project group consistsof 14 prefectural research institutes, 1 privatecompany and 1 national research institute(FFPRI)and is supported financially by the Forestry Agency,Japan.
Private Sector Forestry Research - ASuccess Story from India
Piare LalITC Bhadrachalam Paperboards Limited, 106, Sardar
Patel Road, 500 003 Secunderabad, andhra Pradesh, IndiaTel: +91-40-7815962, FAX: +91-40-7842997, Email:
Keywords: Eucalypts, Clone, Productivity,Casuarina, Genotype
Almost the entire 76 million ha recorded forest areais owned and managed by the State Governments inIndia. Forestry research, by the State ForestDepartments and various Forest Research Institutes,is mostly funded by the Government. Legislation forsui generis protection for breeder's rights is stillpending, and there is no mechanism for certificationof seed of forestry species or registration of clones.There is no wonder, therefore, that there is littleincentive for private sector investments in forestryresearch.
Despite many constraints, ITC Bhadrachalam hasbeen implementing a major research anddevelopment project since 1989 with a view toimproving the productivity and profitability ofplantations and making farm forestry an attractiveland use option.
Starting with cloning of 64 candidate plus trees(CPTs) of Eucalyptus tereticornis and Mysore Gumduring 1989, more than 500 CPTs have been clonedso far. Based on their comparative performance infield trials, 72 promising, fast growing and diseaseresistant clones, with productivity ranging between12-44 cum/ha/yr. under rainfed conditions, havebeen identified. Several hybrids have beendeveloped through controlled pollination betweenselected best `Bhadrachalam' clones of E.tereticornis and other species of Eucalyptus. Hybridseedlings with good heterosis have been cloned.These hybrid clones are under field evaluation.
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In vitro propagation, a viable alternativefor the continuous supply of plantingmaterial for recalcitrant tropical forest
treesShyamal K. Roy
Department of Botany, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka,Bangladesh
Tel: 880-2-7708478 436. Fax: 880-2-7708383. E-mail:[email protected]
Key words: tropical trees; in vitro propagation;acclimatisation; plantation.
Natural regeneration of forest trees is poor becauseof sporadic seed production and most of the speciesproduce recalcitrant seeds that are intolerant todesiccation, so that their genetic diversity can not bepreserved in conventional seed banks. Concertedefforts must therefore be made to evolve methodsfor mass multiplication of forest trees, theirconservation and cloning of superior genotypes foruse in tree improvement programme. During the lastdecade, significant progress has been made in thepropagation of fruit and forest trees through in vitroculture technology. For clonal mass propagation,through in vitro culture, from shoot tip and nodalexplants of mature trees, we have establishedprotocols for some tropical trees e.g. Artocarpusheterophyllus, Artocarpus chaplasha, Azadirachtaindica, Gmelina arborea and Elaeocarpus robustus.Small twigs were collected in spring season fromcoppiced branches of selected trees and protocolshave been established for their mass clonalpropagation. The techniques consisted of four majorsteps. 1. Establishment of in vitro cultures fromrejuvenated tissues, 2. Induction of multiple shootsfrom individual explants, 3. Rooting and 4.Acclimatisation. For culture establishment,multiplication and rooting Murashige and Skoog’s(MS) nutrient medium was used. Explants ofdifferent species showed different responses whencultured on MS medium supplemented with variousconcentrations and combinations of cytokinin,auxins, casein hydrolysate and coconut milk.Polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) was required toovercome the effects of phenolic compoundssecreted from the explants. Depending on species,65-85% cultures produced shoots. For multiplicationnewly formed shoots were subcultured to freshmedium designed for each plant species, and 15-20shoots per subculture were obtained through severalsubcultures. Well developed shoots were rooted byimplanting them on root induction medium. Foracclimatisation four to six-week-old regenerantswere transplanted into sterilized soil and compost(1:1) and covered with transparent polyethylene
sheets misted three times per day. After 3-4 weeksthe plantlets were transplanted singly inpolyethylene bags containing sand, soil and compost(1:1:1) and kept under indirect sunlight. After 8-10months they were transplanted in the open fieldwhere 70-85% plants survived. The technique isfeasible as viable alternative for the continuoussupply of planting material for recalcitrant trees aswell as for the conservation of forest gene resources.
2.02.00 / 2 .08.00 Future of breeding andplantat ions in a sustainabi l i ty-oriented
world
Dynamics of nutrient budgets duringconiferous plantation development:Interest for sustainable management
recommendationsEtienne Dambrine, Jacques Ranger, Marie-Pierre
Turpault, D. Gelhaye, B. PollierINRA Nancy, Seichamps, 54280 Seichamps, FranceTel: 00 33 3 83 39 40 71, FAX: 00 33 3 83 39 40 69,
Email: [email protected]
This paper aims at (1) showing the nead ofchronosequence studies in forest ecosystems; (2)presenting contrasted situations of nutrient budgetscalculated for representative coniferous plantationsfrom France, semi-extensively managed, whererisks of soil nutrient depletion linked to silvicultureis high; (3) discuss the causes for contrasting results;(4) Evaluate the sustainability of different forestmanagement scenarios.
Material and methods
Two chronosequences of three stands were used tostudy the dynamics of nutrient budgets. Input-outputnutrient budgets were calculated as: Totalatmospherical deposition + Release of nutrientsfrom soil mineral weathering- Biomass removal -Deep drainage.
The sites: i) Aubure (Vosges) is a chronosequenceof three stands of Norway spruce (Picea abiesKarst.) 20-, 40- and 90-year old, planted on acidsandy soils developped from a leuco-granite. Theelevation is 1100 m, rainfall 1500 mm and meanannual temperature 6C. Stands are Mg and Cadeficient. ii) Vauxrenard (Beaujolais) is achronosquence of three stands of Douglas-fir(PseudoTsuga menziesii Franco), 25-, 45- and 65-year old, planted on an acidic and desaturated soil,previously cultivated, developped from a rather richvolcanic tuff. The site elevation is about 750 m,mean annual rainfall 1000 mm and mean annualtemperature 7C. The stand mineral supply iscorrect.
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Results and discussion
Aubure: The mean annual nutrient budget isnegative for all elements, and the nutrient budgetscalculated for the three development stages (threestands) are also always negative. in the youngstands, the budget deficits are link to the highbiomass incorporation and drainage losses are low.in the older stand, the deficit is similar but mainlylinked to drainage as biomass incorporation is lowin this declining stand. Norway spruce planted on avery poor soil, acidified by atmospheric depositiontake advantage of soil nutrients during the youngstages of stand development, but its nutrient statusprogressively decrease in relation to the its shallowrooting, and drainage losses increase.
Vauxrenard: The mean annual nutrient budget isstrongly negative for all elements, but the deficits ofthe budgets decrease with stand-age to become moreor less nil in the older stand (apart for Ca which isalways few negative in the 60-year old stand). Thedeficit is strongly link to drainage losses which wereattributed to two factors: i) the Douglas-fir is not thenative vegetation for the site and a new organicmatter equilibrium is going on and ii) the previousland occupation by agriculture induced a highnitrifying activity which cannot be compensated bynitrate uptake by Douglas-fir. The over-loading ofNO3-N induced a strong excedent of protons leadingto cation losses associated with the mobile nitrate.Atmospherical deposits increase the phenomenonbut is not the main driving force.
Sylvicultural consequences of these contrastingsituations are: at Aubure, the nutrient budget isalways negative, indicating that there is nomanagement possibility other than liming andfertilization to restore the soil quality. AtVauxrenard, the nutrient budget tend to beequilibrate for rotation length longer than 60 yearsand a biomass harvest limited to stem (with bark),indicating that the soil fertility would stabilize for arotation time longer than 80 yrs.
Conclusion
Nutrient budgets are dynamic, thereforechronosequences studies are needed to evaluateforest sustainability. Soil fertility may or may notstabilize when increase the rotation length,depending on soil type, pollution climate, previousland use and stand adaptation to site conditions.
Tree breeding and Plantations inEurope: a regional situation report
Jochen KleinschmitNiedersächsische Forstliche Versuchsanstalt, Abt. C -
Forstpflanzenzüchtung/Waldgenressourcen, Forstamtstr.6, D-34355 Staufenberg OT Escherode, Germany
Tel: +49 5543 9408 0/ 9408 10, FAX: +49 5543 9408 61,Email: [email protected]
As a reaction to the more and more artificialenvironment of humans and some bad experienceswith human impact on nature there exists anincreasing scepticism against manipulation of naturein the European society. This scepticism is notrestricted to the public but can be found in theforestry society as well. Often non reflectedcomments like: “natural regeneration is alwaysbetter than plantation” or “tree breeding is againstnature” can be heard. As soon as such ideas andfeelings become more general, they haveimplications on funding.
With the assistance of colleges from 25 Europeancountries the situation of tree breeding and treeplantations in Europe was evaluated. The results arepresented in the first part oft the paper.
Tree breeding is regarded as important in nearly allEuropean countries. The main emphasis of treebreeding is on pine and spruce, followed by oak,poplar, larch, ash, Douglas fir and wild cherry.Altogether 25 tree species are included into breedingactivities. Seed orchard establishment ranges beforetesting of stands and clonal propagation. Mediumintensity tree breeding is prevailing and only inthree countries aggressive tree breeding is done.There is a higher concern about forest tree breedingamong foresters than in the public. Since only 40 %of the tree breeding programs are on a securefinancial base, this must have implications onfunding.
Natural regeneration plays a very different role inthe different countries, ranging from zero to 85 %.Afforestation of marginal farmlands plays animportant role in most of the European countrieswith a total annual surface of slightly above 200.000hectares. There exists a trend to favour close tonature forest management. in competition situationsprotection of nature is mostly favoured in funding ascompared to tree breeding. in spite of this theclimate towards forest tree breeding is neutral orsupportive more than hostile. The last situationoccurs only in three countries.
in the majority of the countries tree breeding ishandling the conservation of forest genetic resourcesas well. Therefore tree breeding programs take into
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consideration the conservation as an integral part ofthe programs.
A majority of the colleges (16 out of 25) think that aself - imposed ethical code how to use improvedmaterial would be useful or necessary. This isespecially true for the use of genetically modifiedorganisms.
In a second part the rationale basis for the field oftree improvement in Europe is outlined. Lines ofcompromise to solve the conflicting situationbetween future need for wood as a raw material andprotection of biodiversity are discussed, e.g. how fara certain area of intensive plantations withgenetically improved material could help toconserve natural forests.
Situation and results of breeding andplantation forestry in the American
SoutheastBailian Li
North Carolina State University, Tree ImprovementProgram, Department of Forestry, 27695-8002 Raleigh,
USAEmail: [email protected]
Forest genetics and tree breeding have madesignificant contributions to forest productivity andplantation programs over the last 50 years in thesouthern U.S., where forests comprise more than50% of the land cover and supply 53% of the timberharvested in the U.S. The southern pines are themost commonly planted species, with about 11million hectares in plantations. The South plantsapproximately 1.2 billion seedlings annually, 80%of which are loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) seedlingsand 20% are slash pine (Pinus elliotti var elliottiiEngelm.) seedlings, and virtually all planting stocksare genetically improved seedlings from seedorchards. Productivity improvement from forestgenetics has helped to provide a reliable,ecologically sustainable, and economicallyaffordable supply of wood. The N.C. StateUniversity-Industry Cooperative Tree ImprovementProgram has completed 44 years of geneticimprovement for loblolly pine in the southern U.S.The impact of the tree improvement on forestproductivity has been substantial through the twocycles of breeding, testing and selection. Treesgrown from seeds of first-generation seed orchardshave produced 7-12% more volume per acre atharvest than trees grown from wild seed. Geneticgains from second-generation seed orchards over thefirst-generation are estimated 14-23% additional forrogued seed orchards. Genetically improved stockhas also lower infection from fusiform rust,typically 20%-25% below the unimproved seedlots.
With additional improvements in quality traits (stemstraightness and wood quality), the realized geneticgains in value should be much greater.
Plantation forestry is generally acceptable by publicin the southern U.S. because tree planting has been acommon practice since 1930 in the region. Forestplanting, harvest, and manufacture of forestproducts provided greater economic returns to theland and more employment opportunities in theregion. About 90% of forest land are owned byprivate land owners and forest industries, and only10% are in public ownership. Furthermore, shortrotation of pine plantations, good managementpractices for environmentally sensitive areas,limitation on harvesting area, and other self-imposed regulations have all contributed to thepublic acceptance of plantation forestry. Researchdemonstration and public education are alsoimportant for people to understand that intensivelymanaged plantations are the most effectivestrategies to meet future demands of wood productswithout increasing pressures on old-growth andecologically sensitive forests. Improved woodproduction on limited commercial lands will reducethe logging pressures on natural forests. Byincreasing wood production per hectare inplantations, rather than by managing more hectaresof forest, genetics, in combination with intensivesilviculture, can and will provide betteropportunities for the use of natural forests and forestlands for conservation and recreational purposes.Results from two-cycles of loblolly pine breedingstrongly suggest that high-yield plantations bygenetic improvement can contribute significantly tothe conservation and recreational purposes. Resultsfrom two-cycles of loblolly pine breeding stronglysuggest that high-yield plantations by geneticimprovement can contribute significantly to theconservation and sustained use of forest resources.
Introduction and Conclusions of theBeijing consultation 1998
Csaba MatyasWest Hungarian University, Institute of Environmental
Sciences, PO Box 132, 9401 Sopron, HungaryTel: +36 99 518 395, FAX: +36 99 329 840, Email:
The future contribution of forest genetics tosustained management of global forest resourceswas the subject of a Division 2 consultation held inBeijing, China, 22-29 August 1998. The objectivewas to reach a consensus on directions and prioritiesfor research in forest genetics and tree improvementat a time when critical financial support for long-term tree improvement research has declined while
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worldwide demand for wood and fiber production iscontinuously increasing. in setting priorities, it wasrecognized that a balance will be needed betweenlong-term genetic improvement research and short-term research focused on the new technologies.
A major research focus will be the geneticbackground of the adaptive potential of forest trees.This will require the testing of phenotypicvariability and plasticity in trees over time in diverseand changing environments, using suitable process-related markers. Research on genetic diversityshould be integrated with research on forestecosystems and conservation of genetic resources,particularly in relation to expected globalenvironmental change. More information will beneeded on the genetic consequences of mode ofreproduction, breeding and gene flow mechanismsand population structure and size.
There is evidence that properly managed breedingcan maintain or even increase genetic variationrelative to natural populations and at the same timemaximize wood production and reduce the loggingpressure on natural forests. in breeding and geneconservation research, the order of priority shouldbe (1) species of current high socioeconomic value;(2) species with clear potential or future value and(3) species of currently unknown value. Geneconservation must be part of silviculture in managednatural forests. New information will be needed ofthe effects of different forest interventions onadaptive genetic variability in forest ecosystemsvarying from mature natural stands to fiber farms.
In view of future demand for forest products, treeimprovement will continue to be a key factor insustainable forest development. However, it will benecessary to demonstrate to the forest constituencyand the general public that wise management offorest resources with a strong focus on geneticimprovement is fully compatible with geneticconservation, and that it is an integral part of theoverall maintenance and enhancement of biologicaldiversity. Tree improvement research deserves longterm commitment by the public sector incooperation with private agencies, supported indeveloping countries by international and non-governmental agencies.
Global Situation of Forest TreeBreeding: An Overview
Eric Teissier du CrosInstitut National de la Recherche Agronomique - INRA,
Unit‚ de Recherches Forestieres MediterranenneAvenue Vivaldi, 84000 Avignon, France
Tel: +33 4 90 13 59 11, FAX: +33 4 90 13 59 59, Email:[email protected]
The first known document on tree breeding is dated1749 by the Marine command concerning choice ofseed source for Quercus robur (pedunculate oak)grown for ship construction. Since then many stepshave been made in the management of forest generesources.
Forest genetics include two major andcomplementary topics: forest treeimprovement/breeding which aims at providingforest reproductive material (provenances, seedorchards, clones) to users, and forest genetics whichrefers to the science bringing basic information forbreeding and gene conservation. Tree breeding isbased on two fundamental prerequisites: variabilityand heritability.
Variability studies among and within species started150 years ago and have reached full expansionduring the second half of the 20th Century. Forcertain species and in several parts of the world thisbasic effort still needs to be done with a very simpleidea in mind: choosing the right provenance reducesloss due to abiotic and biotic factors, and mayprovide as much as 30% gain in volume production.Advanced breeding based on detailed knowledge ontrait heritability and other genetic parameters maydouble or triple this figure. Selection andimprovement traits are usually classified in 4groups: adaptation to abiotic factors, resistance tobiotic factors, growth and yield, and quality.According to species use and growing conditions ineach region, the right strategy and the right traitshave to be chosen.
The opposition to exotics and genetic improvementin parts of the " western " world should not begeneralised. Forest tree improvement has a long wayto go. However the decreasing public financialeffort devoted to classical breeding should bechannelled and gradually replaced by privaterecurrent funding or long term contracting withnational agencies. Regional networking is suggestedwhenever common efforts are possible.
Classical breeding should not be opposed tobiotechnologies. Both are needed and areinteractive, particularly on advanced breedingschemes.
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2.02.00 / 2 .08.00 Genetic variat ion
Diallel Crossing in Pinus cembra: IIAnalysis of Genetic Variation at the
Nursery StageIoan Blada
Forest Research Institute, Sos. Stefanesti, 128, 11Bucharest, Romania
FAX: 40.1.240 68 45, Email: [email protected]
A 10 x 10 full diallel was made in a nativepopulation of stone pine (Pinus cembra L.) fromhigh elevation, to provide information on the geneticvariation and inheritance of important breedingtraits. in October 1991, seeds were sown inindividual polyethylene pots, in spruce humus. Thefamilies, including self-pollinated parents and amixed open-pollinated control, were arranged in arandomized complet block design with fourreplications and 12 seedlings per plot. Fifteen traitswere measured during nursery testing. in addition,weight of 100 seeds and the cotyledon number wereassessed prior and after sowing, respectively.Computer analysis of a balanced modified fulldiallel using the SAS program produced the resultspresented below. The most important result was thatsignificant (p<0.05) and highly significant (p<0.01;p<0.001) differences occurred in all 17 traits forgeneral and specific combining ability as well forreciprocal effects. Maternal effects were significantin 13 traits, including diameter and total height. Thissuggests that the traits are controlled by nuclear(additive and non-additive) and extranuclear genes,and by nuclear x extranuclear gene interactions.Additive and non-additive genetic variancesaccounted for 25% and 27% for total height at agesix and 14% and 22% for root collar diameter at thesame age. These figures indicate that both varianceswere important for growth traits within the testedpopulation. Parents were found with significantgeneral combining effects for growth and othertraits. Narrow-sense heritability estimates at familylevel varied between 0.150 to 0.675 for cotyledonnumber and lamma shoots, respectively with 0.453for total height at age six (H.6). By selecting thebest 10 to 40 families, a genetic gain in H.6 of10.6% to 5.5% could be achieved. An extra geneticgain could be also made by individual within familyselection. The improvement of growth by using bothadditive and non-additive gene effects should bepossible.
Gene Flow within and amongPopulations: A Review of Methods andResults from Temperate and Tropical
Forest TreesReiner Finkeldey
Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and LandscapeResearch, Zürcherstrasse 111, CH-8903 Birmensdorf,
SwitzerlandFAX: +41 - 1 - 739 22 15, Email:
Gene flow is a key determinant for the distributionof genetic variation within and among populationsand thus of outstanding interest both for populationgeneticists and managers of forest (genetic)resources. Gene flow of plants is mainly mediatedby the transport of pollen and seeds. Forest treesspecies use a great variety of vectors for thetransport of their genes and consequently differwidely with regard to their systems of gene flow.Experimental efforts to study gene flow in foresttrees have concentrated on the distribution of genesthrough pollen; much less is known about gene flowmediated by seeds.
Gene markers are the main tools to directly studygene flow and its effect on the genetic structures ofpopulations. Most marker-based studiessimultaneously investigate aspects of gene flow viapollen and the mating system of tree populationssince both elements of the genetic system of aspecies are closely interrelated. Uniparentallyinherited markers are powerful tools to study geneflow on a large geographic scale. Biparentallyinherited markers are mainly suitable to study geneflow within populations but are also widely appliedto estimate gene flow parameters such as thenumber of migrants among populations (Nm).Moderately variable, biparentally inherited genemarkers like isoenzymes can be used in order toestimate and compare frequency distributions ofmarker alleles in the pollen clouds of single seedtrees. Major shortcomings of frequently usedmethods to study gene flow and mating systemparameters are a limited variability of marker lociand the violation of model assumptions made inorder to estimate crucial parameters.
Most studies on gene flow have been conducted ontemperate, wind-pollinated tree species. Resultsfrom experiments in closed forests dominated by asingle conifer species indicate that pollen of singletrees is mainly effective within a distance of lessthan 100 meters. However, this still implies thathundreds of trees may contribute to the geneticeffective pollen cloud of single seed trees assuggested by the homogeneity of pollen allele
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frequencies in plantations of Norway spruce (Piceaabies). The importance of long-distance pollentransport over many kilometres has beendemonstrated for spatially isolated clonal seedorchards mainly in Scandinavia.
Most tree species are zoogamous and occur in lowdensity in tropical forests. Much less is known abouttheir systems of gene flow, although experimentalresearch on these species has intensified during thepast decade. Results from high-density populationsof teak (Tectona grandis) indicate that pollenmovement is mainly confined to near neighbours forthis insect-pollinated species in northern Thailand.Pterocarpus indicus occurs in medium to lowdensity in tropical forests of Southeast-Asia. Aninvestigation of a population on Luzon revealedconsiderable amounts of effective pollen movementover distances of several hundred meters.Comparable results were also reported for severaltrees species of the new world tropics. Pollinationby animals turns out to be a very efficientmechanism to ensure efficient gene flow andoutcrossing even for species typically occurring inlow density.
Efficient gene flow promotes genetic variationwithin the offspring generation but results indecreased genetic differentiation amongsubpopulations. Thus, gene flow enhances theevolutionary adaptive potential of populations buttends to decrease the opportunities for themaintenance of local adaptations. It is suggested thatfuture research interprets gene flow as a crucialaspect of the adaptive system of forest tree species,concentrates on endangered, mainly tropical speciesand takes into consideration the importance of geneflow through seeds.
Using Shoot Growth Patterns to SelectDesired Genotypes and understanding
adaptation of Pinus brutiaFikret Isik, Kani Isik, Tolga Yildirim and Bailian Li
Southwest Anatolia Forest Research Institute, Post Box #264, Antalya, Turkey
FAX: +90-242-345 0442, Email: [email protected]
Shoot elongation patterns of Pinus brutia have beenstudied, with the objectives of (i) furtherunderstanding the adaptation mechanisms ofspecies, (ii) to aid better selection of desiredgenotypes and (iii) accelerating the breedingprograms. Six natural populations each of ten open-pollinated families were sampled. Data werecollected from a provenance-progeny trialdestructively. Annual height increment waspartitioned to fixed growth (spring shoot) and free
growth (summer shoots) and contribution of eachone to the annual height increment was measured.Shoot traits of six (ages 7 to 12) consecutive ageswere regressed on growth traits at ages 13 and 17 atthe same site and at age 18 at another site.
Populations and families did not differ in fixedgrowth, but they varied in their free growth and innumber of flushes except age 10 (significance levelranged from 0.042 to 0.001). Middle elevationpopulations of the species range had greater annualheight increment and free growth cycles than thepopulations from distal part of range. Second andlater free growth cycles were the major cause of theannual height growth differences among and withinpopulations. This was also supported by significantcorrelations between free growth observed at earlyages and height growth at age 17. The coefficientsranged from 0.32 to 0.45.
Linear regression models using the free growth asexplanatory variables at ages 7 and 12 and fixedgrowth at age 12 explained 84% of the variation inheight growth at age 13. Whereas number of flushesobserved at ages 7 to 12 at one site explained 26%of the height growth at age 18 at another site.
Populations and families from the low and highelevation range had more conservative growthstrategy, which is characterized by less free growthand less flushing, but mainly depending on the fixedgrowth. Favorable environment in the middleelevation range of the species may have favoredgenotypes with opportunistic growth strategy,making more free growth. Free growth cycles can beused to screen fast growing genotypes as they havean opportunistic growth strategy. in contrast,genotypes showing more conservative shoot growthpattern may be favored for poor and extreme sites,as they have evolved to avoid frost in higherelevations and drought in coastal regions. Thedifferences in shoot growth pattern of the speciesreflect its adaptation to a wide range ofenvironments, suggesting that shoot growth patternsshould be considered when gene conservationstrategies are developed.
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Inbreeding owing to isolation restrictsregeneration in a vulnerable speciesgrowing on isolated small islands in
JapanKiyoshi Nakashima, Ayako Kanazashi
Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute, PB # 16,Norin Kenkyu Danchi-naiTsukuba, 305 Ibaraki, JapanTel: +81-298-73-3211, FAX: +81-298-73-1541, Email:
The effects of inbreeding, owing to isolation andsmall population size, on regeneration of avulnerable tree species Pinus armandii Fr. varamamiana (Koidz.) Hatusima in Japan were studiedin relation to gene conservation. Wind-pollinatedcones were collected from 11 trees growing on twoisolated islands, Tanegashima and Yakushima, andmature seeds and undeveloped ovules wereextracted from each cone. The average number ofseeds and ovules per cone was 20.4 and 64.0,respectively. The content of seeds were investigatedby using soft X-ray photography and were classifiedinto sound seeds with normal embryo, unsoundseeds with abnormal embryo or endosperm, andempty seeds with no embryo. The percentages ofunsound and empty seeds were 1.7% and 83.8%respectively, but that of sound seeds was only14.5%.
The seeds were sown in a growth chamber undercontrolled condition and the number of normalseedlings and mutant seedlings as well as survivalrates were investigated. Germination rate was only3.9% for all mature seeds and 0.2% for sound seedswith embryo on the average. Abnormal seedlingswith yellow or white needles and morphologicalmutants appeared frequently, but some of themdisappeared within a few weeks after germination.These results indicate that small populations andisolation of individuals reduce the chance ofoutbreeding and increase the frequency ofinbreeding. Controlled pollination was applied torestore seed quality and to confirm the effects ofinbreeding and outbreeding on regeneration. Eighttrees were selected and four of them were used asfemale trees and the others as male trees. Cross-pollination was carried out between islands,between isolated trees growing on the same islandand between trees growing within a small area. Self-pollination was also carried out on trees with a lot ofmale and female strobiles. Mature cones cross-, self-and wind-pollinated were collected from those trees.Many sound seeds were obtained from cross-pollinated cones; 10.1 times as many as that fromwind-pollinated ones. However, no distinctdifference was found between self- and wind-
pollinated cones in the average number of soundseeds per cone. in cross-pollination, the number ofsound seeds per cone was not different among fourtrees used as a male. This indicates that coefficientof relationship among individuals is not so high thatit affects seed quality.
As many trees of this species have alreadydisappeared by felling or insect damage and most ofthem are isolated in this island, it is hard for femalestrobiles to get enough pollen from others naturally.From results obtained in our experiments, it isnecessary to improve seed quality by controlledpollination and to grow seedlings from those seedsto assist the conservation of this vulnerable species.
Factorial crossing design in Picea abiesL.: genetic variation in dry matter
distribution between components in full-sib families
Gheorghe ParnutaForest Research Institute, Sos. Stefanesti 128, Ro-72904
Bucharest, RomaniaFAX: +401 240 68 45; + 401 240 60 95, Email:
Keywords: Picea abies, narrow and normal crown,hybrid, heterosis, combining ability, dry matter.
Four selected parents of each of two narrow andnormal - crowned Picea abies L. were used in twoseparate factorial mating designs. The research wasperformed to asses the genetic variation within anbetween the two groups of hybrids. Nine traits weremeasured at age 4, as follows: total length of stem(TLS), total number of branches (TNB), length ofleader root (LLR), total number of roots (TNR),total dry matter: of stem (TDMS), of branches(TDMB), of needles (TDMN), of roots (TDMR),and dry matter of total seedling (DMTS).
Factorial analysis produced the results presentedbelow: ANOVA indicated highly significant(p<0.01; p<0.001) differences among female effectsfor TDMS, TDMB, TDMN, TDMR and DMTS fornarrow x normal crowned hybrid and no significantfor any trait in normal x narrow crowned hybrid.Differences among male effect were significant(p<0.05) for DMTS and highly significant (p< 0.01)for TDMB and TDMN in narrow x normal crownedhybrid and significant (p<0.05) for TDMS andTDMN in reciprocal hybrid. Male x femaleinteraction effects were significant (p< 0.05) onlyfor TDMB in narrow x normal crowned hybrid.Positive significant (p<0.05; p<0.01; p<0.001) g c aeffects were founded in the female parents for alltraits in narrow x normal crowned hybrid and nosignificant in normal x narrow crown hybrid. No
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significant s c a genetic effects were found in bothtypes of hybrid families.
Both high - and mid - parent heterosis were negativefor all traits in narrow x normal crowned hybrid butpositive for all but one traits (TNR) in normal xnarrow crowned hybrid. Highly significantphenotipical correlation were found between TDMSon one hand, and TDMB, TDMN, TDMR andDMTS on the other hand in narrow x normalcrowned hybrid but in reciprocal hybrid the TDMSwas significantly correlated with TDMN only. Alsohighly significant correlation were found betweenTDMN and TDMR and between TDMR and DMTSin narrow x normal crowned hybrid andinsignificant correlation in reciprocal hybrid. Thedry matter of all seedling components was greater innormal x narrow crowned hybrid than in reciprocalone.
Optimum Breeding Generation IntervalConsidering Build-up of Relatedness
Wei Run-Peng, Dag LindgrenUniversity of Alberta, Department of Renewable
Resources, Edmonton, Alberta, CanadaEmail: [email protected]
A key problem in forest tree breeding is at what ageselections should be made to maximize geneticprogress. Conventional treatment of optimizinggeneration interval may take e.g. age-age geneticcorrelation, breeding time lag, cost and investmentinterest rate into account.
One among the most important disadvantages withshort generation interval is the build-up ofrelatedness at each generation turn-over. in thepresent study this is taken into account. The geneticprogress is formulated as group merit, which is aweighted average of gene diversity (groupcoancestry is average coancestry and also loss ingene diversity) and breeding value. Group meritprogress per year can be compared over a range ofselection ages, and optimum selection age can thusbe identified. Hypothetical and real materials wereused to demonstrate the effects of relatedness aswell as its interaction with other factors ongeneration interval. Relatedness and breeding timelag increased optimum selection age while strongage-age genetic correlation and large breedingpopulation size favored early selection. Optimalselection age increased as the weight for relatednessincreased (equivalently gene diversity become moreimportant). Consideration of relatedness mayincrease the optimum selection age compared tomany suggestions in literature. in order to reducerisks of inefficient early selection, a reasonable high
genetic juvenile-mature correlation and sufficientlylarge breeding population size are required.
2.02.00 / 2 .08.00 Genetic improvement
Hybridization dynamics between twosouthern beeches (Nothofagus spp.).
L. Gallo, P. Marchelli and P. CregoINTA, Forest Genetics Unit, E.E.A. Bariloche, C.C. 277,
8400 Bariloche, ArgentinaFAX: +54 (2944) 424 991, Email:
The occurrence of natural hybridisation betweenforest tree species increases the genetic variation ofthe ecosystem and therefore must be taken intoaccount in the management and use of its geneticresources. Hybridisation dynamic constitutes anevolutive process from which less has beenexperimentally proved because of the difficulty forthe unequivocal determination of species specificgene markers. The fulfilment of the prerequisites forthe origin of inter-specific hybrids (e.g. contact ofthe species involved, overlapping of flowering datesand cross-compatibility) takes place between twosouthern beeches (Nothofagus nervosa and N.obliqua) in the template Subantarctic forest ofsouthern South America. Morphological (leavesmargin and vein pilosity), phenological and growthtraits and allozymic heterocigosity showed the firstsignificant evidences of hybridisation in two yearsold seedlings of free pollinated families of N.nervosa. Hybridisation rates varied between 0 and80 % among families and differ also among years.Most of the juvenile (up to three years old) hybridindividuals showed also a significantly highergrowth rate than that of the "pure" half-sibs.Through the utilisation of three allozymic genemarkers a mainly unidirectional hybridisation (N.nervosa x N. obliqua) was found. Theautofecundation rate was estimated in about 6 %. inthe first analysis of the families two gene loci (Adhand Pgi) appeared to have species specific alleleswith fixation in monocigous state for each species.An additional analysis of adult trees was done indifferent populations of the natural forest in order toconfirm the allele specificity found in the seedlings.Hundred trees of each species were analysed in pureisolated populations where the gene flow from theother species could be considered as less unlikely.The specificity and fixation of the marker alleleswas confirmed. in the sympatric zone around 180individuals, 100 from each species were alsoanalysed. The genetic inventory confirmed theheterocigous pattern of the hybrids which appearedin about 7 % of the cases.. More than 95 % of thehybrids were masked in N. obliqua phenotypes from
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which only one third were previously suspected tobe hybrids based on their bark morphology. Theproportion of hybrids in the analysed openpollinated families was bigger than that found in theadult trees of the natural forest suggesting theoccurrence of natural selection against them. Thespeciation process between these two southernbeeches is likely to be taking place in the last phasesof pre- and post-cigotic incompatibilities.
Norway spruce breeding for growth andadaptedness
Mats HannerzThe Forestry Research Institute of Sweden (SkogForsk),
S-751 83 Uppsala, SwedenTel: +46-18-188554, FAX: +46-18-188600, Email:
Sustainable forest tree breeding requires thatimprovement in one aspect does not lead todeteriorated performance in other aspects. in a long-term perspective, it is crucial that the breedingconsiders adaptive traits along with other economictraits such as growth or timber quality. Previousexperiments in Sweden with one-year-old Norwayspruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) seedlings indicatethat progenies from improved seed orchards aremore prone to early-autumn frost damage thanprogenies from unselected natural populations of thesame geographic origin. The purpose of this studywas to investigate if improved and unselectedmaterial differs in level of climate-related damagealso after several years in the field, and how thisdifference is related to the differences in growth.
We compared growth and adaptive traits inprogenies from phenotypically selected plustrees,allocated as grafts in seed orchards, and from naturalpopulations of Norway spruce. The study comprisedsix field trials located in central Sweden. Subsets ofup to 114 open-pollinated families from plustrees,originating from central Sweden, were comparedwith 18 natural populations from Sweden, the Balticstates and Belorussia. The trees were 9-14 years oldwhen measured. Plustree progenies were 11 to 28%taller when compared with unimproved populationsfrom the same geographic area. The plustreeprogenies had lower frequencies of climate-relateddamage such as ramicorns, doublestems and frostdamage in all of the field trials. Family-meancorrelations were negative between damagefrequency and height, i.e. tall families were morefree from damage. Transfer of populations fromsouth to north resulted in increased growthcompared to that of local populations. The bestpopulations, from Belorussia, were almost as highas the plustree progenies. Belorussian populations
had, on average, lower frequencies of frost damageand ramicorns than the other populations and theplustree progenies. Spruces from Belorussianpopulations are characterised by late budburst, thusthey are more resistant to early summer frosts.However, they are likely to set bud and harden laterin the summer than spruces of central Swedishorigin. At one particular occasion with an earlyautumn frost, Belorussian spruces were moredamaged than any other test sort. Plustree progenieswere least damaged also at this occasion.
The lower autumn-frost hardiness in seed-orchardmaterial previously observed in one-year-oldseedlings is not reflected in overall damage level forthe field-grown trees. The explanation might eitherbe that one-year-old seed-orchard seedlings showtemporary effects of e.g. improved seed physiology,or that autumn-frost hardiness is not relevant forclimate-induced damage in the field in southern andcentral Sweden. The observation from the singleoccasion with an early-autumn frost argues for thatthe effects are temporary. Thus, the results indicatethat both growth and overall adaptedness to climateare improved in the selected families.
The Slovenian Forest Gene BankHojka Kraigher, Gregor Bozic, Saso Zitnik
Slovenian Forestry Institute, SloveniaFAX: +386 61 273 589, Email: [email protected]
Forests cover 53% of Slovenia with the totalgrowing stock of 208.5 million (106) m3.Sustainable management of forests on the basis oftheir multiple functions and co-natural orientation offorest management have long tradition, due to thelarge Karst area, in which already 400 years ago noclearcutting could be allowed as it would haveresulted in degradation and erosion of deforestedland. The regulatory framework for the protectionand management of forests in Slovenia is based onthe Forest Act from 1993. It determines theprotection, silviculture, exploitation and use offorests as renewable natural resources with the aimof ensuring their co-natural and multi-purposemanagement in accordance with the principles ofprotection of the environment and natural values,long term and optimal functioning of forestecosystems, enabling all their functions. The basisfor forest management are programmes ofdevelopment of the Slovenian forests, forestmanagement plans and detailed silvicultural plans.According to the Slovenian Forest Act from 1993 allforests are managed in a co-natural way, which canbe classified as Category VI of the IUCNmanagement categories: 'protected area managedmainly for the sustainable use of natural
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ecosystems'. From these special protection is givento the Forest Reserves (10% of all forest areas inSlovenia, IUCN category I). Most forest stands areregenerated naturally, only 1/10 th are regeneratedby nursery seedling material, while seeds are mostlycollected from yearly re-acknowledged seed stands.Therefore no special attention is given to ex situconservation of forest genetic resources in Slovenia.A limited number of seed orchards have beenestablished in Slovenia about 15 to 30 years ago.These seed orchards are not used for seedproduction and their future is questionable.International provenance tests have been establishedfor silver fir on 4 research plots, for Douglas fir, forAustrian pine (9+8 provenances) and for beech (31provenances). Tests of offsprings were establishedfor Norway spruce with 10 provenances. S smallliving archive of Slovenian clones of poplars existsat the Institute's grounds. The forest seed bankcomprises predominantly Norway spruce seedaccessions. The main part of the Slovenian ForestGene Bank is represented by the seed stands. Theregister includes 409 active seed stands, covering2313 ha. of these 271 (1821.8 ha) are conifers, 138(491.1 ha) are broadleaf seed stands. Yearly controlof the seed stands, where seed collection issupposed to take place is the main task by staff fromthe Slovenian Forestry Institute, while revisions aremade every ten years. The main concerns in the lastfew years are linked to preparation of newlegislation (according to EU directives & OECDscheme), preparation of the Central InformationData-Bank on the Slovenian Forest Gene Bank,which will be available through the INTERNET andlinked to the geographical maps, and to revisions ofthe regions of provenances in comparison to seedunits (based on phytocenological associations,altitude and ground rock types) and with respect tothe newly established tests of offsprings.
Incorporating Wood Density in BreedingPrograms for Softwoods in Europe
Philippe Rozenberg, Alain Franc, Christine CahalanINRA, Station d'Amelioration, Genetique et Physiologie
Forestieres, 45166 Olivet Cedex, BP 20619 Ardon,France
Tel: +33 (0)2 38 41 78 73, FAX: +33 (0)2 38 41 78 79,Email: [email protected]
In European forests rotations are getting shorter, theproportion of juvenile wood in the stem of harvestedtrees is increasing, and the quality of Europeansoftwood is decreasing. One way to compensate forthis is to genetically improve wood properties,especially those of the juvenile core.
In many European countries, wood collected from agiven stand and even a given tree may be used for a
variety of end products. The wood properties whichaffect end product quality vary from one product toanother, and relationships between wood propertiesand adaptation, growth and form traits are variable.Tree breeding takes many years, while industrialprocesses change rapidly. It is therefore difficult todefine selection objectives for wood properties thatare general and constant over time. in this context,the main reason for incorporating wood traits in treebreeding programs should be to avoid unfavourablecorrelated responses in wood properties whenselecting for improved adaptation, growth and form.Computing genetic gains for wood properties is nota priority. Instead, estimates should be made of theco-variation of wood properties with the adaptation,growth and form traits that are the main concern inbreeding programs. Wood density is widelyregarded as a key trait in determining wood quality,and when measured on a fine scale it is stronglycorrelated with the properties of many end products.Wood density is generally more highly heritablethan growth traits, but the genetic variation of wooddensity is low and it is sometimes unfavourablycorrelated with growth and adaptation traits. Themost comprehensive data on wood density arecomputed from microdensity profiles. Progress incomputer science has made possible the utilisationof statistical and modelling tools for more efficientuse of these data. in this context, we proposeoriginal methods, in order to: 1) study the volumegrowth - wood density relationship, 2) increasedescription efficiency of within-ring density models,and 3) measure within-tree density heterogeneityfrom density profiles. Results show that there is asignificant clonal effect on the ring density and ringwidth relationship. This clonal effect is very strongfor Douglas-fir and much smaller for Norwayspruce. This result suggests that there are selectionpossibilities at the ring level for Douglas-fir forgenetic entries (clones) combining quite fast growthand high wood density. But for Norway spruce,there is a need for finer studies at the within-ringlevel. Such studies raise the question of thecambium reaction to within-growing-seasonclimatic events: is there genetic variation for the treereaction to, for example, climatic stresses? What isthe consequence of such a genetic variation on basicwood properties? It is possible to simply andobjectively describe homogeneity of wood density.There is a highly significant clonal variation formost of the homogeneity traits. Furthermore, veryhigh individual and clonal coefficient of variationlet expect high genetic gain when selection isconducted on these traits.
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The Domestication of Acacia mangiumM. N. Salleh
Technology Park, TropBio Research Sdn Bhd, Level 2;Enterprise 2, 57000 Bukit, Malaysia
FAX: 603-9682888, Email: [email protected]
Acacia mangium has in the past 20 years becomethe most widely planted timber species in SouthEast Asia. in 1997, a Malaysian company decided toinvest in a project to produce improved genotypesfor commercial planting, within a time frame of 3years. This paper presents the case history of theproject from the perspective of the scientistsinvolved in this program of accelerateddomestication. The program involved the selectionand assessment of candidate plus trees, propagationof candidate plus trees, development of pollinationand hybridization techniques, testing of hybrids,analysis of growth and form, genetic diversityanalysis and the start of a genetic map.
Genetic resources and breeding ofPinus caribaea in China
Yongqi Zheng, Huoran WangChinese Academy of Forestry, Institute of Forestry,
100091 Beijing, ChinaTel: (86) 10 6288 9645, FAX: (00) 86 10 62872015,
Email: [email protected]
Pinus caribaea (Pc), the most important commercialsoftwood tree crop in the tropics of China, willbecome an increasingly important source forsoftwood fiber for pulp and timber. Plantation areaof the species is currently over 50 thousands ha andexpected to reach 100-150 thousands ha by the year2010. The history of introduction and domesticationof Pc can be divided into three stageschronologically: species (variety) trials in the early60s (Cuban variety) and the early 70s [varietieshondurensis (Pch) and bahamensis (Pcb)],variety/provenance trials in the early 80s and range-wide provenance/progeny trials in the early 90s.Two provenance/progeny trials were established inChina using 121 open-pollinated families (14provenances) of Pcb and 217 open-pollinatedfamilies (16 provenances) of Pcc, respectivelythrough international collaborations. All theseexperimental populations constitute the basepopulations of the two varieties.
Significant genetic variation was found in growthtraits and pest resistance among the three varietiesand among provenances within each variety exceptPcc. There was also large family variation withinprovenances of Pcb. Superior varieties/provenanceswere identified for different site conditions, Pcc issuitable for the lowland tropics and southern tropics
and Pch suitable for inland mountain areas withbetter provenance from Poptun. However, in LeizouPeninsula, where the tip moth is severe, Pcb (betterprovenances from Abaco and New Providence) andPcc are better than Pch.
An extensive population genetic study on naturaland exotic populations of Pcc and Pcb, employingisozyme markers, was conducted in order to detectand quantify the patterns and extents of geneticchanges in the genetic structure and mating systemsof populations that have gone through differentdomestication schemes. There was significantgenetic difference between the two varieties andpopulation differentiation was much larger in Pcbthan in Pcc, attributable to the fragmenteddistribution of Pcb. For Pcc, both single and multilocus estimates of outcrossing rate weresignificantly less than 1.0 in the island population(Isles of Pine) but in the mainland population (CubaIsland) and the seed orchard, indicating that strongerinbreeding exists in the island population. The smalldifferences between single and multi locus estimatessuggest that inbreeding detected be caused by trueselfing rather than consanguineous mating. TheChinese material, used as Pcc, differed substantiallyfrom the natural populations of both Pcb and Pcc asrevealed by either isozyme or cpDNA markers,proving that it is a distinct taxa or hybrids ormixture of seeds. This striking result suggests thatbreeding program of Pcc in China should bereplaced with newly introduced genetic materials.
During the mid 70s, 12 grafted seed orchards orseed stands of Pcc were established in Guangdongand Guangxi provinces using materials selectedfrom the first introduction. Seed production of thesewas very low, ranging from 8 to 50 kg/ha on year toyear basis. Seed production of early-introduced treespeaked in the early 80s, facilitating large-scaleplantings of Pcc. Hybrid breeding of Caribbeanpines started from the early 80s, mainly by crossingbetween Pcc and P. elliottii. Hybrid of P. elliottii xPch introduced from Australia showed excellentgrowth performance. Potential of other hybridcombinations among the varieties and P. elliottiineeds to be further studied in future. The need forcontinued efforts on genetic improvement on thePcc and Pcb and their hybrids to adequatelyconserve and wisely use the genetic resources wasrecognized.
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2.02.00 / 2 .08.00 Future of breeding andplantat ions in a sustainabi l i ty-oriented
world 2
Virgin Forests and Industrial TreePlantations
I. V. ShutovSaint-Petersburg Forestry Research Institute, Institutsky
pr., 21, 194021 Saint-Petersburg, RussiaFAX: (812) 552-80-42, Email: [email protected]
Virgin forests can be regarded as a uniquedepositary of genetic resources and perfect regulatorof environmental conditions. The idea of a particularrole and significance of virgin forests and thenecessity of their conservation as a property of theEarth biota, has become common in socialconsciousness. in high latitudes of northernhemisphere virgin forests are mostly preserved inRussia and Canada. These forests areunderproductive(low-yield), usually timed topermafrost soils and are quite vulnerable asecological systems. The researches carried out indifferent countries(including Russia) and widepractical experience show that timber cutting invirgin and natural forests can be replaced by timberproduction at special industrial tree plantations. Thiscan offer great advantages, especially from the pointof view of ecology, ethics and economics. Thereport will be based on the results of large-scaleexperiments in planting and growing ofspruce(Picea abies L.) and pine(Pinus silvestris L.)industrial tree plantations in the north-west ofRussia. These experiments have been carried outduring a period of 25(twenty five)years. During thisresearch the following data was obtained: expedientlocalization of these plantations depending onclimatic and soil conditions, the problems ofterritory arrangement, optimized according to thewood growing conditions methods of soilcultivation, scientifically grounded rate(regime) offorest stands density in their age dynamics, activitiesfor taking care of the plantations, possible timberincrease (6-8 m3 per hectare a year), turnover ofcutting(50-60years), the power of additional carbonflow obtained from the atmosphere(2-2,5 tons perhectare a year), etc. It has also been shown thatmillions of hectares of land can be used for growingindustrial tree plantations in Russia.
On the basis of the data published in differentcountries it is considered advisable on the behalf ofIUFRO to send the following suggestions to UNO:
a) to organize ecological reserves of globalsignificance on the territories wherevirgin("ancient") forests are still preserved;
b) to attract authority and material(financial)resources of the world community to the matter oforganization of the above mentioned reserves and tothe necessity of transferring timber production to theindustrial tree plantation areas before the end of theforthcoming century.
These suggestions have to be put forward on theagreement with the governments of thecorresponding countries.
2.04.01 Conservation and management offorest gene resources
Investigations of an oak of unknownorigin
Helmut Guttenberger, H. Pfeifhofer, M. Müller, E.Stabentheiner, Z. Borzan
University of Graz, Institute of plant physiology,Schubertstrasse 51, A-8010 Graz, Austria
Tel: 43-316-380-5633, FAX: 43-316-380-9880, Email:[email protected]
An unusual oak of unknown origin growing nearZadar, Croatia is called the "Green oak". This treeproduces hermaphroditic flowers and flowering isnot synchronized with other oaks in the vicinity.The tree has been classified as a putative a hybridbetween Quercus cerris L. and Q. ilex L., Quercusviridis Trinajsti‘. However, this classification isprobably not accurate, as a hybrid between a specieswhere acorns mature in the second year (Q.cerris)and a species where acorns mature in the first year(Q. ilex) has never be verified. To investigate theorigin and taxonomic position of this tree, weconducted comparative investigations in wood andleaf anatomy and morphology of flowers and pollenamong the "Green oak" and specimens of Q. cerris,and Q. ilex using a light microscope combined withdigital image analysis and a scanning electronmicroscopy. The hairs of all three oak species wereexamined using several histochemical reactions andscanning electron microscopy, and the DNA contentof nuclei was measured. Volatile compounds of theleaves were determined using gas chromatography.The results of these investigations, and the origin ofthe "Green Oak"are discussed.
Keywords: Quercus, hermaphroditic flowers,hybrid, wood anatomy, leaf anatomy
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Data Base on Genetic Resources ofWoody Species in the South Forest-
Steppe of RussiaV. A. Kostrikin, S.G. Kobzeva
Research Institute of Forest Genetics and Breeding(NIILGIS ), Lomonosov str. 105, 394043 Voronezh,
RussiaFAX: +7 ( 0732 ) 539436, Email: [email protected]
Genetic resource data for numerous woody plantsspecies of the south forest-steppe of Russia (unitedinto the Central Chernozem Region (CChR ) andincludes Belgorod, Voronezh, Kursk, Lipetsk, Oreland Tambov oblasts) were collected in the database(Pas-op) that was formated by FoxPro 2.6 forWindows. The data base represents an areaconsisting of the Central Chernozem Region (CChR), which includes Belgorod, Voronezh, Kursk,Lipetsk, Orel and Tambov oblasts. The data baseconsists of 14 files interconnected as a singleinformational space.
Presently, the database contains s 2521 recordsconcerning conservation resources of the CChRgene pool. Represented in the data bases are: 23genetic reserves, 18 clone archives, 7 provenancetrials, 1935 plus trees, 6 plus stands, andinformation about other genetic resources. There are18 object names in conjunction with theconservation of the gene pool of CChR forestspecies.
Data base information can provide differentcharacteristics about the primary forest species inthe CChR. Characteristics on individual species, theareas of the objects location, and genotype ofindividual trees are examples of the informationwithin the data base. The data can now used byvarious statistical packages, electronic tables andtext editors. This possibility enabling the use of theinformation materials in different combinations.
Keywords: Russian forest-steppe, data base,computer software, genotype, statistics
Establishment of Genetic Resource DataBases for Forest Flora
V. A. KostrikinResearch Institute of Forest Genetics and Breeding (NIILGIS ), Lomonosov str. 105, 394043 Voronezh,
RussiaFAX: +7 ( 0732 ) 539436, Email: [email protected]
The ubiquity of personal computers and efficientsoftware has become the basis for wide use of databases in different fields of knowledge. Theinformation is searchable and quickly processed.There is also an opportunity for active exchange of
data among specialists. The utilization of suchinformation is increasing with expansion of theInternet.
Data bases of forest genetic resources undoubtablywill have a significant role in forestry. The term"genetic resources" is defined here as biologicalmaterial with useful or potentially useful geneticinformation of available. Very often geneticresources are forest plots or individual trees, isolatedfor the conservation of the gene pool. in Russianforestry, genetic resourse data bases can include:gene reserves, plus trees, stands, forest seedorchards, clonal archives, and progeny tests.
A list of indices, defining an object of a geneticresource is more often determined by propermethodic design That`s why compiling of the indexlist does not arouse any difficulties for aprogrammer. However, with a great number ofdifferent objects, the necessity for creation of asystem for database control appears.
Uniformity in species names and correspondingcodes are critical for successful widespread use of agenetic resources data base. For informationexchange with other resarchers it is important tocome an agreement with scientists about coding oftable fields. The following principles are suggestedfor coding species names: 1) the International Codeof Botanical Nomenclature should be accepted as amethodological basis of taxon division., 2) scientificnames of taxonomic groups should be in Latin, and3) a common international coding of species namesshould bea common international coding of speciesnames should be established.
Files were developed to contain taxon of any classof a species up to division. For the formation ofdatabases, correlation tables connecting coincidingfields are used. Hierarchy of the files was providedby indicating of the taxon in one of the code fields.Another database program was written to keepdifferent indices, describing genetic resources, inone unified file. All the files were interconnected asa common information space and representedthousands of infomration bits about the gene poolsof forest species.
Keywords: forest species, data base, computersoftware, genetic test, taxon
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Pollen Cryopreservation Studies onsome Tree Species in the Indian Forest
EcosystemS. Shashi Kumar, D. H. Tejavathi, and S. Ganeshan
Bangalore University, Plant Tissue Culture Laboratory,Dept. of Botany, 560 056 Bangalore, India
Tel: 910803417492, Email: [email protected]
Forest genetic resources are described as a heritablematerial contained in tree species ,which may haveeconomic, scientific and social value for the localinhabitants. Pollen has been identified as a source ofdiversity that can be used in conservation strategiesof forest tree germplasm. For precise monitoring ofgene flow through pollen procedures need to bedeveloped for long term storage throughcryopreservation. Emblica officinalis Gaertn.,Cassia fistula L., Cassia marginata Roxb.,Millingtonia hortensis L., Elaeis guineensis Jacq.and Pandanus fascicularis Lamk. were chosen forstudy. Four species have medicinal value and twospecies are commercially important. Emblicaofficinalis, C. fistula and C. marginata are widelydistributed in dry deciduous forest of southern andnorthern India, while M. hortensis and E. guineensiswere introduced to India from Burma and W.Africa, respectively. Pandanus fascicularis is aprofusely branched small tree distributed in India,commonly found in the western plains. Protocols forcollection, cryopreservation and cataloguing pollenof these species were developed in this study. Pollencollection and extraction procedures wereoptimized, based on type of inflorescence, pollenproduction patterns, and physiologicalcharacteristics of study species. Viability wasassessed by pollen germination using the hangingdrop technique for all species except E. guineensis,where a modified cellophane technique yieldedsuperior germination frequencies. Optimum pollengermination was obtained in modified Brewbakerand Kwack's medium, consisting of differentconcentrations of sucrose, supplemented withinorganic salts. Feasibility of pollen for cryogenicpreservation was tested by immersing pollensamples sealed in laminated aluminum pouches inliquid nitrogen (-196°C) for about one hour. pollenwas then germinated in vitro, and found to havecomparable germination rates to fresh pollensamples. As a result, experiments on long termstorage of pollen were initiated and are presently inprogress. The results indicate that cryopreservationof pollen could provide the basis for theestablishment of a conservation repository ofnuclear genetic diversity.
Keywords: conservation, genetic resources, foresttrees, genetic diversity
2.04.02 Genetics and traits
The physiological genetics foundationof Liriodendron heterosis
Ye JinshanPaulownia Research and Development Center of StateForestry Administration, No.3, Weiwu Road, 450003
Zhengzhou, Henan, ChinaFAX: 0371-5953628, Email: Hou yu-shun
Heterosis in Liriodendren interspecific hybrids, andfixation and utilization of the hetorosis, were studiedin this doctoral dissertation using principles andmethods of genetics, breeding, physiology,biochemistry, anatomy and biostatistics. The mainresults are as follows:
1. One-year-old hybrid seedlings of plus-crossing,minus-crossing, backcross and F1-crossing showeduniversally notable positive growth heterosis.Growth characters of seedlings had extremelysignificant difference among families and expressedgreat variation among individuals of family. Growthcondition of backcross families was particularlyexcellent. Thus, family selection, individualselection and utilization of backcross and F2 hybridshave tremendous potential.
2. Having many advantages in photosynthetic area,photosynthetic time, leaf blade structure andresistance of water stress, reciprocal hybridspossessed photosynthetic capacity superiority overparents.
3. The decrease in rate of relative water content,chlorophyll content as well as protein content andincrease rate of RNase activity in leaf blades underwater stress were L. chinense (Hemsl.) Sarg. > L.tulipifera Linn. > Plus crossing F1 > minuscrossing F1. L. chinense (Hemsl.) Sarg. wasseverely damaged by short water stress. Reciprocalhybrids displayed super-parent heterosis ofresistance to water stress. Direct evidence from 3H-Gly labeling under water stress proved both thatRNase genes of parents and hybrids were expressedin translation level as well as RNase weresynthesized de novo and that intensity of RNasegene expression was L. chinense (Hemsl.) Sarg. >L. tulipifera Linn. > Plus crossing F1> minuscrossing F1. Indirect evidences from proteinsynthetic inhibitor under water stress indicated thatRNase activity increase of parents might beinvolved in cytoplasmic mRNA translation andRNase release, activation and/or synthesis ofchloroplast and/or mitochondria, but RNase activityincrease of hybrids might originate mainly fromcytoplasmic mRNA translation, not from chloroplastand/or mitochondria.
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4. Reciprocal hybrids had higher stomatal apparatusdensity; larger stomatal apparatus opening and moredeveloped vascular system contrasting sharply withparents.
5. The hybrid clones presented great variation ofcutting root forming ability among adult and younghybrids. The variation range of cutting root formingability of young hybrids was much larger than thatof adult ones. The root forming ability of basal stemsprouts of adult hybrids was powerful.
Fertility variation and its effect ongenetic diversity over generations in
finite populationsKyu-Suk Kang, Dag Lindgren & Adolfo D. Bila
Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Departmentof Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, SE-901 83
Umea, SwedenEmail: [email protected]
Keywords: fertility variation, status number, groupcoancestry, inbreeding, gene diversity, referencepopulation
Gene diversity and inbreeding over five generationsare simulated considering fertility variations andpopulation sizes in finite populations. Genediversity of seeds is influenced by differences infertility among parents and their relatedness. Theoverall relatedness can be described as groupcoancestry. The fertility is expressed as astandardised measure of fertility differences amongindividuals. Fertility variation causes fasteraccumulation of relatedness and reduces theeffective number (status number) of the seed crop.
Status number (Ns) is defined as half the inverse ofgroup coancestry. Group coancestry is theprobability that two genes in a gene pool areidentical by descent, and it can also be interpreted asan average of relatedness or as a lost of genediversity. Group coancestry of the presentgeneration is the expected inbreeding (F) of thefollowing if individuals mate at random and if theyare equally fertile. Inbreeding, group coancestry,status number and gene diversity are all relative to aconceptional reference population with an infinitenumber of unrelated and non-inbred individuals. Asmall status number means a reduced gene diversityof seeds, because Ns expresses the accumulatedgenetic drift from the same reference population towhich the concepts inbreeding and coancestry refer.The build-up of coancestry and inbreeding duringsuccessive generations is potentially a majorproblem when dealing with small populations (suchthe breeding populations). The consequences can bepredicted, evaluated and monitored in this study.
For the idealised random mating population, relativestatus numbers (Nr = Ns / N) decline to 0.50, 0.33,0.25, 0.20 and 0.17 for five consecutive generations,respectively. Also, the variance effective populationsizes (Ne(v)) were estimated as infinity overgenerations when all genotypes had equal fertility.All calculations were made for the constantpopulation sizes over generations where thepopulations were derived randomly from thezygotes of the seed crop. The importance andmagnitude of fertility variation and population sizeon this decline has been studied. Gene diversitydecreased faster as the fertility variation increased.But the effect of fertility variation on gene diversitywas not linear.
Predictions over five generations shown that groupcoancestry and inbreeding accumulated fast, and thestatus number and variance effective population sizedecreased remarkably in the first generation shifts.The accumulation of inbreeding and groupcoancestry was faster and higher when the fertilityvariation was larger. The loss of gene diversity wasproportional to the fertility variation and to the sizeof the population. The gene diversity wasmaintained high when provided the breedingpopulation size was reasonable. Long term breedingprograms that use small population sizes and lowstatus effective numbers may lead to a loss of genediversity and do not provide a sustainable long-termbreeding strategy. This study helps us to understandhow large numbers are required to maintainreasonable gene diversity.
Networking in phenological monitoringfor commercial timber species in
Peninsular MalaysiaThai See Kiam, Shashiah Abdul Karim and Abdul
Rahman Abdul Jalil
Forestry Department Peninsular Malaysia, JalanSultan Salahuddin, 50660 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Tel: +603-298-8244, FAX: +603-292-5657, Email:[email protected]
Keywords: Networking, phenological, seed,planting materials and procurement.
Many of the commercial timber species inPeninsular Malaysia particularly the indigenous treespecies are irregular and unpredictable fruit bearers.Cyclic mass fruiting which usually occurs once insix to seven years, often resulted in suddenavailability of huge quantities of seeds over a shortperiod. This situation, coupled with the short storagelife of the seeds, requires close monitoring andphenological observations, to avoid loss ofpotentially good seeds.
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A phenological monitoring and reporting system vianetwork of district forest offices is being developedto serve as a tool to enable timely collections ofseeds. Phenological plots have been established andphenological monitoring teams formed in each stateof the Peninsula to undertake regular observationsand monthly reporting to the Forestry DepartmentPeninsular Malaysia Headquarters. The monthlysummarised reports will provide a good overview offlowering intensity and amount of fruit cropavailable throughout the Peninsula. These will bemade available to State Forestry Departments formore effective planning of post-collection activitiessuch as transportation, processing, storage, sowingand distribution.
A Forest Genetic Resource Information System(FORGRIS) was developed under the Malaysian-German Forestry Planting material ProcurementProgramme to centralise phenological information.It is a computerised management tool for the storageand retrieval of a broad range of information onforest genetic resources. This includes an up to dateinformation on resource types; selected plus trees;monthly phenological monitoring as well as seedcollection, handling and storage; nursery practicesand distribution. FORGRIS comprised six maincomponents from which information can beretrieved namely: Resource Register, Tree Register,Phenological Monitoring Register, Seed Register,Nursery Register and Distribution Register.
At the same time, efforts towards development ofinfrastructure and manpower are continually beingupgraded. Skills of officers in the fields of treeclimbing; seed collection technique and handling;storage and phenological observation are furtherimproved through training. A prototype vehicleknown as Mobile Seed/Seedling Chamber wasdeveloped to assist in the collection and longdistance transportation of planting materials. TheExisting forest nursery in Lentang, Pahang is beingupgraded to become a Forest Planting MaterialProcurement Centre. in addition to the developmentof storage facilities for recalcitrant seeds, the Centrewill plan and co-ordinate activities related toprocurement of planting materials in PeninsularMalaysia. The Centre will also conduct training andresearch on large scale handling of plantingmaterials, seed testing and documentations.- Resource Register stores data on the differentresource types, genetic information of thepopulation and description of the site.- Tree Register stores information on selected treesincluding botanical and common name, phenotypicdescription, location and site.- Phenological Monitoring Register containsinformation on phenological observation of
flowering and fruiting of every selected mothertrees, as well as general observation within thephenological plot.- Seed Register contains information on collecting,processing, testing and storage of seed.- Nursery Register contains information on theproduction of all nursery-grown planting stock. Thisincludes pre-treatment, sowing, germination andpotting of plants.- Distribution register holds information ondistribution of planting materials and keeps thedifferent identification of resource, seed andnursery. It links the information of the origin andhandling of the planting materials with the plantingsite.
Characteristics and inheritance of malesterility of C. japonica
Hideaki TairaNiigata University Graduate School of Science and
Technology, 950-2102 Niigata, JapanEmail: [email protected]
Genetic male sterility is a useful trait in plantbreeding, especially in angiosperm crops such ascorn, onion and carrot. We found a male sterilityCryptomeria japonica trees in Japan. Pollen of C.japonica is one of the major causes of pollinosis inJapan. We carried out this research in an attempt tomale clear the characteristic and inheritance of thismale sterility. Microsporogenesis of the male steriletree proceeded meiosis, however, the microsporescollapsed under they were separated from pollentetrads in locals, resulting in complete male sterility.Most likely, ethylene was responsible for malesterility expression. Mating of male-sterile C.japonica and elite C. japonica, as well as backcrossseedlings of male-sterile trees, were carried out. Theseeds from male-sterile C. japonica weregerminated in an incubator, and grown in agreenhouse. The seedlings were treated with 100ppm gibberellin in early July 1995, to promote theformation of male flowers. in January 1997, all ofthe seedlings of elite C. japonica produced pollen inits male flowers; however, pollen had not developedin 55 out of 120 backcrossed seedlings. Thisevidence indicates that the heredity model of malesterility in C. japonica, is nuclear genetic malesterility controlled by a pair of recessive genes.
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2.09.00 Seed physiology and technology
Use of halogens in controllingdeterioration of some tropical tree seedsAlka Bhargava, Amit Sahai, A.S.Bhandari and Vishakha
KumbhareTropical Forest Research Institute, Post Box #RFRC,
Mandla Road, 482 021 Jabalpur, IndiaTel: 91-761-847320, FAX: 91-761-321759, Email:
Keywords: Acacia catechu, Pongamia pinnata,Shorea robusta, storability, germination, ageing,vigour.
Halogen treatment of seeds is a powerful tool forcontrolling seed deterioration in field crops. Anattempt was made to use this simple techniqueduring storage of seeds of forest tree species. Themost significant results were obtained with sal(Shorea robusta), khair (Acacia catechu) and karanj(Pongamia pinnata). in all cases, halogen treatmentsextended seed storability, with high germination andvigour in laboratory and field tests.
Sal is one of the most important timber species ofthe tropical regions and the seeds are an importantsource of edible oil and butter. The rapiddeterioration of these recalcitrant seeds createsseveral disadvantages for raising planting materialas well as for butter extraction. Khair is the chiefsource of katha and cutch, is a useful timber andfodder species and produces good quality charcoal.Other parts of the tree have a number of medicinaluses. Khair produces good crops of seeds almostevery year, but the seeds are very delicate anddamaged even by a slight fire. They are also subjectto insect attack, and do not store well for more than6 months, far shorter than other leguminous seeds.Karanj is another multipurpose tree species, thewood being used for making agriculturalimplements and as a source of pulp. The seeds arevalued for their non-edible oil, but they store poorly.
In this study, khair and karanj seeds were collectedfrom the TFRI campus and used immediately. Salseeds were collected from a natural forest andtransported to the laboratory the same day. All seedswere exposed to chlorine and iodine vapours fordurations ranging from 4 to 65 hours. Khair andkaranj seeds were subjected to accelerated ageing at100% RH at 420C for 8 days to simulate storageeffects. Germination tests were carried out on top ofgermination paper at 300C in a BOD incubator.Following laboratory testing, selected treatmentswere field tested. Simultaneously, membranepermeability was studied by measuring the electricalconductivity, dehydrogenase activity and total sugar
content of the seed leachate. Treated sal seeds werestored at room temperature, 150C and 80C for 15days, then sown in the nursery.
Sal seeds treated with chlorine vapour had enhancedstorability and tolerance to lower storagetemperature. Exposure for 65 hours gave 30%germination in the nursery, even after 15 daysstorage, while untreated seeds did not germinate.Chlorinated seeds also exhibited increased vigourand faster completion of germination. Iodinationhad no promotory effect. For khair seeds, themaximal beneficial effect in the laboratory wasobserved by chlorination for 24h, which alsoimproved the germinability before ageing. Otherdurations of chlorination and iodination did not havea promotory effect on non-aged seeds. The effect of48h exposure to chlorine was especially evident byincreased germinability of aged seeds. Greatermembrane integrity of 24h and 48h chlorinatedseeds was demonstrated by lower electricalconductance of seed leachate and reduced leakage ofsugars. Therefore, these seeds were subjected tofield trials. Following chlorination for 24h,germination in unaged seeds increased to 36.52%compared to 23.75% for the control, and 7.5% forthe 48h treatment. Also after 24h treatment, totalbiomass was 4.37g compared to 3.94g and 3.33g forthe control and 48h treatment, respectively.Promotory effect of the halogen treatments wasmore evident in the aged seeds. Germinationpercentage, root and shoot lengths of seedlings, totalbiomass, collar diameter and nodulation werehighest in the 24h treated seeds. Even though thegermination of the aged seeds decreased ascompared to the non-aged, there was an increase inthe total biomass of the seedlings, thusdemonstrating the beneficial effects of thismethodology. Karanj seeds showed a positivecorrelation between the conductivity of leachate,leakage of sugar, dehydrogenase activity andgermination of aged seeds after 24 and 48 hours ofchlorination and iodination respectively.
Thus, halogenation has the potential for utilisationas a low cost, simple technique for enhancing treeseed storability even under ambient field conditions.
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Introduction of Genetic Resources andImproved Forestry Seed Production in
MadagascarGilles Chaix, Razafimaharo Vololoniriana,
Razafimahatratra Appolinaire, Phillippe VigneronCirad-Forêt Programme Arbres et Plantations,
Programme Arbres et Plantations, B.P. 745, Antananarivo101, Madagascar
Tel: 261-30 23 842 29, FAX: 261-20 22 209 99, Email:[email protected]
Keywords: Eucalyptus, genetic improvement, seedorchard, smallholder plantation
Forest products supply more than 86% of theMalagasy domestic energy consumption. Productionin the natural forest has decreased and no longersatisfies the local demand of fuel-wood and timberfor the ever-growing population. of the 750 exoticspecies already introduced in arboreta, Eucalyptsand pines originating from summer rainfall areashave been the most productive. The introduction ofEucalyptus robusta and E. camaldulensis early inthe 20th. Century was particularly successful. Thesetwo species now produce more than 1 million tonnesfor the yearly fuel-wood supply of Antananarivo.But successive crosses within narrow genetic basepopulations have resulted in local land races withsevere inbreeding depression. Local seed sourcescannot match plantation requirements that need 250kg of eucalypt seeds every year.
For the past 20 years, FOFIFA with Cirad-Forêt hasconducted a hardwood genetic improvementprogramme (funded by the European Union between1993-97). The main objective is to supplysmallholders with locally-improved varieties for arange of wood products. The first step was tointroduce new genetic resources for several speciesto build both the base and breeding populations.Because of the huge ecoclimatic diversity and therange of desired wood products, numerousimproved varieties had to be developedsimultaneously. Thus, a multiple-populationbreeding scheme was implemented for severalspecies. Within each population, the improvementstrategy was as follows: i) progeny-provenancetrials for genetic diversity assessment (basepopulation), ii) selective thinning retaining the besttrees within the best provenances or progenies(generation 1, Seedling Seed Orchard 1), iii)harvesting of the open-pollinated seeds for thesecond generation seed-orchard (SSO 2) and toimplement the second cycle of recurrent selection.The seeds produced in the SSO are used forbreeding as well as the deployment of varieties. Thebroad genetic base of the seeds produced by the
SSO matches the required plasticity for smallholderplantations with poor silvicultural practices.
Forest plantations are currently established inseveral ecoclimatic conditions, from the dry South(450 mm of annual rainfall) to the wet East coast(2500 mm), from coastal savannahs to 1600 metersabove sea level. Nine contrasting sites were chosenfor SSO establishment. To match the actual demandas well as promote poorly-known species, 9Eucalypts, 7 acacias and 8 miscellaneous specieswere included. The most important ones were:Eucalyptus camaldulensis, E. citriodora, E.cloeziana, E. grandis, E. maculata, E. microcorys,E. resinifera, E. robusta, Acacia auriculiformis, A.crassicarpa, A. mangium, Casuarina equisetifolia,Grevillea robusta and Prosopis juliflora. 5 000open-pollinated progenies belonging to 400provenances and 25 species were introducedbetween 1988 and 1998. Most were collected fromtheir respective natural areas. Seed lots were testedin a complete randomised-block designencompassing several provenances of the samespecies with 16 tree plots. The high planting density,i.e. 2500 trees per hectare, allowed the combinationof provenance testing (at least for initial growth) andorchard objectives. Four to five successive selectivethinnings resulted in a final stocking of 80 to 150trees per hectare at six to seven years old. Thinningsare implemented on the basis of individual treevalue, but aim to preserve a broad genetic diversity.Trial replications across several sites permitted acombination of provenance-progeny and genetic-environment interaction assessments, as well as theproduction of locally well-adapted improved seeds.Last but not least, the 50 SSO already established(70 ha) are used as demonstration plots to promotethe use of poorly-known species and improvedvarieties. Since 1997, new planting programmeshave been partially supplied with seeds produced inSSO. Besides the traditional E. robusta and E.camaldulensis, new species such as A. mangium andE. maculata (for poles and sawn wood) are nowsought after by smallholders.
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Forest Tree Seeds at the End of the 20th
Century: Major Accomplishments andNeeds
David George W EdwardsFTB Forest Tree Beginnings, 4018 Cavallin Court, V8N
5P9 Victoria, BC, CanadaTel: 250-477 4757, FAX: 250-477 4671, Email:
Keywords: seed production, storage, desiccation,longevity, dormancy, testing
Based on the State of Knowledge Report forResearch Group 2.09.00 (Seed Physiology andTechnology) this paper reviews developments andaccomplishments, indicates what remains unknown,and suggests directions for research during the earlyyears of the new millennium. The main focus is ontree seed production, storage and longevity, andseed quality testing and nursery performance. It ispointed out that although conservation efforts areunderway, a 1998 estimate declared 10% of theworld's tree species as threatened with extinction.
Seed orchards and other tree seed production areashave been developed for numerous economically-important forest species, but the bulk of tree seedcrops continue to be derived from wild plants innatural stands. Forest tree seed biology remainspoorly researched for many species, but advance-forecasting of good crops is possible in some.However, erratic crop production, uncontrolledinsects and diseases, and the need to makecollections at the right time to ensure maximumgermination and vigour, plus correct post-harvesthandling, remain priorities for most species. ingeneral, seed processing methodologies can noweliminate all (or almost all) unfilled seeds, but onlyone method (a Swedish development) applied tosome conifers separates live-filled seeds from filled-dead ones. Despite these difficulties, large increasesin tree seed production, particularly in species andprovenances selected for desirable attributes, aregoing to be needed to meet the challenge ofsuccessful forest regeneration worldwide.Collaborative efforts to determine more-appropriatespecies, and to improve production of genetically-and physiologically-improved seeds, are underwayin some regions, but these probably need to bebroadened. Seed storage, to combat sporadic cropsand stabilize supplies to nurseries, remains a majorresearch issue. Three broad classes of seeds, basedprincipally on their desiccation tolerance andsensitivity to low temperature, are now recognized.So-called "orthodox" and "recalcitrant" seeds areopposite extremes of a continuum between whichlies a broad spectrum of seeds with "intermediate"
storage-behaviour characteristics. The reportoutlines a number of major findings concerning thecauses and reasons for desiccation tolerance. Acomplex suite of mechanisms is involved, andfurther research is required to resolve all thecomponents into an integrated system. One notablefactor is that, unlike orthodox seeds, cell organellesin recalcitrant seeds remain differentiated andactively metabolic, and vulnerable to any amount ofdehydration. Seed dormancy, common in orthodoxseeds and some temperate non-orthodox seeds, butrare in tropical species, increases the complexity.Predictions of tree seed longevity are still largelyempirical, but data is slowly accumulating. Foroperational forestry and germplasm conservation,especially for hard-to-store materials, majorresearch efforts continue to be needed.
Even the better moist-chilling treatments toovercome seed dormancy require weeks or monthsto apply, often only work on some seedlots, or someseeds within a lot. Seed moisture control duringchilling produces more rapid, synchronousgermination, permits seeds to be cold-stored in anon-dormant state for 1 to several years, is usedoperationally for several conifers and, whencombined with growth regulators, for somebroadleaves also. Yet faster, more versatiledormancy-breaking treatments are needed fornursery production and laboratory testing. Difficult-to-standardize subjective tests (such as tetrazoliumstaining) are still used for tree seeds, but they oftenunderestimate/overestimate seed quality. Laboratorytests that correlate with nursery production on alocal level have been developed, but more work isneeded to make these applicable regionally. Vigourtesting, adapted from agriculture/horticulture, is notwidely successful in tree seeds mainly because ofthe inherent heterogeneity in crops from naturalstands, and even those from seed orchards Someindicators, such as respiratory activity of embryonicaxes in beech, or of entire subalpine fir seeds, aswell as protein levels in fir, have been suggested aspossible vigour indices, but much more work isrequired. A brief review of the organization of theResearch Group is appended, and severalsuggestions for the future are made. Contributors tothe SKR are acknowledged.
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Planting Dipterocarp Species For ForestPlantations: Is It Viable?
M. Marzalina, Krishnapillay B, Nashatul Z.N.A., AngK.C., Siti Hasanah M.S., Zaiton S., Fadzlinah Z. and
Hamsinah H.Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM), Seed
Technology Section, Forest Plantation Division, Kepong,52109 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Tel: +6-03-6302121, FAX: 603-6367753, Email:[email protected]
Keywords: seed collection, storage, forestplantation, phenology, recalcitrant
The Dipterocarpaceae has long been accepted as themain family producing valuable timber of mediumto hard density. Such timbers were once consideredto be Malaysia's main export. However, the currentconcern for sustainability in wood production andgenetic conservation has increased the need toprotect more of the natural forest, and to harvestonly on a sustainable basis from the productiveforest. The timber supply deficits thus created willhave to be supplemented through plantation forests.
Because of poor seed availability caused by thegregarious mass fruiting habit that produce cropsonly once every 3-7 years, dipterocarp species tendto be of low priority for selection for forestryplantation programs. Adding to these difficulties,most species produce seeds that are recalcitrant, andwhich suffer desiccation damage if dried below arelatively high moisture content. Such seeds cannotbe stored for long periods, therefore.
This paper highlights the results of monthlyphenological observations in selected forest areas, aswell as dipterocarp seed storage studies, conductedover the last 10 years by the Seed TechnologySection at FRIM. To maintain a continuous seedsupply, collection efforts should be concentrated inseed production areas during mass fruiting years,but should occur also in all phenologicalobservation areas during the off season periodswhen some trees tend to flower and fruitsporadically. Current research advances inprolonging seed viability after collection, and duringtransportation, will be discussed.
Wide differences between species in levels ofcritical moisture content at which viability is lost,were observed. This could be due to the stage ofmaturity, seed size and structure. Most seeds couldbe stored for less than two weeks. Several methodsfor obtaining continuous supplies of plantingmaterial are discussed.
Tetrazolium Test: A Tool for Predictingthe Viability of Some Tropical Tree
SeedsMamta Purohit, Alka Bhargava
Tropical Forest Research Institute, Post Box # RFRC,Mandla Road, 482021 Jabalpur, India
Tel: 91-761-847320, FAX: 91-761-321759, Email:[email protected]
Keywords: TTZ, root mean squares, Acacia nilotica,Albizia procera, DendroCalamus strictus, Sesbaniasesban
The tetrazolium (TTZ) test has been an importantand useful tool for determining the viability of arange of seeds since its introduction by Lakon in1942. The method gained popularity for itssimplicity, ease and rapidity of application, andbecause it can evaluate viability whether or not theseeds are dormant. This study highlights thestandardization of evaluation criteria for using thetest on seeds of four important tropical tree species.Acacia nilotica seeds require a long time togerminate because of their hard seedcoats.Apparently-sound and healthy Albizzia proceraseeds often harbour insects (as shown by x-rayradiography) and are incapable of germination. Lowviablity of DendroCalamus strictus, seedscompounded by gregarious flowering, makes testingthe seed lot before sowing imperative. Germinationin Sesbania sesban varies because of seed coat andseed size differences.
Seeds were collected from four to nine Indianprovenances. Four working samples were drawn foreach lot, then subdivided into two subsamples, onefor TTZ staining and one for germination testing.Fresh solutions of 2,3,5-tetrazolium chloridedissolved in double-distilled water of neutral pHwere prepared. A fragment of the testa of the seedsof A. nilotica and A. procera was filed off tofacilitate imbibition; all seeds were soaked indistilled water for 24h (10h for S. sesban) then cutwith a sharp blade, or decoated. Seeds were placedin 1% TTZ solution (0.5% for D. strictus and S.sesban) and incubated in darkness at 30-10C for 24h. Staining patterns for individual seeds weredocumented in 6 categories for A. nilotica, and 7categories for the other species, as follows: 1-embryo and cotyledons fully stained. 2-embryo fullystained with less than 3/4 of the cotyledonsunstained. 3-embryo fully stained and more than «of the cotyledons unstained. 4-embryo partiallystained and very small unstained patches oncotyledons. 5-only embryo stained. 6-embryounstained and cotyledons stained in patches. 7-unstained seeds.
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Germination tests were conducted on top of paper(BP for A. nilotica) at 30+/-10C for 28 days. Rootmean squares were calculated to determinesignificant differences between staining categoriesand the appropriate germination test. Stainingcategories 1 and 7 were recognized as viable andnon viable seeds, respectively. The remainingcategories each had two possibilities and yielded adifferent number of combinations of evaluationcriteria. Categories, or combinations of categories,giving the least RMS were interpreted as "best", i.e.as viable seeds.
Thus, for A. nilotica, combined categories 1, 2 and 3were best (category 5 was absent); for A. procera,combined categories 1 and 2 were best; for D.strictus, combined categories 1, 2 and 4 were best;and for S. sesban combined categories 1, 2, 3 and 4were best. Whenever any other category wasincluded in the above combinations, RMS valuesincreased. Staining patterns were documented asline diagrams.
57
Division 3Forest Operations andTechniques
CoordinatorDr. Dennis P. DYKSTRA
World Forestry Center
4033 SW Canyon Road
Portland Oregon 97221,
United States of America
fax: +1-503-2283624
tel : +1-503-2281367 ext. 118
e-mail: [email protected]
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3.02.00 Effects of nursery and s i lv iculturaloperations on the environment and society
Effects of Different Mediums on theGrowth of Oriental Spruce (Picea
orientalis (L.) Link.) Seedlings Producedin Enso-Pot Tubes
Sezgin AyanEastern Black Sea Forestry Research Institute, DoguKaradeniz Ormancilik Arastirma Müdürlügü, 61 040
Trabzon, TurkeyEmail: [email protected]
Keywords: Growing medium; Oriental spruce;Seedling product; Enso-pot
Oriental spruce (Picea orientalis (L.) Link.) is themain species in the Eastern Black Sea Region ofTurkey. Using high quality, container-grownseedlings in the plantation areas is very important,to mitigate against very dense green-cover in theregion. The Turkish-Finnish Forestry Project wasestablished in 1992, for producing economicalcontainer-grown seedlings in the of Forest Nursery.in this project, production techniques for growingOriental spruce seedlings under the regionalconditions were investigated. Thus, commongrowing media in the region, sowing times andgrowing periods in the greenhouse had to beinvestigated. in this research, forty growing media,two sowing times and two growing periods ingreenhouse were studied. Commonly-used localBarma peat was the main component of the media.Thirty-nine growing media were prepared withvarious supplemental materials (river sand, perlite,composted tea remnant, composted barnyardmanure, wood shavings and bran) mixed at differentratios by volume to the Barma peat. Vapo peat(Finnish) was used as a control. For all treatments,height growth, root collar diameter, survivalpercentage, dry weights and stem weight / rootweight ratios of the 2+0 seedlings were measured.The results were:
1. The best height growth under the of ForestNursery conditions were in the following mediarespectively:
60% Barma peat + 20% comp. Tea remnant + 20%river sand; 50% Barma peat + 20% comp. Tearemnant + 30% river sand; 50% Barma peat + 20%comp. Tea remnant + 30% perlite; 60% Barma peat+ 20% comp. Tea remnant + 20% perlite; 60%Barma peat + 20% comp. barnyard manure + 20%perlite
2. Traditionally, 2+3, 3+2, 4+0 and 5+0 Orientalspruce seedlings have been planted in this region.
This study showed that 2+0 seedlings were largeenough for planting with the growing mediamentioned above, using the Enso-Pot tube system.
Effect of Selection of Soil Type on theEstablishment of Ectomycorrhizas andGrowth of Pinus patula Seedlings in the
NurseryVaradharaja Mohan, K. Nataranjan
Institute of Forest Genetics and Tree Breeding, Divisionof Forest Protection, 641 002 Coimbatore, IndiaFAX: 0422-430549, Email: [email protected]
Keywords: Ectomycorrhizas; Pinus patula; "shola"soil; Thelephora terrestris; Laccaria laccata;Rhizopogon luteolus
A mycorrhizal association is essential for foresttrees. Ectomycorrhizas are found mostly in conifers.in the present investigation, an experiment wasconducted to study the effect of soil type on theestablishment of ectomycorrhizas and growth ofPinus patula seedlings in the nursery. Threedifferent soil types, viz., "shola" soil (forest soil),grassland soil and riverbed sand were used. Initially,both surface-sterilised and non-surface-sterilisedPinus patula seeds were sown in "shola" andgrassland soils and later, after 3 months, theseedlings were transplanted again to "shola" soil,grassland soil or riverbed sand. The results showedthat the local "shola" soil was the best soil type,based on the different growth parameters such asroot and shoot lengths root collar diameter, shootand root dry weight, number of mycorrhizal tips andestablishment of different mycorrhizal types. Theectomycorrhizal types found in seedlings grown inthe three different soils differed. The mycorrhizaltypes formed by Thelephora terrestris, Laccarialaccata and Rhizopogon luteolus were found only inthe seedlings grown in the "shola" soil, whereas themycorrhizal types formed by fungi-like species ofHebeloma and Inocybe were found only in theseedlings grown in the grassland soil. Anothermycorrhizal type, Cenococcum graniforme wasfound only in the roots of the seedlings grown inriverbed sand. The significance of the findings isdiscussed.
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Nursery and Plantation Activities forRevival of Tribal Habitat and Lifestyle -
A Case Study from Kerala, SouthernIndia
R. C. PandalaiKerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi, 680 653
Thrissur, Kerala, IndiaFAX: 0487-782249, Email: [email protected]
Keywords: Rehabilitation; India; Nursery;Afforestation
The outcome of attempts on rehabilitation of twohighly degraded tribal settlements in differentregions of Kerala State, southern India, arediscussed in this paper.
A Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) exercise wasundertaken to acquire information on the views andexpectations of the local population and also tocreate an awareness about the potential benefits onthe quality of life by restoration of their habitat withscientific inputs. A programme was subsequentlyimplemented which was centered mainly aroundnurseries, planting activities and field training.Species selection, nursery management, silviculturaltechniques for plantation establishment in degradedzones and soil/water conservation measures adoptedin the study are discussed. The importance ofeffective human resource development and properspecies selection was revealed in the first three yearsof the project. The paper also discusses the potentialfor increasing employment opportunities throughthe afforestation activities and development of self-reliance amongst the local tribal population.
Comparative Studies On Survival andGrowth of Seedlings and in Vitro Raised
Plants of TeakShyamal K. Roy, M. Zakir Hossain
Jahangirnagar University, Department of Botany, Savar,Dhaka, Bangladesh
FAX: 880-2-833054, Email: [email protected]
Keywords: Teak; Propagation; Seedling; in vitroculture
Teak (Tectona grandis) is one of the importanttimber trees in South and Southeast Asia. The plantis generally propagated by seeds but the fruit andseed set is very low in this plant. A protocol hasbeen developed for propagation of teak through invitro culture of shoot tips and nodal explants ofseedling plants. Explants were washed thoroughlyunder running tap water. Surface sterilization wasdone with 0.2% HgCl2 for 5 minutes followed bywashing with sterile distilled water giving 3-5changes. Explants were cultured in 0.7% agar-gelled
Murashige & Skoog's (MS) medium with 3%sucrose and different concentrations andcombinations of auxins and cytokinins were usedfor shoot proliferation. For rooting the regeneratedshoots were excised and subcultured on halfstrength MS medium with a range of concentrationsand combinations of auxins. Though rooting wasachieved in 90% regenerated shoots, their survivalrate in the open field was only 45-50%.
Germination of seeds collected from mature treeswas 50-55% but the survival rate of seedlings was75%. Growth parameters of surviving plantlets weremeasured at six-month intervals up to 24 months. Atthe 6th month, the height and base diameter ofseedlings were 25 cm and 0.5 cm respectively. in invitro raised plantlets the height and base diametervalues were 20 cm and 0.35 cm respectively. At the24th month the height, base diameter and diameterat breast height of seedlings raised plants were 198cm, 3.9 cm and 1.4 cm, respectively. in in vitroraised plants these values were 216 cm, 4.1 cm and1.5 cm, respectively. Potential growth performanceof the two categories of plants is discussed.
Private Individual Tree NurseryManagement and their Role on
Environmental and Community Forestryin Tanzania: an Overview
I. M ShehaghiloUsambara Environmental Conservation Organisation,
Post Box # 199, Lushoto, Tanzania
Keywords: Tree nursery, Management,Environmental, Economic, Quality stock
Before 1990, community and individual forestryprogrammes for environmental and economicpurposes in Tanzania depended mainly on thenursery plants raised and managed by trainedgovernment nursery managers. The ecological andeconomic reasons for afforestation have increasedsignificantly in recent times. Because of a generalpolicy of reducing public expenditure byGovernment, the Forest Department has reduced itsproduction of nursery plants for use by thecommunity and individuals. A few governmentnursery centres still raise and sell seedlings toindividuals, but the costs are generally high. Moreexternally- and internally-financed NGOs are nowengaged in planting trees than ever before. They allneed tree seedlings, which must be raised andmanaged in nurseries for about a year before theyare ready for outplanting.
To meet this increased demand for nursery stock,many people have organised themselves asindividuals or groups to raise tree seedlings and sel1
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them at lower prices than those from government orsome Non-Governmental Organisation (NGO)nurseries. This has attracted many tree practitionersto buy seedlings from such centres, and hence thenumber of such centres has increased, as shown by arecent survey in some parts of the country. Suchcentres have increased much-needed self-employment. Therefore, they have a big role to playin this country. However, some scientific questionsarise as to the quality of the nursery stock and theresultant quality of the established trees.
This paper reviews the nursery managementpractices of private individual small nurseries ascompared to the more-organised governmentnurseries, including seed collection, sowing, nurserycultural operations and management. The effects ofplant quality, which may not be noticed until afterearly field establishment, are discussed.
General Views on Silviculture ofProtection Forestry and the
Agroforestry Potential in EgyptAbdelwahab B. El-Sayed
Alexandria University, Forest tree Dept., Aflaton St., El-Shatby, Alexandria, Egypt
Tel: 203-5971960, FAX: 203-5972780, Email:
Keywords: Silviculture; Egypt; Agroforestry; Aridland
This paper briefly describes the silviculture of foresttrees on the arid lands of Egypt, the roles they canplay and the products they provide. Themanagement of protection plantations (sand-dunefixation, windbreaks, shelterbelts, etc) withparticular reference to sand-dune fixation isdescribed. The main objective of management issustainable protection. Production or other rolesshould be considered as by-products of sustainableprotection, but the income they give shouldcontribute to maintenance. The second part of thepaper deals with the agroforestry potential in thearid region of Egypt and begins with a definition ofagroforestry. The benefits obtained fromagroforestry in arid lands are discussed and a reviewof the different traditional agroforestry systems ismade. Finally, the paper discusses what should bedone to improve and to extend agroforestry inEgypt.
3.04.00 Operational planning and control;work study
Investigations on using of geographicalinformation systems on the forest road
networks in TurkeyHalis Hulusi Acar, Selçuk Gümüs
Blacksea Technical University, Faculty of Forestry,Department of Forest Engineering, 61080 Trabzon,
TurkeyTel: +90-462-325-3223, FAX: 00 90 462 3257499,
Email: [email protected]
Because of the deep interference all over the worldthe forest regions are drawing back to mountainousregions day by day. Forest road network supply easytransportation to forest areas to maintain the usageand protection of forest resources and improvementsubstructure establishments for forest works.
In forming the forest road networks these areplanning-projecting, building and maintenanceexpenses and such problems, that are hard to solveor expensive. Also cause ecological damages hard toimprove and cause loss of forests. in this study wediscuss the utilization of geographical informationsystem technique in stages of planning forest roadnetwork and the point that we have arrived aboutthis topic in our country.
The planning studies of forest roads in our countrywith using geographical information system has stillat the academic level. We exposed the results ofusage geographical information system techniqueabout determination of terrain evaluation for forestroad routes, determination of forest road routes,determination of forest roads loads and forest roadbuildings in studies of planning forest roads, that wehave done in last three years.
General Directoried of Forestry started the studiesof systematic forest road network planning in 1964and completed them in 1974. in this studies, onlythe productive forest area took into account and totalroad length planned as 144425 km. in recenst years,the improvement of forestry techniques, the wantsof rational forestry and the results guided after theapplication of the plans. According to the new planstotal road length is planned as 201810 km. At theend of the year 1998 the 65.75 % of this, 132693 kmis constructed.
Research area is between the boundaries of TrabzonRegional Forestry Headquarters, Macka ForestEnterprise. The research area; Ormanüstü planningunit is Education, Research and Application forestof Karadeniz Technical University, ForestryFaculty.
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The stand type symbols are appointed to polygonsfor building database on the stand type digital map.The layer that involves stand typesi combines withthe layers involve compartment boundaries andrivers so that the digital stand map is formed forOrmanüstü planning unit. in studies for preparingthe forest road network plan first evaluating ofterrain were done for forest road routes. For this, theterrain data were collected from different layers ofgeographical information system database andsuitable and non-suitable areas were determined byspatial queries. After this, forest road networks planalternatives were formed. in these plans, the roadloads and requirements of water constructions weredetermined. As a result, the optimal road networkplan is formed according to the evaluation that ismade between two alternative.
The built two forest road network plan is evaluatedby using Geographical Information System databaseand analysis, this was impossible by the otherclassic methods. This showed advantages of usingsystem in alternative forest road network planingoperations.
A study on the productivity and workloads of natural forest harvesting in
Central KalimantanSeca Gandaseca, Tetsuhiko Yoshimura
Bogor Agricultural University, Faculty of Forestry, POBox 168, 16001 Bogor, Indonesia
Tel: +62-251-628145, FAX: +62-251-621256, Email:[email protected]
Keywords: Harvesting; Productivity; Work loads;WBGT; Indonesia
It is necessary that productive, ergonomically soundand environmentally friendly harvesting systemsshould be introduced to Indonesian forestry. Theobjective of this research is to study and improvethe productivity, work loads, noise and vibration innatural forest harvesting for the sake of forestryworkers and company profit. in addition,environmental aspects of natural forest harvestingwere also investigated, as few natural forests are leftin Indonesia nowadays and such forests are regardedas important for the ecosystem and globalenvironment. For these purposes, we conducted thefollowing research in Central Kalimantan in August1998.
We measured the productivity, work loads and workconditions during felling and cutting trees in thenatural forest on the first day. We also measured thesame during natural forest harvesting on the nextday. This work was done by two workers, such as askidder operator and his assistant. First, the operator
drove the skidder and it moved from the landing tothe harvesting site.
The skidder operator assistant was also on it. Theskidder sometimes moved constructing skiddingroads. At the harvesting site, the assistant pulled outa winch rope and attached it to a log, while theoperator was driving the winch drum. Then, theskidder operator pulled in the winch rope and thelog was carried to the skidder while the assistantwas walking or running to the skidder. After that,the skidder moved to the landing carrying the log.When it reached the landing, the assistant got off theskidder and removed the log form the winch rope.Then, the same cycle was repeated again for anotherlog. To investigate work loads, we used watch-typeheart rate memories which measured heart rates ofworkers at five-second intervals. Furthermore,WBGT, an index of thermal conditions of the workenvironment, was measured to clarify workconditions.
On the first day, 17 trees, whose total volume is165.1 m3, were felled and cut by two workers, suchas the chainsaw operator and his assistant. Totaltime to fell and cut these trees was 5:48:55excluding lunch time and the productivity wasfound to be 28.4 m3/hour. On the next day, 13 logs,whose total volume was 86.0 m3, were harvestedfrom the natural forest. Total time to harvest theselogs was 6:19:35 excluding lunch time and theproductivity was found to be 13.6 m3/hour. Thework loads of the chainsaw operator and hisassistant were found very high. On the other hand,the work loads of the skidder operator were lowerthan those of the other workers. The observedWBGT was very high on the forest road while itwas moderate in the forest. Noise caused by thechainsaw and skidder was very hard for theoperator. Therefore, operators should use ear muffsto avoid damage to his ears although most ofoperators are not accustomed to using them.Vibration of the chainsaw and skidder was also veryhard for the operator. We suggest that chainsaw andskidder operators should not be exposed to vibrationcontinuously for long time and that they shouldwear gloves of good quality.
Finally, we would like to suggest some points toreduce environmental impacts caused by logging innatural forests. Main roads should be narrower andlandings should be smaller. Trees far from mainroads or other trees harvested should not be cut andshould remain, which would reduce skidding roadsand even harvesting costs. Log length should beadjusted or should be shorter in order to reduceenvironmental impacts caused by logging and toenhance productivity. Winch systems should be
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improved so that logs can be collected from longerdistance, which could reduce skidding roads andeven environmental impacts. More buffer zonesshould be necessary along riparian and protectionareas, as such areas are known as environmentallysensitive.
Allocation of Equipment of ForestExtraction by Use of the Geographical
System of Information (GIS)Eduardo da Silva Lopes, Flávio Lopes Rodrigues, Carlos
Cardoso Machado, Amaury Paulo de SouzaForest Science of the UFV - Vicosa, 36571-000 Vicosa,
Minais Gerais, BrazilEmail: [email protected]
The objectives of that work went use theGeographical System of Information (GIS) as toolin the aid to the location of the productive units of astructure approximately regulated and the allocationof the "Forwarder" and "Guincho Arrastador" in theoperation of forest extraction. The work wasaccomplished using a map in the scale of 1:10.000of a project of reforestation of Eucalyptus of a forestcompany of Brazil. The project with total area of441,81 it is characterized by wavy medium relief,presenting polygons of different sizes and ages.Using the program IDRISI (EASTMAN, 1997),version 2.0 for Windows, the entrance of the datawas proceeded by means of a rasterization using amesh of cells of 3 mm x 3 mm, in way to producedigital maps of use of the soil, streams, roads andlevel curves. Soon after the control method wasused by area for definition of the compartments ofannual harvest. It was established the slope limit ofup to 15§ for the allocation of the "Forwarder" andabove 15§ for the "Guincho arrastador". Initially amap of interpolated relief was produced, calculatedits slope and reclassification in two slope class asdescribed previously. The map of use of the soilwent reclass to obtaining of the Eucalyptus areasthat will be harvest annually, and soon after, it wasmade the overlap of these maps with the maps of theareas adapted for each equipment, in way to obtain ageneral map with all the areas adapted for theallocate of the equipments in the polygons that willbe harvest annually and of the areas of forestreservation and of permanent preservation. As aresult of this work, it was obtained a digital map ofthe project contends the delimit of all the areas offorest preservation, permanent preservation,streams, roads and Eucalyptus polygons. It wasobtained the annual area and the wood volume to beannually extracted for the equipments. However, itwas verified that the "Forwarder" will be used in65.6% of the harvest areas, extracting a total volumeof 51498 m3 of wood for five years, while the
"guincho arrastador", in the same period, will beused in 34.4% of the areas, extracting 25730 m3 ofwood. Therefore, the obtaining of those informationtogether the information of revenue of theequipments propitiate to the planner to determinewith larger precision the need of equipments forharvest areas, seeking a better alocation of theresources.
Design of an Integrated ForestManagement System for Madhya
Pradesh: Towards Sustainable ForestryTed E.W. Robak, Ragnar Oborn
University of New Brunswick, Faculty of Forestry andEnvironmental Management,
Post Box # 44555, E3B 6C2 Fredericton, NewBrunswick, Canada
Tel: 506 453-4932, FAX: 506 453-3538, Email:[email protected]
The Madhya Pradesh Forest Department (MPFD) isresponsible for the management of the forestresources of the State of Madhya Pradesh, a seriousobligation given the extent of these forests and theirimportance to all the people of the State. Besidesproviding revenues to state coffers, these forests areessential to the welfare of millions of rural and tribalcommunities and the integrity of naturalecosystems. Responsible, sustainable forestmanagement is the goal of MPFD. Forestsustainability involves the maintenance orimprovement of environmental, economic and socialvalues. It is recognized that these forest values havenot been adequately maintained in Madhya Pradesh.Some of the major factors that have contributed thedeteriorating situation include:- a rapidly increasing population growth andresulting biotic pressures;- an over-emphasis on timber production in themanagement goals;- inadequate knowledge of forest processes and theirvalued outputs;- a lack of strategic, tactical and operationalmanagement tools that are needed to plan,implement, monitor and control forestry activities ina complex decision-making environment.
The objectives of forest management in the Statehave evolved to reflect a more holisticunderstanding of the value of forests to society. Thechallenge for MPFD is to translate broad objectivesinto strategies, tactics and practices that can beimplemented and controlled in the context of theresources and time available. This can only beaccomplished through a process involving effectiveplanning, organization, monitoring and evaluationof all of the important activities of the Department.The MP Forest Department has initiated a project
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aimed at producing the information required forsuch a management process.
The Forest Management Information System(FMIS) initiative involves the design anddevelopment of information and decision supportsystems to support the management functions of allWings and levels of the Department. This paper,however, focuses on technology that will be used toenhance the sustainable forest managementcapabilities of the organization: an integrated forestmanagement system (IFMS).
An IFMS is a suite of models and informationsystems designed to support the major long, mediumand short-term decision-making needs of forestmanagers. IFMSs are intended to ensure that short-term (operational), medium-term (tactical) and long-term (strategic) decision processes are linked in sucha way that there is continuity of managementdecisions across all forest units and over all timehorizons. These linkages are accomplished bymeans of the integrated design and development ofdatabases, models, information and decision supportsystems and related technologies such as geographicinformation systems (GIS).
Analyses of the management decision-making needsat MPFD have been undertaken by consultants fromIndia and Canada. A design is presented that isbased upon these analyses and experience fromprevious IFMS research and implementationprojects. Although based upon existing IFMS andGIS technologies, the actual system for MPFD willincorporate improved features and capabilities,including closer integration between the IFMS andGIS and linkages to other sub-systems of the FMIS.
The implementation of integratedsystems to optimize the use ofmachinery in forest operations
C. Vila, Marcos Martin, F .Spain
During the past ten years forest managers and forestorganizations worldwide have been looking atsustainable forest management as a concept tointroduce in their forestry practices and principles.Sustainability refers to not only forest structureitself but also resources, people and other type ofland that closely stand by the forest habitat. Theseother components of the forestry managementenvironment have to be considered while planningforest management. in fact, scientific/technicalforest management should be undertaken for a betterreporting on sustainable concepts, which means thatforest information, forest planning projection and
forest operation budgeting should be supported byconcrete reports.
An appropriate management plan in advanced mustbe a fact for the global addressing of all theactivities to be carried out within a forest scenario.This management plan will ensure that all theactivities considered in it will be environmentallyappropriate, socially beneficial and economicallyviable. As well, it will consider the long, mediumand short-term status for the managers to plan inadvance and coordinate these planning phases.
This paper deals with the development of anintegrated system for the decision-making support inthe use of machinery in forest operations that areincluded within a management plan. Specially itdeals with how the GIS used (CARIS¸ of UniversalSystems, Ltd) helps in the evaluation ofmanagement unit features and characteristics relatedto machinery selection information. The parametersdefined were: slope, ground strength, groundroughness, forest road density and machineryavailable on the market. After the GIS has analyzedthe management unit parameter, a connection withan integrated forestry management system (IFMS¸of FORCE/Robak Associates Ltd) is necessary toobtain a unique interface that specifies the spatialdata onto a mapping basis.
3.05.00 Forest operations in the tropics
Long-Term Effects of Logging in Wetand Dry Forests in Ghana
Viktor Agyeman, Hawthorne, W. and Abu-Juam M.Forestry Research Institute of Ghana, University Box 63,
Kumasi, GhanaFAX: 233-51-60121, Email: [email protected]
Exploitation of timber resources in Ghana is basedon the removal of single trees of economic speciesscattered over a given area of the forest. Fellingoperations results in the removal of up to 3 trees ha-1
in wet and dry forests which affects up to 13% ofthe total area. Assessment of the impact of logginghave in the past focussed on only the short-termeffects. The long-term impacts of logging,especially on the regeneration of economic treespecies, are unknown. Such data is neccessary toformulate appropriate harvesting control measures.Data on long term ecological impacts of loggingwas collected using permanent sample plots (PSPs).A total of 12 one ha. PSPs in wet and dry forestswere selected on the basis of availability of adequaterecords of past logging history. PSPs were alsoselected such that their last year of logging falls intoone of three ranges namely: short term (5-10 yearsold); medium term (15-20 years old); and long term
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(greater than 20 years old). The results indicate thatwhereas logging disturbance and tree damage levelsare acceptable in the short term, regeneration ofeconomic tree species is low in the long-term. Thecomposition of the regeneration after logging, evenin the long-term, does not necessarily mirror thecurrent composition of the mature trees. This drift inforest composition may not be a problem if effortsare successful in generating a market for a widerrange of timber species, including lesser usedspecies. The highly variable and patchy nature ofspecies regeneration even in the long term drawsattention to the importance of seed trees and timingof logging in relation to seed fall. It is suggested thatmore attention to the forest cycle is needed toenhance regeneration of desirable species. The paperconcludes with recommendations on fine tuning thefelling cycle, yield allocation procedures andharvesting controls in Ghana.
Growth, yield and mortality afterimproved Selective Logging in Tropical
Rain Forest of Sabah, Malaysia.Jan Falck, Trevor S. Udarbe
Swedish University of Agriculture Sciences, S-90187Umea, Sweden
Tel: +46-90-7865884, FAX: +46-90-7867669, Email:[email protected]
In all commercial usage of the Tropical RainForests, the harvesting intensity and the technicalquality of the harvesting procedure are crucial forsustainable timber production. This study focuses onthe response of the residual stand to operationalplanning and pre-logging treatments. The field studyis a comparative experiment using a completerandomised block design where the long termeffects of four modes of selective harvesting areevaluated;unsupervised loggingunsupervised logging with pre-felling climber-cuttingpre-marked skid trails and directional fellingpre-marked skid trails, directional felling and pre-felling climber-cuttingand no logging, i.e. virgin forest as control.
There are four replicates of each treatment whichresult in a total of 20 permanent plots. Each grossplot is 5.8 ha, with a net plot of one ha in the centralpart, climber cutting, where allotted, was carried outone year ahead of logging, and the net plots wereenumerated before logging. Logging has been doneat full intensity. The entire commercial andaccessible volume was logged i.e. all trees ofcommercial tree species with a diameter above 60cm were harvested, according to the forest law ofSabah.
The experiment was established 1992. The plotswere logged and enumerated for a second time in1993, and since then they have been enumeratedevery second year. For trees above 10 cm dbhenumeration is done on the total area of the net plot.For saplings, seedlings and germlings, the areainvented is reduced. Some preliminary results willbe available for presentation at the IUFRO-worldcongress 2000.
The feasibility of directional felling and pre-fellingclimber cutting was investigated in a preparatoryfield study. Professional fellers and local fellerswere compared. Impact on accuracy in felling, no.of damaged trees in residual stand and gap size wasinvestigated.
Reduced Impact Logging Using LongHaulage Cable Systems in Hill
Production Forest in PeninsularMalaysia
Shamsudin Ibrahim, Ismail Harun, Chong Phang Fee &S. Appanah
Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM), Kepong,52109 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Email: [email protected]
Currently logging activities in Peninsular Malaysiaare confined to hilly areas characterized by difficultterrain and sensitive environments. Poor loggingpractices, e. g., using heavy machinery (crawler-tractor methods), are very damaging to the forestand often lead to massive environmental damagesuch as soil erosion and high sedimentation in riversystems that reduce water quality. Additionally, theresidual crop gets heavily damaged and the overallbiodiversity is reduced. Therefore, the currentlogging practices in Peninsular Malaysia need to bemodified to comply to ITTO's Criteria andIndicators for sustainable forest management beforethe year 2000. in achieving this objective, attemptshave been made to review ground skiddingtechniques currently employed in logging operationsin hill forests. A pilot study has been undertaken byFRIM to test an alternative logging method suitablefor hilly areas. The new method proved to becheaper and less damaging to the forest andenvironment, with only a few modifications to theexisting machinery used. The report highlights themethodology of the new logging method and thereduction in damage to the soil and residual stand.
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An Assessment of Hollow Logs andOther Logging Residues from
Deramakot Forest Reserve, Sabah,Malaysia
James Josue, Zamrie Imiyabir & Michael TrockenbrodtForest Research Centre, Dept. Forestry, Post Box # 1407,
90712 Sandakan, Sabah, MalaysiaTel: 60-89-531522, FAX: 60-89-531068, Email:
Sabah is in the process of implementing sustainableforest management practices in all its natural forestreserves. The management system model wasdeveloped by the Malaysian-German SustainableForest Management Project at the ForestryDepartment and tested in the Deramakot ForestReserve. During logging operations it was observedthat the number of hollow logs was very high.
Although marked for harvesting, these hollow logsare usually not felled. The fellers test the trees bypushing the blade of the chain saw vertically intothe stem. in some cases, a hollow stem is assumed,if a crown shows large defects like broken branchesand a highly reduced number of leaves. The fellersand sawyers at the log landing cut off large parts ofthe top and lower portions of hollow logs.According to forest management plan forDeramakot, the annual allowable cut (AAC) is20,000 m3. After a compartment is harvested, thecompartment is closed for many years. If theamount of timber extracted from one compartmentdecreases considerably due to a high number ofhollow trees, other compartment have to be openedearlier than planned.
Thus, if a forest is to be managed sustainably, wemust optimize the use of available resources andreduce the logging waste. A study on the utilizationof hollow logs and other logging residues wasinitiated. First, it was evaluated how much timbercan be extracted from trees regarded as hollow bythe fellers. Secondly, the amount of timber which isconsidered as timber of low quality (hollow stemparts, upper stem parts, top portions, big branches)was determined. At the same time it was testedwhether the methods used for the detection ofhollow stems are reliable.
Some results of the study are:- A high percentage of logs presently considered ashollow and left in the forest still contains largeamounts of usable timber.- The methods for determination of hollow logs orthe extent of the hollow are not reliable and have tobe improved.
- in view of the improved processing techniques(e.g. finger jointing) the quality standards for logssuitable for log sales have to be changed.- The concept of logging residue utilisation has to bepromoted. Education of forestry workers, field staffof the Forestry Department and of the licenseholders has to be started in order to change theirattitude with regard to log quality. A different salarysystem for tree fellers has to be developed andimplemented. They should be encouraged to extractas much timber as possible within the cutting limitsand not discouraged as it is currently the case.- Recovery studies should be started to determinethe amount of sawn timber produced from hollowlog parts unsuitable for log sale and from otherlogging residues.- Feasibility studies (technical, economic), whichcover the same area, should be started.
Harvesting Impacts of Tractor and Cablelogging Systems in Dipterocarp Forests,
Peninsular MalaysiaS. Sasaki, Yamada T., Oikawa R., Ahmad S., Adnan A.
Japan International Research Center for AgriculturalSciences, Kepong, 52109 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Tel: +60-3-637-2136, FAX: +60-3-637-2136, Email:[email protected]
With the objective of attaining the sustainable forestmanagement for tropical natural forests, it isimperative to reduce the impacts of harvesting onthe forest environment. in the selective cuttingoperation, the residual trees and forest floor areeasily damaged by felling and hauling operations.This is especially so in conventional crawler-tractorlogging, where the hauling damage can beprominent, while using cable systems can reducedisturbance. We compared conventional crawlertractor logging to cable logging for harvestingimpacts. The observations showed more than 50percent of the conventional harvested area wasdisturbed by logging operations. Soil disturbanceswere characterized as "mineral soil exposed withheavy compaction", "mineral soil exposed with lightcompaction", "mineral soil partially exposed", or"mineral soil not exposed". According to the study,the areas classified as "mineral soil exposed withheavy compaction", and "mineral soil exposed withlight compaction" when associated with steepgradient, were likely to remain uncovered withvegetation for an extended time. The componentsthat contribute to such disturbances wereconstruction of landings, steep gradient roads, orheavy traffic on skid trails. Using a cable loggingsystem can contribute to reducing the area ofdisturbance. Cable logging differs fromconventional logging in that it doesn't use tractors
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which need constructed skid trails We haveestablished a 30 ha research plot for a cable loggingusing a mobile system in Compartment 51, JengaiForest Reserve, Terengganu, Malaysia. Tail spartrees are chosen to avoid having machines work onsteep slopes, and to minimize road construction. Theresults obtained from the investigation of the cablelogging system will be discussed in this paper.
Forest Operation and Forest-roadNetworks Design in Multi-Storied Forest
Management in Peninsular MalaysiaIsao Sawaguchi
Iwate University, Faculty of Agriculture, 020-8550Morioka, Iwate, Japan
Tel: +81-1966216233, FAX: +81-1966216234, Email:[email protected]
"The Multi-storied Forest Management Project" ispracticed in Perak State, Peninsula Malaysia, as apart of the Japan International CooperationAssociation project. The purpose of this study wasto promote the development of the multi-storiedforests by establishing techniques for felling andhauling the upper-story tree, Acacia mangium.Seventy months have passed since the planting of A.mangium upper-story trees, which have grown 233m3/ha in volume. S. leprosula thirty-five monthsafter planting lower-story trees have reached 5.54 min height. However, as the ratio of height to basaldiameter exceeds 100: 1, trees are strongly tapered.To reduce damage to lower-story trees, a backhoeand an agricultural tractor were added to the loggingsystem.
From the results of logging, the damage ratioestimation of the lower-story trees was simulated byusing the Monte Carlo method. The damage ratiodiffered considerably, depending on plantingpatterns, height of upper-story trees and fellingskills. The results of this survey proved that thefelling and hauling of upper-story trees would betechnically feasible in the future, except when onerow upper-story trees and one row lower-story treesmethod were employed. The labor productivity was2.36 m3/person-day in multi-storied plot, 2.85m3/person-day in a four-row plot, and 3.86m3/person-day in an eight-row plot. The decrease inlabor productivity for multi-storied forestmanagement was caused by the difference in cuttingrow number. The presence of the lower-story treedid not affect productivity much. Felling, delimbingand bucking costs were estimated at 12 US$/m3,skidding costs at 7 US$/m3 and transportation costsat 28 US$/m3 on a whole. The results of the trialupper-story tree felling and hauling in the surveyclearly proved that logging of the upper-story treewould be technically possible. The optimum forest
road density in the multi-story forest area wasestimated at 26.5 m/ha. This density is likely tochange considerably depending on estimatedmaintenance and administrative costs. Therefore,costs in the tropical area is a critical factor whichwill determine the level of any permanent forestroad networks for sustainable forest management.
3.06.00 Forest operations undermountainous condit ions
Roaded Stream Crossings DecreaseProductivity in Forest Transport
Oscar Bustos, Marcelo HernandezUniversity of Talca, Forest Engineering Department,
Casilla 747, Talca, ChileTel: (56) 71-200380, FAX: (56) 71-200455, Email:
The transport of forest products can be delayedwhen trucks must travel over difficult terrain. Manyforest roads are intersected by permanent streams,where the water usually is diverted through pipes,but sometimes also across the roads. in many cases,culverts may fail because maintenance is lacking.This situation produces a severe loss of soil from theroad and further downstream, and the accumulationof excess moisture may also decrease the supportcapacity of these roads.
Our goal was to quantify the effects that roadedstream crossings have on soil loss and,subsequently, on transport productivity. The studyarea was located in a forested zone called "VistaHermosa", which belongs to Forest LicancelIndustry S.A. The site included 1187 ha of 24-year-old Pinus radiata D. Don, with an average standvolume of 350 m3 per ha, and a road density of 18m/ha.Four road situations were considered: 1) Stream thatis crossed by a road with truck traffic; 2) Control: aroad with traffic but which is not crossed by anystream; 3) Stream crossed by a road, but which hasno truck traffic; and 4) Control: a road which is notcrossed by a stream and which also has no trucktraffic. Each situation was replicated five times.Data from each situation were collected in sampleplots located around cut-and-fill areas and roadembankments. in addition, we estimated the loss intransport productivity, based on average truck speedand the amount of time that different truck typeswould be detained in each of these situations. Thesituation of a stream crossed by truck trafficproduced the largest amount of soil loss (55.66 m3
per plot).
The least amount of soil was lost from the control(no stream, but with traffic; 14 m3 per plot). Weattribute these results to the effect of water coursing
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over the road. Transport productivity was 5 to 6%less in the stream-with-traffic situation. When thesevalues are applied to a fleet of 10 single trucks and10 trucks with trailers, the average number of lostturns per month could be 33.6 and 28.8,respectively, which is equivalent to 1140 m3 ofwood. Our study demonstrates that it is possible toestimate the real effect that water on the road canhave on truck speed, and on productivity.
Keywords: environmental factors; forest road; soilloss; truck transport.
Quantitative Analysis of FragmentedForest Landscape Patterns Resulting
from Timber Harvesting Practices:Identifying Key Processes of HarvestingAlternatives for Maintaining Landscape
StabilityMasami Shiba
Kyoto University, Graduate School of Agriculture,Kitashirakawa, Oiwake-cyo, Sakyo-ku, 606-8502 Kyoto,
JapanTel: +81-75-753-6441, FAX: +81-75-753-6451, Email:
Most forest landscapes have been influenced byland-management activities. The outcome is amosaic of natural and managed forest patches thatvary in size, shape, and arrangement. Landscapefragmentation is the process of creating anincreasingly complex mosaic of patches that resultfrom disturbances such as human activity. Scientistshave studied the effects of fragmented forestlandscapes on wildlife and other terrestrial and/oraquatic ecosystem characteristics, and havesuggested alternative management approaches.However, these management alternatives have notbeen quantitatively evaluated because of theinherent difficulties in conducting landscape-levelexperiments. This is because landscapes arespatially heterogeneous, and their structure, functionand changes are scale-dependent. Whilefragmentation will continue in most forestlandscapes (as the result of timber-harvestingpractices), its effects must be alleviated through newinsights into management strategies, as well as bymodifying management alternatives based onlandscape perspectives.
This article reviews the use of spatial statistics toquantify forest-landscape fragmentation caused bytimber harvesting practices over 60 years (1921-1981) in the Kyoto University Forests. Theobjectives of the research were:
- to identify significant relationships betweenpattern and process of heterogeneous mosaics inforest patches over time;- to develop indices of spatial pattern derived frominformation theory, fractal geometry, and GIStechniques for measuring fragmentation; and- to describe aspects of forest fragmentation thatresult from timber harvesting and subsequentconiferous plantation practices.
A 22-year (1974-1996) trend analysis of forestpatterns was made by using orthophotography totransfer forest cover types, interpreted from aerialphotographs, into image positions, and also forcreating a digital elevation model (DEM). Using aGeographic Information System (GIS), we digitizedthe base maps and prepared separate transparentoverlays for the two photo sets. Each patch was thenclassified according to cover during each period.The location, size, and shape of each patch werefurther recorded as polygons for subsequent spatialanalysis with the GIS.
We used four groups of statistics to quantifylandscape heterogeneity and pattern of the patchesas they appeared in 1974 and in 1996. These groupswere: 1) size, 2) abundance, 3) shape, and 4)spacing. Patch size was expressed in terms of theaverage patch area and perimeter. Shape wasmeasured in three ways: 1) edge density, 2) fractaldimension, and 3) diversity index. Edge density wassimply the ratio of patch perimeter to patch area.The fractal dimension was estimated by regressingthe logarithm of patch area on its corresponding log-transformed perimeter. The diversity index was alsocalculated by using a perimeter-area relationship.Patch abundance included a measure of density andthe percent of land in patches. Patch spacing wascharacterized by measures of the mean nearest-neighbor distance and a measure of dispersion.
Patch abundance and spacing measures providedconsiderable information on major patterns of forestlandscape dynamics over time. Size and shapeindices contributed information on specificcharacteristics of the individual patches. Theseparameters may be useful for applications designedto study specific interior and edge habitats, or indetermining prescriptions for forest cutting patternsand/or cutting-unit size.
Keywords: forest patch; GIS; landscapefragmentation; spatial pattern; timber harvesting.
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3.07.00 Ergonomics 1+2
An Overview of Logging SafetyPrograms in the USA
Cornelius de HoopLouisiana State University Agricultural Center, Louisiana
Forest Products LaboratorySchool of Forestry, Wildlife & Fisheries, LA 70803-6202
Baton Rouge, USATel: 225-388-4242, FAX: 225-388-4251, Email:
A strong interest has developed throughout the USAto reduce logging accidents and assist loggers withsafety programs. Driven by accident costs, liabilityissues, a desire to improve public image and thethreat of additional environmental regulations, theforest products industry has developed a pro-activerole in assisting loggers with the education theyneed to reduce accidents while improving thequality of their work. While the goals of loggingsafety are the same throughout the country, themethodology to achieve those goals varies.Attitudes vary from voluntary programs sponsoredentirely by industry to stricter regulation bygovernment.
Most of the states with a significant amount offorest industry have some sort of logging safetyprogram. Many states (particularly in the southeast)have programs operated by non-profit organizationsto educate loggers. Some states make greater use ofgovernment regulation and government agencies todo the job, an idea that is generally untenable in theminds of loggers and many other people, especiallyin rural areas. Although there is a lack of uniformityin the methodology for tackling the logger safetyissues, this is generally seen as good. The situationand social culture in each state is a little different, soeach state has seized the opportunity to solve theproblem in their own way. Loggers and relatedforestry associations in all of the states are hopingthat their initiatives will be recognized bylawmakers and prevent unnecessary new laws andregulations.
In this paper, some typical logging safety programsare described.
An Analysis of the Aerobic Capacity andPhysical Working Load in Chain Saw
Operators at a Brazilian ForestCompany
Amaury Paulo de Souza, Luciano José MinettiUniversidade Federal de Vicosa, Departamento de
Engenharia Florestal, 36571-000 Vicosa-MG., BrazilTel: +055 31 899 2478, Email: [email protected]
This study was based on data from a paper andcellulose company in the State of Sao Paulo, Brazil.Its main objective was to evaluate the operator'sphysical capacity as well as his working load. Theuniverse of this research consisted of chain sawoperators in forest cutting who were developing thefollowing activities: felling, delimbing, logging,stack and stump lowering. in general 85 chain sawoperators were randomly sampled, and 51 fromthose attaining 60% of the total to compose thestudy on aerobic capacity. According to the obtainedresults it was concluded that: the highest averageaerobic capacity in the population of chain sawoperators was equal to 2.93 1 O2/min, or or 43.59 mlO2/kg.min or or 14.80 kcal/min. The maximumworking load for chain saw operators was equal to14.80 kcal/min while the useful aerobic capacitywas 4.90 kcal/min. Stacking was that activityperformed by the chain saw operator showing thehighest average energy consumption (8.58 kcal/min)and it was classified as an excessively hard work.Felling, delimbing and logging with an averageconsumption of 6.58; 7.30 and 7.02 kcal/minrespectively were classified as a heavy work. Thestudy indicated that along the working time theoperator can perform a highest working load of 4.90kcal/min (2,352.0 kcal/day) without physicaloverloading.
The Human Factor in Forest OperationsResearch
John J. GarlandOregon State University, OR 97331 Corvallis, USA
Tel: +1 541 737 3128, FAX: +1 541 737 4316, Email:[email protected]
Keywords: ergonomics; human subjects; variation;research; forest operations
Describes the sources and magnitude of variabilityattributed to human subjects in forest operationsresearch. The research environment of forestoperations is characterized as different from otherscientific study fields. Reviews human differencescontributing to variability in research studies, e.g.,sex, anthropometric differences, age, etc. Taskdifferences are noted and the need for a task analysisemphasized. Attitudes, behaviors, and cultural
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differences are discussed. Special emphasis is givento research involving learning effects, learningcurves, and experimental trials. Some experimentaldesigns are critiqued and the sample sizes forhypothesis testing are examined. Concludes withsome practical considerations, improvements fromergonomic research and suggestions for betterresearch for scientists.
Until robots are commonly used for forestoperations, humans performing important taskspresent substantial challenges to researchersstudying these operations. Not all researchersappreciate these difficulties and frequently makeconclusions unwarranted by the limitations of theresearch. Without large scale research effortsinvolving substantial numbers of operators (perhapsin excess of 35-40 for a study), most reports offindings involving humans would need to beconsidered case studies, limited to the operatingconditions of study area, operations and specificoperators.
Sources of variation come from the researchenvironment for forest operations, from themachine-human interface, from the tasksthemselves, from the learning effects or experienceof workers, from attitudes and motivation resultingin behaviors, from the culture, and what can becollectively described as human differences.Examples of these human differences include:Gender/sexRacePopulation/anthropometric differencesIntelligence/educationLiteracyAgeCardiovascular fitnessOther sources of variation can be identified as well.
The magnitude of variation for human performanceis shown in sports competition and selected studiesto be on the order of 6-300%. A Task Analysis isseen as helpful in making research comparable. Fivestrategies are discussed to aid researchers with thisissue of human variation.Control the variationMeasure the variationUse randomization strategiesExplain the sources of variationIgnore the variation
There is a tendency to continue with the status quoin all forms of human activities. Little pressureactually exists not to simply ignore sources ofhuman variation in forest operations research.However, researchers do so in peril because wrongscientific conclusions are the basis for important
decisions: environmental, economic, safety, health,and personal decisions. As a small community offorest operations researchers, the belief in the needto improve is only likely to be supported by internaland peer commitment. Researchers cannot ignorethe variation due to humans in forest operationsresearch.
New Ergonomic Principles whenAssessing Forest Machines
Sten GellerstedtFaculty of Forestry, Swedish University of Agricultural
Sciences, Department of Forest Management andProducts, Box 7060, SE 750 07 Uppsala, SwedenTel: 46 18 673818, FAX: 46 18 673800, Email:
A new ergonomic guideline handbook to the designand assessment of forest machines has beencompleted in the Nordic countries. Its purpose is toassist manufacturers when developing newequipment and help improve the machine operators'awareness of good design. The guidelines aremostly functional regarding the operator workplace,controlling the machine and its tools, andmaintenance work. The guide's striven is to improvethe earning capacity of mechanised forestryoperations by meeting the demands of the operatorson health, safety and well-being. About 100organisations in the Nordic countries were involvedin the developing of the guidelines. As a foundation,a comprehensive scientific review was doneregarding work in heavy-duty terrain vehicles. Thenew classification system is based on the work taskand the conditions in which the machinery is to beused. The principle is that work in a forest machineshould give about the same impact on the operator'shealth and well-being, regardless how the machineis rated. This requires the machine to be usedaccording it's designed purpose, and thatconsideration is taken to work rate, time worked andthe difficulty of the work. If e.g. a machine isuneasy to use, the operator's time at the controlsshould be reduced.
Keywords: Good design, manufacturing, purchasingaid, health and safety.
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A research into the changes ofergonomic characteristics of some
chain saws during their usuallyexpected service life
D. Vlado Goglia, Marjan Lipoglavsek, Stjepan PuljakThe University of Zagreb, Faculty of Forestry,
Svetosimunska 25, 10 000 Zagreb, CroatiaFAX: +385 - 1 - 230 22 88, Email:
The paper presents results of the research carried outinto the operating time influence on noise andvibration levels of motor chain saws.. The researchwas carried out on the sample of 32 (16 Stihl 038and 16 Husqvarna 266SG) chain saws in order tofind out the possible changes that may occur duringthe four years operation period of the saws. For thatreason the tested sample included chain saws thathad been in normal operation for one, two, three andfour years. All tested saws were used in the sameoperating conditions during which they had beenmaintained in the same way. Measurements werecarried out on normal production saws randomlychosen. Previous to testing all saws were examinedand adjusted in accordance with the producer'srecommendations.
The vibrations transmitted to the hands of the chainsaw operator were measured in accordance with ISO7505 measuring procedures. Prior to measurements,the saws have been run and warmed. in accordancewith the experiment plan the vibrationmeasurements on front and rear handle were carriedout. All three axes were measured simultaneously.During measurement unweighted accelerometersignals from each of the three orthogonal directionswere recorded on the tape recorder. The analysis ofthe recorded signals was made in laboratoryconditions using a computer aided frequencyanalyzer. Vibrations at the front and rear handlewere measured at the following working conditions:
a) idling rotational frequency
b) at full load - at the speed at maximum power
c) at racing - at an engine speed which is 133 % ofthe speed at maximum engine power
For each handle and for each rotational frequencyfive independent measurement values were taken.After the 1/3 octave band frequency analysis theweighted accelerations as well as the WAS valuesfor each rotational frequency were calculated. Themeasurements results are presented in tables anddiagrams.
The noise level emitted by the chain saws at thesame working conditions was measured too. The
measurement procedure was in accordance with theISO 7182. As at vibrations measurement, for eachrotational frequency five independent measurementvalues were taken. Again, the measurement resultsare presented in tables and diagrams.
The research has shown that there are almost noindications of significant changes of the investigatedergonomic chain saws characteristics during thefour-year normal operating period. This conclusionsuggests the necessity of monitoring the mainergonomic characteristics of the motor chain sawsduring operation.
Partially Autonomous Groups in ForestWork in Germany - A Challenge to MeetNew Demands for Work Organisation in
ForestryEdgar Kastenholz, Ewa Lidén, Siegfried LewarkBüro für Arbeitsschutz und Arbeitsgestaltung,
Leimbachweg 10a, 79283 Bollschweil, GermanyEmail: [email protected]
Significant changes are taking place in Germanforestry. These changes have considerable impact onthe organisation of forest work.
- Forest companies and state forest services arereorganising their structure, forest districts andmanagement areas are getting larger.
- The number of forest workers employed by forestowners - the traditional model in German forestry -is constantly being reduced. in some forest districtsthere are no employed forest workers left at all.
- Contract labour becomes more and more importantin Germany. Information on the implications ofoutsourcing, migrant labour and precarious workingconditions is scarce.
Most of the German forest workers are well trained.They are predominantly professional forest workers,having passed a three-year-apprenticeship. It can beassumed that their skills and knowledge in manycases are far beyond the requirements of their recenttasks.
A diminishing workforce and rising professionaldemands, particularly resulting from changes in theobjectives of silvicultural concepts, might lead toconflicts and problems, which may possibly not besolved by conventional changes in workorganisation strategies, such as outsourcing andmechanisation.
One way to counteract is to develop groups of forestworkers into partially autonomous teams. It can beanticipated, that the implementation of teamwork inpartially autonomous groups will lead to jobenrichment and an increase of competence. Another
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expected result of partially autonomous groups isthat the employees develop a closer identificationwith the enterprise. This usually results in higher jobsatisfaction, which in turn promotes theachievement of the enterpriseïs objectives.Furthermore, a contribution to the improvement ofthe working conditions is to be expected.Pilot projects have been initiated in order toimplement partially autonomous groups in Germanforestry in a standardised way with externalmoderation, following a concept developed inSwedish forestry. Progress and outcome of theseprojects are subjects of an extensive researchprogram. A group with five machine operators andsupervising foresters has been evaluated. Their taskis to perform mechanized harvesting with oneharvester and one forwarder.
In this case it could be observed that the groupmembers have experienced both job enlargementand job rotation. The supervisors suggest that yetfurther tasks could be delegated to the team, e.g.work place inspection and handing over theharvested timber to customers. By that, thesupervisors can make better use of their ownworking capacity for planning and controlling. Thegroup members have become fully aware of theirbig influence on and responsibility for their ownworking conditions. Among others this hasincreased the job satisfaction.
Exhaust gases in the forest are going tobe a problem in technological transition
Marjan LipoglavsekUniversity Ljubljana, Biotechnical Faculty, Departementfor Forestry and Renewable Forest Resources, Vecna pot
83, SLO 1111 Ljubljana, SloveniaTel: +386-61-123-1161, FAX: +386 61 27 11 69, Email:
Keywords: exhaust gas, CO measurement, chainsaw, Slovenia, technological transition
In the past, no attention was dedicated to exhaustgases as a damaging health factor at forest work.Measurements of air concentration of toxic mattersgave values under MAC (maximal allowedconcentration). Nowadays the CO (carbonmonoxide) measurements in the short time intervalsprove that the concentrations in some conditions areabove MAC during a large part of working time.Too high air concentrations of CO are present at treefelling, at delimbing conifers with large branchesand at cutting in dense young forests.
In this paper some results of CO measurement atchain saw cutting on 11 working places in Sloveniaare given.
8778 measured data or 24,3 hours were analysed.The widely used types of chain saws of the middlepower class (mostly Husqvarna 254 and Jonsered670) were investigated. The fuel mix of normalbenzine and conventional (4-5%) or special (2%)two-cycle motor oil was used. Working operations:felling, limbing, crosscutting simultaneously withmeasuring lengths were made by chain saw.
The CO concentration near respiratory tract of forestworker with chain saw lies most of the time duringchain saw operations under MAC of 30 ppm (0 - 15ppm). But in short time intervals it can reach thepeaks (10 second means) over 250 ppm. This occursmostly during felling, when the workers posture isbend and his nose is near the chain saw. Theduration of these peaks is short, the largest peakover 30 ppm lasted 6 minutes and 40 seconds. COconcentration lies over the MAC values up to 10 %of investigated time. It occurs more often in matureforest at big trees, where felling cut lasts longer. Thecalculated arithmetical means over the duration ofthe whole working operation with chain saw werebetween 5 and 53 ppm. in the whole working timeon all working places the mean load was below 30ppm, because the time share of chain saw operationswas always relatively small (52 %). The measuredtime intervals above 30 ppm of CO occur at limbing(up to 90 ppm) and felling (over 120 ppm) only.Worker's daily CO loads (4 - 26 ppm) are lower thanin other similar studies (Stampfer et a. 1997). Theywere at the vast majority of working places above7,3 ppm (1/4 of MAC), and therefore measures mustbe taken to reduce it Investigations of other authorsin Western Europe found similar results on peaksand working operations, but their peaks occurredmore often, lasted in some cases over 50 % ofworking time and the calculated working timemeans were under 30 ppm MAC value too, buthigher than in Slovenia. in the same time themeasurements of CO blood satiation in Germanygave too high values.
The new studies found that HC (hydrocarbons:benzol, benzopyren et c.) cause different healthdamages, cancer included. This means that the oldMAC for HC are not suitable anymore. The healthdamages from exhaust gases are important, wherethe chain saw is primarily used at cutting work. Theforestry, the forest employers and above all theforest employees in the countries in transition arenot yet ready to pay improvements that producers ofchain saws and fuels can make to reduce exhaustgases health damage. Therefore, this is not atechnical problem, but rather an economical one.
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Comparison of vibrations transmitted tothe operator by a saddle type
suspension seat and an original seat ina forwarder
Dianne Staal Wästerlund, Tomas NordfjellSwedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Division of
Forest Technology, Dept. of Silviculture, S - 901 83Umea, Sweden
Tel: +46 - 90 786 58 00, FAX: +46 - 90 786 62 78,Email: [email protected]
Ergonomically it is more desirable to drive a vehicleoff-road in a standing position. Prolonged sittingleads to disruptions in the blood supply causingmineral losses in the bone tissue of the spine,disturbance in the nutrition supply to theintervertebral discs as well as muscle fatigue in theback. Besides a better blood flow, also the load onthe discs is 20-40% lower in a standing positionthan in a sitting. An elevated seat is howeverrequired to relieve the strain on the legs. Exposureto whole body vibration may acceleratedegeneration of discs and increase the risk forherniated discs. Situated on a normal seat, amachine operator has no choice but to absorb thevibrations transmitted by the seat. Situated on anelevated seat formed like a saddle the machineoperator would have the opportunity to rise up whilekeeping balance with the legs and in such a wayavoid exposure to the vibrations transmitted by theseat.
A comparative study was done between a prototypesaddle seat and a traditional seat, each mounted on aidentical suspension unit and with identicalsuspension settings. The seats were mounted on aVIMEK 606D forwarder which was driven by twotest persons on a test track comprising of a series ofeven size concrete blocks placed at intervals of 0.8m for the left wheels and 1.2 m for the right wheels.The forwarder was driven along the track with aspeed of 0.35 m/s and 0.51 m/s.
Also the forwarder was driven off the end of a rampwhich was 0.3 m high and 3.4 m long at a speed of0.51 m/s. Acceleration at the floor and seat wasmeasured according to ISO standard 2631. Todetermine absorbed energy, force and acceleration atthe seat as well as beneath the feet were measuredwith a force plate, build by the department oftechnical hygiene, national institute of working life,Sweden.
The results of the driving tests along the test trackshowed that according to ISO 2631 health andcomfort evaluation the saddle seat showedsignificant lower root mean square accelerationlevels while the vibration dose values showed nodifference. Also a non-significant reduction of
absorbed energy was found with the saddle seat.When the forwarder was driven off the ramp bothtest persons experienced end-stop impacts in allthree trials with the traditional seat. With the saddleseat only one end-stop impact occurred for one testsubject. End-stop impact occurs when thesuspension system of the seat reaches it's maximalcomprised level which exposes the driver to veryhigh acceleration levels and is therefore accepted asa health risk.
3.08.00 Small-scale forestry
Twenty years of experience with a costaccountancy network in Farm ForestEnterprises in Baden-Württemberg
Helmut BrandlForstliche Versuchsanstalt, Abteilung Betriebswirtschaft,
Wonnhalde 4, 79100 Freiburg, GermanyTel: 0761-4018 262, FAX: +49 761 4018 333, Email:
The paper contents two main parts. in the first part acomparison is made between the requirements forestablishing and running a cost accountancynetwork according to the "Guidelines forestablishing farm forestry accountancy networks"(draft, European Forest Institute, 2000) and the factswhich happen when establishing and running such anetwork in the practice. The necessities for a correctand scientific appropriate outline of a network areconfronted with the constraints and difficulties whengoing on work with the forest owners.
In the second part the main results of a 20 yearrunning economic survey with an accountancynetwork in Baden-Württemberg with more than 170participants are presented. This overview will showthe key figures about profitability, costs,expenditures and revenues in graphs and tables forthe years 1979-1998. This case study shows theadvantages of long-term data for analysing thesocio-economic situation of farm forests. Also thepossibilities for differentiation by regions and size-classes are mentioned. Some comparisons witheconomic results in other types of ownership'scomplete this part.
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Advantages by integrating small-scaleforestry and local wood manufacturing
Lennart Eriksson, Ager, BSwedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department
of Forest Management and Products, SwedenFAX: 4618673522, Email: [email protected]
It is found that small-scale forestry has remarkableadvantages compared with large-scale companyforestry when a large share of the total revenue isproduced as timber of high value. Low indirect costsof equipment used by self-active forest owners givethe opportunity to perform thinning operationsrepeatedly in the same stand. The consequence isthat the trees may be cut when they have reached aneconomically matured status, in other words whenthe wood characteristics of the trees to be cut willgive the best profit in monetary terms.
New studies show that also stands underestablishment can be treated to produce timber ofhigh value more efficiently by means of equipmentand methods used in the small-scale forestry. Densestands, naturally regenerated and completed byplantation if necessary, should be kept dense up to aheight of 6 to 8 metres. After that, the number ofstems should be reduced markedly by means of oneor more pre-commercial thinnings. The stand willthen deliver timber of high value in a number ofthinning cuts "from above". Stands planted inrelatively dense spaces (1.5 - 2.5 m) withoutremarkably high numbers of natural regeneratedplants can with advantage be pruned followed by acut programme similar to that of the naturallyregenerated and pre-commercially thinned standabove. Stands with larger spacing (>2.5m) are,owing to a high pruning cost per tree and a longperiod of healing over, not suitable for production ofwood of high value. The most efficient cutprogramme consists in this case of one or twothinnings from above and an early final cut.
The treatment programmes mentioned require aplanning system that discovers the opportunities touse the efficient production alternatives. Since theforest status varies frequently, even within thetraditional compartments (treatment units) of aforest estate, the possibility of the technical loggingsystem to vary the treatment gives remarkableincrease of the profit in terms of capital value of theforest. Many opportunities to cut trees in thinninggive possibilities to perform the treatmentprogrammes, which most efficiently harvest thegiven trees in different stands at an economicallymatured status.
The capability of small-scale forestry to deliverselected high value timber in a long and short timeperspective can be used advantageously by localwood manufacturing industry. The technicaldevelopment of equipment to saw, dry, plane, fingerjoin and glue wood has given possibilities toproduce advanced forest products efficiently insmall-scale wood manufacturing. Advanced verticalintegration of the production chain from the forest tothe customer, including efficient logistics, is apromising way to increase the competitive strengthof the small enterprises. Networks of horizontallyintegrated wood manufacturing industries is anotherway to increase competitiveness of local forestbased industry, increasingly applied in Swedentoday.
Summary of Small-Scale Enterprises inthe Forestry Sector in FinlandPertti Harstela, Katja Turunen, K. Kärhä
University of Joensuu, Faculty of Forestry, Post Box #111, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland
Tel: +358-13-2513625, FAX: +358-13-2513590, Email:[email protected]
Keywords: Small-scale enterprise, forestry, strategyof enterprise, competitiveness, innovation.
Small enterprises may have an important role insupporting local development in rural areas and alsoin improving employment. A literature analysis andsome questionnaire studies were made in order tofind out the prerequisites for small enterprises tocompete in the forestry sector as well as to findmeans to promote the establishment of newenterprises.
The main strategic groups of small enterprisesappear to be:(1) Entrepreneurs in operations which big forestcompanies desire to direct to smaller contractors.(2) Enterprises in areas which big companies wantto externalise.(3) Enterprises providing products or services tolimited local markets.(4) Enterprises working with special products,customer-oriented activities or flexible way ofproduction.(5) Enterprises opening services outside thetraditional forestry, e.g. nature tourism andmemorable experience production.(6) Enterprises having products with special qualityor narrow special knowledge.(7) Enterprises established to utilise a newinnovation. These are, such as, small forest machineor tool manufacturers, measurement equipmentmanufacturers and computerised system designers.
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The first two categories are a necessity for bigcompanies and these enterprises are establishedwithout any external support. For developingcountries the fifth category may be very interest,whereas the last one is perhaps the most interestingfor post industrialised countries. "Innovation is oftena new enterprise." thus, real innovations areimportant, however, innovative working methodsalso seem be important means in competing in allthe above-mentioned groups.
Our theoretical conclusions were that all eightfactors (focusing, differentiation, custom-orientation, quality, knowledge, innovative acting,cost-effectiveness and enterprise networks) arehighly important in competition. When small treenurseries and enterprises of graduated foresters werestudied, it was found that innovative workingmethods were in the highest category in all highlyprofitable enterprises. Some of these workingmethods are connected to external relations of anenterprise (networks, patents or invincibleexpertise), while other are internal (innovativeacting, cost-effectiveness, high quality andcustomer-orientation) and some strategic. The bestenterprises are good in all these internal dimensionsworking innovatively. We also designed a theory onhow special knowledge gained from a goodexperience or a high level education may lead to aninnovation, and how applying the innovation inproduction process can lead to a new level ofknowledge within the industrial sector in question.
Enhancing the economic decision-making of non-industrial forest (NIPF)
ownersMarkku Penttinen, Anssi Niskanen, Esa Uotila, Sami
Veijalainen, Jukka Aarnio and Jussi LeppänenFinnish Forest Research Institute, Helsinki Research
Centre, Unioninkatu 40 A, FIN-00170 Helsinki, FinlandTel: +358 9 857 051, FAX: +358 9 857 05 717, Email:
Keywords: forest management planning,management accounting, ratio analysis, costaccounting, non-industrial private forestry
This paper considers the Finnish experiences indeveloping special accounting measures formonitoring the socio-economic performance of thenon-industrial private forests (NIPFs). Thesemeasures improve and combine managementaccounting and forest management practices basedon the relevant forest inventory and book-keepingdata, enabling NIPF owners to cope with theeconomic challenges posed by their holdings.Management accounting, ratio analysis and costaccounting in particular, is utilised in developing
and extending accounting practices to cover non-accounting items such as growing stock. The resultcan also be seen as an improvement and extensionof forest management planning.
The theoretical background of several researchprojects has been synthesised and tailored to yieldmanagement accounting systems for non-industrialprivate (NIP) forestry. Empirical evidence has beenwidely and systematically employed in developingthe management methodology for forestry and inapplying statistical methods to testing hypothesesand constructing invariances. The data employedinclude:
(i) Aggregate regional data: The Finnish ForestResearch Institute (FFRI) and the ForestryDevelopment Centre Tapio have collected regionalincome and cost information on NIP forestry for 30years.
(ii) The agricultural enterprise and income statistics(AEIS): The agricultural enterprise and incomestatistics (AEIS) of Statistics Finland is based onenterprise-level forest tax revenue information. Themost interesting part of the AIES includes farmswhich have chosen the new forest taxation based onsales profit in the tax reform of 1.1.1993. The dataanalysed by the FFRI contains about 5000observations.
(iii) Farm Accountancy Data Network (FADN): Thebook-keeping data on nearly 1000 farms from 1976has been collected in the supervision of theAgricultural Economic Research Institute (MTTL).in addition to agricultural information, this dataincludes cash-based forestry accounting, which hasbeen improved in accuracy in recent years as a resultof scientific cooperation between agricultural andforestry researchers.
(iv) Jointly owned forests (JOFs). The book-keeping, income statements and balance sheets, andforest management plans of 139 JOFs have beenanalysed as a sample of forestry bookkeepingcarried out according to the accounting law. Most ofthe JOF areas are located in the northern parts ofFinland. The profitability of JOFs has already beenstudied at the FFRI for 10 years.
(v) Case data: "The profitability of NIP forestry" -project collected very detailed test book-keepingdata of some 70 woodlots, suited to developing andtesting methods of NIPF book-keeping and costaccounting.
(vi) Long term book-keeping woodlots: The FFRIhas collected long term NIPF book-keeping records,voluntarily and independently by forest owners, fortesting profitability and ratio analysis. At the
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moment there are records of about 20 case woodlotsfor periods of minimum 15 and even 45 yearsrecords. The data also embraced informationconcerning the forest management plans andstanding timber.
Help for Forest Management Planning:Presentation of a Computerized Model
for Private Forest OwnersOlivier Picard
IDF Toulouse, Maison de la Forêt, 7 Chemin de laLacade, F-31320 Auzeville, FranceFAX: 0033 5 61 75 45 09, Email:
This survey is aimed at contributing to thoughts ataiding forest owners to make a decision. It was amatter of specifying which kinds of tools it wouldbe useful to set up to help forest management. Thesurvey covered the strategic aspects of decision thatforest owners find themselves faced with. It appearsthat "classical" economic calculations such as theCurrent Net Value and the Internal Rate ofProfitability, are seldom used to help make aninvestment decision. Is this because the updatingcalculations over a period of 30 to 40 years are "notrelevant", or does it come from the comparisonbetween different investments ranging further than ageneration or, the lack of tools adapted to owner'sneeds ? The method adopted was to, firstly, definethe representative framework of managementpractices. This was carried out by individualinterviews and the main conclusions were sharedalternately. Through this survey, managementschemes, thoughts about strategic /risk relationshipsand expectations about decision aid tools have beendefined.
The analysis is built around three levels ofdecisions:
- the strategic level of going from the initial state tothe final state in the long term (10 to 30 years).
- the tactical level of being in charge of themanagement over 3 to 5 years (adapting to changes,markets, new constraints or opportunities)
- annual management follow-up.
Forestry management oscillates between financialand proprietary logic. From self-financing andannual revenue and expenditure balances, thepermanent assessment of the stock value andproprietary value, up to a naturalistic logiccombined with the search for a revenue/expenditurebalance.
Criteria retained in the decision aid tool arequantified and qualified and easily used by forest
owners. We have therefore retained three criteria,i.e. money, wood and working time. The indicatorretained for each is the flow created.
What is this tool for?
Forecast revenue research, human resourceplanning, memorising work with a view tosuccession, justifying the administrator's choices.
Computing, and particularly a data base structure isthe solution to process the large amount of data andto structure it according to management targets(regular income, forest value, forest transmission,optimal development of the biological potential),and combined with a cartographic base, theorganization of work on the property can bedisplayed.
Possible outputs can be data files used by forestryco-operatives to programme their wood suppliesefficiently. This level optimizes forestrymanagement and wood production by putting themin contact.
3.09.00 Economics and harvest ing ofthinning
Transition of the residual stand damageafter a line thinning operation
Masahiro Iwaoka, Kazuhiro Aruga, Hiroshi Kobayashi,and Siaw Onwona-Agyeman
Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Facultyof Agriculture,
3-5-8 Saiwai-cho, Fuchu-shi, 183-8509 Tokyo, JapanTel: +81-42-367-5880, FAX: +81-42-364-7812, Email:
In recent years, the use of large-scale forestmachines such as harvesters and forwarders aregradually gaining popularity in Japan. However,most of the plantations were established at a timewhere the use of such machines was not originallythought of. The introduction of large-scale machinesis therefore likely to increase damage to residualstand. in this paper, a report on the transition of theresidual stand damage caused by a line thinningoperation with a tracked excavator based harvesterand a rubber tracked forwarder after five years ispresented. The observations revealed that injuries,which were not so severe, did not impair the growthof the trees but light injuries such as those inflictedon outer or inner bark, became more severe like asapwood injuries. These results showed that injuredtrees are likely to become weaker to the extent thatthe injuries could easily become severe even if theyare originally very light. The importance ofcarefully carrying out thinning operations so as to
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minimize the damage to residual trees wereconfirmed by this research.
Keywords: Transition, residual stand, damage,tracked harvester, rubber tracked forwarder.
Productivity and costs of group work forharvesting mountainous broadleaf
thinning standsAnte P. B. Krpan, Zeljko Zecic, Marijan SusnjarFaculty of Forestry Zagreb, Department of Forest
Harvesting, Svetosimunska 25, 10 000 Zagreb, CroatiaEmail: [email protected]
Group work was researched for felling, processing,skidding and quality inspection activities inmountainous broadleaf thinning stands withapproximately the same terrain and standconditions. The stands were 55 and 70 years old. inthe forest communities of the mountainous beechforest with dead nettle (Lamio orvale - Fagetumsylvaticae/Ht. 1938) and the forests of the sessileoak and horn beam with beech (Epimedio -CarPinetum betuli var. Fagus sylvatica/Ht.1938/Borth.1963) the main tree species are beechand sessile oak with the addition of other broadleafspecies.
Productivity was examined on two groups. The firstcomprised of five workers (A) and the second offour workers (B). The first group was equipped withtwo tractors and three chain saws while the secondused two tractors and two chain saws as well asother necessary equipment. The effective time forthe cutters in felling ranged from 36 to 42.9%, infinishing and measurement 21%, while the effectivetime for the tractors ranged from 42.4 to 59%. Theeffective time per tree ranged from 3.62 to 3.77minutes, i.e. per unit it ranged from 8.46 min/m3 to12.91 min/m3. The daily output achieved by theEcotrac and Torpedo tractors at a distance of 300meters was for group A 20.77 m3/day while theoptimised output was 67.02 m3/day. The outputachieved by both tractors in group B was 17.25m3/day while the optimised was 30.72 m3/day. Theaverage performance per worker in group A was4.15. m3/day while the optimised was 8.38 m3/day.For group B the average performance per workerwas 4.31. m3/day and the optimised was 7.68m3/day. The optimisation of the groups lowered theunit cost of production (300 m distance) for group Afrom 39.63 DM/m3 to 17.49 DM/m3 and for group Bfrom 40.38 DM/m3 to 22.73.DM/m3.
Keywords: group work, thinings, time study,productivity, costs
Environmental Damage Control byInformation System for Harvesting
VehiclesToshio Nitami
University Forest in Chichibu, University of Tokyo,Hinoda 1-1-49, 368-0034 Chichibu, Saitama, Japan
FAX: +81-494-22-0272, Email: [email protected]
Forest stands are easily hurt and disturbed byvehicles through timber harvesting operations in thenatural forest management system. Many standingtrees are scratched and hit which leads to degradestorage quality and succeeding small trees are lostwhich leads to make severe to reforestation. Smartcontrol for harvesting vehicles shorten the skiddingpaths length between landing sites and timberchoking points by suppressing branching out ofskidding paths. Number of damaged standing treesand the percentage of diminished succeeding smalltrees are mainly affected by run-about of skiddingvehicles. On the gentle slope and steep terrain, manysucceeding trees disappeared. The clear deferencewas found on the diminished percentage of numberof small trees less than 6 cm in DBH. Easy to run-about for the skidder would be the reason for theformer and easy to slip downward on terrain slopefor timber being skidded would be the reason for thelatter. An information system to show the skidderoperator favorable paths from a landing to loadingpoints was discussed to reduce excessive run-aboutof vehicle in the stand.
Field trial for the discussion has been conducting forabout forty years in university forest in Hokkaido,University of Tokyo, through its stand based naturalforest management experiment. A feller-buncher ora felling staff with GPS device collects GIS datumand they are compiled immediately into a databaseon a PC in the field or on a PC connected bynetwork. Manual data collection simultaneous forthe felling, would be useful even if machineoperation is not introduced into the process. Thisreal time GIS system informs the skidder on thelocation and advancing direction. The informationwould be transmitted to the skidders through fieldLAN with radio communication.
The site disturbance would be reduced throughshortening total length of skidding paths to the halfwhen branching ratio of skidding paths decreasedfrom 3.5, which was on the field operation trial, to3.0. The branching ratio was based on the streamsystem ordering by assuming skidding paths fromchoking points to landings to the ground waterstream system from the source to the mouse.
The path length would especially expected to beshort at the gentle slope sites through decreasing
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dozing frequency for rebunching timber in order toset timbers easy for choking.
The operational damages through the informationutilizing system, Real Time GIS, would be at leastthe half of that of the conventional operationsystem. The importance and need for control ofvehicles operating in the forest stands could beconfirmed. Validity of the information system wasconfirmed on the forest harvesting operation forconservation of forest environment. The informationsystem for this operation control also enables timberassortment design at landings, and affords design fornatural forest management with higher accuracyaccompanied with stand geographical information.
Keywords: Environment, Information, Harvesting,GIS, GPS, LAN, and Skidder
Damage to Residual Stands fromThinning with Short-span Tower
Yarders: Re-examination of Woundsafter Five Years
Yasushi SuzukiKochi University, Faculty of Agriculture, 200 Monobe-
otsu, Nankoku-shi, 783-8502 Kochi, JapanTel: +81-88-864-5137, FAX: +81 888 64 5200, Email:
Keywords: Logging, Residual stand damage,Thinning, Transition of wounds, Wounded woodsection.
Residual stand damage from thinning is one of themost important problems in the current Japaneseforestry. The reason can be explained as thefollowing three points. (1) Thinning rather thanclear-cut is preferable cutting method from bothenvironmental concern and forest management. (2)Mechanized thinning, which has been used in thepresent decade, often causes damage to residualstands of dense man-made forest managed undertraditional procedures of Japanese forestry. (3)Japanese timber market requires higher quality fordomestic logs in contrast to imported logs.
There are three main subjects on residual standdamage. The first subject is on logging technique bywhich the residual trees are damaged. The secondand the third are on growth and quality of residualtrees, respectively. Wounds on damaged trees mayreduce their expected growth after the thinning.Wounded sections of damaged trees may developstain or decay in the wood section and degrade theirmarket value as saw timber. The present studyfocuses on the last point: transition of woundedsections of damaged trees.
The author investigated wounds of residual treesand compared their current status with the status offive years ago when the stands were thinned. Fiveplots were established in a typical man-made forestof Japanese cedar (Sugi; Cryptomeria japonica). Ashort-span tower yarder logged the plots in 1994through 1996. This report describes the result of theyear 1999 investigation on two of the five plots thatwere thinned in 1994. The other three plots will beinvestigated in 2000 and 2001.
The investigated two plots are 0.3 ha in area and had85 damaged trees. On the damaged trees there were225 wounds in total. Status of the wounds wasdefined as four levels of severity that are definedfrom their appearance. Dimensions and severitylevels of the wounds at the time of 1999 wereexamined and compared with those of 1994. Tendamaged trees were selected for inspection ofwounded wood section. The selection was madeconcerning the distribution of severity levels as wellas management plan of the forest. Wounded sectionsof the sample trees were cut and correspondingdisks were obtained for detailed inspection ofwound area.
Most of the wounds with lighter severity level havealready healed by occlusion or disappeared. Heavilydamaged but now healed wounds are smaller inhorizontal dimension. Lightly damaged but nowbadly developed wounds are smaller in verticaldimension. Inspection of wound sections revealedthat most wounds developed discolored area in thewood. Only the lighter wounds that had healedearlier have no or smaller discolored areas.Discolored areas of the wounds with still exposedcambium have larger widths than the originalwound widths. As a conclusion, horizontaldimension or width, rather than vertical dimensionor length, of wounded area significantly affectshealing or occlusion of wounds.
3.10.00 Harvest ing, wood del ivery anduti l isat ion 1+2
Cut-To-Length Logging Systems ofTomorrow
Sten GellerstedtFaculty of Forestry, Swedish University of Agricultural
Sciences, Department of Forest Management andProducts, Box 7060, SE 750 07 Uppsala, SwedenTel: 46 18 673818, FAX: 46 18 673800, Email:
This article discusses the potential development of alogging system in which logs are made at the stumpfrom a harvester, and carried to the landing by aforwarder. The focus is on Sweden, but the proposal
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has international out-looks. Trends in logging overthe past decade are described, and used to envisionthe next decade. in the analysis, I consider woodmarkets, the call for sustainable forest management,safety and health, system produc-tivity andutilization, as well as operational organization,operator education, and technical development.Three mechanized logging methods are compared,as well as three different forest-worker educationsystems. Possibilities exist for using advancedelectrohydraulics, and GPS/GIS. I also include adiscussion about the trend toward purpose-builtharvesters.
The use of cut-to-length logging will in-creaseworldwide, especially in central Europe. Hindrancesthat are found when introducing cut-to-lengthsystems include operator education, work creworganization, supply of maintenance service, andcapital that is bound in other logging systems.Future cost reductions can probably be achievedthrough more-precisely planned and completedlogging operations. This will require motivation bythe work force. A crucial element will be to investin building mutual trust between all partiesconcerned.
Keywords: ergonomics; forest machine; future;logging method; maintenance; operator education.
A state-of-knowledge report onharvesting, tree processing, and
product qualityDaniel Guimier, Loren Kellogg
Forest Engineering Research Institute of Canada, 580Boul. St. Jean, H9R 3J9 Pointe Claire, Qc, Canada
Tel: 514-694-1140, FAX: 514-694-4351, Email: [email protected]
This paper identifies key scientific, technical, andsocial issues relevant to harvesting, tree processing,and product quality. Here, we portray the presentstate of knowledge relative to each of these issues.Based on a survey of world experts on the varioustopics, and on the authors' own experiences, thepaper highlights what we currently know and whatissues are not fully understood from the point ofview of scientific research. in some cases, technicalsolutions may not exist and, therefore, will warrantadditional research or development.
The scope of this paper is narrowly defined toaddress issues that are directly part of the ResearchGroup 3.10.00 mandate. Specifically, we covertechnical and operational aspects related to theharvesting and processing of trees, primarily in non-mountainous terrain. Our discussion deals withoperational considerations, environmental issues,
productivity and cost, machine design, and woodproduct quality.
Within the above-defined scope, the report sets outto answer the following questions:
- What are the key scientific and technical issues?
- What do we know and what warrants additionalresearch?
On the issue of equipment productivity and the costof operations, we identified gaps in the modeling ofequipment operating under a wide variety ofconditions, and in the understanding of theoperator's impact on productivity. Our review alsouncovered a number of gaps in the technology usedin existing equipment; technologies such as tractionsystems, controls, hydraulics, and vision
require refinement or adaptation to become moreuseful for the forestry machines of tomorrow. Woodproduct quality must also be optimized;understanding the interrelationship between woodcost and wood value is a research area that receivesand warrants significant attention. 'Social issues inforestry' is another area identified as critical and inneed of additional attention.
This broad review of the state of knowledge relatingto harvesting, tree processing, and product qualityhas uncovered a large number of areas that requiremore science, more technology, and, therefore, moreR&D. in general, we conclude that, whereas thebasic functions are generally understood, the maingaps usually lie in understanding how one functionaffects other functions and the overall system. Manyresearch groups now strive toward modeling wholesystems and obtaining a clear vision of the overallpicture.
Use of Information Technology (IT) toImprove Wood-supply Chains in German
Forest and Wood industriesMarkus Hecker
University of Freiburg, Forest Products Laboratory,Werderring 6, D - 79085 Freiburg, Germany
Tel: +49-761-203-3764, FAX: +49-761-203-3763, Email:[email protected]
Forest industries in Central Europe and, especially,in Germany are now at a disadvantage on theinternational timber market. Very traditionalcustoms and structures, such as motor-manualharvesting systems and tree-length logging, are stillmost common, but the random-length logs theyproduce cannot be used without furthermanipulation. Although the point of sale betweenforestry and woodworking industries is at the
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roadside, customer demands necessitate theimplementation of a complete wood-supply chain.
In contrast to practices in Sweden and Finland,modern logistic concepts and harvestingtechnologies currently are not applied here.Mechanized harvesting systems, however, are nowused more frequently, particularly to reduce theharvesting costs incurred by early thinnings inyounger stands. Because technology recently hasbeen further developed, harvesters can also operatein older stands and on steep terrain. Improvementsin production and marketing systems are necessaryto capitalize on the benefits gained with this newly-mechanized harvesting.
The main part of this paper is a comprehensivepresentation of the necessary improvements beingmade within the wood-supply chain, as it isconducted under German conditions. Objectives ofthis on-going investigation are to develop routinesfor expediting the flow of materials, to apply newtechniques for simplifying and reducingtransportation, and to improve communicationamong market partners by providing modern ITtools. A review of the potential for furtherrationalization of harvesting operations also isprovided.
Field trials and studies of raw-material flow insawmills showed that using the bucking-to-order orbucking-to-value algorithms available from theonboard computers in harvesters providedsignificant economic benefits. Similar calculationswere also made for added values along the wood-supply chain, as derived from the application ofnewly developed transportation systems. A newcommunication network has been organized toimprove information exchange between marketpartners; its structure and advantages are discussedhere. Applications are envisioned for using Internetwebsites for marketing purposes.
Study results also are discussed. in addition todrawing some final conclusions, the importance ofappropriate education programs is deduced from thepersonal challenge of modern IT applications.
Keywords: added values; information technology;mechanized harvesting; transportation; wood-supplychain.
Harvesting and the Economics ofThinning: A State-of-Knowledge Report
Pieter D. KofmanDanish Forest and Landscape Research Institute, Kvak
Moellevej 31, DK 7100 Vejle, DenmarkTel: +45 75 88 22 11, FAX: +45 75 88 20 85, Email:
The practice of thinning is necessary for timberstand improvements such as concentrating theannual growth increment in fewer trees but of betterquality. in addition, thinning may help prevent windthrow, forest fires, insect damage, etc. However,thinning is increasingly difficult to carry outbecause of high labor costs and the low pricesreceived for small assortments. Large fluctuations inassortment price nearly prohibit long-term planning.
New technologies, e.g., multiple tree handling,computers, and central tire inflation, may possiblyreduce the costs of thinning. Even more importantthan during ordinary harvesting are the links in theforestry wood chain, which operate together toimprove quality and reduce costs. These can beaccomplished by improving the logistics of all therelated operations.
Although research is still focused on finding morerational ways to harvest and transport wood,attention should be increased on combiningsilvicultural and operational research to make standsmore easily harvested. Many of these issues will beaddressed at the next meeting of 3.09.00, to be heldin Canada in September 2001.
Keywords: forest wood chain; mechanization;motor-manual operation; new-product development;thinning costs
Future Scenarios for Wood ProcurementTimo Antero Leinonen
Mikkeli polytechnic, School of Forestry, Metsäopistontie100, FIN-76100 Pieksämäki, Finland
Tel: + 358 40 5266834, FAX: +358 15 7861450, Email:[email protected]
Forestry work has changed rapidly during the lastdecades. Some problems have also arisen; forexample, loggers have become unemployed while,at the same time, there has been a lack ofprofessional harvester operators. Whenever a long-term investment is made - whether in industrialplant, machinery, or education - reliable knowledgeabout the future is always valuable. A decisionmade today has later consequences. Forecastingover a limited time period is specific to each branchof human activity, and can vary from days todecades. The period used for future studies is
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considerably longer than that for conventionalforecasting.
The aim of this study was to analyse the changes inwood procurement until 2030, using future-studymethods. The scope of the study was forest industry,wood-based energy production, exports and importsof round wood, and international investments.Scenario methods were applied here. These methodswere based on the presumption that no singlepredictable future existed, but a number of futureswere possible. Decisions made today impact thefuture. The objective was to collect, analyse, andpresent, in written form, the knowledge of experts inforest technology. The results did not conflict withthe principles of forest-related scenarios created byother scientists. Such factors as globalization,energy production, nature conservation, andemployment will affect forestry and woodprocurement in the future.
Delphi is a commonly used method for futurestudies. The base material for Delphi was collectedin a seminar and through thematic interviews.Answers in this study were completely anonymous.People involved in the study were not able toassociate an answer with any particular person. Thefive scenarios were described in written form, andthe collected data enabled many more scenarios tobe devised. This method traditionally begins withthree to six scenarios, which are supposed to coverthe possible futures from negative to positive. Thefive final scenarios used here were 1) Junkyard, 2)Low price, 3) Single-grip harvester and forwarder,4) Terminals, and 5) Advanced Cut-To-Length.
The most important resource is not a naturalresource like forests, but a human resource such asknowledge. Natural resources, e.g., the amount ofarea covered by forest, are restricted by physicalfactors. The degree of utilization and the value ofproducts may be increased by using humanresources. This improves employment rates andstandards of living. in Finland, knowledge is vitalconcerning forests, forestry practices, and woodprocurement and processing. The deepest possiblecrisis results when forest-related knowledgevanishes.
Keywords: future studies, scenarios, woodprocurement.
The Implementation of Bucking-to-OrderHarvesting Systems in Germany - Risks
and Limits of Advanced HarvestingTechniques
Johannes RessmannUniversity Freiburg, Forest Products Laboratory,
Werderring 6, D - 79085 Freiburg, GermanyTel: +49761 2039242, FAX: +761 2033763, Email:
Because of relatively high timber prices, theGerman forestry industry has not been forced torationalize logging operations as much as wasnecessary in Scandinavia. Motor-manual harvestingsystems and the production of tree-lengthroundwood were and are still most common.Harvester technology was established in Germanyfollowing heavy storms in 1990 that blew downentire forests.
However, these harvesters cut only two or threedifferent lengths of sawlogs and a pulpwoodassortment, on a schematic basis. Except for aminimum specified diameter, crosscutting is doneindependent of any particular top diameter. Thisproduction of roundwood does not fit the demandsof specialized sawmills for well-defined ratios oflog length and top diameter.
The onboard computers of modern harvesters canoptimize the bucking of stems to achieve maximumvalue or fulfill a sawmillïs demand list. Withsupport from the State Forest Service, harvestingcontractors, and some sawmills, the Institute ofForest Utilisation and Work Science has conducteda two-year investigation of when and how abucking-to-order harvesting system could be appliedunder German forestry conditions. During this time,order lists for typical sawmills have been created. inseveral field trials, we compared the accuracy ofmeasurements by harvesters as well as the successin distributing logs (characterized by their lengthand top diameter) to fulfill the sawmillïs demandlist. We used simulation routines to analyze themonetary benefit of this new system versus thatassociated with standard bucking.
In most cases, our accuracy of measurement washigh under test conditions. However, generalguidelines for calibration are necessary at thenational level. Mill requirements for raw materialcan be formulated in price and demand lists.Following these lists in typical stands can changethe total volume and revenue that can be realized.Total revenue can vary by about 10% when differentbucking instructions are used, which cansignificantly affect the financial results of forestenterprises. Therefore, the use of simulation tools
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will become more important in pre-harvestplanning.
Although the concept of virtual organization andoperation is still far into the future, forest enterprisesand the sawing industry can profit from theadvanced cut-to-length systems already in place.Improving the general harvesting and processingconditions will be necessary to permit practicalimplementation of this technique. Maintaining apermanent supply of raw material to the sawmillcould cause further problems. To totally optimizethis complex system, an on-line data link betweenthe harvesters would be helpful. An integratedoptimization program could constantly control theprocessing status and adjust the entire chain ofproduction. International competition for timbermarkets also will force the German forest industryto rationalize the wood-supply chain. Our proposedadvances in the shortwood system could be one partof the possible solution.
U. S. Forest Engineering and OperationsResearch and Education in the FutureBryce J. Stokes, Joseph McNeel and Richard BrinkerUSDA Forest Service, Vegetation Management and
Protection Research, Post Box # 96090, DC 20090-6090Washington, USA
Tel: +1-202-205-1147, FAX: +1-202-205-2497, Email:[email protected]
Forest engineering and forest operations haveprovided the ways and means of utilizing a greatnatural resource for the control and benefit ofmankind. The discipline has been critical to thedevelopment of our resources, and will continue toplay an important, if not pivotal, role in both theconsumption and conservation of our forests.Research and education in this discipline providescientifically-based methods for managing ourforest resources wisely and effectively. Trainedprofessionals apply science and new technologies ina changing world to ensure sustainability. Thisrequires that innovative techniques and advancetechnologies be discovered and applied in roadbuilding, operations planning, road-layout design,harvesting, and regeneration. More will bedemanded from the forest operations researcher,educator, specialist, and practitioner in forestresource management during the 21st century.
This paper provides a brief history of forestengineering and operations, and describes how thisdiscipline and profession continue to meetchallenges in timber production, conservation, andsocial forestry. We also explore programs foreducation and application of forest-engineeringprinciples. Funding sources and specific research
goals have changed as personnel prepare for thefuture. The profession of forest engineering andoperations will market what it does best, whileintegrating with other professions to resolve criticalchallenges, and providing the leadership necessaryfor sustainable forest management in the 21stcentury.
Keywords: education; forest engineering; forestoperations; harvesting; research.
3.11.00 Forest operations andenvironmental protect ion
The Dynamic Analysis of SoilDeformation Caused by a Semi-legged
VehicleKazuhiro Aruga, Masahiro Iwaoka, Hideo Sakai and
Hiroshi KobayashiUniversity of Tokyo, Graduate School of Agricultural
and Life Sciences1-1-1 Yayoi Bunkyo-ku, 113-8657 Tokyo, Japan
FAX: +81-3-5800-6994, Email: [email protected]
Keywords: extended distinct element method; soildeformation; reaction force of soil; pantographicleg; semi-legged vehicle
A semi-legged vehicle that has two front stabilizerlegs with pads, two rear legs with wheels and ahydraulic boom for working implements and formoving the machine, has been studied for use inforest operations on steep and difficult sites. Thehydraulic boom is lowered to the ground and thestabilizers are raised so that the machine rests ononly the boom and the rear wheels and moves byapplying hydraulic power to the boom. If thesewheels are free-rolling and receive no drivingpower, great forces act on the boom. The machinesometimes has difficulty in moving on soft soilsbecause the boom sinks into the ground. Themachine needs to be improved to reduce the holesdug by the boom. Soil deformation caused by themachine was analyzed by EDEM (Extended DistinctElement Method).
FEM (Finite Element Method) has been applied toanalyze soil stress and strain. Soil deformationcaused by the machine can not be analyzed by FEMbecause of the shear band and high degree ofmaterial movement. in this study, EDEM wasintroduced. EDEM can analyze uncontinuousmaterials as it represents soil as independentparticles. EDEM can also analyze continuousmaterials by introducing pore-springs to representsurrounding fill materials. Based on Newton's law,independent equations of motion for each elementare established. A Voigt-type dynamic model of thecontact point is created and is composed of an
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elastic spring and a dashpot. By solving allequations of motion progressively, the motion ofelements in the time domain can be followed.
In this method, soil strength was mainly decided bythe spring constants and the coefficient of rollingfriction. The spring constants were decided bysimple shear tests or triaxial compression tests. Thecoefficients of rolling friction were decided byexperiments with soils and a pantographic leg. Theforces reacting on the leg were measured while theleg was moved in soils. in this simulation, thecoefficient of rolling friction was determined by trialand error. As for the effect of compaction in soft andhard soil, the difference in reaction forces could beexpressed. Phenomena such as soil particles notfalling into the holes dug by the leg could also beexpressed, when the proper criteria were set up inthe simulations.
External forces acting on the machine were gravityand the forces reacting on wheels and the boom. inthis study, only the forces reacting on the boomwere calculated by EDEM. Motion such as loweringthe boom to the ground, raising the stabilizers,advancing the machine and soil deformation couldbe expressed. The effect of the area of the foot wassimulated. When the machine with a larger foot areamoved on soft soil, the step became longer andenergy efficiency became higher. On the other hand,the step scarcely increased and energy efficiencybecame lower on hard soil because the reactionforces of soil increased.
Mitigating Forest Site Impacts -Role ofWoody Biomass and Root Mass
DecompositionMarilyn A. Buford, Bryce J. Stokes
USDA Forest Service, Vegetation Management andProtection Research
Post Box # 96090, DC 20090-6090 Washington, USATel: +1-202-205-1561, FAX: +1-202-205-2497, Email:
Keywords: site restoration; impact mitigation;carbon sequestration; mulching; soil carbon
Many forest sites are depleted and have limitedamounts of soil organic matter, nutrient pools, andcarbon capacity. Over many rotations, forestoperations contribute to soil impacts by changingsoil structure and removing above- and below-ground woody biomass. Limited research has beenconducted on understanding the role of biomass inbelow-ground processes, especially decompositionrates for buried/incorporated woody biomass androot masses. Little is understood about the effects ofincorporating carbon on soil carbon availability,carbon retention, and ultimately, nutrient cycles as a
way to mitigate forest soil impacts. Little, if any,work has been completed on understanding andoptimizing woody biomass form and composition tolengthen carbon sequestration periods, increase soilorganic matter, and/or restore and improve sitequality.
A potentially effective means of increasing andstabilizing carbon in forest soils is throughincorporation of biomass as a forest operationaltreatment. Mulching and rotor-tilling are methodsthat have been evaluated for incorporating loggingslash and residual vegetation into the soil --practices with potential for site conversion, fuel loadreduction, restoring degraded soils, and enhancingproductivity. Direct burial of biomass may offercarbon sequestration potential and long-term sitequality enhancement. A synthesis of information onoperational aspects of below-ground incorporationof buried/incorporated woody biomass is presentedas are research needs pertinent to understanding andmanaging the potential for woody biomassincorporation to mitigate forest soil impacts.
Tree root development in compactedsoils due to logging operations
Robert Robek, Hojka Kraigher, Bostjan KosirSlovenian forestry institute, Vecna pot 2, 1000 Ljubljana,
SloveniaFAX: 386 61 273589, Email: [email protected]
Introduction
In the investigations of the environmental stresscaused by logging operations we often lack theparameters for alteration detection and judgements.in study the authors have analysed the tree rootlength structure and small root biomass structure asindicators for stress situations caused by soilcompaction.
Material and methods:
Two studies were conducted: pot experiment innursery and skidder compaction field trial. in potexperiment the four year spruce (Picea abies (L.)Karst.) seedlings from nursery were assigned to oneof the following treatments: field control, potcontrol and compacted pot. Roots were washed freeof media, scanned and replanted. Field controlsamples were planted back into the field in nursery.Pot control samples were planted into thehomogenised soil from nursery in tin pots andgrown in controlled conditions. Compacted potsamples were planted into tin pots like controlsamples but the soil surface was compacted with100 kPa and later on treated like pot controlsamples. After one year the samples were dug out
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again and the root systems were analysed usingmanual and computer assisted procedures.
In the second study the unloaded hydrostatic drivenskidder Woody 110 (Perkins engine 76.5 kW, mass5.5 t; 5.3 m x 2.1 m with 500 mm standard tyres)performed 10 passes on the undisturbed brownforest soils at the soil moisture near field capacity.Before and after traffic the cylinder cores at 10 cmdepth were taken and soil dynamic deformingmodule and terrain profile was measured on 6profiles. Six months after the trial roots in the wheelrut were analysed using the computer assisted rootmorphology and the root biomass structure analysis.
Results
One year of growth of seedlings in pots resulted inover six fold increase of the total root length incontrol pots and compacted pots compared to thefield control seedlings using computer assisted rootmorphology measurements. The errors of thecomputer assisted root length measurements werecompensated using T/L ratio (number of tips permeter of total root length). When applied TL ratiostatistically significant difference between thecontrol pots compared to the compacted pots wasobtained.
The alterations of the soil physical properties infield compaction trial was confirmed with bulkdensity, percentage of coarse pores and soil dynamicdeforming module. Applied traffic causedsignificant alterations in average values of the totalroot biomass on both analysed depths as well asalive root biomass and live/dead ratio on the upper10 cm. We found less alive fine and small
root biomass in the compacted soils. Computerassisted analysis of the fine and small rootmorphology confirmed the observations duringprocessing of the volumetric samples. The averageTL ratio between the compacted and control rootsform the 10-20 cm depth significantly differ. Thedifference in fine root structure goes on the accountof the short root decline and the relative increase ofthe dead thicker small roots.
Discussion
In artificial and natural conditions the significantalterations regarding root morphology wereobserved. Root morphology of alive fine roots indisturbed mineral soils has showed decrease in theamount of nutrient-uptake-active short roots. Fineand small roots have shown high sensitivity forharvesting impacts but existing measurementmethods are too laborious for practical indicator.Further investigations must involve root vitalitydetermination instead of alive/dead classification
based on visual criteria. The correlations betweenroot morphology and visual disturbances areneeded. Regarding plant rooting the area of directvehicle-ground contact can be considered as a long-term reversible handicapped area. in sustainableforestry temporary ground corridors have to beevaluated and managed as a distinct disturbancecategory.
Biodegradable oils in the operation offorest machines
Alois SkoupyMendel University of Agriculture and Forestry, Dept.
Forestry and Forest Products TechnologyZemedelska 3, CZ-613 00 Brno, Czech Republic
Tel: 420-5-45134103, FAX: 420-5-45211422, Email:[email protected]
Forest machines need for their operation relativelyconsiderable amounts of oils both for oil fillings anddissipative lubrication of cutting elements oflogging machines. Losses of these oils in the naturalenvironment appear to be the cause of soil and waterpollution. A number of countries, particularlyEuropean ones, tries to prevent the pollution usinglaws on the obligatory use of biodegradable oils.
The paper presented deals with selected aspects ofthese measures:
- Measuring the dispersion of oils and its possibleconcentration on the soil surface. To evaluate oildispersion a radio-indicator method has beendeveloped making possible to quantify oildispersion immediately after cutting.
- Evaluation of the usability of oils at lowtemperatures. A new method has been developedmaking possible to evaluate pumping ability of oilsand to determine the minimum temperature ofusability with the accuracy of 1°C.
- Evaluation of the temperature-oxidation stability -oil polymerization, which can be the reason of theincreased failure rate of some operational parts offorest machines.
- Diagnostic signals for determination of the servicelife of fillings for hydraulic mechanisms and gearboxes. It is possible to say that oil should bereplaced at that time when peroxide number reachesits maximum value and its decrease begins.
As for the evaluation of oil usability under lowtemperatures and their temperature-oxidationresistance it is possible to say that procedurescontained in the International Standard Organisation(ISO) Standard proposals do not provide utilisableresults.
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The aim of the paper is to contribute to achievingthe state when ecologically more suitable oilscharacterized at the same time by excellent technicalparameters will be used. Thus, one of the mostimportant negative effects of forest machines on thenatural environment would be minimized.
Keywords: forest technology; forest machines;biodegradable oils; oil dispersion; oil evaluation
Harvesting impacts and long-term siteproductivity: the South African
experienceColin Smith
Institute for Commercial Forestry Research, Post Box #10028, 3209, Scottsville, South Africa
Tel: +331 62314 FAX:, FAX: +331 68905, Email:[email protected]
The widespread use of mechanical harvestingmachinery during clear-felling operations in SouthAfrican forest plantations has led to concern aboutpotential effects on long-term site productivity. Thispaper describes the results from a series of long-term field trials, carried out by the Institute forCommercial Forestry Research (ICFR) during thelast decade, addressing the effects of soilcompaction and disturbance on soil physicalproperties and tree growth.
A wide range of harvesting operations were testedon a number of sites throughout South Africa whichwere planted to species of Eucalyptus spp. (mainlyE. grandis) and Pinus spp. in general, soilcompaction/disturbance has resulted in a range ofgrowth responses from a 6% increase to an 21%decrease in growth for Eucalyptus spp. and a 47%decrease for Pinus spp. depending on sitecharacteristics and age of trees. The effect of soilcompaction on tree growth depended on soil textureand depth. The greatest negative effect on treegrowth occurred on silt loam soils and a slightlypositive effect on very sandy soils. Measurementstaken across the trial sites indicated that the effect ofsoil compaction on available water capacity (AWC)was complex and soil texture dependent. On theolder trials, soil compaction levels, as measured bypenetrometer soil strength, were still very high 5and 7 years after the harvesting treatments. Changesin soil physical properties following the impactshelped explain growth differences but it is likelythat nutritional effects were also playing animportant role.
The lack of major growth decreases of Eucalyptusspp. following substantial compaction anddisturbance in some cases can be attributed to anumber of factors. in most growing regions SouthAfrican forestry soils have inherently low bulk
densities due to high topsoil organic carboncontents. On such soils low to moderate soilcompaction may improve water holding capacity ofthe soils following compaction in generally water-limiting environments. It is likely that the negativeeffects of compaction on root development may beoffset by perforation of compacted soils by rootchannels from previous rotations and by rootsystems gradually overcoming compacted zones.The effects of soil disturbance, e.g. rutting,loosening and compaction in close proximity causedby logger operations, have had a greater affect ongrowth than operations causing deep compaction.This suggests that key growth processes, such asfine root development and nutrient cycling in thetopsoil, have been affected. Cumulative effects ofsite damage are unknown and will be difficult todetect without multi-rotational trials beingestablished.
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Division 4Inventory, Growth,Yield, Quantitative andManagement Sciences
CoordinatorProf. Dr. Klaus GADOW V.
University of Goettingen
Institut für Forsteinrichtung und Ertragskunde
Büsgenweg 5, D-37077 Göttingen,
Germany
fax: +49-551-399787
tel: +49-551-393472
e-mail: [email protected]
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4.01.04 Using models for forest growth andstand dynamics to evaluate sustainabi l i ty
The characterisation and incorporationof spatial stochasticity in individual tree
growth modelsJulian Christian Fox
The University of Melbourne, Institute of Land and FoodResources
School of Forestry, Victoria 3052 Parkville, Australia
This paper will outline a methodology for thecharacterisation and incorporation of spatialstochasticity in individual tree growth models. Themethodology was developed in response to agrowing realisation that the individual trees offorests are not spatially independent. The spatialprocesses of competition and environmentalheterogeneity operating among individual trees inproximity create an observed spatial dependence inindividual tree attributes (Matern 1960).Competition for limited resources creates a negativedependence of a tree's size and growth on that of itsneighbours, while environmental heterogeneitycreates a positive dependence as neighbours aresubject to similar local environmental conditions.Spatial dependence has been observed in treediameters or basal areas (Reed and Burkhart 1985),tree diameter increments (Biondi et al. 1994), treeheights (Samra et al. 1989), tree height increments(Samra et al. 1989) and the residuals of individualtree growth models (Lui and Burkhart 1994b). Thepresence of spatial dependence in individual treeattributes invalidates many of the classical statisticalprocedures (Matern 1994). Thus the only validstatistical interpretation of spatially distributedindividual tree attributes is as a field of dependentrandom variates from an unknown stochasticprocess (Tomppo 1986). It is the central aim of thisresearch to identify this unknown stochastic process.Further, the spatial stochastic component ofindividual tree models is rarely studied (Dennis etal. 1985) but is universally prevalent in applicationsof individual tree models (Burkhart and Gregoire1994). A methodology for characterising andincorporating spatial stochasticity in individual treemodels will be described. Important stages in thismethodology include.- Identifying an optimal individual tree growthmodel for a particular forest setting.- Identifying an optimal spatial stochastic structure.- Interpretation of spatial stochasticity in terms ofthe causal biologicalprocesses of competition and environmentalheterogeneity. Resolving the spatial stochasticcomponent attributable to each biological process.
- Modelling spatial stochasticity through standdevelopment.- Incorporating spatial stochasticity in individualtree growth projections using stochastic predictionframeworks.
The central objective of this paper will be todetermine if the characterisation and incorporationof spatial stochasticity improves the accuracy andprecision of individual tree growth models for longand short term projections of forest growth.Independent validation datasets will be used toassess the performance of models whose spatialstochasticity is characterised and incorporatedagainst the purely deterministic alternative.Sensitivity analysis will be used to illustrate thesensitivity of model accuracy and precision todiffering magnitudes of spatial stochasticity. Thisresearch will determine if the characterisation andincorporation of spatial stochasticity is worthwhilein terms of improved model performance. Spatiallyexplicit individual tree data from both the native andplantation estates of New South Wales, Australia,will be used for developing the methodology as wellas for validation.
The ratio of live crown length tosapwood area as a measure of crownsparseness: relation to relative social
position, foliage loss, and growthpotential
Douglas A. MaguireOregon State University, Department of Forest
Resources, 209 Peavy Hall, OR 97331 Corvallis, USATel: 541-737-4215, FAX: 541-737-3049, Email:
In many temperate forest species, sapwood cross-sectional area at some height on the stem serves as avery effective surrogate for tree leaf area due to thephysiological balance between the conductivecapacity of sapwood and the transpirational surfacearea of foliage. Live crown length also functions asa powerful predictor of tree growth and vigor due toits correlation with the total photosynthetic capacityof the tree. However one possible pitfall of livecrown length is variation in leaf area densityallowing total leaf area to vary for a given crownlength. For example varying defoliation by insectsor premature needle loss from fungal diseases maynot change the live crown length, but would result ina significantly sparser crown with lower total leafarea. in absence of significant pest problems, similarvariation in crown density can be observed across arange in site quality for many conifer species inwestern North America. Assuming a close dynamicequilibrium between foliage amount and sapwoodarea, the latter measure may be more reliable under
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such pest conditions or site variability. Applicationof sapwood area to indicate total foliage area,however, provides no evidence of biologicallysignificant differences in leaf area density. in thisregard, an index that combines both live crownlength and sapwood area adds considerablepredictive power to either dimension alone.Specifically, the ratio of live crown length tosapwood area can be interpreted as an index ofcrown sparseness: the greater the length of livecrown needed to accumulate a given amount of leafarea (as represented in sapwood area), the sparserthe crown must be. To assess its potentialperformance, CL:SA was computed for Douglas-firtrees over a range in size, stand density, site quality,and condition. This index ranged from 2 to 100when expressed as cm:m2 with a mean value ofapproximately 12. in general, individual trees with ahigh CL:SA have a lower relative height within thestand; however, even after correcting for standdensity and the relative size of a tree within thestand, individual tree basal area growth increasessignificantly with decreasing CL:SA. Similarly, thisindex increases with increasing severity of needleloss on sites where Swiss needle cast is causingpremature loss of foliage in western North America.Patterns in the variation of CL:SA within a tree,among trees within a stand, and among standsacross western Oregon lend some insight into thecomplexity of this variable, as well as its potentialdiagnostic power.
Allocation of Leaf Area to IntegrateStand Structural Features into Forest
Management DecisionsKevin L. O'Hara
University of California, Division of Forest Science, 145Mulford Hall #3113, CA 94720-3114 Berkeley, USA
Tel: 510 642-2127, FAX: 510 642-6632, Email:[email protected]
Integration of stand structure features intomanagement objectives is a frequent requirement ofevolving forest management strategies. Thesestrategies attempt to accommodate multiple resourceobjectives through design and maintenance ofcertain types of stand structures. Generally, theseobjectives are met by stand-level treatments whichcreate stands with a variety of tree ages, species, andcanopy strata. A method of integration of structuralfeatures through distribution of leaf area has beendeveloped to design structures for management ofmultiaged stands. Stands are designed by allocatingleaf area to stand components such as stand ageclasses, species, or crown class groups. Increment ofstand components can be predicted from componentleaf area.
Stand volume increment is obtained by summing thepredicted increment of individual stand components.Measures of tree vigor, other stocking parameters,and structural development can also be projectedover time. The result is a flexible system fordesigning stand structures using variables that areimportant to assessing ecosystem function andproductivity. This system is appropriate for standswith two or more age classes, or stands typicallydescribed as uneven-aged. Applications fromseveral stand types including Pinus ponderosa,Pinus contorta, and mixed Picea abies/Pinussylvestris are presented.
Accounting for interactions inhypothesis testing of simulated
scenarios with a forest growth processmodel
Pablo ParysowArizona University, School of Forestry, PO Box 15018,
AZ 86011-5018 Flagstaff, USA
Comparison of scenarios through process models isan important aspect in ecological simulation.However, uncertainty (estimation error) is usuallynot accounted for in simulation studies that comparescenarios. in this work we propose and approach forhypothesis testing through process modelsaccounting for uncertainty in treatment entities(model factors that represent the scenarios ortreatments) and external entities (remaining modelfactors) that interact with treatment entities. Externalentities may be thought of as a representation of theenvironment where the simulation experiment isconducted. The method presented here generalizesprevious work which assumed no interactionbetween external and treatment entities. Theproposed approach analyzes differences betweenpredictions produced by the treatments, rather thanabsolute values of predictions from each treatment.Low-order orthogonal polynomials are fitted toidentify entity interactions in the process model. Theexample analyzed to illustrate this method is basedon indirectly testing the effect of tree spacing on thegrowth of a forest stand of a tree species for whichspacing is inversely related to wood density.Specifically, we applied a forest growth processmodel to test the effect of different wood densities(resulting from two initial spacings: 3 and 6 meters)on the growth of basal area in a stand of red pine(Pinus resinosa Ait.) from ages 36 to 60 years in theGreat Lakes region of North America. in turn, weused results from a field study to characterize theeffect of spacing on wood density. Accounting foruncertainty in interacting external entities produceda variance of the mean difference between predicted
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treatment means that was six times larger than thevariance obtained when that source of uncertaintywas not accounted for. Basal area resulting from thewider spacing was significantly greater regardless ofwhether uncertainty in interacting external entitieswas accounted for. However, the power of the testwas considerably affected by the type of uncertaintyaccounted for.
Individual-based modelling of tropicalforest growth and yield: structure and
calibration of the SYMFOR 2000modelling framework
Paul Phillips, P.R. van Gardingen, G.J. Lawson, A.D.Friend, D.C. Mobbs
The University of Edinburgh, Institute of Ecology andResource Management
West Mains Road, EH9 3JG Edinburgh, ScotlandFAX: +44 131 667 2601, Email: [email protected]
For several years there has been an identified needfor predicting the effects of silvicultural interventionon future forest growth and yield. Forest concessioncompanies in Indonesia collect data from permanentsample plots (PSPs), but these data are not, ingeneral, analysed. Scientific researchers, forestmanagers, policy makers and certification bodies areall interested in using PSP data to predict forestgrowth and yield. SYMFOR 2000 is the latestversion of SYMFOR (Sustainable Yield Modellingfor tropical Forestry), which is designed to meetthese needs for such users.
SYMFOR is a computer simulation program usingPSP data in a framework designed to houseindividual-based forest growth and yield models. Itmakes predictions about the future growth and yieldof tropical forests following silviculturalinterventions. The individual-based nature of theframework allows an explicit and unique treatmentof the processes of damage and silviculturaltechniques, such as the creation of loggingskidtrails, damage due to felling and enrichmentplanting, and allows alternative methods to be testedon simulated forest. A combination of deterministiccalculations and Monte Carlo representations of realstochastic processes lead to a realistic representationof growth and other forest processes in most areasof lowland dipterocarp forest in Southeast Asia.
The framework currently contains a process-basedtree growth sub-model and empirical sub-models oftree growth, natural mortality, ingrowth anddamage, as well as several silvicultural managementoption routines. The process-based tree-growthmodel incorporates the effects of competition forlight, water and nutrients to predict individual treegrowth after each model time-step derived from the
"Hybrid v3.0 model"(Friend et al. 1997. SYMFORgives a representation of the environment in whicheach tree grows, from which the response andinteractions of individule tree sub-models can becalculated. Other sub-models necessary forsimulating the state of the forest are empirical,having been devised and calibrated directly fromreal data.
The paper describes the framework, the modelswithin it, the calibration process and the uncertaintyof results arising from the models. Comparisons aremade between the empirical and process-based tree-growth models, and also between individual-basedmodels and other model types more traditionallyused for tropical forestry. The paper concludes thatwhilst different model types may be appropriate fordifferent applications, the influence of specificsilvicultural interventions may best be predictedusing individual-based models, and that these havean important role to play in future sustainableforestry management practice.
Modeling effects of metabolism and 3Dcrown structure on tree growth
Risto Sievänen, Eero Nikinmaa, Christian Messier andJari Perttunen
The Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa ResearchCentre, Post Box # 18, FIN-01301 Vantaa, Finland
Tel: +358-9-85705373, FAX: +358-9-85705361, Email:[email protected]
We give an overview on the functional-structuraltree models (FMSs) that are outgrowth ofdevelopments in process-based models (PBMs) onone hand and morphological tree models on theother. We analyze what kind of phenomena can bebest studied using FSMs and outline briefly thestructure of FSMs. We identify the distribution ofmetabolites and growth as one of the main focalpoints to be investigated in conjunction with FSMs.We discuss different approaches that can be appliedin construction of the model component fordistribution of growth. We present allometricrelationships, the pipe model theory, and morecomplicated methods that are based on consideringthe translocation of metabolic products.
Then we present a FSM Lignum that treats a tree asa collection of a large number of simple units thatcorrespond to the organs of the tree. The modeldescribes the three-dimensional structure of the treecrown and derives growth in terms of themetabolism taking place in these units. The timestep is one year. The structural units are treesegments, branching points and buds. A branchingpoint separates each pair of tree segments. The budsproduce new tree segments, branching points and
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buds. The tree segments contain wood, bark andfoliage. A model tree consisting of simple elementstranslates conveniently to a list structure: thecomputer program implementing Lignum treats thetree as a collection of lists.
We have adjusted Lignum to a number of treespecies, e.g. Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) andsugar maple (Acer saccharum). The structural unitsof Lignum have been modified for each modeledtree species. We discuss what kind of modificationsdifferent tree species (broadleaf versus conifer)require. We present simulations that depict how thephysiological traits and branching patterns affecttree growth in different light climates correspondingto different stand structures. Finally, in the light ofthe simulations, we discuss the utility of FSMs as acomponent of stand level growth models.
Uneven-aged forest management, doesit combine sustainability and
productivity?Hubert Sterba
University of Agricultural Sciences in Vienna, Institute ofForest Growth and Yield, Peter Jordanstrasse 82, A-1190
Vienna, AustriaTel: +43-1-47654/4201, Email: [email protected]
Uneven-aged Forest Management (Plenterwald,Dauerwald) is frequently assumed to better meet therequirements of sustainability than even-aged forestmanagement with clearcuts, and at the same timeallow high revenues, thus being most productive interms of economic values too. The objective of thispresentation is to compare productivity in terms ofgrowth and yield and in terms of monetary valueusing a combination of growth series methodologyand an individual tree growth modelling approach.
By definition, in uneven-aged managementsustainability of wood production is given on thestand level and not only on the level of themanagement district. Thus, to compare the twosystems, clear cut and uneven-aged management,the unit to be compared with the steady state unevenaged stand must be a series of even-aged stands,their ages ranging from 0 (clear cut) until rotationage (Hundeshagen's "Normalwald") on the samesite. This can be achieved by (i) searching for suchstands, assessing their increment and estimating thevolume removed by thinning, or (ii) using anindividual tree growth modelling approach, thussimulating thinning an even-aged stand in a way thatresults in an uneven-aged structure similar to that ofthe steady state uneven-aged stand. in a combinationof both approaches first two growth series were builtby selecting stands representing the following stand
development stages in two different regions, thusresulting in a total of 16 plots:
Clear cut system: (1) Clear cut, (2) Pole stage stand,(3) Near mature stand, (4) Mature stand.
Transition system: (1) Mature stand withregeneration < 1.3 m, (2) Mature stand withregeneration > 1.3 m, (3) Two storey stand, (4)Steady state uneven-aged stand
In order to not confuse species mixture effect withthat of uneven-aged management, only pure Norwayspruce stands were selected, allowing only for lessthan 10% basal are of other tree species. Theindividual tree growth models MOSES andPROGNAUS were used to simulate the transitionfrom one stage to the next. By trial and error thetype of thinning and individual tree harvesting wassearched for, which best produced the structure ofthe following development stage, measured in termsof volume per hectare, tree number and dbh-distribution. Finally the harvesting in the steady-state uneven-aged stand was simulated for fortyyears in a way that its dbh-distribution stayedunchanged.
Using assortment tables and models to estimateharvesting and hauling costs allowed to convertproductivity in terms of wood into monetary values.in this way three management systems could becompared: 1st the clear cut system with a 125 yearrotation, 2nd the "natural regeneration system"where the old stand is removed as soon asregeneration is established, and 3rd the steady stateuneven-aged management system. Thesecomparisons were based on the followingassumptions: (1) The felling and harvesting systemis the same in all three management systems,namely tree felling by chain saw and hauling byassortments. in this harvesting and hauling systemthe costs per m3 depend on tree size, branchiness ofthe trees and other technical parameters; (2) There isalways sufficient natural regeneration, not hamperedby anything except by competition; (3) There are nodifferences in wood quality produced in all threemanagement systems, except those resulting fromtree diameter and height.
The main results are: (1) The mean annualincrement (m.a.i.) in the clear cut system is lowest;(2) Mean diameter of the harvested volumeincreases distinctly from the clear cut systems to thesteady state uneven-aged management system, andthus revenues per year and hectare increase in thesame direction.
Keywords: Uneven-aged management, individualtree growth models, Norway spruce, Picea abies L.
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Dynamics of height differentiation insingle tree growth models for young
Norway spruce plantationsSauli Valkonen
Finnish Forest Research Institute, Post Box # 18, FIN-01301 Vantaa, Finland
Tel: +358 9 857 051, FAX: +358 9 857 05 361, Email:[email protected]
Keywords: modeling, simulation, stand dynamics,stand structure, growth, Picea abies.
A tree level growth and yield model set has beenconstructed for simulating the development ofyoung Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.)plantations under alternative treatment regimes inFinland. A major part of the model set consists ofheight distribution and individual tree height growthmodels for spruce and two admixture species.
The height growth model has two components: Apotential growth (dominant height) model, and amultiplier model that accounts for the variationbetween trees within a stand. The chosen modelstructure is intended to produce an exact matchbetween stand level dominant height developmentand the average height increment of each dominanttree, and to describe the height differentiation withinstands that results from growth variations betweenindividuals.
Surprisingly wide height distributions wereobserved in the data from 36 even-aged youngstands. Most of the height differences had resultedfrom growth differences during the earliest years,when the variation in microsite properties, weedcompetition, and biotic and abiotic damages tends tobe largest. Having overcome the conditions thatinduced a slow start, most (but not all) small treesincreased their height growth. Competition betweentrees was not intensive enough yet to control theirheight growth. Additionally, individual treesshowed large growth variations between successiveperiods. A substantial proportion of the spruces hademerged from natural regeneration, adding youngerindividuals to the smaller end of the heightdistribution. All these components resulted in alively random type exchange in tree social positionsthat decreased in frequency and amplitude withincreasing stand height.
The single tree height growth multiplier model wasdesigned to account for all these elements except forthe random growth variations. The use of randomparameters in nonlinear models might offer a way tosolving the problem. The single tree model isintended for use in concert with the dominant heightgrowth model, expressing the general relationship
between height and height growth in the population.The model set results in constant height positions,slightly increasing absolute height differences anddecreasing height ratio differences between treesexcept for the extreme smallest trees that retain theirlow social positions.
4.01.08 Effects of environmental changes onforest growth
Recent changes in climatic conditionsand their potential role in acceleratedtree growth on sites in Central Europe
Hans-Peter KahleUniversity Freiburg, Institute for Forest Growth,Bertoldstrasse 17, D-79085 Freiburg, Germany
Tel: +49 761 203 3739, FAX: +49 761 203 3740, Email:[email protected]
Keywords: Forest growth; forest site productivity;climate change; time series modeling; geostatisticalmodeling
On many sites in Europe forest productivity hasincreased considerably during recent decades.Accelerated tree growth is especially pronounced onsites in Central Europe. Some exceptions seem to lieon the periphery of Europe where the signal is lessstrong. in a current multidisciplinary pan-Europeanstudy hypothesized important causes of the observedtree growth acceleration are investigated: (1)changes in physical climatic conditions (2)increased atmospheric deposition (esp. nitrogen) (3)increased carbon dioxide fertilization, and (4)changes in land use.
In this report the potential role of recent changes inclimatic conditions (primarily air temperature andprecipitation) in accelerated tree growth isaddressed. The retrospective growth data used inthis study originate from several case studies as wellas from forest inventories. Time series ofmeteorological parameters have been obtained frommeteorologic monitoring networks. Both data setsare analyzed in the temporal and spatial domainusing uni- as well as multivariate statisticalmethods. Trend-analysis methods are used in orderto detect systematic changes in the behavior of thetime series, whereas changes in the realized spatialpatterns of the variables of interest are identified anddescribed using geostatistical methods.
Climatic conditions have considerably changedduring recent decades. The changes in CentralEurope are characterized by a strong seasonalcomponent: winter months have becomesignificantly warmer and wetter, whereas during thesummer months the probability of moisture shortage
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resulting in drought stress for forest trees hasincreased.
Empirical models describing the relationshipsbetween variations in weather and tree radial growthare retrospectively parameterized on a subset of thedata. These models demonstrate that moistureavailability is control-ling tree growth on many sitesin Central Europe. Based on time varyingcoefficient models it is shown, that trees haveresponded increasingly sensitive to variations inmoisture availability during recent decades.However, these findings are curious, because at thesame time growth accelerated. Results of themultivariate statistical analysis indicate that besidemeteorological parameters additional factors have tobe taken into account in order to describe theobserved growth changes. A detailed outlook onhow these complex interactions will be approachedin the ongoing research project is given.
The likely effects of increasing CO2 andtemperature on forest growth in
different regions of the worldMiko U.F. Kirschbaum
CSIRO, Forestry and Forest Products, PO Box E4008,ACT 2604 Kingston, Australia
Tel: +61-2-6281 8252, FAX: +61-2-6281 8312, Email:[email protected]
Climate change can affect forest growth throughmany processes, and the ultimate response indifferent systems may be affected by the response ofany one of those processes, or through theirinteractions. The work presented here concentrateson two aspects of climate change, increasing CO2
concentration and temperature.
Increasing CO2 concentration directly affectsphotosynthesis and stomatal conductance, andincreasing temperature affects photosynthesis,organic matter decomposition rates and vapourpressure deficit of the air and thereby the water lossfrom tree canopies. Increasing temperature can alsoreduce frost damage in cold regions, but increaseheat damage in regions that are already hot.
In addition to these direct effects, there are manyindirect effects. For example, the sensitivity ofphotosynthesis to CO2 concentration increases withincreasing temperature, and the optimumtemperature for photosynthesis increases withincreasing CO2 concentration. There are furtherfeed-back effects between carbon gain, watereconomy and nutrient availability.
Because of these interacting factors, the response offorest growth to CO2 concentration and temperaturecan be different for regions currently experiencing
different temperatures, and it can shift with changesin the degree of water and nutrient limitation indifferent systems.
Some of these differences between regions are fairlyobvious: growth in boreal systems is more likely tobenefit from increasing temperature than growth insystems already experiencing super-optimaltemperatures where further increases in tmpeatureare more likely to have negative effects. Similarly, itis now fairly well established that the response ofsystems to increasing CO2 concentration is morepronounced under warmer, and under water-limited,conditions than under colder conditions orconditions with adequate water supply. Otherinteractions are less obvious: how would growthunder water-limited conditions in cool conditionsrespond to increasing temperature relative to thegrowth response of similarly water-limited forestsalready growing under warmer conditions?
The effect of these direct and indirect effects andtheir interactions following climate change arereviewed. A range of responses are investigated indetail with the forest-growth model CenW. Itsimulates the response of forest growth and thestorage of soil organic matter with climatic changes.The interactions between these various factors onultimate forest growth are described for forests indifferent regions of the world.
Recent changes in atmosphericdeposition, soil chemistry, and stand
nutrition as possible causes for anincreased forest growth in Europe
Joerg PrietzelMunich University of Technology, Chair of Soil Science,
Am Hochanger 13, D-85354 Freising, GermanyTel: +49 8161 71 4734, FAX: +49 8161 71 4738, Email:
Keywords: Forest growth; Europe; recent changes;stand nutrition; soil chemistry; atmosphericdeposition
For many intensively-studied forest stands inEurope, a significant positive shift in growth hasoccurred during the last 50 years. The systematicgrowth increases were particularly pronounced inCentral Europe and southern Scandinavia. Therespective area has been also subject to changes inforest utilization practices and climate conditions, aswell as to increased atmospheric deposition ofnitrogen and soil-acidifying agents. Atmospheric Nand acid inputs often exceeded ecosystem demandand acid consumption by weathering processes,respectively.
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Consequently, a significant N soil acidification andeutrophication, which often by far exceeded naturalrates, was noticed for many European soils. Soilacidification becomes become evident by aconsiderable decrease of the soil pH and a distinctdepletion of base cation pools in the rooted topsoilwithin a few decades. N eutrophication of forestsoils becomes evident by either a decreased forestfloor C/N ratio, or by an increased pool of humus inthe humic topsoil, with its C/N ratio remainingunchanged.
Long-term (20 to 40 yr) temporal courses of standnutrition in Central European forest ecosystems,which often had been depleted seriously in N, P, andbase cations by intensive, non-sustainable forestutilization for centuries, indicate a recent recoveryof the nutrition status of many European forests.This recovery is particularly distinct for N, which isprobably due to high atmospheric N deposition.Besides other factors, this improvement in Nnutrition is suggested to be a key factor for theincreased growth that has been reported recently formany European forests. However, there is alsoevidence for a tendency towards imbalancednutrition on N-eutrophicated, acidified sites. Forthese sites, in the long run increasing nutrientimbalances may jeopardize forest growth andecosystem stability.
At present, information about the intensity of thementioned changes in soil chemistry and standnutrition as well as of recent growth increases inEuropean forests, and the relationship between thesefactors is hardly available on a spatial scale, butonly for selected study sites.
This contribution summarizes the currentlyavailable information regarding the relationshipsbetween changes of the growth and the nutritionalstatus of European forests. It links the observedrelationships to atmospheric deposition and soilchemistry, and tries to draw some preliminaryconclusions concerning the potential causes for therecent growth increases that have been observed formany European forests. Additionally, acomprehensive research approach to obtain moredetailed information regarding the spatial pattern ofchanges in the growth of European forests and thedependence of these changes on changes ofimportant growth factors, is presented. This researchapproach is currently being realized within the EU-funded research project REGOGNITION, whereRelationships Between Recent Changes of Growthand Nutrition of Norway Spruce, Scots Pine andEuropean Beech Forests in Europe are investigatedby intensive collaboration of 25 research groups in14 European countries.
Accelerating forest growth in EuropeHeinrich Spiecker
University Freiburg, Institute for Forest Growth,Bertoldstrasse 17, D-79085 Freiburg, Germany
Tel: +49 761 203 3739, FAX: +49 761 203 3740, Email:[email protected]
Keywords: Forest growth; forest site productivity;European forests Growth of European forests haschanged considerably in recent decades. Forestgrowth has increased on many sites. The observedchanges may have been caused partly byinconsistencies in inventory methods, by changes inforest area, by changes in species as well as in agecomposition. Excluding these factors various studiesshowed that site productivity has increased on manyforest sites.
An increasing growth trend has been observed in thesouthern regions of Northern Europe, in mostregions of Central Europe and in some parts ofSouthern Europe. Only in exceptional cases siteproductivity has decreased. Possible causes for thechanges in site productivity are changes in land use,in forest management, in natural disturbances and inclimate such as CO2 increase and nitrogendeposition. The changes in site productivity mayhave been caused by one factor, a factorcombination or by regionally changing factorswhich finally had similar effects on growth. Thesignificance of each factor possibly varies in spaceand time. Growth responses to the influencingfactors are modified by site and stand conditions.The observed results led to intensive publicdiscussions, because they were connected withforest decline, an emotional topic, especially for theGerman public.
The long-term increase of growth clearly indicateschanges of site conditions. Consumers of wood mayappreciate the increased wood resources. Increasedcarbon storage potential may be an other effect offaster forest growth. However, these changes mayalso be associated with ecological and economicrisks. Increased growth affects nutrient cycling.Changes in nutrient and water supply may alsoaffect species composition and tree health. Thedensity of forests is rising, if removals do notincrease at the same time. Dense forests offer lessspace for light demanding tree species and groundvegetation to live and therefore may affectbiodiversity. Higher trees and a high standingvolume may increase the risk for water stress andstorm damage. Wood quality may be altered as well.Changes in site productivity have an impact onforest management, for example on speciesselection, amelioration, regeneration techniques,
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weed control, tending, pruning and cutting strategies(incl. allowable cut). Past growth observations maynot reflect actual growth adequately. Therefore,improved anal-ysis and prediction tools are neededto ensure continuous sustainable management.
As long as neither the causes of the observed growthchanges are fully understood nor futuredevelopment of the causing agents can be predictedthe risks involved in these changes cannot beassessed in a reliable way. The amount andcomplexity of the scientific problems evolving fromthe observed forest growth trends show thatsolutions can only be developed by the cooperationof scientists covering various disciplines on aEuropean or world wide level. One approach to geta better understanding of the possible causes is theRECOGNITION research project which iscoordinated by the European Forest Institute andfunded by the European Union. in this project 25partners work together.
4.01.00 / 4 .02.00 / 1 .07.00 Using growthmodels for better forest management in the
tropics
A system for yield regulation in naturaltropical forests
Denis Alder, Howard L. WrightConsultant in Forest Biometrics, 9 Stansfield Close,
Headington, OX3 8TH Oxford, United KingdomEmail: [email protected]
Conventionally, yield regulation in natural forestsuses either aggregated stand tables and simpleassumptions of growth and mortality rates whichtreat the forest as spatially, floristically andstructurally homogeneous, or complex dynamicmodels that require extensive permanent sample plotinformation. This paper presents a method of yieldregulation based on equal volume coupes that can bederived from static inventory information alone. Themethod allows for spatial variation in stand structureand composition. Growth parameters for species areestimated from tables of pan-tropical growth ratesallied to information on typical size, wood density,and ecological guild. Logging damage and standdensity effects on growth are also allowed for basedon pan-tropical studies. The method seeks toprovide sustained volume production over time fromthe whole managed area. Constraints can beimposed at the species level reflecting statutory,environmental, or commercial limitations. Thesystem is packaged as a Windows-based computerprogram. It is designed to be practical for bothsmall-scale management typical for community andfor larger industrial-scale logging, and is especially
intended for situations where local permanentssample plot data is limited or absent.
Natural forest productivity in severalVenezuelan life zones and possibilities
of their ecological sustainablemanagement
N. de Bello, Torres-Lezama, A. and Ramirez-Angulo, H.Universidad de Los andes, Grupo de Investigación
BIODESUS. INDEFOR Facultad de Ciencias Forestalesy Ambientales, Vía Los Chorros de Milla, Marida,
VenezuelaFAX: 58 74 714643, Email: [[email protected]]
The understanding of changes in the productivity ofnatural forests helps to adopt valid options for forestmanagement planning and the development ofsystems that assure forest sustainability. in thispaper we study interannual variation of tropicalforest biomass productivity in several life zones(sensu Holdridge) of Venezuela. This is possiblebecause this country has a network of growthpermanent plots that has been measured with a nearannual frequency for over 30 years; an exceptionalcase in the tropics. Twenty four 0.25 ha (50 x 50 m)plots, located in six life zones, were chosen: tropicalthorn woodland (T-tw), tropical very dry forest (T-vdf), tropical moist transition dry forest (T-m/df),tropical moist forest (T-mf), tropical lower montanemoist forest (T-M-wf) and tropical montane wetforest (T-M-wf). Forest productivity is estimatedbased on successive measurements, from the time ofplot establishment, of tree girth at breast height,subsequently converted to diameter (d). Aerialbiomass is calculated with individuals of d 10 cmby life zone and for the total period throughregression equations developed for tropical forests.The T-mf (km92) presented the highest meanproductivity with 3,83 Mg ha-1 yr-1, following indescendent order the T-m/df (2,86), T-mf of RioGrande (2,64), T-vdf (2,33), T-M-wf (2,09), T-tw (-0,01) and the T-M-wf) (-0,43). These results areinterpreted with regard to climatic characteristics,soil texture, carbon and nitrogen soil content, andforest dynamics.
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Growth Performance and Yield Potentialof Populus Deltoides Bartr. in
Agroforestry Plantations in Punjab,India
R. S. Dhanda, I.B. KaurPunjab Agricultural University, Department of Forestry& Natural Resources, College of Agriculture, Ludhiana,
141004 Punlab, IndiaFAX: 91-161-400946
The economy of the Punjab State, situated in thenorth-western part of India, is mainly agrarian 83-84% of its total geographical area under cultivation.The recorded forest area in the state is just 5.6% ofwhich only 2.7% has a crown density of 40% andmore and are distributed largely in the form of stripplantations along the roads, rainway lines andcanals. The rest are just of protective nature in thesubmontane Shivalik out crops, with no dense forestworth the name. The agriculture in the state ishighly capital-intensive and over-exhaustive onwater and soil resources. Such a land use scenariotransformed the state into a wood-deficit state,where 95-98% of its industrial and constructiontimber requirements are met with imports fromother states. The adoption of Eucalyptus tereticornisplantations in agri silnvicultural system by thefarmers in early eighties turned the state surplus ineucalypti timber (dhanda, 1989). The farmers had toresort to distress sale of farm grown timber. Nowthe farmers in the central part of the state areplanting populas deltoides in agroforestry and arehaving sugarcane, wheat, oats, winter fodder potatoand turmeric crops along with poplar tree crop. Thegrowth of Poplars in agri-silvicultural system is quitencouraging and farmers are harvesting poplar treesat a short rotation of 6 to 7 years when they attain90cm GBH or more.
The present study was undertaken to assess thegrowth performance and productivity of poplars inagroforestry both in riverine belts and tablelandsunder different cultural and management conditions.Four plantations of each age from one-to-four yearwere selected in both locations and tree parameterslike DBH, total tree height, clear bole, utilisablebole height, basal area, and crown spread of poplarswere recorded. The mean DBH in riverbedplantations ranged from 6.8cm (1-yr) to 19.4 (4-yr),while it was from 5.1cm to 17.72cm, respectively intableland plantations. Generally the DBH for river -bed plantations was more than that table landplantations. Similarly, in observations for total treeheight, utilisable timber bole height, clear bole andbasal area were recorded and compared. This will bedealt in detail in full-length paper. The timbervolume production in riverbed plantations ranged
from 9.08 mü/ha (1-yr), to 113.87mü/ha (4-yr) whileit was 5.95 mü/ha (1-yr) to 79.90 mü/ha (4-yr) incase of tableland plantations. The timber weightproduction ranged from 5,21m tonnes/ha (1-yr) to92.9 m tonnes/ha (4-yr) in riverbed plantations,while it was 2.35 m tonnes /ha (1-yr) to 64.85 mtonnes (4-yr). The production was generally more(42.5-43.3%) in riverbed plantations producing anMAI of 28.48mü/ha/annum at four years age.
The similar aged plantations in these two situationswere compared on the basis of silviculturaltreatments and soil characteristics. The overallperformance of riverbed plantations was better thantableland plantation, verified through students' t-test.The riverbed plantations performed better as thisweregiven proper cultural treatments viz., soilworking, irrigation and fertiliser application and farecare operations by resident farmers. Also the watertable was higher in reverie belt which definnitelycontributed towards better growth of poplar duringsummer. It is, thus, clear that poplar plantations inagroforestry system require proper care andsilvicultural treatments while the neglectedplantations suffer and not put up sufficient growth.
The second cut for hill dipterocarpforests: What growth and yield models
indicate?Ismail Harun, S. Appanah
Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM), Kepong,52109 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Tel: 603-6342633, FAX: 603-6302321, Email:[email protected]
Growth and Yield models are explored for data fromlogged over Dipterocarp forests data at two scales:predicting the diameter growth, percentage mortalityand number of recruits for individual trees perhectare per year and predicting the growth, mortalityand recruitment in terms of basal area per hectare.The data for model fitting consists of all trees 10 cmDBH and above in 18-1 hectare growth and yieldplots established after logging. Growth and Yieldmodels (individual tree and plot scale) aredeveloped for a permanent sample plot data setestablished and re-measured over a 15 year period.The models predict that the next harvest will consistprimarily of non-Dipterocarp species, due to highmortality of residual Dipterocarps and lowrecruitment. A sensitivity analysis indicates that themortality rate has the biggest influence on theforecasts, and obtaining more precise estimates ofmortality is needed. Because the mortality forDipterocarps was still high (3-4%) up to 10 yearsafter logging, mortality models fitted using thesedata may be overestimating future mortality, asthere is evidence that the mortality drops to 1 or 2
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percent by the 15th year. Nevertheless, the observedhigh levels of mortality during years 1 to 10 are realand result in considerable reduction in the stockingof Dipterocarps in the stand. This indicates that theeffects of harvesting may last over longer timeperiods than previously thought and severalmodifications and refinements are needed in order toimprove existing harvesting and managementsystem of Dipterocarp forest in Peninsular Malaysia.
A new approach for AAC calculation intropical moist forest - An example from
Sabah / MalaysiaJochen Heuveldop, Thomas Ditzer, Achim Droste,
Reinhold GlaunerInstitute for World Forestry, Federal Research Centre forForestry and Forest Products, Leuschnerstr. 91, D-21031
Hamburg, GermanyTel: +49-40-739 62 100, FAX: +49-40-739 62 480,Email: [email protected]
Keywords: growth & yield; tropical rainforest;annual allowable cut; management planning
The annual allowable cut (AAC) for a forestmanagement unit in Sabah, Malaysia, is derived bya recently developed method which links a processoriented growth model with a GeographicInformation System. The investigations, where thearea- and volume-control systems are combined,have been carried out in the 55,000 hectaresDeramakot Forest Reserve, consisting of heavilylogged over and partly degraded lowlanddipterocarp forest.
Underlying principle for this approach of calculatingthe AAC is to rehabilitate the forest conditions byincreasing the present growing stock to its optimum,where maximum increment of commercial speciescan be obtained. The management conceptcomprises a modest, gradually increasing timberharvest under strict control of harvesting techniques,natural regeneration, and silvicultural measures.
The commonly applied estimations of annualgrowth are based on small scale sample plotsrepresenting minor portions of today's degradedstand types. Data obtained by such empiricalmethod in selectively logged stands cannot beextrapolated to the wide range of devastated foreststructures with the required precision. Instead, thiswould lead to a bias in the prediction of the potentialgrowth and thus to a non representative calculationof harvestable volumes and regeneration time.
For the here presented growth / incrementestimations the process-oriented model FORMIXwas applied to determine stand development in fivespecies groups on three site qualities in four stand
structure types. The model satisfactorily representsforest dynamics and timber increment in degradedand heavily logged forest stands.
Species grouping is based on light response classesand supported by photosynthesis measurements; sitequality assessment uses plant-available water andexchangeable nutrients in soils up to 50 cm depth.Stand structure types are derived from 1:25,000aerial photos using crown parameters foridentification.
The model simulates forest development with andwithout timber harvesting. Silvicultural standardsare considered by defining a cutting diameterthreshold, by limiting the number of trees to beharvested per unit area, and by prescribing aminimum number of seed trees to be retained afterharvesting (i.e. volume control). The GISenvironment enables the connection of theaforementioned stand and site classifications to aspatial database. The thus produced site-specific-stand-type map (SSST) includes three crucialforestry planning parameters: increment, harvestedvolume, and area.
By selecting areas to be harvested in 10 yearsintervals (i.e. area control) and defining apreliminary working cycle of 40 years, thisapproach leads iteratively to a realistic, site-and-stand-specific and area-related calculation of standimproving sustainable harvesting-levels.
The calculations reveal that timber harvesting ispresently possible. However, harvesting levels rangefrom 200 m3 to 10,000 m3 per year for the next 60years depending on the silvicultural standardsapplied. Thereafter an increase to 80,000 m3 wouldbe possible if harvesting damages are kept at 20%,at least three mother trees per hectare are retained,and the threshold for the minimum number of treesto be harvested per unit area is neglected.
Patterns of vegetation recovery on the1922 and 1959 lava flows on Mount
CameroonNouhou Ndam
LIMBE Botanic Garden, Mount Cameroon Project,P.O.Box 437, Limbe, Cameroon
Tel: 237 43 18 85 extension 381, FAX: 237 43 18 83 381,Email: [email protected]
To assess the role of volcanic eruptions in themaintenance of species richness on MountCameroon, the resulting course of primarysuccession and the mechanisms controlling thiswere investigated. in 1995, a census was carried outof the vegetation on the 1922 and 1959 lava flows;the results were compared with those of surveys
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carried out in 1936/37 and 1951. Numbers of plantsand species were significantly different between thetwo lava flows (P = 0.001), but not between theedges and centre of each flow. The primarysuccession process was complex with a highturnover of species, a larger number appearing anddisappearing from the lava flows between 1936 and1995 than numbers persisting throughout. Theresults are compatible with a relay floristics modelof succession. However, given the slow rate ofvegetation development of the sites it isquestionable whether the high rate of speciesturnover reflects mechanisms of facilitation and thencompetitive exclusion. It may be more of areflection of stochastic processes in the populationsof the species. Trees > 1 cm DBH tend to colonisefrom the edges of the flow towards the centrewhereas the distribution of seedlings and herbaceousplants seems to reflect a more stochasticcolonisation process. It will take 300 to 600 yearsfor the initial forest to be reconstituted on those lavaflows as estimated from current trend of speciescomposition, basal area and density. About 8% to18% of species colonising the lava flows are uniqueto this type of environment, therefore contributingconstantly to the richness of the biodiversity onMount Cameroon.
Simulation models as a tool forsustainable forest management in
VenezuelaHirma Ramirez-Angulo, Torres-Lezama, A. and M.
AcevedoUniversidad de Los andes, Grupo de Investigación
BIODESUS. INDEFOR. Facultad de Ciencias Forestalesy Ambientales, Vía Marida, Los Chorros de Milla,
VenezuelaFAX: 58 74 714643, Email: [email protected]
Use of simulation models have become wide spreadas a tool for natural resource study and management.Particularly, simulation models are a valuable toolin predicting the responses of forest ecosystems tonatural and anthropogenic disturbances, given thecomplexity and longevity of such systems.Consequently, since the seventies a considerablenumber of simulation models have been developedwith that purpose, mainly for temperate forests. inthe tropics, however, these models have beenscarcely applied, despite the fact that forestmanagement is the subject of strong criticism.Venezuela is one of the few countries where thisapproach is developing; since 1993 we have workedsteadily on this line of research line, which isspecially oriented towards the study of forestdynamics in order to analyze and predict the effectof several management strategies. This has been
possible in great extension due to a network ofpermanent plots established in the sixties. in thispaper we present a particular case study of theapplication of an individual-based model (ZELIG)to a Venezuelan western plain forest, classified astropical dry transition to humid, after Holdridge. Weused a data set with over 35 years of measurementfrom the University Forest "El Caimital" toparameterize the model. Due to the large number oftree species (64), and the difficulty to run the modelfor such a number, we selected the top 14 speciesbased on a Value Index (VI = 75%). This index iscalculated dividing relative basimetric area byrelative stand density. The remaining species wereclassified in six ecological groups, according to theirlight requirements and maximum tree height. Thevalues of the parameters to run the model wereobtained, and a good adjustment was reached aftercontrasting the model results with the field data.Based on this parameterization the model wasapplied to predict selective logging effects on forestdynamics. Four selective logging options weresimulated with regard to the minimum fellingdiameter legally established for Venezuela. in thefirst option, we harvested the total merchantablestand and considered vegetation damage caused bycurrent logging methods; in the second, the damagewas estimated for a planned logging; in the thirdoption we only harvested approximately 50% of thetotal merchantable stand under the current loggingmethod; and, finally, in the fourth option we cut thesame proportion as in the third but vegetationdamage was estimated for a planned loggingmethod. For each logging option the followingparameters were evaluated: mean stand density,mean basimetric area and total timber biomass.Furthermore, we determined the degree ofecological sustainability depending on the level ofremaining forest recovery with respect to the initialvalues of the non logged forest. We also calculatedthe benefit/cost relationship. in conclusion, the lastoption assured a faster forest recovery, but from aneconomic point of view the first option resultedmore profitable in a short term. These results showthe necessity of reconciling ecological andeconomic interests in order to pursue sustainabledevelopment. The social aspect should beincorporated as well.
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Optimising planting density of bananato improve resource use efficiency and
productivity of smallholder rubber landsin Sri Lanka.
V. H. L. Rodrigo, C.M. StirlingRubber Research Institute of Sri Lanka, Department of
Plant Sciences, Agalawatta, Dartonfield, Sri LankaFAX: +94 34 47427, Email: dir [email protected].
Perennial tree crops, such as rubber, play animportant role in income generation for smallholderfarmers in the humid and sub-humid tropics.Because rubber provides no income during the earlyyears of establishment, farmers are advised to utilisethe wide spaces between immature trees to growshorter duration crops. The versatility of banana,being both a food and cash crop makes it animportant component of these intercrop systems.The Rubber Research Institute of Sri Lanka (RISL)currently recommends a planting density of one rowof banana between each row of rubber; this is basedlargely on the performance of banana when grownas a monoculture and is designed to imposeminimum risks of latex yield losses throughcompetitive effects on rubber. Prior to this study,there had been no systematic evaluation of theeffects of planting density on productivity ofcomponent crops and so it was not clear whether thepresent recommendations represented an optimaluse of land during the unproductive phase of rubber.The overall aim of this study was to determine theextent to which planting density of banana could bemanipulated to improve resource use andproductivity of immature rubber lands.
A large-scale experiment was established on 5 ha.Treatments comprised, sole crop rubber (R), solecrop banana (B) and three intercropping treatmentsconsisting of an additive series of one (BR), two(BBR) and three (BBBR) rows of banana to one rowof rubber. Biomass productivity increased in directproportion to planting density in the rubber/bananaintercrop. Despite an increase in leaf area index andshading with planting density, there was noevidence that growth was limited by light. Instead,growth of both rubber and banana benefited frommutual shading in the high density BBBR crop witha 20 and 41 % increase in biomass per plant ofrubber and banana, respectively relative to the singlerow BR intercrop. As a result, the Land EquivalentRatio (LER) for biomass increased 76% from theBR to BBBR intercrop. Treatments had little affecton bunch yield per banana plant or harvestedpercentage, with mean values of 6.2kg and 65%respectively. As yield per plant was similar acrosstreatments, yield per hectare increased three-fold
from the current recommended BR to BBBRintercrop resulting in an estimated 350% increase inprofits from the banana crop during theestablishment phase.
Increased productivity in the high density intercropwas driven by an increase in resource capture perunit land area and on average, radiation and wateruse in the BBBR intercrop increased by 73% and140%, respectively, over the currentlyrecommended BR intercrop. Increased shading inthe BBR and BBBR intercrops had no major impacton photosynthesis and respiration per unit leaf area.
Consequently, the increase in light-use efficiencyand whole plant photosynthesis (due to the largercanopy under shade) were identified as majorfactors responsible for the improved biomassproductivity per plant in the high density intercrops.Intercropping also had beneficial effects on growthof rubber, resulting in an increase in both girth andplant height. The increase in of intercropped rubberhas been sustained through to the sixth year ofgrowth with the result that tapping will start earlierin the intercrop than in the sole crop rubber. Weconclude that amongst intercrops, the highestdensity BBBR treatment always performed best interms of both stand parameters and performance ofindividual component crops. The implication ofthese findings for improved income generation onsmallholder rubber lands is discussed.
4.02.01 Forestry products col lect ion andsustainable forest management
Urban Tree Database InformationSystem (Infoplant): Dissemination of
Research FindingsMohammad Adnan, Ahmad Azaruddin Mohd. Noor,
Azali AdnanForest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM), Kepong,
52109 Kuala Lumpur, MalaysiaTel: 603-6342633, FAX: 603-6302105, Email:
Urban forestry and tree planting activities are nowreceiving due recognition. to make Malaysia a"Garden. To this effect, dissemination of urban treeinformation is very crucial and would give a greatimpact to the landscaping activities. Realising this,and towards making Forest Research InstituteMalaysia (FRIM) a center for the Malaysian UrbanForestry research, FRIM is making the first move tobring the wealth of information on urban trees intosuperhighway by developing a web base computerapplication known as Plant Information System -INFOPLANT. It is a dynamic database systemcontaining useful information on trees for urban
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landscape purposes. The system will serve as aneffective tool for the dissemination of informationon urban trees to the public. As it contain up-datedinformation gathered from experts. The InfoPlantwill intensify and facilitate research work in therelated fields.
Infoplant was initiated and created based on systemsthat were already established in other country like inthe USA. Infoplant, the first of its kind in Malaysiais an interactive and dynamic program. It wasdesigned to match specific tree species to particularuses and sites based on compatibility characteristics.The database system includes descriptions andpictorial information of tree species. It providesready information for fast and effectual retrieval. Atpresent there are informations for 164 urban treespecies with 32 parameters/criteria and a total of365 pictures. This number will increase so as toachieve a target to cover all trees that grow in urbanareas and that are proven suitable for urbanlandscaping. Major advantages of the systemincludes on-line access via internet, easy-to-workand user friendly, practical and time saving. Thedevelopment of the database system was dividedinto two stages. in the first stage, existing recordsand data in dbase file were converted into MicrosoftAccess file. A search request was then developedbased on the existing and additional parameters orfield using Visual Basic Application Software thatresulted in the stand-alone version of Infoplant.Stage two concentrated on further enhancement andimprovisation of Infoplant Database System into theInternet version using Internet Database Converter.To subsequently strengthen and support the system,apart from accessing Infoplant Database for plantsearch, users may also access other additional andrelated information pages which are created anddisplayed in this web site. This includes plant checklist, plant price guidelines, nursery information andpictorial guidelines to tree planting. The release ofInfoplant is definitely in line with government’saspiration towards both the greening program andIT development. It aims to provide an interestingplatform for FRIM in packaging, disseminating andcommercialising information on urban trees andlandscaping as well as to enable the general publicto retrieve it comfortably. As a technologicalsolution for information dissemination, Infoplantwill ultimately evolve to integrate the latestsupporting technology available.
Role of Local People in SustainableManagement and Conservation ofBamboo and Rattan Diversities in
BangladeshRatan Lal Banik
Bangladesh Forest Research Institute, P. O. Box 273,4000 Chittagong, Bangladesh
FAX: 880-31-681584, 681566, Email:[email protected]
Bangladesh is basically a plain land country lies inthe north-eastern part of the South Asian sub-continent. The state owned forest occupies about14% land of the country which is mostly located inthe hills and coastal areas. The country enjoys atropical monsoon climate. The population ofBangladesh is about 13 million, of which 0.13million is tribal people. So the 98.7 per cent areplain land people (Bangalees). There are 14identifiable tribes mainly residing in the hills. Bothbamboo and rattan are most priority plants of thecountry. The natural bamboo and rattan forests arelocated in the hills while people of vast plain landhave been cultivating them in rural areas. Bamboosare being used as a main construction material forabout 90% of the rural housing. The economy of thecountry mostly depends on agriculture. Almost allthe agricultural implements are made of bamboo.The use of bamboo as a raw material for the pulpand rayon mills has added its importance to thenational economy. Both bamboo and rattan areimportant raw materials for cottage industries andgenerate employment for the rural poor. Presentlythere is a shortfall of bamboo resource by 82 millionculms. The increased productivity throughsustainable management by application ofindigenous and modern knowledge can fill the gaps.There are about seven species of bamboo occurringnaturally in the hills. Among them M. baccifera ismost common and constitute 80-90 per cent of thetotal bamboo vegetation. Besides these about 30species of bamboo have been cultivated in the plainsof Bangladesh. Among them Bambusa balcooaRoxb. and B. vulgaris Schrad. are most common.Rattan being a climbing palm grows naturally in thehigh forests. Only two genera of rattans Calamusand Daemonorops occur in the country.Daemonorops is represented by a single species D.jenkinsiana (Griff.) Mart. and Calamus is reportedto be represented by 9 species. Among them C.guruba and D. jenkinsiana are commonly used bythe local people for weaving and binding purposes.Due to clear felling forestry operations rattans aredisappearing in an alarming rate. The hill tribesusually lead nomadic lives. However, in somesettled areas of the forest people have been
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cultivating some bamboo and rattan species in theirhomesteads and farm land from generations for dayto day uses. Agroforestry practice, and shiftingcultivation (Jhumming) are traditional systems forsustainable management and conservation ofbamboo resource. During jhumming for up-land ricecultivation, the tree seedlings are also planted.Occasionally rattan seedlings and bamboopropagules are planted as inter crops. Jhumias(shifting cultivators) maintain genetic diversity byborrowing or exchanging propagules. Harvesting ofrattan cane starts from 7 or 8 years after planting,when the stem become mature and reaches 6-7m inlength. Out of 10 rattan species only Calamus tenuisis widely cultivated in the plain land homesteads,specially in marshy low lying areas. Both in hillforests and plain land rural areas local people aremanaging and conserving diversities of bamboo andrattan resources in sustainable way mainly on threeprinciples-utilisation, cultural value and ritual belief,and environmental stability. An endeavour has beenmade in this paper to discuss these principle indetails.
Recherches sylvo-pastorales prioritairesen Afrique de l'Ouest
Ronald Bellefontaine, AndreD., Cesar J., Dia A., MaigaA., Mbaye M., Ickowicz A., Petit S., Toutain B.,
Zoumana C.CIRAD-Forêt, BP 5035, 34 032 Montpellier, France
FAX: (33) 4 67 59 37 33, Email:[email protected]
La gestion durable des formations ligneuses sèchesd’Afrique de l’Ouest est à un tournant de sonhistoire. Les changements quantitatifs et qualitatifsdéterminants, qui ont marqué au cours des vingt-cinq dernières années ces formations ligneusesfragiles, mettent en évidence les faibles possibilitésde reconstitution et posent la question des seuilscritiques à ne pas dépasser si l’on vise lapérennisation de ces écosystèmes. Les réflexionsmenées par ce groupe de chercheurs sur diversterrains portent principalement sur deux zonesécoclimatiques, celles correspondant aux climatsdésertiques et sub-désertiques (dénommée ici zonesaharo-sahélienne), et aux climats tropicaux secs etsub-humides (dénommée zone soudanienne au senslarge).
L’impact du pastoralisme sur les formationsligneuses, associé ou non à celui des feux de brousse(accidentels ou provoqués), ainsi qu’à celui desautres activités humaines, comme la cueillette etl’exploitation forestière, a fait l’objet de nombreusesétudes sectorielles, dont on tire déjà d’importantsenseignements. Malgré cet apport, divers thèmes
d’actualité mériteraient encore un éclairageparticulier. Il s’agit par exemple de suivre la baissede fertilité des sols de ces formations boisées, de lapoursuite d’études de régénération de la végétationligneuse (notamment la multiplication végétativenaturelle), du fonctionnement hydrique de certainsécosystèmes, des conséquences de l’émondagerépété sur la vitalité des arbres fourragers, de laconcurrence et / ou de la complémentarité del’exploitation des productions forestières etpastorales, etc. Au niveau culturel et socio-économique, les processus de prise de décision despasteurs, leurs choix stratégiques et les pratiquesd’exploitation des ressources face à la concurrenceexercée par les agro-pasteurs, le savoir fairetraditionnel, l’importance des revenus tirés del’exploitation de produits ligneux et pastoraux surl’économie des foyers, etc... sont encoreinsuffisamment connus. Mais, face à la nécessité dedévelopper des actions d’aménagmen » à uneéchelle plus large que la station, les principaleslacunes à combler se situent au niveau des multiplesinteractions, telles que « arbres-ruminants »,« strate-herbacée-strate ligneuse », « pratiquespastorales-gestion des arbres », « couverturevégétale-feu-sol », etc.
La production durable et simultanée de bois-énergie,de produits forestiers non ligneux et de produitsanimaux, nécessite une nouvelle approche, globaleet non sectorielle. De plus, celle-ci est à situer dansun contexte de décentralisation et de co-gestioncontractuelle des ressources naturelles par lespopulations. De nouveaux modes d? exploitation desligneux apparaissent, induits par la croissance de ladémographie et par la mise en valeur de terresmarginales.
Une recherche-action, basée sur de nouveaux outils,est proposée ici afin d’améliorer les modalitésd’exploitation des ressources sylvo-pastorales et depouvoir proposer rapidement des solutions à lademande des habitants de ces deux régions. Parmices outils, l’appui de la modélisation de processusbiologiques ou de prélèvement, ou l’analyse sur desreprésentations spatialisées, trouvent naturellementleur place. Pour évaluer l’impact des nouvellesrègles nées de la cohabitation avec des agro-pasteurssur les pâturages herbacés et ligneux, les systèmesmulti-agents devraient être plus fréquemmentutilisés afin de modéliser à la fois les pratiquescoutumières, le fonctionnement de l’écosystème etla dynamique sociale.
Après une esquisse synthétique des principauxacquis des dernières recherches, les auteursprésentent un choix de thèmes prioritaires de
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recherche en sylvo-pastoralisme adaptées à des deuxrégions.
Rural communities as a corner stone ofsustainable forest management
Mohammed EllatifiForest Service, PO Box #20100, Casablanca, Morocco
FAX: +212-2-98 24 28, Email:[email protected]
Forest ownership is very variable throughout theworld; the percentage of state-owned forests goesfrom near 100% to less than 50%. But whatever isthis percentage, the populations living in the forestneighborhood play a key role in its preservation andits development if people are are intensely andcontinuousely involved in its management. On theopposite -and this is particularly true in rural areasof developing countries-if the grassrootscommunities are ignored and not fully involved inwhat scientists are planning and doing alone in theforest, the population could become the majorsource of prioblems for the forest, putting injeopardy its preservation and causing in some areasits degradation and even itsdisappearence. Thispaper analyses the situation in developing countries,and put emphasis on the necessity to considerpeople as part and parcel of the forest environment.Their hope, their vision and their basic needs shouldcarefully examined, with them, and included in abnusound sustainable forest management. Examples ofsuccessful, as well examples of failibng forestmanagements are given and analysed in somecountries. Lessons are brought up from these cases,and field-tested recommendations are given for thegeneral preservation and development of our forestenvironment.
Data collection for sustainable forestdevelopment
Ravindra B. Lal, Lokho Puni & CharruGovernment of Manipur, Special Secretary (Forests &
Environment), Imphal, India
Sustainable development of a country particularly intropics will greatly depend on scientificmanagement of its natural resources. in India, forestis considered an important natural resource. Theresource management planning requires availabilityof adequateand authentic data. The main agencies,that are involved in forestry data collection in Indiaare Forest Survey of India(FSI) and State ForestDepartments (SFD). The Indian Council of ForestryResearch and Education (ICFRE) also undertakeCollection and compilation of forestry data throughvarious State Forest Departments. However, theforestry data collection in India is still inadequateand at times not upto data to facilitate resource
management planning. No organised marketstructure for forest produces particularly for non-timber - Forest - Produces (NTFP) can be developedwithout reliable data. This has a direct bearing onthe economy of tribals and rural poors who greatlydepend on forests for their sustainance. Similarly,for large scale afforestation planning, it is notenough just to have basic forestry data but also wemust have information on meterological data, soiltypes, genetic variability, availability of seeds ofvarious species etc. The present paper focuses on theneed for authetic data/collection kinds of datarequired problems associated with data collectionand possible improvements in existing system ofdata collection using latest trends in InformationTechnology.
Keywords:- Resource, data, forestry, Planning,sustainable development
The characteristics of forestecosystems with its sustainable
utilization around Yalu Tsangpu GrandCanyon of Tibet
Bosheng LiInstitute of Botany, The Chinese Academy of Science,20# Nanxincun, Xiang San, Haidian District, 100093
Beijing, ChinaEmail: [email protected] .ac.cn
There are three kinds of characteristic with forestecosystem obviously have been summarized via thesix times of the field investigation around YaluTsangpu Grand Canyon region over past ten year .
1. Abundance of forest ecosysterm biodiversityreach a peak value on the zone of identical latitudethroughout the world. As a result of the stronginfluence on it's warm ~ humidity current withmoisture passage come from Indian ocean throughYalu Tsangpu Grand Canyon, therefore thedistribution of tropical monsoon rain forestecosystem up to 290 30'north latitude. Around YaluTsangpu Great Canyon region, the low mountainever green and semi-ever green monsoon rain forest;the montane everygreen and semi-everygreen broadleaf as well as the subalpine taiga niddle leaf foresthave been composed of a richest mountain forestecosystem in order of vertical zones. Within thisregion, Only 2,200 square meter is less than1.8% ofTibet total area .So far we know, there are:
3768 species of vascular plants, accounting for 65%of the total species found in Tibet .
512 species of mosses amounting 65% of the totalspecies found in Tibet .
686 species of fungi taking 78% of the total speciesfound in Tibet .
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206species of rust amounting 77% of the totalspecies found in Tibet .
63 species of of mammals, taking 50% of the totalspecies found in Tibet. 232 species of birds,amounting 49% of the total species found in Tibet.25 species of reptile taking 43% of the total speciesfound in Tibet. 19 species of amphibious animalamounting 47% of the total species found in Tibet.
1500 species of insect ,taking 60% of the totalspecies found in Tibet.
2. The Yalu Tsangpu Grand Canyon with it's length,depth, and water flow hit an all ~ around worldsupreme. The biological species on richest andoriginal forest on densest, covering in high snowmountain and deep valley, composed of a mostmagnificent landscape in the world.. There is a mostattractive canyon nature reserve for ecotourism aswell.
3. Owing to advantageous water heat regimes, thebiomass and growth rate of Taiga needle leaf forestaround this region meet top level in the world .
According to the characteristic has been describedabove, the masterplan on forest ecosystermprotection with its sustainable utilization should becarried out in scientific way as following:
• in the southern the part of Yalu Tsangpu GrandCanyon reign is the area of the biodiversity onrichest will be built a protected area at nationallevel as a gene bank of mountain bio-resourcefor biodiversity conservation and sustainableutilization.
• in the northern part of Yalu Tsangpu GreatCanyon reign, the national forest Park will beestablished. Via the ecotourism as anappropriate means of helping to achieve povertyalleviation. and change the traditional practices,such as timber extraction and slash-and-burncultivation.
• On the periphery of Yalu Tsangpu GreatCanyon reign, the sustainable forestry baseunder scientific management will be built up forthe economic timber supply.
Development of Fuel Wood in ChineseRural Area
Huiqing LiChinese academy of forestry, Research institute of
forestry, 100091, ChinaTel: 0086-10-62889669, FAX: 0086-10-62872015,
Email: [email protected]
The potential amount of fuel wood in 17 provincesof China can't meet the need. About thirty percents
of forest consumed every year is for fuel, so thestudy on development of fuel wood in Chinese ruralarea is very significance. The dissertation includesfour parts. The first part reviews the presentsituation about fuel wood consuming in Chineserural area. The requirement and provident of fuelfood in Chinese rural area is compared, and howmuch of forest consumed as fuel wood every year isanalyzed. From these materials and analysis, we canget the idea, The rural community is poorer, andtheir connection with fuel wood is more closely.Being short of fuel wood has lead much more forestcut down for fire that is one important factoreffecting climate changing all over the world. Sothat developing fuel wood is urgent. The second partforecasts the role of developing fuel wood inChinese rural area. Firstly it can resolve the mostimportant problem for community in aural areawhere fuel wood is the main energy resource.Secondly it would prevent a mount of forest beingdestroyed that is helpful for improving onenvironment quality, so it can reduce the loss bringabout by natural disaster. Thirdly it would bringdirect income for those poor community, forexample, Providing for forage, fruit, and etc. and iffuel wood can be planted in a large area, it can bemade used for papermaking and other industries.From the forecast, we can see that once fuel wood isplanted in large area, it would benefit the auralpeople in many perspectives. The third part looksinto the elements that have prevented fuel wooddeveloping in rural area. Poverty is the mostimportant element. One hand the rural communitiesare wishing to get fuel wood, on the other hand theyare eager to get direct economy reciprocation andhave no much more interests in planting fuel wood.Then having no ownership of fuel wood theyplanted is another main element that caused fuelwood be destroyed seriously. Other elements arealso analyzed. These elements are obstructive to fueldeveloping. The fourth part looks for ways that leadfuel wood to sustainable management. The first stepis the ownership exchanging. For example, theownership of fuel wood should belong to the localpeople and not to state. Then managementtechnology should be improved on. For example,the administrating system should accept the freemarket rule that is who gets benefits shouldresponse for. Let people, who need fuel woodmostly, take part in making decision, and the mainthing state should do is to stimulate and encouragethe local people on policy. Then long-term task,invest and others are also be plunged into for fuelwood sustainable management.
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Participative Strategic Planning forSustainable Community Forestry in
Chihuahua, MexicoConcepción Lujan Alvarez, Joel A. Diemer, Lois
StanfordUniversidad Autonoma de Chihuahua, Privada deAvenida Quinta Sur No. 1102, C.P. 33000 Ciudad
Delicias, Chihuahua, MexicoTel: Office(14) 72 19 67, Email: [email protected]
Chihuahua, Mexico has 5.1 million hectares offorested area that occupies 27% of the states totalarea. During historical development, Chihuahuasforests typically were harvested by privateenterprises and, rarely, by ejidos and communities.Folllowing the Mexican Revolution, the governmentinstigated agrarian reform programs, establishingthe ejido as a land grant to peasants.
Peasants or ejidatarios have use rights over the landand harvest the ejidos forest resource communally.Over time, ejido communities often included bothejidatarios, with land use rights, and avecindados,those who live in the community but do not exerciseland rights and cannot participate in harvestingforest resources as owners but they can justparticipate as workers. Thus neither ejidos nor theircommunities have obtained the major benefits fromforest resources. However, they now demand toparticipate actively in the productive process toobtain more benefits. New forestry strategiespropose to integrate social and economicdevelopment with environmental protection, and toexpand participation of different sectors.
This research study focused on strategic planningfor sustainable community forestry in Chihuahua,Mexico. The research focused on two forest ejidosin the Sierra Tarahumara: Basihuare and Cusarare.We hypothesized that Basihuare (the interventioncommunity) would have more positive andstatistically significant changes in attitudes towardcommunity development than Cusarare (the controlcommunity). Our objectives were: 1) assess thecurrent forest resource management in bothcommunities, 2) conduct participative strategicplanning methodology (Search Conference) forforest-based community development to achieve agreater awareness of development needs, positiveattitude change and to design a strategic action planfor a future community, and 3) assess the attitudinaland perceptual impact of the strategic planningintervention (SPI) of local people towardcommunity development.
A static group comparison was conducted in thisstudy. The study consisted of applying a pre-test(attitude questionnaire) in both communities. Thequestionnaire consisted of 20 statements, including
questions about local peoples participation and thedesign of strategic action plans for communitydevelopment, among others. After that, a SPI wasconducted in Basihuare. Later, a post-test (same asthe pre-test) was applied in both communities.
In addition, qualitative research includingethnographic interviews, participant observation,direct observation, and follow-up encounterprovided further insights into evaluating the forestresource management, and the impact of theintervention. Comparisons were carried out betweentwo ejidos before and after conducting the SPI tomeasure the changes in attitudes The results showedthat: 1) ethnographic interviews were a valuablecomplement to and cross-check on the participatoryapproaches to obtaining views from the communitymembers about their community forest resourcemanagement, and 2) the SPI achieved a greaterawareness of development needs and created morepositive attitudes and perceptions about communitydevelopment (Basihuare). As a result, it is possibleto note that SPI significant changed the respondentsattitudes and perceptions in intervention community.Statistically, there were significant differences inattitude changes in people that participated in theSPI (Basihuare) compared to people who did not(Cusarare). Additionally, the planning conferencehelped the Basihuare community to design its ownstrategic action plan for future development. Thecommunity not only developed its own strategicaction plan, but also, because of the participativeand democratic process they used, they developedcommunity plans. in the research, even though,Basihuare lacked financial resources for investment,profits from its sawmill, and resource planning,local people did not display negative attitudestoward for community development in the future. Ifresources are available, they are motivated andinterested in implementing the action plans for theircommunity. The results confirm the initialhypothesis and suggest that the study can serve as amodel for the application of the Open Systemsapproach to the development of sustainablecommunity forestry for the Sierra Tarahumara andelsewhere.
Forest Research and Sustainable ForestManagement in Estonia
Yuri Martin, Rein RatasToompuiestee 24, 15172 Tallinn, Estonia
FAX: 372 62 62 801, Email: Dr. Mohammed ELLATIFI[[email protected]]
Forests (2.01 million hectars) cover about 48% ofthe territory of Estonia. Since 1940, forest area hasincreased by 1.07 million hectars. The gross annualincrement is 9.5 million cubic metres. Timber and
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timber products account for up to 18% of Estonianexport. Forest and timber related production forms1/3 of the GDP.
The objective of forest related research is to providescientific background information in support ofpractical decision-making in forest management,conservation and multiple use of forests.
To complement investigations on forest ecology,increased emphasis will be laid on analysing theentire chain of forest-based production. Otherpriority areas of research include the development ofenvironmental monitoring systems, research onbiodiversity management and environmentallyfriendly forest management. Forest research willalso support the formulation and evaluation of forestrelated policies by conducting scientific analyses onkey issues.
Basic research is integrated with teaching activitiesin the Faculty of Forestry of Tartu AgriculturalUniversity. Institutional environment will bedeveloped in view to enable research anddevelopment activities to be carried out incollaboration with forest enterprises.
To rationalize resource utilization, full benefit willbe taken of the research carried out within theinternational research community. Long-termempirical research programmes will be concentratedin areas where the peculiarity of Estonian conditionswarrants the effort. in order to ensure balanceddevelopment of forest research and efficient use ofresources, the identification and implementation ofresearch programmes will be carried out incoordination with other forest related researchinstitutions.
Today, Estonian science of forestry receives only2% of the finances allocated to the scientificresearch sector from the national budget.
In 1998, the total volume of cuts was 6 millioncubic metres. The total annual maximum volume ofwood harvesting in all Estonian forests notexceeding the sustainable level, is 7.8 million cubicmetres. Forest, as a renewable resource, should beused within the limits of its regeneration. in ourforests we have stopped excessive felling already in1961. The area of protected and protective forestswill be maintained at the current level (15% of thetotal forest area). The leading role in environmentaland forest policy and legislation belongs to theNational Forestry Board (NFB) which operateswithin the administrative area of the Ministry of theEnvironment. The NFB is responsible for theimplementation of forest policy, monitoring offorest resources taking into consideration the
environmental, social and economic factors,biodiversity both on the stand and landscape level.Sustainable forest management in Estonia is basedon:- scientific research;- Act on Sustainable Development (1995);- Forest Act (1993, 1998);- Law on Protected Areas (1994);- National Environmental Strategy (1997);- National Forest Policy (1997);- Development Plan for the Estonian Forest Sector(1997);- European Union Habitats Directive, includingNATURA 2000.
The Challenge of Meeting DomesticEnergy Demand in Sub- Saharan African
countriesK. S. Nketiah
Forestry Research Institute of Ghana, University PB 63,Kumasi, Ghana
FAX: 233-51-60121, Email: [email protected]
Most Sub-Saharan African Countries dependheavily on wood for their domestic fuel. Eventhough the countries are rich in vegetation, there arelocalised wood deficits. Moreover, wood resourcesare often far removed from areas of populationconcentration. Populations are growing at very highrates, and with that, increasing demand for wood forfuel.
These countries are characterised by strongtraditions and cultures, some of which areinconsistent with modern day scientific thinking.
People still cling to traditions and customs some ofwhich are inimical to sustainable forest managementand hence sustainable supply of fuel wood. Eventhough the use of wood for fuel has been a centuryold practice, woodfuel is not given the requisiteattention in national energy balances; forest policiesalso do not give due prominence to woodfuels.
Attempts at meeting future demand (for woodfuels)have been rather haphazard and unsustained orisolated. Instead of planning to increase the supplybase, countries have resorted more to controlmeasures most of which have been difficult toenforce or police. Such measures have includedbans, fines and legislation. Some countries have alsotried to promote substitutes for woodfuel. Othershave tried to introduce fuel-efficient production- andconversion technologies and devices. Due to thegenerally weak economies of these countries, theinterventions have invariably had a donor-assistedcomponent.
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This paper looks at efforts made by differentcountries to meet demand for wood fuel fordomestic use. Various supply scenarios areevaluated and realistic proposals made for meetingdomestic fuel demand in this sub-region onsustainable basis.
Gestion de la Biodiversité: Relationsaux plantes et dynamiques Vegetaleschez les Dani de la Vallée de la Baliem
en Irian Jaya, IndonesieYohanes Purwanto
Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI), Laboratory ofEthnobotany, Research and Development Center forBiology, Jl.Ir. H. Juanda 22, 16122 Bogor, IndonesiaTel: 62 (251) 322035, FAX: 62 (251) 325854, Email:
This study was conducted in order to have a betterunderstanding in the interrelationship between theDani-Baliem and their environment as well as theevolution of their traditional activities in itsecosystem. The consequences of their activities inthe evolution of environment are shown by differentmethods that they modify, utilise, manage itsenvironment and its vegetation diversities.
This research consists: analyses the knowledge andutilization of vegetation and its environment. Wealso describe the field organization and the localknowledge of botany. We treats the agricultureactivities of the Dani-Baliem. The other, thisresearch also analyse the floristic diversity indifferent environment existence in the Baliemvalley. This part consists of analyse floristic of theprimary forest of different altitude, secondary forest(fallow system of different ages), transition zone(zone ecotone), home garden, villages and sacredsites. and than, we discuss the relationship betweenthe Dani-Baliem and their environment based ontheir knowledge of plants, its utilization, its dynamicvegetation and its floristic diversity. Here wediscuss environment by confronting the point ofview of Dani-Baliem and the ecology, in the wayhow they exploite them. in conclusion weemphasized how the Dani-Baliem influence theevolution of their environment and the floristicdiversity.
Estudio florístico de diversidad deespecies en bosques de premontana en
la Cordillera de GuaniguanicoYudel Garcia Quintana, Yarelys Garcia Garcia
Universidad de Pinar del Rio, Marti final # 270, CP20100 Pinar del Rio, Cuba
Email: [email protected]
A lo largo de los últimos diez años la conservaciónde los bosques se ha convertido en un tema de granprioridad, tanto para los que formulan políticascomo para el público en general en todas partes delmundo. En 1992, los bosques templados y tropicalestuvieron un lugar prominente en la agenda de laCumbre de las Naciones Unidas sobre MedioAmbiente y Desarrollo (CNUMAD), Río de Janeiro.A pesar de estos esfuerzos, la destrucción ydeterioro de los bosques ha ido en aumento;provocando serios daños sociales, ecológicos yeconómico e incluyen pérdidas de biodiversidad ytierras natales para los habitantes de los bosques.Actualmente en Cuba los territorios con vegetaciónnatural son escasos y se encuentran en áreasmontañosas, cársicos, pantanosos, serpentiníticos yotros que poseen suelos de escaso valor agrícola. Encambio se caracterizan por un elevado endemismoen ocasiones a nivel local.
Nuestros bosques presentan un elevado grado dealteración y destrucción, sin contar las áreas que handesaparecido completamente producto de la acciónantrópica. Es por ello que los estudios de diversidaden zonas montañosas adquieren gran importancia ysirven de base para la protección y conservación dela flora. Los bosques de premontaña contiguos a losmogotes cársicos de la Cordillera de Guaniguanico,al norte de la Provincia de Pinar del Río son de granriqueza biológica. El estudio de la diversidadflorística de un área de 5018 m2, se realizó a travésde la metodología de Brawn Banquet, basados eníndices matemáticos, a partir de seis muestras dondese contó el número de individuos y se calculó encada muestra; evaluándose la biodiversidad deespecies bajo diferentes condiciones ecológicas,además del estudio edafológico y climático,determinando a través de la ecuación universal unapérdida de suelo de 90 toneladas por hectáreas y unclima típico de la región insular.
Los resultados florísticos condujeron a calificar lazona como bosque degradado, cuantificándose unainmensa pérdida de recursos madereros,fundamentalmente de Cedrela odorata, maderapreciosa de alta demanda en el mercado, lo cualrepresenta el no aprovechamiento de este recurso enla construcción de inmuebles, conociendo que conese volumen (24.92 m3 por hectárea) se pueden
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fabricar 24 juegos de livin y 104 sillones,equivalentes a una pérdida en ingresos de 199200pesos para esa porción de la Cordillera. Estainvestigación realizada en un lote forestal delmunicipio La Palma perteneciente a la Sierra delRosario, Cordillera de Guaniguanico permitiórecomendar especies para otros sitios degradadosespecíficamente en zonas montañosas; además derecuperar una zona de este tipo desvastada por elhombre y los resultados fueron excelentes. Elobjetivo del trabajo es proponer un proyecto,incluyendo métodos silvícolas con vistas arecuperar, rescatar y conservar esta formaciónboscosa compuesta por un gran número de especiesautoctónas.
Problematique de l'amenagement desForêts Naturelles des Zones Tropicales
SechesBassirou Sougoufara, Souleymane Gueye
DEFCCS, BP. 1831, Dakar, SenegalEmail: Dr. Mohammed Ellatifi [[email protected]]
Le présent mémoire souligne d'abord la complexitéde la tâche de l'aménagiste de forêts naturellestropicales par rapport à celle des zones tempérées.Ensuite il passe en revue les principales contraintesque peut rencontrer cet aménagiste dans sa mission,contraintes générées par les divers facteursd'évolution d'ordre physique, humain ou technique.Partant de la necessité de l'adoption d'une approcheterroir dans l'aménagement de forêts naturelles(AFN) en zones tropicales sèches (ZTS), impliquantd'une part, une responsabilisation et uneparticipation effective des populations ruraleslocales dans la conception, la mise en oeuvre et lesuivi de l'aménagement préconisé, et d'autre part,une intégration des divers systèmes de productionexistant (Agriculture-Elevage-Forêt) il analyse lesinterfaces entre ces derniers et propose ledéveloppement des interelations positives et desactions à mener pour réduire voire lever cellesnégatives.
Mots-clés: Facteurs d'évolution, Approche Terroir,interelations entre systèmes de production.
Population dynamics of tropical trees inthe Western Ghats of Tamil Nadu, South
IndiaS. M. Sundarapandian, P.S. Swamy
Madurai Kamaraj University, School of BiologicalSciences
Department of Plant Sciences, 625021 Madurai, IndiaTel: 91 452 858928, FAX: 91 452 859139, Email: E-
mail: [email protected]
The tropical forests at Veerapuli and Kalamalaiforest reserve, falling within the Agastyamalai hillrange (a proposed Biosphere Reserve), is consideredone of the 18 hot spots of biodiversity in the Indiansub-continent. During the past few decades theseforests were subjected to unscientific exploitationparticularly for agriculture, construction ofhydroelectric project raising monocultureplantations and other developmental activities. inaddition to that the deciduous forests in theseregions also affected by annual fires during summer.Such anthropogenic perturbations have oftenresulted in gradual fragmentation of these forestsand such fragmentations inturn has lead to loss ofbiodiversity. Successful conservation of thesesforests will ultimately depend upon the clearunderstanding of the forest ecosystem dynamics.Therefore, the present study was undertaken (1993-1996) to evaluate short-term population dynamics oftrees in both tropical deciduous and evergreenforests in Veerapuli and Kalamalai Reserve Forestin the Western Ghats of Tamilnadu, South India bypermanent plot method i.e. thirty randomly located10 x 10 m2 permanent quadrats in each study site; 10in each sub-site.
Mortality of trees (> 10 cm Girth at breast height -GBH) was lower in both the forests compared torecruitment. As a result, there was net gain inpopulation density of trees. Similarly an increase inbasal area per hectare was also recorded. Theincrease in population density and basal area of treespecies could be because of their entry into adultstage from the already existing sapling and seedlingbank. Both mortality and recruitment of trees weregreater in the evergreen forests when compared tothat of deciduous forests. Comparatively lowrecruitment of trees in deciduous forests could beattributed to annual wild fires caused by humaninterference. in the deciduous forests no adult treesof Dalbergia latifolia were found, but the youngones (seedlings) were appeared during the rainyseason. This could be ascribed to persistent soil seedbank or immigration of seeds from the neighboringarea and also may possibly through vegetativereproduction. However, the survivorship of these
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seedlings were very poor and which could be due towild annual fire caused by anthropogenicperturbations. Greater recruitment of trees tocompensate mortality has resulted in a net gain ofpopulation in evergreen forests. This net gain ofpopulation may be attributed to favourablemicroclimatic conditions for better growth andsurvival of seedlings. Greater mortality of juvenilescompared to that of adults occurred during the studyperiod. This could be due to intense competition forlimited available resources at the juvenile stage.However, population dynamics of trees at specieslevel varied considerably. The present studysuggests that the forest ecosystems here are atbuilding phase and needs long-term demographicstudies to understand the regeneration niche.
Indigenous Forest Management System(IFMS) and Forest Products
Commercialization: The Upland People'sStrategy on Forest Conservation in the
Cordillera Region, PhilippinesFatima T. Tangan
Ecosystems Research and Development Service,Department of Environment and Natural Resources,
Loakan Road, 2600 Baguio City, PhilippinesFAX: 0063-442-4531, Email: erds-car@mozcom. Com
The Cordillera Region is rich with endemic andexotic species whether shrubs, trees or vines. Fromgeneration to generation various tribes in the regionhave somehow practiced their indigenousknowledge in the management of the forest. Thus,different terms were created by the natives todescribe their different forest conservationmeasures. For instance, saguday is describe as aformer portion of the communal domain originallyawarded to an individual family devoted to pineplantation, and of which continue to be corporatelyowned by the second generation of heirs. Otherforms of forest management includes Komonal,Tayan and others depending upon the forest typeand tribe who practices the system.
A case-study on the commercialization of forestproducts (wildfood plants, bamboo, rattan,medicinal plants, etc.) had been carried out as a partof larger project which was conducted in somecommunities of the Cordillera Region. The topic tobe presented covers specifically how the nativesprotect and manage their ancestral land domainclaims at the Mt. Pulag National Park whilewildfood and medicinal plants and other productsare extracted for their domestic and economic needs.
Other features of the study are the advantages anddisadvantages of the proclamation of PresidentialDecree 75 in 1987 and Republic Act 7586. The
problems on land tenure as affected by conflictingPresidential Decrees, Migration of other tribeswithin the region and dependency of the people inthe forest will be presented. The contribution of thelocal people in educating the tourist as a livelihoodoption and the role of the research service of thePhil. Government during the experimentation stagewill be discussed.
The various forest products whether raw orprocessed which has played integral part on thedaily life of the people and its implication to theconservation and management of the forest weredocumented. Likewise, data on the role of womenand men in these indigenous forest managementsystem (IFMS) whether in the protection andutilization were gathered and analyzed.
The objectives of the study are (1) to document thedifferent indigenous forest management practices inthe Cordillera Region, (2) to assess the bio-physicalcomponent of the Mt. Pulag National Park, (3) todetermine the attitudes and perceptions of theindigenous peoples regarding PresidentialProclamation, (4) to determine the role of men andwomen in the establishment, preservationmanagement and utilization of the variousindigenous forests.
4.02.03 / 4 .02.06 Update cal ibration andenhancement of forest inventories through
the inclusion of remotely sensed data
Vertical and horizontal integratedinventory of forest resources
Alparslan AkcaInstitut fuer Forsteinrichtung und Ertragskunde,
Buesgenweg 5, 37077 Goettingen, GermanyTel: 49-(0)551-393473/72, FAX: 49-(0)551-399787,
Email: [email protected]
With the ever increasing use of the forest forpurposes other than wood production, such asrecreation, watershed management, wildlife refuges,protection of nature, etc., the scope of forestinventories has been expanded.
A complete forest inventory for timber evaluationshould also provide so-called non-timberinformation on:* Recreational, touristic interest* Soil and land use capabilities* Watershed values- Biodiversity* Protection of nature, impact of deforestation
It is not sensible, nor even possible, to compile allforest-related or relevant information into one forestinventory. On the other hand, an inventory correctedwith this in mind, is not only cost-effective and
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time-saving, but also provides the opportunity ofdocumenting environmentally-relevant information,which can be analyzed in view of ecologicallandscape management.
In order to make sound political, administrative andmanagement decisions at the different levels, it isnecessary to have reliable and current data relevantto forest resources and the changes therein. Forestinventories can usually be categorized into fourlevels, according to the scale or size of the inventoryarea studied and their significance and relation toeconomical and ecological forest managementpolicy, regional planning, planning at the forestenterprise and stand level.* National (or international forest inventories)* Regional forest inventories* Forest enterprise inventories* Forest stand inventories
In most cases, and in the majority of countries, theinventories are carried out independently at thedifferent levels so that an information flow betweenthe varying levels is not possible. in the age or timeof informatics, a "vertical" integration would bevery valuable for decision making at all levels. Aneffective forest inventory concept should integratethe information flow of all four levels, as describedabove, taking the necessity of the informationrequired at the varying levels into account. Thismeans that the national, regional, enterprise andstand level inventories must originate from a jointinventory concept, filtering down from the top level,i.e., from a national inventory down to a standinventory and/or from the bottom to the top level.
The efficiency of forest inventories can be increasedby employing remote sensing methods using aerialphotographs, air-borne scanner and satellite images.in the last years, remote sensing methods haveundergone a very rapid development because new,high-resolution sensors and perfect data processingmethods are being developed, which alloweconomical digitized data recordings on a largescale. Traditional aerial photographs are still beingemployed as valuable supplementary inventory aids,especially at the enterprise and stand levels.However, aerial photographic methods can only beeffectively applied in combination with terrestrialrecordings and mathematical-statistical methods.Taking this into consideration, aerial photographicmethods can applied at varying levels of intensity,from the most simple to the most complex analyticalevaluation, depending on the subject of interest.
Complementary methods to assessforest landscape structure: Shannon's
entropy and fractal dimension ofremotely sensed imagery
Piermaria Corona, Marco Marchetti, Carlo Ricotta,Roberto Scotti
Universiti degli Studi di Firenze, Istituto di Assestamentoe Tecnologia Forestale (forest management institute), Via
S. Bonaventura, 13, 50145 Firenze, ItalyFAX: +39055319179, Email: [email protected]
Landscape structure, interpreted as indicator offunctional processes, has become a main attribute ofmultiresource forest inventories, enhancing its valuewith respect to society needs. This approach implieseffective use of earth observation techniques andgeographic information systems, enabling a globalview of the inventoried landscape mosaics. Theobjective of this paper is to discuss twocomplementarily targeted approaches to assessforest landscape structure and complexity: a methodbased on information theory as introduced byShannon, and one based on the estimation of localfractal dimension. Both methods together provide anobjective assessment of landscape structure at thegiven resolution.
Estimating the Density of Rare TreeSpecies - A case Study from Ethiopia
Alfred de Gier, G. DessieInternational Institute for Aerospace Survey and EarthSciences (ITC), Hengelosestraat 99 Post Box # 6, 7500
AA Enschede, NetherlandsTel: +31 (0)53 4874309, FAX: +31 (0)53 4874399,
Email: [email protected]
Rarity is one of the problems in biodiversityassessment, because estimates of the density ofthese species are often imprecise. It is thereforenecessary to identify sampling designs, which canyield precise estimates. in this research a relativelynew method called adaptive cluster sampling wasapplied to a forest area in Ethiopia, and comparedwith simple random sampling. The comparison ofadaptive cluster sampling and simple randomsampling was based on the relative efficiency oftheir variances. The results reveal that under certainconditions, adaptive cluster sampling of rare speciesis more efficient than simple random sampling. Thedegree of efficiency of this sampling design wasfound to be influenced by the level of rarity, and thesize of the rare species groups.
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Automatic estimation of volume factorsin real stands by digital image
processingKim Dralle
The National Forest and Nature Agency, Haraldsgade 53,DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
Tel: +45 39 47 25 16, FAX: +45 39 47 98 99, Email:[email protected]
A practical application of automatic stem numberestimation by kernel smoothing on digital aerialphotos is presented. This application improvesforest inventory results compared to results obtainedby established methods, for e.g. Norway spruce(Picea abies [L.] Karst.), through improved standlevel stem number estimates. Rough estimates oftree characteristics such as height and diameter ofthe mean tree corresponding to basal area retrievedfor example by ocular assessment can, in aroundabout way, be used to assess other volumefactors. However, the first step to improve standlevel volume factor estimates is to obtainsufficiently accurate estimates of stem number.Kernel smoothing of digital aerial photos isdemonstrated to yield this stem number estimate inreal stands. Further, it is demonstrated how themethod in a second run will provide individual treecharacteristics such as position in a global co-ordinate system, heights and diameters. Acomparison to other "similar methods" as forexample ray tracing will be presented.
Climatic Regions Classification ofTaiwan
Fong Long Feng, Jian-Tai KaoNational Chung Hsing University, Dept. Forestry,
Taichung, China-TaipehTel: 886-4-2854060, FAX: 886-4-2873628, Email:
The ecosystem should be based on multiple factors.Ecosystems are defined by multiple factors. AsSokal (1974) pointed out, "Classifications based onmany properties will be general: they are unlikely tobe optimal for any single purpose, but might beuseful for a great variety of purposes." This istermed a "natural classification". and some scientistsuse land-use, landscape vegetation pattern, ... et al.But most scientists use the criteria of climaticcharacteristics, because climate is the limit factor ofbiology distribution. There are three methods:regionalization, map-overlay, and multivariateclustering method introduced to reclassify theclimatic regions in Taiwan. There were 8 climaticregions by regional and Zheng-Xiang Chen (1957)abbreviated regions from 20 climatic sub-regionsthat used 100 climate stations according to
Thornthwaite System. The map-overlay method wasused Holdridge life zone classification model toproduce 11 climatic regions in Taiwan. There are948 habitat clusters reclassified into climatic regiondiagram by average linkage method by multivariateclustering method. These 948 habitat clusters inTaiwan environment factor database were clusteredfrom the 1km*1km grid of Taiwan by 12 habitatfactors. The 12 habitat factors include elevation,slope, aspect, mean temperature per year, mean hightemperature of July, mean low temperature ofJanuary, total precipitation per year, precipitationwinter semester, precipitation summer semester, soilclass, soil texture, soil effective depth. Therelationships among each classification system werediscussed in the paper.
The climatic region maps and the intercross tablesare showed the relationships among the Chen'sclimatic regions, Holdridge life zone classificationmodel in Taiwan and climatic cluster regions indifferent levels. There are 8 Chen's climatic regionsin Taiwan, which were (1) North-East (NE), (2)North (N), (3) South-West (SW), (4) South (S), (5)East Coast (E), (6) Central Mountain (CM), (7)West Coast (W), (8) Peng-Hu (PENG), according tofactors: (1) monsoon (2) precipitation (3) potentialevapotranspiration and moisture balance (4) averageannual thermal efficiency. The factors used inHoldridge life zone classification model were (1)mean annual bio-temperature (2) average totalannual precipitation (3) potential evapotranspirationratio to map-overlay. There are 11 life zonesdeveloped with Holdridge model. Those zones are(1) sub-alpine rain forest (2) mountain rain forest (3)mountain wet forest (4) lower mountain rain forest(5) lower mountain wet forest (6) lower mountainmoist forest (7) subtropical moist forest (8)subtropical dry forest (9) tropical wet forest (10)tropical moist forest (11) tropical dry forest. Theclimatic regions diagram shows there are stableclimatic clusters where Euclidean distance between0.8 ~ 1.4. There are plain, slope-land, mountain,northeastward wet forest, southwestward wet forest,slope-land where summer monsoon and winter dry,like Tai-Wu, Ma-Jia region, southern wet forest, Da-Wu-Mountane region as stable climatic clusters.The difference among three methods were due todiverse in interest classified factors.
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Forest and Woodland Ecosystems inDinder National Park: A challenge to
integrate ConservationSalwa M. Abdel Hameed, Nadir M Awad, Amna A.
HamidWildlife Research Centre, Post Box #16- Elmourada,
Omdurman, SudanTel: 313532-314798, FAX: 491(11) 777017-770735,
Email: [email protected]
National Park status is desirable for mostconservation areas because this confers greater legalsecurity for the land and usually allows greaterpower of control and law enforcment. However,with human population increasing rapidly and theshort-full in food production increasing annually,many national parks in Africa have become islandsof natural resources in good condition surroundedby high human population densities occupyingdegrading lands. The conservation of the biologicaldiversity they contain affect the livelihoods of therural populations in the surrounding because of theregulation needed to support conservation. DNP inSudan is facing the same situation.
Knowledge of the nature and seriousness of anyconflict require accurate assessment and trueevaluation of the resources available and the needsof the local communities. A vegetation andlandscape survey including interpretation of LandSat MSS images and aerial photographs, wasconducted in Dinder National Park, accompanied bysocial studies via questionnaires and informalinterviews during 1996-1999. The landscapeecology vegetation map was produced. Four majorlandscape units were found:- alluvium, clay plain,depressions, hills and pediments with varied soiltypes and vegetation subsystems. The distribution ofthe vegetation in DNP seems to be influenced byseveral factors; water regime, topography, soil typesand human activities in the park. The localcommunities (Rahad villages and Maggnoindigenous population) in their sharp reactionagainst laws and regulations resort to antagonisticactions, utilizing the resources illegally. Theysuffered from penalty and under development. Theircontinuous demand for the resources might lead tosevere destruction of the productive ecosystemsRiverine forest and Woodland ecosystems havegreat potentiality of providing wide range ofeconomic, social and environmental benefits. Newstrategy for management, utilization andconservation should be addressed to suit the newconcept of community based integrated resourceconservation, in order to safe guard the remainingresources towards sustainable development.
Modeling regeneration establishment forAustrian forests using neural networks
Hubert Hasenauer, Dieter MerklUniversity of Agricultural Sciences, Institute of ForestGrowth Research, Peter Jordan Strasse 82, A - 1190
Vienna, AustriaTel: +43 1 47654 4205, FAX: +43 1 47654 4242, Email:
Artificial neural networks represent a computationalmethodology widely used to uncover the structureof a large variety of data. in general, one mayrecommend the application of neural networks inareas characterized by noise, poorly understoodintrinsic structure and random impacts. Each ofthose characteristics is present in predictingregeneration establishment within uneven agedmixed species stands. in this paper we describe thedesign and estimation procedure to predictregeneration situation in uneven-aged mixed speciesstands using neural networks. The result of the studyis that the number of juvenile trees per unit area andthe relative percentage of individuals by tree speciescan be predicted with neural networks and that theestimation procedure is more accurate versus theconventional statistical approach based onregression analyses.
Keywords: Regeneration, Neural Networks,Uneven-aged mixes stands
Draining and secondary inundation inthe Leningrad Region
V. K. Konstantinov, G.B.VelikanovSaint-Petersburg Research Institute, Institutsky pr., 21,
194021 Saint-Petersburg, RussiaFAX: (812) 552-80-42, Email: [email protected]
During the last two centuries approximately 750-800 thousand hectares of forest stock in Leningradregion were drained. That is no less than 14% of itsarea or 55% of the water-logged land. At present thearea with still working draining systems is reducedto 480 thousand hectares. Region forests growing onwater-logged lands (with peat or without it) aredivided into four main groups. The first, the secondand the forth groups are represented by pine, spruce,birch and partly by other broad-leaved forests,which refer to swampy-grassy soil on the eutrophicpeat, grassy-bog mossy(grassy-sphagnous) on themesotrophic peat and long mossy-blueberry on thepeaty(less than 0,2-0,3 m of peat) and mineralgleysol soils, respectively. The third group(named"bog-mossy") is characterized by pine forests on theoligotrophic and oligotrophic-mesotrophic peat.
Draining of the first and the second forest groupsproduces the greatest forestry effect. The quality oflocality increases from IV-V to II-I, and the annual
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mean increment of timber is 2-5 m3 per hectare. inthe third and the forth groups the annual meanincrement doesn't exceed 0,5-3 m3 per hectare.
Secondary bogging of drained lands happensbecause the work of draining channels deteriorateddue to the lack of care and inadequate extent ofdraining(density and depth of channels), establishedin the projects. Losses of annual increment of timberdue to the bad condition of channels reach about 30-60%. More than that, up to 50-60% of drained andadjacent to them earlier drained lands are floodedbecause of beavers' dams, built on the channels.
Up to 200-300 hectares are flooded by roads;approximately the same territory is flooded byreservoirs. Nowadays, among the factorsdetermining bogging dynamics the leading onecomparable to the natural process of bogs-growingis a technogenic factor; that is construction of roads,dams, oil and gas pipe-lines.
Forecast of the balance between over-drained anddrained lands for the next twenty years indicatesreduction of the area with provided draining normon 112 thousand hectares; 70 thousand hectares willbe transferred into the category of secondarybogging. It is necessary to take prompt measures tocarry out repair works in the draining systems.
Technological Inventory for NorwaySpruce in ItalyM. Negri, C. Pollini
Wood Technology Institute, National Research Council,Via Biasi 75, I - 38010 S- Michele a/A, Italy
FAX: +39.0461.650045; Email: [email protected]
Knowledge of the quality of timber produced innatural forests allows for rational management.Although in forests growing in the Alpine chain theproductive function plays a complementary role, therevenue from timber sales covers the cost of culturaland thinning operations. Since the quality of thetimber is strictly related to the quality of standingtrees, a large study to relate the properties of trees tothe properties of sawn timber was carried out.
A thematic map on wood quality is therefore animportant element towards better planning andmanagement of forest assets and of mountain areasin general.
The main objective of the research is to identifysignificant correlations between the morphologicalparameters of standing trees and the quality andquantity characteristics of the products obtainedfrom primary processing, such as defining woodquality on a geographic scale and thus creating aspecific thematic map.
The research was conducted in the forests in theprovince of Trento (Italy). The prevailing species inthis Alpine area, and also the most interesting froma commercial standpoint, is Norway spruce (60%).Consequently, this species was chosen as the subjectof this study.
The study can be divided into three distinct phases.
The first phase foresees:
- the preparation of a set of operating tools(methods, protocols, instrumentation,classifications, etc.) suitable for identifying the mainparameters that will be considered for the study oncorrelations between standing trees and timbercharacteristics;
- the writing up of a visual classification of standingtrees, with allocation of each single plant to qualityclasses;
- the calculation of the sawn yields according toround wood quality and determination of theQuality Index (QI) of the visual classes adopted (QIindicates the value of the unit volume of roundwood expressed as the value of the final boards).
The second phase consists of extensively applyingthe protocols and methods perfected in the firstphase. A map of a small pilot area is prepared, onwhich wood quality is indicated both in terms of the"intrinsic quality" of the raw material and in termsof the value of the final assortments obtained.Mapping is performed on the basis of a very highnumber of sampling areas concentrated in arestricted area so as to obtain a dense samplinglattice. The pilot area is selected so as to containareas with various exposures and gradients and tocover a wide altimetric range. The identification ofthe laws of distribution of the variability of theparameters researched allows us to modulate themesh of the sampling lattice necessary for the thirdphase.
Preparation of the standard map constitutes the thirdphase of the study. The model obtained can then beapplied progressively to the forest areas withproduction functions in the provincial area.
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Monitoring Forest Cover Changes inMalaysia Using Remote Sensing
TechniqueAswati Surep
Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM), RegionalCentre for Forest Management, Kepong, 52109 Kuala
Lumpur, MalaysiaTel: 603-6377633, FAX: 603-6377233, Email:
Forests are a renewable resource that play a vitalrole in the development of the national economy.Malaysia is endowed with extensive tropical forestresources. It was reported in 1992 that about 19.06million ha or 57.9% of total land area is covered byforests. Remote sensing is acknowledged as themost powerful tool to monitor detect any changes ofa forested area. This paper reviews the potential ofusing remote sensing technique in detecting land useand land cover changes in Malaysia. Studies inSabah (197601983), Rawang (1988-1995), SungaiBuloh Forest Reserve (1988-1995) indicated thatthat were significant forest cover changes occurringin the study sites. Causes and rate of forest coverchange were quantified and discussed. Theusefulness of remote sensing technique in detectingforest change in Malaysia has been exploredsignificantly. Although much of the efforts are stillat the infant stage, the potential use of the techniqueat the operational level is very promising.
Monitoring for Survival Rates of YoungPlantation Trees in Japanese
Mountainous Region Using Landsat TMdata
Yukio Teraoka, Akihisa Hirata, Shigeru Iida, NobuyaMizoue, Shigejiro Yoshida, Morio Imada and Susumu
InoueKagoshima University, Dept. Environmental Science andTechnology, 1-21-24 Koorimoto, 890-0065 Kagoshima,
JapanTel: +81-99-285-8574, FAX: +81-99-285-8575, Email:
According to the increase of plantation area, theafforestation has progressed to inaccessiblemountainous regions located at high altitude and incool temperate conditions. The plantations ininaccessible mountainous regions were liable to beunder severe conditions because of Kyushu Deer(Cervus nippon) grazing impacts freezing anddrought damages. Therefore, unsuccessfulplantations have been increasing with planted trees'disappearance and competition with naturallyinvaded broad-leaf trees. It was hard to monitor thestate of every plantation by field observations
because of lack of time, efforts and costs. Then, theeffective method has been needed for monitoring thestate of unsuccessful young plantations ininaccessible mountainous regions. The objective ofthis study was to develop the method to estimate thesurvival rates of planted trees in young Sugi(Cryptomeria japonica) and Hinoki (Chamaecyparisobtusa) plantation sub-compartments by analyzingthe Landsat TM data. The study sites were youngplantations in Kyushu University Forests inMiyazaki that were located in southern Kyushu,Japan and within the cool-temperate deciduouszone. The series of plantation has been developedsince 1978 under the clearcutting system in blockssurrounded by shelterbelts. Each cutting block wasdivided into slope units by slope azimuth becausethe survival rates have varied with azimuth. Themethod of this study was composed of threeprinciple parts. 1) Interpreting survival rate ofplanted trees on a pair of aerial photograph. 2) Fieldmeasurements of spectral reflectance on bothplanted trees and grass to examine the difference inspectral reflectance characters of two vegetationtypes. 3) The analysis between the TM data and thesurvival rates of trees under two MODELs. MODELI using NDVI and MODEL II using the TM band 3digital number (DN) for detecting the difference inspectral reflectance between planted trees and grass.As the results, 1) there were wide differences in thesurvival rates among slope units and also amongcutting blocks, and a northern exposure slope had arelatively high survival rate comparing to a southernexposure slope. 2) It was difficult to estimate thesurvival rates of planted trees by NDVI. 3) DNs inthe TM band 3 were preferable to estimate thesurvival rates of planted trees. The relationshipbetween survival rates and average DNs for northernand southern exposure slope groups showed strongnegative correlations with the coefficient ofdetermination 0.98 and 0.62. in addition, twocorrelation lines had the same regression coefficientfrom the result of 5 % significant level test. Fromthis the difference in intercepts of both lines mightindicate the reflectance characteristics of two slopeazimuths. This study would supply the effectivemonitoring method for unsuccessful plantations ininaccessible mountainous regions.
Inventory of Remote SensingApplications in Forestry: State of the Art
Yousif Ali Hussin, Witske BijkerThe International Institute for Aerospace Survey and
Earth Science (ITC), 7500 AA Enschede, NetherlandsFAX: (31) 53-4874-399, Email: [email protected]
To consistently and repeatedly monitor forests overlarge areas, it is desirable to use remote sensing data
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and automated image analysis techniques. Severaltypes of remote sensing data, including Aerialphotography, Optical Multispectral Scanner, Radar,Lidar (Laser) and Videographic data have been usedby forest research and operational agencies todetect, identify, classify, evaluate and measurevarious forest cover types and their changes. Overthe past decades tremendous progress has beenmade in demonstrating the potentials and limitationsof the applications of remote sensing in forestry.
For several types of applications of remote sensingin forestry in specific regions of the world such astropical areas, users of forest information aredemanding new establishment of sensors andplatforms. in order to see what kind of informationwe can extract from the current remote sensingsensors and platforms, an inventory of all remotesensing applications in forestry is needed.This paper presents a literature review of the use ofremote sensing for measuring, estimating ordescribing forest characteristics and mapping forestcover types. It deals with all forest types around theworld, on all latitudes and climates, natural as wellas man-made, but not with other land cover types.The paper starts with an introduction to remotesensing, followed by definitions of forest types andcharacteristics, as will be used in the remainder ofthe paper. Then an overview of the applications forforestry per type of sensor "type" which defined bythe portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that isused and the way of recording (digital or analogue),not by the platform. The paper will then discuss theapplications of the sensors in forestry. A section onsynergy, where applications using a combination ofdifferent sensors are reviewed. The publication endswith conclusions and an outlook.
Remote sensing can detect, identify, classify,evaluate and measure various forest characteristicsin two ways: qualitatively and quantitatively. in aqualitative way remote sensing can classify forestcover types to: coniferous and deciduous forest,mangrove forest, swamp forest, forest plantations,etc. While the quantitative analysis can measure orestimate forest parameters (e.g. dbh, height, basalarea, number of trees per unite area, timber volumeand woody biomass), floristic composition, lifeforms, and structure.
4.02.05 Remote sensing and forestmonitoring
Global Observation of Forest Cover:How IUFRO can help achieve an elusive
goalFrank Ahern, Jacques Trencia, Tim Perrott, Carolyn
GoodfellowCanada Centre for Remote Sensing, GOFC Project
Office, 588 Booth Street, K1A 0Y7 Ottawa, Ontario,Canada
Tel: (613) 947-1295, FAX: 1-613-947-1385, Email:[email protected]
Keywords: remote sensing; monitoring; globalforests; forest cover; forest changes; climate change;biodiversity
Since the launch of Landsat-1 in 1972, earthobservation satellites have been promoted as ameans of obtaining information about forests andother natural resources on a global scale. Manyorganizations, including international agencies, theglobal change research community, and non-governmental organizations have had a long-standing interest in such information. Nationalforest ministries are also interested in the "bigpicture", and are often willing to participate inefforts to assemble regional and global information.More recently, additional impetus has come fromseveral international conventions. All of thesegroups have recognized the impossibility ofassembling a reliable, global picture of forestconditions (especially forest changes) from thediverse and inconsistent data obtained by hundredsof different agencies using different methods fordifferent purposes. Although satellite data cannotprovide all of the information required (e.g., standage), they are the only source available forobjective, timely and consistent worldwide forestobservations. The IUFRO working group onRemote Sensing and World Forest Monitoring hascompleted a landmark document which providesguidelines for combining plot measurements withremote sensing observations to produce a consistentglobal picture.
However, the potential of satellite observations tomonitor forests on a global scale has not yet beenrealized. Recognizing this, the Committee on EarthObservation Satellites selected Global Observationof Forest Cover (GOFC) as one of six pilot projectswhich form the core of its Integrated GlobalObserving Strategy.
The GOFC strategic design calls for implementationof three major components: forest fire monitoringand mapping, forest cover characteristics and
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changes, and forest biophysical processes. Forestcover characteristics and changes is the mostdifficult component to implement, but is also thecomponent of greatest interest to a wide variety ofpotential users. During GOFC's design phase andearly implementation, institutional and technicalchallenges have been identified which must beaddressed before this component can be realized.Institutional action is needed to:- develop mechanisms which make informationmore accessible and easy to use;- foster a policy environment that promotes thebroadest sharing of remote sensing information onforests;- overcome shortages of technical skills in remotesensing and GIS which exist in many organizations.Technical challenges include:- acquiring and processing fine resolution (~25 m)data for a large fraction of the world's total forestarea;- merging data from multiple satellites in anoptimum fashion;- developing appropriate information productswhich can be produced in a highly automatedmanner (to minimize costs);- detecting and quantifying changes which resultfrom partial removal of trees;- collecting and analyzing substantial amounts of in-situ and airborne data for calibration and validation;- ensuring the continuity of fine resolution data withglobal coverage;- making information available in a rapid, simple,and meaningful way to all interested parties.
GOFC is intended to address global informationrequirements related to international policy,particularly with respect to the sustainability offorest resources, climate change and biodiversity.There is a crucial need to demonstrate and evaluateproducts which can provide such policy-criticalinformation, and to develop the infrastructureneeded for data and information sharing.
Direct research priorities include developing,testing, and automating the extraction ofinformation from large regional and global data sets,combining satellite, aircraft, and groundobservations. It is hoped that these research effortswill spur international capacity building, particularlyin developing countries, and lead to increased useand sharing of earth observation data and derivedinformation products.
Forest Information from Remote sensing- Biomass and Wood Volume
assessment and mappingP. Kennedy, S. Folving, C. Estreguil, M. Rosengren, E.
Tomppo, J. M. Pereira, M. NilssonSpace Applications Institute, Joint Research Centre of theEuropean Commission, Sector for Forest and Catchment
Studies, Environment and Geo-Information (EGEO)Unit, 21020 ISPRA (VA), Italy
Tel: +39 0332 785009, FAX: +39 0332, Email:[email protected]
Keywords: Remote sensing, bio-mass, volume.
In 1997 the CEO (Center for Earth Observation)Project launched two application projects in supportto the FIRS (Forest Information from RemoteSensing) Project. One of these projects, theFMERS-II project, was a research and developmentstudy to investigate if existing remote sensing datacould be used for inferring two of forestry'simportant variables, namely above ground woodybiomass and volume of forest and other woodedland. The study investigated three different spatialresolutions of RS data, namely, medium resolution(100-300m from the IRS-WiFS), high resolution(less than 100m, from Landsat-TM), and very highresolution (less than 10m obtained from aerialphotos). Two different approaches were tested. Theapplication of K-nearest neighbour classificationand estimation method (kNN), and regressionmodels.
Two test sites were used for the study. One in theAtlantic-Mediterranean region of central Portugal,and one in the Boreal zone in northern Sweden. Thelatter was extended to western Finland to evaluatethe performance of the models when extrapolatingthem to areas outside the calibration site. Acomparative analysis between TM-derived estimatesin the Finnish NFI and the WiFS-derived estimatesgave results of mean biomass of 59.5 tonnes/ha and58.3 tonnes/ha respectively.
Whereas the results from the Boreal site wereconvincingly good, those for the Portuguese sitewere rather poor. The reason for the poor resultsfrom the Atlantic-Mediterranean test site is notcompletely clear. Possible explanations include theheterogeneity of the stands, the presence of anestablished understorey (which influences thespectral signal) and the inadequacy of the availableground data for correlative and calibration analyses.More research clearly has to be carried out in orderto reach a better understanding of the potential ofusing RS data for estimating biomass of the
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complex and heterogeneous forests and shrublandsof the Mediterranean.
Following the results from FMERS-II, themonitoring of biomass and volume in the borealforests could be carried out on an operational basisusing remotely sensed data. The medium resolutionWiFS data render the possibility to cover Europe (inapproximately 40 scenes) with an appropriatetemporal frequency and at a relatively low cost. Thederived information could be foreseen to support theEU's external commitments, such as the KyotoProtocol and serve as input to internal policies of theUnion, such as the European Forest Strategy.
The role of scale in monitoring tropicalforest from space
Vladimir KremsaResearch Center for Applied Science and Advanced
Technology, Legaria 694, Col. Irrigacion, 11500 MexicoCity, Mexico
Email: [email protected]
Keywords: remote sensing, cartography, forestmonitoring
The effects of spatial and temporal scales must beconsidered in both theoretical and applied forestedlandscape ecology.The structure, function andchanges of forested landscapes ate scale dependent,because of their spatial heterogeneity. Recenttheoretical developments in landscape ecology haveemphasized the relationship between pattern andprocess and the effect that changes in spatial scalehave on our ability to extrapolate information acrossspatiotemporal scales. The landscapes have criticalthresholds at which ecological processes will showdramatic qualitative changes. Different landscapeindices may reflect process operating at differentscales. Quantitative methods linking spatial patternsand landscape-ecological processes at broad spatialand temporal scales are needed. One of the methodsthat can be applied to forested landscape datacollection, processing and interpretation at multiplespatiotemporal scales is remote sensing. The articledescribes the theoretical principles of space, timeand scale concepts ( effects of scale changes, impactof scale on analysis) in landscape ecologicalmonitoring and analysis of forested landscapes inthe tropics, as well as operational spatiotemporalscales for forested landscape analysis with theexamples (deforestation, patch dynamics, ecotones,etc.). Hierarchical organization of landscapes (withexamples and corresponding soil, vegetation andland units according to the classification of selectedauthors), recommended mapping scale and remotesensing platforms are given.
Classification of the native vegetation ofthe Conguillio's National Park in the
andes Mountain in Central Chile throughLandsat-TM images and Geographical
Information SystemsNelson Herno Ojeda Ojeda, Miguel Angel Herrera
MachucaUniversidad de Cordoba, Avenida Men‚ndez Pidal s/n,
Aptdo. de Correos 3048. 14080, 14080 Cordoba, EspanaTel::++34 957 218657, FAX: +34 957 21 8563, Email:
Keywords: National Park, Forest Ecosystem,Remote sensing
Natural forest ecosystems belonging toMediterranean-Temperate climate in Central-Southern Chile have been deeply harvested.However some relicts are remained in andesMountain. A good sample of that is placed in theNational Park Conguillio. in this National Park thereare several species of great scientific importancesuch as the millenarian conifer Araucaria araucanain cohabitation with some hardwoods belonging toNothoFagus genus.
This study has a main purpose to classify the Parkcover in different category of ecological importancein a volcano environmental. The above is reachedthrough the visual and spectral analysis of LandsatTM "Volc n Llaima. The false color image TM3,4and 5 allowed the analysis of landslide in forestareas. From the NDVI 29645,8 ha of vigorousvegetation was detected. At the same time 3157 hain critical conditions were observed. The sameIndex registered a positive value (0,13) in beds ofbasaltic lava colonized by liqueur. Furthermore theband 1,2,3 have allowed the detection of 33categories recognizing forest, grasslands, beds oflava, shadows, water, soil and snow. The k obtainedin this study was of 68%, in the case of the forestcover the reliability was of 77% as an average.
Monitoring of protection forests inAlpine region
Mathias Schardt, Klaus Granica, Ursula Schmitt & HeinzGallaun
Joanneum Research, Wastiangasse 6, A-8010 GrazFax-Nr.: 0043-316-876-1720
Email: [email protected]
Alpine forests are exposed to immediate andconsiderable environmental threat. This is due to anaggressive development drive in the past, hugenumbers of tourists as well as environmentaldamage. Particularly protection forests have recentlybeen subjected to particularly damaging natural aswell as anthropogenic influences. The catastrophicstorms of 1990 and 2000, the resultant, and lasting
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problem of the bark beetle, and global climaticchanges have weakened the resilience of alpineforests. The culminative effect of all these factorsoften proves disastrous, resulting in irreversiblechanges in the composition and distribution ofalpine forest cover. Far-sighted national and cross-border planning is necessary to ensure thatpreventive measures can be implemented by ForestAuthorities and Nature Conservation. The successof such measures crucially depends on theavailability of information about the distribution andcondition alpine protection forests and theirdevelopment dynamics. The Forestry Services inAustria are responsible for these measures. For longterm planning most of them have installed aGeographical Information System (GIS) usingdifferent raster and vector based data, but they donot have enough data to cover the entire region ofinterest.
Behind this background a pilot project concerningthe assessment and monitoring of forest parametersin alpine regions by means of satellite remotesensing for its use in protection forest planning andcontrol was carried out. The results of this projectwill be introduced in this paper. Quantitativeparameters, such as species composition, natural ageand crown coverage, have been assessed usingSPOT4 satellite data. It can be stated that with thenew mid-infrared band of SPOT4 the main treespecies spruce, larch and broadleaf could beseparated. The results also demonstrate that incomparison to Landsat TM data the SPOT4 datayield significant improvements in terms of speciesdiscrimination, crown coverage estimation and agedetermination. Using these results the planningpersonnel of a Country’s Forestry Service canimprove the planning and controlling tasks withregion covering data.
Remote sensing as a source ofinformation for nature protection of
landscape and National ParksEmilia Wisniewska
Institute of Geodesy and Cartography, Department ofCartography, Jasna 2/4 St, 00-950 Warsaw, Poland
Tel: (48 22) 827 03 28, FAX: (48 22) 827 03 28, Email:[email protected]
Keywords: remote sensing, nature protection.
Changes in the environment have caused thenecessity of large-scale monitoring and cartographicpresentation of its condition and the changes it isundergoing. The Institute of Geodesy andCartography conducts work on the use of a remotesensing and geographic information system forforest monitoring. The Kozienice Landscape Park
pilot project aims to create an operationalgeographic information system for forestmonitoring, updating and mapping.
The created forest information system gathersinformation on the environment from many sourcesin two related databases: spatial and relational. Thespatial database contains not only informationobtained from satellite images and also digitiseddata from topographic and thematic maps. Therelational database is created from inventoryinformation from forest management and otherinformation on the environment. This is related tospatial information through reference to actual foreststands, compartments and units of forestadministration. The use of data gathered in thegeographic information system describing the stateof forest stands allows for a more detailedclassification of satellite images.
The results of the above study have brought to theconclusions about forest monitoring with the use ofa remote sensing. They regard the selection of thebest satellite images channels and stands parameterswhich can be differentiated and cartographicallypresented as separate classes.
The geographic information system serves forspatial analyses and may be used as a tool for thecartographic presentation of gathered data andresults of spatial analysis.
The GIS, containing remote sensed data and otherinformation about the forest, can play a large role innature protection, correct running and managementof the forest. The advantage of these systems is thepossibility to combine multi-source and multi-typeinformation about the environment, conduct spatialanalysis, update databases, and edit maps andreports.
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4.02.07 Scenario approaches, models andassumptions behind the forestry analysis
used in regional , nat ional and global pol icymaking
Large-Scale Forest Scenario Analysis inthe United States: Comparison of
ApproachesRalph J. Alig, Darius M. Adams, Richard Haynes
USDA Forest Science, Pacific North West ResearchStation, 3200 SW Jefferson Way, OR 97331 Corvallis,
USAFAX: (541) 750-7329, Email: [email protected]
The Timber Assessment Market Model (TAMM)and the Forest and Agriculture Sector Model(FASOM) are examples of two large-scale forestryscenario models that have been employed to analyzethe U.S. forest resource situation. The models havebeen applied to make projections of the U.S. forestsector in regional and national studies, such as theperiodic Timber Assessments and Updates by theUSDA Forest Service. The purpose of the TimberAssessment is to analyze the timber resourcesituation over the next 50 years to provideindications of the future cost and availability oftimber products in the context of U.S. demands. Theanalysis also identifies resource situations that maybe judged desirable to change and developingopportunities that may stimulate both private andpublic investments.
The TAMM system has been used for more than 15years in the quinquennial Timber Assessments andUpdates. Using a price-endogenous, spatialequilibrium approach, market solutions are obtainedone period at a time using either reactiveprogramming or direct optimization of the nonlinearobjective function, depending on the model version.The TAMM system projects prices, consumptionand production of softwood and hardwoodsawtimber products, and harvest of timber fromprivate lands using an annual time step. Exogenousprojections of land allocation are provided byregional area change models, and timber growth andyield projections by the area-based AggregateTimberLand Analysis System (ATLAS). Exogenousprojections of forest management investment arebased on single-acre analyses and expert opinion.Projections of fiber products and fuelwood, whichwere part of the earliest version of TAMM, are nowderived from models linked to TAMM throughdemands for, and prices of, roundwood andresidues. On the resource side, the TAMM systemuses parameters for most behavioral equations (e.g.,private timber harvest) that are estimated fromhistorical data. Private timber supply functions are
derived from explicit hypotheses of intertemporalharvest behavior for industrial and nonindustrialowner classes. The relations link harvest to prices,inventory levels, interest rates, and for nonindustrialowners, income from nonforest sources.
The FASOM model is a linked model of the U.S.forest and agriculture sectors developed for use bythe U.S. Environmental Protection Agency instudies of global change and energy policy. FASOMis an intertemporal, price endogenous, spatialequilibrium model in which market solutions areobtained each decade in the entire 100-yearprojection period at one time. Endogenous variablesinclude: (I) land transfers between sectors; (ii) forestmanagement investment activity; (iii) timber harvestand log prices for nine U.S. regions, two speciesgroups, and three classes of products; and (iv)agricultural prices and production in eleven regionsfor 40 primary and 46 secondary commodities. TheFASOM model draws upon demand-sideinformation from the TAMM system, as well as alsoutilizing ATLAS timber yields.
With respect to analyzing forest scenarios, use of theTAMM and FASOM models can be complementarywhen analyzing forestry and natural resourcepolicies. For example, the intertemporaloptimization framework of FASOM allows readyexamination of adjustments or responses to policiesthat may fall outside the historical range ofobservations. Examples of large-scale scenarios themodels have been employed to examine include: logexports, carbon sequestration through tree planting,reduced public timber harvest, recycling ofwastepaper, global climate change, farm programs,production of short-rotation woody crops for pulpfiber, biomass production for energy, agriculturalland reallocation programs to promoteenvironmental goals, and sustainability ofproduction in both sectors.
Analysis of Flow-Stock Relationshipthrough Stimualation by Means of a
Forest Optimization ModelRicardo Armando Bratovich, Julio Eduardo Arce, Raúl
Marcos MarlatsUniversidad Nacional de La Plata, Virrey Cevallos, 646 –
7°"A", 1077 Buenos Aires, ArgentinaTel: +54-11-4381-4149, Email: [email protected]
Simulation is a very powerful tool in the planning ofcompanies and institutions in the field of forestry,since it allows to carry out different sensitivity testsin different scenarios within a field that has twomain features. The first one is that, from the relativecomparison of the impacts of the main factorsaffecting wood supply and demand, it can be seen
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that, in most cases, the demand for primary forestproducts takes much shorter to change than thesupply of those products. The second special featureis that in forestry systems, the production level of acertain period depends on the production level ofprevious periods, thus giving rise to a particularinteraction between long and short term supply anddemand: ceteris paribus, the more wood is used uptoday, the less we will have tomorrow, and surely ata higher price. The planning methodology this paperwill use, based on lineal programming, proves to bean extremely useful tool when it comes tounderstanding some basic forestry relations such asthe one between production flow and stock. Themodel was applied to planted poplar forestsbelonging to a paper producing company in theprovince of Buenos Aires, Argentina. This companyobtains their raw material mainly from their ownforests, and gets the rest from the market.
The flow-stock relationship can be managed so as toreach specific operative and strategic aims of thecompany. The managing of flow an stock may allowto handle the response capacity of a forest facingchanges in the demand, by increasing several timesits regular production in a certain period of time soas to supply the factory when there is a shortage inthe market. The model can be used as to asimulation tool to show the evolution of stocks withdifferent extraction flows for all planning horizon.This will allow to fix the new extraction flows to beapplied to the forest in order to obtain the necessarystock at the right moment. It is shown the way themodel carries out the planning, keeping the stocklevels at a minimum, which is important if theconsequences of the existence of stock on theaccounts of the company are born in mind. On theone hand they generate costs - opportunity,insurance and maintenance costs- which have aneffect on the results account; on the other theyincrease the assets. Both consequences reduce theincome yield capacity of the company, thus makingit necessary to keep stock levels at a minimum, sothat they can allow to bring together the process ofprimary production and the industrial one. Througha better understanding of the basic developedrelationships, it is shown the way companies withtheir own plantations can not only use them tocushion the effects of the market over the short-termsupply, but also handle them so as to avoidshortages in the mid and long term.
This helps solve the problem of many forestrysystem managers who pose the question of how theforest is to be handled so as to satisfy immediateneeds, changing at the same time its structure inorder to be ready for future circumstances. On the
whole, good handling of the flow-stock relation offorestry systems belonging to industries can allow toput into practice an administration policy in order toavoid risks of depriving the factory of supply.
Timber production possibilities of theNorwegian forest area and measures for
a sustainable forestryHans Fredrik Hoen, Tron Eid & Petter Ökseter
Agricultural University of Norway, Department of ForestSciences, P.O.Box 5044, Aas, Norway
FAX: +47 6494 8890, Email: [email protected]
A public discussion on how to bring forestmanagement practices in a more environmentallyoriented direction is going on between Norwegianorganisations of forest owners, environmentalists,forest industry and governmental offices. Certainrequirements or standards as they may be stated incertification documents or as governmental policiesare likely to appear in a near future.In addition to timber the forest is producing anumber commodities not traded in any market. Ifthe management of the forest area is designedmainly with respect to timber production, the effectsof this management on the provision of the non-market commodities may be negative. On the otherhand, an environmentally designed managementmay reduce timber production. The aim of thispaper is to present some long range timberproduction analyses where the objective has been tomap consequences for potential harvest level and netpresent value, related to varying forest treatments ina environmentally oriented direction as might bedefined in the future.
Analyses are done with GAYA-JLP, a model basedon simulation of treatment schedules for individualmanagement units and linear programming forsolving the management problem at forest level. Theanalyses cover the productive forest area in Norway.This forest area is divided into 10 regions. Sampleplots from the National Forest Inventory areaggregated into 1000 treatment units for eachregion, i.e. the entire forest area is described by10000 units. The forest management problems aresolved at county level, while the country levelresults are obtained by summing over the individualregions.
The analyses aim at providing a realistic descriptionof the timber production possibilities of theproductive forest area in Norway given consistencyin treatments with respect to the real rate ofdiscount. Management strategies with maximizationof the net present value (NPV), with and without anon-declining felling path constraint, have beenanalyzed. The following environmentally oriented
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constraints on forest management practices,separately and joint, have been analyzed:- certain areas of current old growth forest set asidefor permanent protection- minimum target levels for area covered by oldgrowth forest through time- leaving continuity trees after final felling- restricted management practices for border zoneareas around lakes, rivers, streams, swamps,agricultural land and roads
The results include estimates on possibledevelopment for a period of 100 years with respectto potential harvest levels and volume of growingstock. The NPV according to a real rate of discountof 2.5% and with a non-declining felling pathconstraint, was reduced by 8.7% when 5% of thetotal area was set aside for protection. Thecorresponding NPV reductions were 2.4%, 1.0%and 12.7% respectively with a minimum target levelof 10% for area covered by old growth forest, byleaving 10 continuity trees ha-1 and with restrictionson management practices for a medium border zonewidth (15 m) around lakes, rivers, streams, swamps,agricultural land and roads.
What will the European forest look likein 2050?
Gert-Jan Nabuurs, Risto Päivinen, Mart-Jan Schelhaas,Ari Pussinen, Eric Verkaik, Alexander Lioubimow, &
Frits MohrenEuropean Forest Institute, Torikatu 34, Fin 80100
Joensuu, FinlandTel: +31.317.477897, FAX: +31.317.424988, Email:
In Europe, where wood production used to dominatethe goals of forest management, nature conservationvalues are now becoming more important as well.These changes in management may have largeimplications for the long-term development of theforest. The other potential changes are related toenvironmental changes, like the climate change.
This article describes an instrument -the EuropeanForest Information SCENario (EFISCEN) model -which provides an insight in the long termimplications of these changes. It is a harmonisedtool for natural resource analyses of the forests in 30European countries. A whole new database has beengathered with the help of practically all nationalforest inventory institutes. EFISCEN uses an areamatrix approach to simulate the forest developmentfor a period of 50 to 70 years
Two case studies utilising the model have beendescribed - one in Leningrad region in North-Western Russia, and one comparing the EFISCENresults with national scenarios compiled by
UN/ECE-FAO in the European Timber TrendStudies.
Three Approaches for Large ScaleForest Scenario Analysis in Finland
Tuula Nuutinen, Seppo Kellomäki, Gert-Jan NabuursFinnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu ResearchStation, Post Box # 68, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland
Tel: +358 13 2514043, FAX: +358 13 2514111, Email:[email protected]
In Finland, three models have been applied forlarge-scale forest scenario analysis. The oldest,METLA, is a forestry model designed in the 1970sfor the regional and national analysis of timberproduction based on the sample plot and tree data ofthe Finnish National Forest Inventory (NFI). SIMAis a gap-type ecosystem model utilised in 1990s forregional predictions on how the changing climatemay affect the forest growth and timber yield inFinland. The European Forest Information ScenarioModel (EFISCEN) is originally a Swedish areamatrix model developed in the early 1980s.
In the SIMA model the growth of trees is based onthe diameter growth, which is controlled by lightconditions, temperature, soil moisture and nitrogen.The same factors control the success ofregeneration, which can be based on naturalprocesses or planting. The thinning rules and thelength of rotation can vary according to site type,dominant tree species, and location of stand.
The thinning limits are defined according todominant height and basal area, and the length ofrotation by the mean diameter of trees in the stand.
According to the SIMA simulation based on thepermanent sample plots of the NFI the stocking onmineral soils (ca. 80 percent of the total stocking)would increase from the current (1990) 1535 mill.m3 to 1898 mill. m3 by the year 2050, if standwisesilvicultural recommendations were applied. in thisscenario fellings on mineral soils would exceed 80mill. m3 in the period of 1990-2000 and dropthereafter close to 24 mill. m3 - rising up to 50 mill.m3 during the next few decades. Under the gradualelevation of temperature at the rate of 0.04 oC yr-1,the stocking stabilised at the level of 2000 mill. m3
by the year 2040.
The EFISCEN model requires area, volume andincrement data per age class by forest types. Theuser specifies future development of demand at thenational level and possible afforestations. Based ongrowth dynamics, age class distributions, andtheoretical management regimes, the modelcalculates if and where to harvest, and generatesprojections of growing stock, increment, timber
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harvest volumes, age class development over timeby country, region, and species. According toEFISCEN scenario based on data provided by theFinnish NFI the average annual felling wouldremain at 55 the level of mill. m3 until 2040. Thecorresponding growing stock would exceed 2500mill. m3 in 2040.
The METLA model consists of two parts: anautomated stand simulator based on individual treesand the optimisation package based on LP. A finitenumber of sound and acceptable managementschedules - differing from each other, for example,by timing of management activities - are simulatedfor each sample plot. Hundreds of variablesdescribing the management schedules are produced.The variables available in the LP problem and thereport writer describe the state and the developmentof the forests, as well as forest production and itseconomy over the calculation period. The optimiserselects simultaneously the production program forthe whole forestry unit and the correspondingmanagement schedules for sample plots. Themanagement of forests is endogeneous.
Since 1980's three national level analysis with astandard set of three scenarios based on data fromNFI have been carried out. The first scenarioresembles the EFISCEN scenario and the secondSIMA scenario. The third scenario was allowablecut calculated by maximising the net present valueof the future revenues subject to non-decreasingflow of timber, saw logs and net income over a 50-year period. The recent estimate of this maximumregionally sustained felling for the period 1996-2006 was 71 mill. m3 (of which nearly 90 percent onmineral soils) and rising close to 80 mill. m3 by2040. The stocking would remain stable.
4.02.00 / 4 .11.00 Design of small and largescale mult ipurpose forest inventories
Extending forest resource assessmentsto landscape inventories
Peter BrasselSwiss Federal Institute of Forest, Snow and Landscape
Research, Birmensdorf, SwitzerlandEmail: [email protected]
The first swiss national forest inventory (1983-1985) was planned as a multipurpose andmultiresource inventory in forested aereas. in thesecond NFI (1993-1995) the list of attributes to beassessed was extended in order to obtaininformation on Non-Wood Goods and Services.Among others new attributes describing forestmargins and tree resources outside the forested areawere introduced.
In the third NFI the information provided will beextended from forested areas to fallow land andextensively managed areas. in addition to theprimary objectives of the forest inventories thestructural and biological diversity will beemphasized.
The paper discusses the process of transferring aninformation needs assessment to the final system ofnomenclature and measurement rules of attributes,the evaluation of data sources (terrestrial survey,satellite imagery, digital aerial photography) and thecomparability problems with previous inventories.
Temporal and spatial error budgets forwoody plant biodiversity
George Gertner, Xiangchi Cao and Guangxing WangUniversity of Illinois at Urbana Champaign, Departmentof Natural Resources and Environmental Sciences, W503
Turner Hall, Illinois 61801 Urbana, USATel: (217) 333-9346, Email: [email protected]
In this paper, a stochastic dynamicmonitoring/modeling system for plant and forestbiodiversity is presented. The system can projectbiodiversity both in time and in space. With thesystem, spatial and temporal error budgets can begenerated. The error budgets show the overalluncertainty of regional and localizedestimates/predictions of biodiversity. Theuncertainty can be partitioned according to differenttypes of error sources within and outside of thesystem. Some of the errors that are accounted for aresampling errors, measurement errors, mappingerrors, calibration errors, prediction errors. The errorbudget provides a means for the systematicimprovement of a system and its inputs. Based onthe error budgets, recommendations can be made forreducing the more important sources of controllableerrors. Results for one case are presented.
Bayesian synthesis for assessinguncertainty in mechanistic models
Edwin J. GreenRutgers University, Ecol Evol & Natl Res, 14 College
Farm Road, NJ 08901 New Brunswick, USATel: (732) 932-9152, FAX: (732) 932-8746, Email:
As concerns over global change heighten, someforest modelers have begun to emphasize the use ofmechanistic models of forest growth, derived fromspecific theories regarding tree and/or standdevelopment. Some believe that such models havegreater potential predictive accuracy than moretraditional empirical models. However, it is oftendifficult to assess the error associated withpredictions from mechanistic models. in this paper I
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present the Bayesian Synthesis method forconstructing posterior distributions of modelpredictions. I will demonstrate the method with anaive two parameter model, and then present resultsobtained for PIPESTEM a realistic mechanisticforest growth model.
On bootstraping species diversitiesindices
Biing T. Guan, Y. M. PerngNational Taiwan University, Department of Forestry and
Department of Agronomy, China-TaipehEmail: [email protected]
Species diversity indices are central toenvironmental monitoring and management. Underits current paradigm, it is explicitly assumed thatchanges in species diversity represent changes in thetarget ecosystem's compositions, abundance or both.Thus, species diversity indices are used asestimators of ecosystem conditions. However, asestimators, statistical properties of species diversityindices are poorly understood, especially how toobtain standard errors for such estimators forconstructing confidence intervals and hypothesestests. in this paper, we will discuss the use ofbootstrapping for obtaining standard errors forcommonly used species diversity indices. inparticular, the setup of resampling schemes will bethoroughly discussed for applications in ecology.
Tree resources outside the forest: howto assess a scattered heterogeneous
resource?Christoph Kleinn, Alfred de Gier
Tropical Agriculture and Higher Education Center(CATIE), Costa Rica
Tel: +506 556 1530, FAX: +506 556 7954, Email:[email protected]
Presence, relevance and functions of tree resourcesoutside the forest (TROF) are highly diverse andlocally different. They occur in natural andcultivated landscapes, and serve then a number ofecological (like conservation of biodiversity, erosioncontrol, carbon sequestration), and economicfunctions (like provision of timber, firewood,fodder, fruits, shadow for cattle).
Being present in various land use classes, thisresource does not form a land use class by its own.in many regions, the decreasing forest cover, theincreasing forest fragmentation, and the presence oftrees in agroforestry systems make its relativeimportance grow.
However, compared to other natural resources littleis known about tree resources outside the forest on alarge area basis. Large area assessments are difficult
for several reasons: the resource is highlyheterogeneous as to floristic composition, spatialarrangement and dimensions, and has a relativelylow density. To come to regional estimates, wayshave therefore to be found how to efficientlycombine different data sources like fieldmeasurements, remotely sensed data, and existingstatistics.
This paper outlines an EU funded research project,that aims at developing a method of how to a assesstree resources outside the forest (TROF) andintegrate them in a geographical informationsystem, and at capacity building in a number ofrelevant institutions in the region. The study sites ofthe project are located in Central America. Thegeneral relevance of the resource from a CentralAmerican point of view is addressed, as is thedefinitions and classification issue.
Infrared-triggered camera: a tool formeasuring the biological diversity
Toru Koizumi, Tsuneaki Yabe, Carlos Eduardo Rittl,Niro Higuchi, Leonid G. Kondrashov
Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute, KyushuResearch Center, Kurokami 4-11-16, Kumamoto, JapanTel: +81-96-343-3168, FAX: +81-96-344-5054, Email:
Keywords: biological divesity; mammal; infrared-triggered camera; terra-firme forest; boreal forest
We used an automatic camera for recordingmammalian inventory and evaluated its validity inthe tropical forest (terra-firme forest) of BrazilianAmazon and the Russian boreal forest. The camerasystem consists of a passive infrared sensor and a35-mm fully automatic camera with flash. Thesensor has a wedge-shaped or a cone-shapeddetection field. It records a warm-blooded animalpassing through a detection field because itdifferentiates between animal heat and backgroundfield. However, sensor is triggered when sunlightmoves across the sensor window. Therefore thesensor was hung or placed on a pole 1.0-1.3 mabove the ground so that the sensor detectedvertically to minimize the false triggering. Thesensor was shielded in a plastic tube. The camerahas an automatic film advance devise and built-inflash. It is modified to be triggered by an electricalsignal from the sensor and equipped with data backthat allows to record the time and date of exposureon each photograph. Camera was attached to thesensor with a cable so that we could choose theappropriate placement of the camera and the sensorflexibly. The camera and controls of sensor werepacked in a plastic box and weatherproofed. Baitwas placed in the center of detection field.
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In Brazil, we conducted investigation for terrestrialmammals in a terra-firme forest located 60 km northof Manaus. We recorded 24 species and 3 generabased on about 8300 pictures taken betweenFebruary 1996 and March 1998. Varisizedmammals were recorded, ranging from mouse(Neacomys sp) to puma (Puma concolor). Thisindicated that vertical detection reduced the size-related (therefore, species-related) bias of the sensorpointed out by Wilson et al. (1996). We identified63.6% of the midium and large mammals (bodyweight > 500g) in a list by Voss and Emmons(1996), which was compiled from trappings anddirect observations for 5 years. The cameras newlyrecorded 4 species that Voss and Emmons expectedthe appearance but could not record actually.
In Russia, 2-week investigation was conducted inSeptember 1999 in the boreal forest located 45 kmsouth of Khabarovsk. We focused on Muridae andSciuridae, relating to the seed dispersal. 8-10species were expected to occur in the study area. ofthese mammals, 6 cameras recorded 3 species and 1genus, while only two species were captured by 20live-traps during the same period. This showed thatinfrared-triggered cameras were effective to recordthe species composition of the mammaliancommunity within a limited period.
The method we adopted here has somedisadvantages. For example, classification of relatedspecies belonging to the same genus was difficulteven on the clear photograph, especially in a groupof Muridae. Information on weight, andreproductive condition cannot be also obtained withcameras. On the other hand, infrared-triggeredcameras have several advantages over othermethods, such as trappings and direct observations.The animals do not have to be captured. Large areascan be surveyed by only a few people, andinvestigators do not have to attend constantly. Theseadvantages are effective to record rare and crypticspecies. in addition, combination of infrared-triggered camera with trapping and marking willprovide valuable data on abundance, movement, andactivity of mammals inhabiting in the forestedenvironment.
Efficient Modelling of Stem CurvesJouko Laasasenaho, Heikki Karttunen and Mark-Leo
WaiteUniversity of Helsinki, Department of Forest Resource
Management, PL 24 (Unioninkatu 40 B), 00014Helsingin yliopisto, Finland
Email: [email protected]
The purpose of this research is to investigate thepossibility of deriving accurate stem curve modelswith small numbers of sample trees. The stem curvemodel investigated is based on relative stemdiameters and relative stem heights and can, inprinciple, be derived by a single sample tree. Themain issues investigated are (i) how many sampletrees are required in order to achieve a givenaccuracy and (ii) how should the sample trees bestbe selected. The accuracy of a given stem curvemodel is mainly quantified by the accuracy of thepredicted total stem volume.
The research material comprises 2326 scots pine(Pinus silvestris) sample trees covering the whole ofFinland. Each sample tree was measured fordiameters at 14 different relative heights. The jack-knife technique is utilized extensively in theanalyses which were performed with commonspread-sheet software extended by specific stemcurve modelling functions. The resulting softwarecan be used for deriving totally new stem curvemodels. Functionality for utilizing derived stemcurve models, for e.g. volume calculations, was alsoincluded. The investigation showed that sincerelative tree form is independent of tree size,accurate stem curve models can be derived by asfew as five sample trees.
Optimal Forest Inventories based on theanticipated variance
Daniel MandallazETH Zürich, Zürich, SwitzerlandEmail: [email protected]
This work presents optimal sampling schemes forforest inventory. The sampling procedures areoptimal in the sense that they minimize theanticipated variance for given expected costs orconversely, the anticipated variance is the averageof the design-based variance under a local Poissonmodel for the spatial distribution of the trees. Exactand best feasible approximations are given for two-phase two-stage cluster sampling schemes. Theresulting optimal inclusions probabilities are acombination of probability proportional toprediction and probability proportional to theexpected error. Simulations and practical examplesillustrate the theory.
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Guided transect sampling in theory andpracticeGöran Stahl
Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Dept ofForest Resource Management and Geomatics, S 901 83
Umea, SwedenEmail: [email protected]
Guided transect sampling is an inventory designdeveloped to incorporate high-resolution priorinformation in the selection of inventory pathswithin transect based inventories. It consists of twostages. in the first, strips too wide to be entirelysampled are laid out in the area of interest. in thesecond, prior information - e.g. from satelliteimagery - is used to decide the exact route of atransect through each first stage strip in a PPS-sampling manner. Primarily, the method isdeveloped to increase the efficiency of transectbased methods when sampling sparse populations.in theoretical studies, results have been promising.The relative efficiency of the method, in relation toa "non-guided" alternative, increases the sparser theelements of interest are. in practise, problems of twobasic kinds are encountered. Firstly, the methodmay lead to increased costs due to complicatedfieldwork. For example, the method relies on the useof GPS differential in real time. Secondly, it is notpossible to follow the exact paths of thepredetermined transects in field. Therefor, theprecision of estimates will decrease slightly.
4.02.00 / 4 .11.00 Forest resourcesassessment 2000
The Global Forest resourcesassessment 2000
Robert Davis, Peter HolmgrenFAO, Forest Department, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, I-
00100 Roma, ItalyTel: +39 06 57051, FAX: +39 06 57052151, Email:
The presentation will reveal the final results of theGlobal Forest Resources Assessment 2000 (FRA2000). For each country, available informationabout extent, composition, protection and utilisationof forests have been compiled and analysed. Specialattention has been given to estimate the rate ofchange of forest resources and to document theunderlying factors. This presentation is the firstoccasion for presenting the global forest changeestimates. The FRA 2000 is a transparent process inthe sense that all background material and analysesis published. This means that the FRA 2000constitutes a comprehensive baseline survey offorest resources in all countries.
In addition to the country-by-country survey, theFRA 2000 also includes an objective pan-tropicalremote sensing survey of forest cover change;production of global maps of forest cover andecological zones; and special studies on variousaspects of the interaction between people andforests. in total, the results of FRA 2000 will consistof 11 printed volumes, plus a comprehensivepresentation on the world wide web.
FRA 2000 is carried out by the Food andAgricultural Organization of the United Nations(FAO) with the assistance of donors, partners andmember countries. One important partner is the UNEconomic Commission for Europe, that constitutesthe focal point for temperate and boreal countries.FAO has been given the mandate to regularly reporton the world's forest resources by its membercountries, that also take active part in theassessment. It is expected that FRA 2000 willstimulate discussion at all levels, as well as fosterdecision-making on the management and protectionof forests on a global scale.
Accuracy and Reliability of theTemperate and Boreal Forest Resources
Assessment (TBFRA) 2000Michael Köhl and Risto Päivinen
TU Dresden, Forest Biometrics and Computer Sciences,Wilsdruffer Str. 18, D-01737, Tharandt, GermanyTel: +49-35203-381615, Fax: +49-35203-381628
Email: [email protected]
Keywords: forest resources assessment, TBFRA,systems of nomenclature, harmonisation,standardisation
Data collection of the TBFRA 2000 is based on aquestionnaire approach utilizing forest resourcesassessments conducted on the national level.Despite the fact that standardized terms anddefinitions have been formulated for the TBFRA,data submitted are subject to different sources oferrors affecting the reliability of the TBFRA results.
In this presentation the reliability and accuracy ofthe TBFRA 2000 are evaluated in terms of effects ofdifferences in the national and TBFRA systems ofnomenclature, non-responses, assessment period andlikely ranges of true values.
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The UN-ECE/FAO Forest ResourceAssessment 2000: an overview
Alexander V. KorotkovUN Economic Commission for Europe, Geneva,
SwitzerlandEmail: [email protected]
The UN-ECE/FAO Temperate and Boreal ForestResources Assessment, as a part of the Global FRA-2000, was launched soon after the high level expertconsultation held in Kotka (Finland) in June 1996had proposed the Global Framework (guidelines,key parameters, terms and definitions) for theAssessment. The main instrument of the datacollection for TBFRA-2000 was a detailed enquirybuilt on the above global platform, and circulated tonational correspondents of the 55 temperate andboreal industrialised countries. The majority ofcountries have satisfactorily replied to thechallenging enquiry (25 tables with more then 500parameters) by August 1998. The range of theinformation which was received from countries (andanalysed) is extremely wide; the quality of countryreplies was good in general, taking account thecomplexity of the task of national correspondents torespond to all the questions, and to adjust nationaldata to the TBFRA standards.
Since UNCED (1992) many industrialised countrieshave reviewed (and revised) their national forestpolicies, and have prepared strategies on sustainableforest management (SFM). The on-goinginternational forest policy dialogue under theCSD/IPF/IFF umbrella has noted the importance ofFRA-2000 process to provide factual,comprehensive and reliable information at theglobal international level, which would serve theSFM objectives. The results of the assessment areexpected to be widely used by researchers indifferent areas of the forest sector, as well as bymany others working closely with forests andforestry (ecologist, environmentalists, forestryspecialists, forest engineers and managers, forestproducts suppliers, wood consumers, forestpractitioners, etc).
The interim temperate/boreal FRA-2000information, covering 36 participating countries,was reported to the pan-European MinisterialConference on the Protection of Forest in Europe(Lisbon, June 1998). The Main TBFRA-2000Report on the forest resources presenting more than2.4 billion hectares of forest and other wooded landswill be published by the Year 2000. The statisticaland descriptive country information has beenanalysed by high level experts in the specificthematic areas. The Assessment will cover the
following main issues: Area of Forest and OtherWooded Land (OWL): Situation and Changes,Ownership and Management Status of Forest andOWL, Wood Supply and Carbon Sequestration:Situation and Changes, Biological Diversity andEnvironmental Protection Forest Condition andDamage to Forest and OWL, Protective and Socio-Economic Functions, etc.
The TBFRA-2000 data set will be the mostcomprehensive international assessment ever madefor the temperate/boreal forests. The information onforest and other wooded land areas, speciesdistribution, naturalness of forests, their availabilityfor wood supply, growing stock, increment,ownership, fellings and removals, biodiversity, non-wood goods and services, forest condition anddamages, etc (in digital and textual formats) will bestructured into an electronic database and madeavailable on Internet.
4.04.00 Advances in combining producti tyand sustainabil i ty in forest management
A New Planning Approach and Criteriaused for Sustainable Forest
Management in TurkeyÜal Asan
University of Istanbul, Forest Management PlanningDepartment, Bahçeköy, 80895 Istanbul, Turkey
Tel: 90 212 2261103-272, FAX: 90 212 2261113, Email:[email protected]
A new planning approach titled as FunctionalPlanning (FP), and the criteria which should be usedfor sustainable management planning in theTurkey's forests are pointed out in this paper. Aftergiving a short knowledge about the forest resources,and forest functions expected from the forests in thecountry, basic principles of the FP approach whichwas developed for the forest enterprises managedfor timber production as well as the other protectivefunctions of the forests such as erosion control,water yield, visual effect, recreational use and,wildlife habitats and bio-diversity are presented.The concepts of "Continuous Forest " and,"Sustainability" are also elaborated in short in thepaper. The planning procedure followed inconstruction of FFM, and in separation of differentworking circles, combination of variousmanagement objectives are clarified. Advantages ofthe New system as flexible and capable in order torealise the rational utilisation of the forest resourcesin the case of multiple use forestry, and its currentdeficiencies which should be promoted for moreeffective use are explained in the paper basing onexperiences gained in the last ten years.
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Keywords: Sustainable Forest Management,Functional Planning, Multiple-Use, Turkey
Sustaining Wildlife Populations inProductively Managed Forests
Michael Bevers, Curtis H. Flather, John Hof, H. FredKaiser
USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station,240 West Prospect Road, Colorado 80526 Fort Collins,
Colorado, USATel: (970) 295-5911, FAX: (970) 295-5959, Email:
Keywords: Spatial optimization; Harvestscheduling; Population Persistence; Reaction-diffusion
Wildlife population status is becoming a keyconsideration in determining whether wood fiberproduction from managed forests can be sustained.Concerns for wildlife have become a very importantpart of public land management in many parts of theworld, and are being given increased weight onprivately owned lands. Jointly maintaining woodfiber production and wildlife populations requiresthe ability to spatially and temporally designsilvicultural activities so as to mitigate negativeimpacts on wildlife habitat. Consequently, researchefforts blending wildlife population persistence withtraditional forest management modeling canpotentially play a crucial role in maintaining futureforest productivity. The purpose of this paper is tosynthesize recent and ongoing research combiningpopulation reaction-diffusion models with spatialforest management optimization methods forplanning the location, timing, and intensity ofharvests that will simultaneously sustain wildlifeand wood fiber production. Following theintroduction, Part I of the paper describes a discretespace and time approach to reaction-diffusionmodeling that addresses the effects of variouscontiguous or fragmented habitat systems onwildlife populations. An ability to model survival ofdispersing organisms as a function of the amount ofavailable habitat surrounding breeding sites, with asuitable distance decay, is the primary feature of thismethod. Part II of the paper discusses stochasticconsiderations. We explore the differences in resultsfrom deterministic versus Monte Carlo simulationsof population abundance, distribution, and criticalhabitat thresholds in discrete reaction-diffusionmodels. Implications regarding the application ofmathematical programming for habitat design arediscussed. Although much research on the topic ofuncertainty remains to be done, initial indicationsare that deterministic methods suitable foroptimization modeling are reasonably robust withregard to prescribing suitable habitat arrangements.
Part III of the paper demonstrates how reaction-diffusion can be combined with other ecologicalfactors that limit populations to form spatialoptimization models. These models are suitable foridentifying efficient forest managementopportunities and for estimating tradeoffs betweenwood fiber production and wildlife populationresponse. An example combining distinct forage andbreeding site requirements with reaction-diffusionprocesses demonstrates the approach. Possiblelimitations, alternative approaches, and furtherresearch needs are discussed.
Putting Sustainable Forest Managementinto Practice in Peninsular Malaysia:
Minimum RequirementsChristoph Muziol, Gerd Weinland and Rolf Krezdorn
Malaysian-German Sustainable Forest Management andConservation Project / GTZ, Forestry Department
Peninsular, c/o Forestry Department Peninsular, JalanSultan Salahuddin, 50660 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Tel: +60-3-294-8859, FAX: +60-3-294-3945, Email:[email protected]
The goal of Sustainable Forest Management (SFM)is to manage forests as multifunctional resources.This paper describes the strategic approach to SFMrecommended for Peninsular Malaysia. It focuses onthree minimum elements required for SFM, whichare (1) Forest Zonation, (2) growth-based yieldregulation, and (3) the mitigation of theenvironmental impact of forestry operations,especially road construction and harvesting. Theimplementation of these elements is alsoindispensable for successful Forest ManagementCertification.
Forest Zonation is based on Forest FunctionMapping. Its objective is to safeguard the variousforest functions within each Forest ManagementUnit. It ensures that the needs of human society arecompatible and balanced with the production andbuffering capacity of the natural environment, andderives specific functions (e.g. soil conservation) foreach forest area. Based on that, the synoptic processof Forest Zonation results in the differentiation ofthree Forests Zones: "Protection", "TimberProduction" and "Restricted Timber Production".The latter two (minus permanent infrastructureareas) constitute the Net Production Area, which isthe basis for the calculation of the AnnualAllowable Cut (AAC).
The simple area-based yield regulation currentlyused in Malaysia is appropriate only for uniformvirgin forest. The majority of forests, however, arenow logged. Having developed differentlydepending on the harvesting intensity, site
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conditions and silvicultural treatments, they aremuch more heterogeneous. Therefore, area controlshould be replaced by a volume-based yieldregulation, which takes into account the presentgrowing stock (provided by a Forest ManagementInventory), growth data from representative (i.e.local) permanent sample plots, computer-basedgrowth simulation, and deductions according to theextent of harvesting impacts on the residual stands.
To mitigate the impact of logging on the naturalenvironment (residual trees, soil, water, andhabitats) areas assigned for Timber Production mustbe logged strictly following Reduced ImpactLogging standards (i.e. improved tractor skidding).In Restricted Timber Production areas, furthermore,only Low Impact Logging with aerial yardingtechnology (e.g.cable crane systems) is admissible.
All prescriptions are included in Forest ManagementPlans, which cover individual Forest ManagementUnits over a planning period of 10 years.
Timber production possibilities of theNorwegian forest area and measures for
a sustainable forestryTron Eid, Hans Fredrik Hoen & Petter Ökseter
Agricultural University of Norway, Department of ForestSciences, Post Box # 5044, N -1432 A, Norway
Tel: +47-64948901, FAX: +47-64948890, Email:[email protected]
A public discussion on how to bring forestmanagement practices in a more environmentallyoriented direction is going on between Norwegianorganisations of forest owners, environmentalists,forest industry and governmental offices. Certainrequirements or standards as they may be stated incertification documents or as governmental policiesare likely to appear in a near future.In addition to timber the forest is producing anumber commodities not traded in any market. Ifthe management of the forest area is designedmainly with respect to timber production, the effectsof this management on the provision of the non-market commodities may be negative. On the otherhand, an environmentally designed managementmay reduce timber production. The aim of thispaper is to present some long range timberproduction analyses where the objective has been tomap consequences for potential harvest level and netpresent value, related to varying forest treatments ina environmentally oriented direction as might bedefined in the future.
Analyses are done with GAYA-JLP, a model basedon simulation of treatment schedules for individualmanagement units and linear programming for
solving the management problem at forest level. Theanalyses cover the productive forest area in Norway.This forest area is divided into 10 regions. Sampleplots from the National Forest Inventory areaggregated into 1000 treatment units for eachregion, i.e. the entire forest area is described by10000 units. The forest management problems aresolved at county level, while the country levelresults are obtained by summing over the individualregions.
The analyses aim at providing a realistic descriptionof the timber production possibilities of theproductive forest area in Norway given consistencyin treatments with respect to the real rate ofdiscount. Management strategies with maximizationof the net present value (NPV), with and without anon-declining felling path constraint, have beenanalyzed. The following environmentally orientedconstraints on forest management practices,separately and joint, have been analyzed:- certain areas of current old growth forest set asidefor permanent protection- minimum target levels for area covered by oldgrowth forest through time- leaving continuity trees after final felling- restricted management practices for border zoneareas around lakes, rivers, streams, swamps,agricultural land and roads
The results include estimates on possibledevelopment for a period of 100 years with respectto potential harvest levels and volume of growingstock. The NPV according to a real rate of discountof 2.5% and with a non-declining felling pathconstraint, was reduced by 8.7% when 5% of thetotal area was set aside for protection. Thecorresponding NPV reductions were 2.4%, 1.0%and 12.7% respectively with a minimum target levelof 10% for area covered by old growth forest, byleaving 10 continuity trees ha-1 and with restrictionson management practices for a medium border zonewidth (15 m) around lakes, rivers, streams, swamps,agricultural land and roads.
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Swedish efforts for a sustainable, multi-resource forestry: the role of research in
management planningLjusk Ola Eriksson, Tomas Lämås, Ola Sallnäs
Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Departmentof Forest Resource Management and Geomatics, SE-901
83 Umea, SwedenTel: +46 (0) 90- 786 5840, FAX: +46 (0) 90- 77 81 16,
Email: [email protected]
Keywords: Data acquisition; Ecosystemfunctioning; Spatiality; Planning system
Until the late 80’s sustainability to Swedishforesters essentially meant safeguarding the timberproduction potential of the land base. Today, forestmanagement in Sweden, as in many other places,means the management of multiple resources. Theseresources include, e.g., biodiversity, recreation,hunting, carbon sequestration and reindeer herding.At the same time, market pressures require that thetimber production is made more competitive andenvironmentally friendly. The increased complexityof forest management has created a surge forimproved decision support.
The research community has answered to thedemand for improved decision making capability inseveral different areas. They can be grouped underthree headings: general knowledge concerning theforest ecosystem, models for ecosystem functioningincluding silviculture and the growth process of thetrees, and management planning methods.
Much research is directed towards modelling theeffects of forest management on ecosystemfunctioning, such as the consequences offragmentation on species diversity and acidificationof streams and lakes. Active research is alsoconducted in carbon and nutrient budgeting andestimation of effects of global warming.
Results of research concerning tree growth,silviculture regimes, forest survey methods etc., arecontained in computer based systems for forestresource management developed the Faculty ofForestry of SLU. Systems have been developed forforest management planning at a company level andfor the analyses of timber yield, growing stock etc.,on a regional level. The systems were, however,initially designed in the 70’s and almost exclusivelydirected towards timber management. When thebiodiversity issue emerged, methods andinstruments to be incorporated in forest managementplanning were requested. in the beginning of the90’s, case study areas were established bycompanies and research institutions. A number ofconceptual planning models for “ecological
landscape planning”, such as the ASIO and the KeyHabitat – Corridor Model, were elaborated in a moreor less formal collaboration between companies andresearchers. Typically, however, the latter planninginstruments and traditional timber managementplanning have been used simultaneously but not inan integrated manner.
Another area of research of interest for resourcemanagement is improved methods for dataacquisition. For example, by combining remotesensing data with ground measurements, estimationsof spatial continuous forest parameters can beobtained to describe forest landscapes. That thespatial arrangement can be depicted is essential forthe management of many resources. Moreover,methods for gathering data on rare objects alsoexist, primarily for biodiversity management.Typically, these methods are based on fieldmeasurements but methods using the combination ofremote sensing and field measurements are underdevelopment.
Unless planning for different uses can be madesimultaneously, dangers of sub-optimality areobvious. Therefore, research efforts in differentareas need to be gathered in a common framework.The Faculty of Forestry has initiated a project forthe development of a new system for forestmanagement. It should be designed (i) with amodular structure to allow for the development ofdifferent applications, (ii) with the landscape as thebasic planning unit, (iii) with the tree as the basicunit of projection of the tree layer, (iv) with modelsfor processes interacting with the management ofthe tree layer, and (v) with models for risk anduncertainty of data and model projections.
One of many challenges is to be able to give areasonable description of the landscape, not only interms of trees but also, for instance, of soilconditions. Another is to try to combine empiricalmodels for tree growth with process models.Although the working name of the project, Heureka,may be associated with a flash of genius, the effortsof coming years will rather be Herculean.
Estimating the thresholds of criteria andindicators in Japan
Takayua HiroshimaUniversity of Tokyo, Lab Forest Manage, Dept Forest Sci
Grad School Agric Life Sci, 1-1-1 Yayoi, Bunkyo-Ku,113-8657 Tokyo, Japan
FAX: +81-3-5689-7253, Email: [email protected]
Thresholds of criteria and indicators accepted inMontreal Process countries were estimated using alinear programming model. The concept of
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thresholds contains "feasible region" and "optimumsolution", which mean region of indicatorssatisfying the conditions of sustainable forestmanagement and optimum value of indicators in thefeasible region respectively. First, four criteria wereselected for the subject of this study, which are
-Biological diversity, -Productive capacity, -Carboncycles and-Socio-economic benefits, and thententative indicators, -Area of old growth forest, -Growing stock of commercial forest, -Growingstock of total forest and -Harvesting volume wereset for each criteria at the national level.
Next, the thresholds of the indicators were estimatedusing a linear programming model. The modelcovers the entire forest in Japan which is dividedinto four groups, private plantation forest, nationalplantation forest, private natural forest and nationalnatural forest and has some basic parameters such asplanning horizon and number of age class which areset for ten terms (= fifty years) and seventeenclasses (= eighty five years). in the model decisionvariables are cutting area by group, term and ageclass and objective function is to maximize the totalharvesting volume in the planning horizon.Constraints consist of the requirements forsustainable forest management that all of indicatorsare basically non-decline over planning horizon andsome other equations such as cutting regulations,forest transition and so on. The requirements relatedto sustainable forest management are as follows: 1.Area of old growth forest is non-decline. 2. Normalage class distribution is achieved for ending foreststructure. 3. Area of commercial forest is constant.4. Growing stock of total forest is non-decline. 5.Harvesting volume is non-decline and cannotincrease by more than ten percent from thepreceding harvest. Last, optimum solution wasfound and feasible region was sought by a methodof parametric linear programming. in the constraintsindicators are defined as accounting variables byterm, so thresholds have time-series change. To seekthe feasible region, the value of optimum solution isgiven to the indicator by a new equation and thevalue is changed to find out the region wheresolution exists. The result was that optimumsolution of harvesting volume reflects the trade-offrelation toward other three indicators because onlyharvesting volume corresponds to _gactivity_h andothers _gresource_h in the model structure. and eachfeasible region becomes broader as time passesbecause the choices of solution become wider in thefinal stage of planning horizon than the early stage.It was concluded that the concept of threshold isefficient in judging the progress toward sustainableforest management.
A spatial approach to participatoryplanning in forestry decision-making
Leena Hytonen, Leskinen, P. & Store, R.Finnish Forest Research Institute, Kannus ResearchStation, Post Box # 44, FIN-69100 Kannus, Finland
FAX: +358 6 8743 201, Email: [email protected]
During the last ten years the concept of thesustainability of the forestry has been extended fromeconomic sustainability to include also ecologicaland social sustainability. To reach ecologicalsustainability e.g. The Finnish Forest and ParkService applies landscape ecological planning forlarge (10 000-150 000 ha) forest areas. Participatoryplanning, is one mean to reach the socialsustainability. Important question is the ability toproduce planning solutions which are acceptable forthe decision-maker and the interests participated.
In participatory forest planning public is allowed totell their opinions about forests and forestmanagement. Public is those people to whomcurrent decision-making affects. in participatoryplanning they also have right to expect that theiropinions are somehow taken care of. The nature ofthe information concerning public's values andopinions is that it is context dependent. This meansthat values and opinions are valid only in certainsituation. Situation is part of those peopleslifeworld. When managing qualitative informationin decision-making, the context should be involvedtoo.
In this paper/poster, an approach is presented tocollect and analyse qualitative and geographicinformation and to process it to quantitative andspatial format. in this study the qualitative researchanalysis, numerical preference analysis and spatialanalysis are utilised.
For example, the Finnish Forest and Park Servicereceives a great amount of qualitative informationabout publics' opinions and values as meetingrecords, letters, and personal contacts during theparticipatory planning process. Participants havemessages concerning hunting, beautiful landscapes,picking wild berries etc. These messages usuallyrefer to certain location, i.e. include geographic data.in this approach messages are analysed by theircontents location and context. Qualitative methods,making typologies searching facts and norms, anddiscourse analysis are used to understand relevantcontext and situation. Context determines theclassification of the messages by their contents. Adatabase for GIS application is created.
Geographical Information System (GIS)applications offer many tools by which informationfrom different sources can be connected and used in
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the analysis. Cartographic modelling is an area ofapplication for spatial analysis employingconcurrent analyses of many sources of information.Using cartographic modelling and modern decision-analysis methods to combine the data collected inthe process of participatory planning enables betterunderstanding and visualisation of the differentobjectives of people. in spatial analysis, anaggregation method is needed to combine individualpreferences. in this task, two different approach arebeing discussed. in the first approach, eachindividual evaluates the relative magnitude ofhis/her proposed areas, and the overall preferencesare aggregated over individuals. in the secondapproach areas are classified and the relativeimportance of classes are determined with respect tolarge-scale potentials of the planning area.
The advantage of this approach is the ability tocarefully organise qualitative information intoquantitative format. The most preferred areas arenamed and their relative magnitude according to theparticipants preferences are measured. Byintegrating qualitative and spatial analysis it is alsopossible to clearly point how and where theparticipants' opinions have been taken care of. Thiscould be used as a tool to motivate participantsbehind the decision.
Incorporating Ecological Informationinto the Forest Management Planning
Jyrki Kangas, Annika KangasFinnish Forest Research Institute, Kannus ResearchStation, P.O. BOX 44, FIN-69101 Kannus, Finland
FAX: +358-6-8743201, Email: [email protected]
Keywords: Ecological modelling; Expertjudgements; Forest planning; Multi-functionalforestry; Optimization; Uncertainty
Ecological information about the impacts of forestryon the environment, such as the effects on wildlifepopulations, and assessments of ecologicalsustainability have rarely been used in calculationsof forest management planning. However, someapplications exist where models predicting sizes ofwildlife populations, habitat suitability, orbiodiversity have been used in optimizationcalculations. The most important reason for notusing ecological information in calculations offorest management planning has been the lack ofinformation that can be used in numerical planningpackages. These packages, usually based onmathematical optimization, require the ecologicalknowledge to be presented in the form of relativelysimple models. However, all available informationshould be utilized in decision making. Ignoringother kinds of ecological knowledge than only
numerical models based on empirical researchwould mean waste of valuable information.
There usually exists much more or less qualitativeinformation of the ecological consequences ofalternative treatment schedules and productionprogrammes. One such source of information is theexpert knowledge held by ecologists. There existsome applications where expert judgment has beenutilized in choosing the best managementalternatives, with respect to some ecologicalconcerns.
It is also possible to model these expert opinions toa form of mathematical model, which can then beutilized in optimization calculations. On the otherhand, models describing population dynamics, forexample, are too complicated to be used in usualplanning packages. Thus, the information includedin such models needs to be reformulated to asimpler form in order to be applicable.Often, the uncertainty involved in calculations hasnot been taken into account in forest managementplanning. The uncertainties inherent in ecologicalconsiderations probably are greater thanuncertainties of, for example, growth and yieldpredictions of the growing stock. Information on theuncertainty involved in the decision support isuseful in any natural resource and environmentaldecision making. For example, when evaluating theecological sustainability of alternative productionprogrammes for a forest area, it is important toknow the risk that the sizes of populations of speciesof interest would fall below presumably criticallimits (if the management alternatives chosen in theprogrammes would be implemented). This isespecially the case with rare species. Theuncertainty needs to be taken into account inplanning to minimize the risk of the population sizesfalling below a given threshold value, or to becomeextinct, due to forestry actions.
In this presentation, possibilities to use differentforms of ecological information in optimizationcalculations of forest management planning arepresented. Also the importance of being aware ofthe uncertainty involved in ecological assessmentsapplied, as well as the possible consequences ofignoring the uncertainty inherent, are discussed.Examples of utilizing ecological knowledge inforest management planning are given. Theseinclude modelling suitability of forest habitats forblack grouse (Tetrao tetrix, Lyrurus Tetrix L.) onthe basis of pairwise comparisons data, and using anecological threshold function as a multiplicative partof a utility model in multi-objective optimizationcalculations.
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Application of Criteria and Indicators forSustainable Forest Management to GIS-based Multiple Criteria Decision Making
Approach for Forest ConservationPlanning in Kinabalu Region, Sabah,
MalaysiaMui How M. Phua, Mitsuhiro Minowa
Fac of Agric and Life Sci, Univ Tokyo, Department ofForest Science, Laboratory of Forest Management, Yayoi
1-1-1, Bunkyo-ku, 113-8657 Tokyo, JapanTel: +81-3-3812-2111 ext. 5221, FAX: +81-3-5689-7253,
Email: [email protected]
In 1994, during the Second Meeting of theIntergovernmental Working Group on Forests,forest was recognized as having cross-sectorallinkages that can be dealt with integrated landuseplanning. Recently, the importance of the GIS-basedmultiple criteria decision making (MCDM)approach in planning has been widely recognized.The MCDM approach implies a process ofassigning values to alternatives that are evaluatedalong multiple criteria. However, there have notbeen criteria in common for landuse planninginvolving forested land.
Development of the Criteria and Indicators forSustainable Forest Management (C&I) was initiatedin 1992 by International Tropical TimberOrganization (ITTO), followed by other efforts suchas Montreal and Helsinki processes. The C&Icontain the most important forest functions thatprovide various benefits to the society. However,the forest functions have not been incorporated intothe landuse planning process. The C&I have greatpotentials not only in dealing with the sustainableforest management but also in landuse planning atregional level as far as forest is concerned. in thisstudy, we propose the application of the C&I to theGIS-based MCDM approach for forest conservationplanning in Kinabalu region, Sabah, Malaysia.
The study area is located in western part of Sabah,Malaysia. Urbanization has been spreading out fromthe state capital, Kota Kinabalu. As a result oftimber harvesting and agricultural land conversion,forest has rapidly disappeared in this area. Majorconservation effort in this region is represented bythe initiation of Kinabalu Park (735 km2) in 1964.Encroachment occurs in western and northern partsof the park boundary by local farmers. in 1986,illegal logging was spotted in northeast side withinthe park. This shows the conflicting nature oflanduse activities in this area.
The criteria adapted are biodiversity conservationand soil and water conservation. Evaluation of forestconservation priority based on these forest functions
would satisfy the maintenance of ecological balanceand vitality and safety to human lives. in this study,a criterion representing human impacts on forests isalso devised as potential threats to forests. in theITTO's C&I human impacts on forests areemphasized only within the permanent forest estate.
The indicators, adapted from the C&I or devised,are generated from map sources or derived by usingknown relationship between a spatial factor and theindicator. Forested areas are prioritized to produce aforest conservation zoning map based on acomputed conservation coefficient. The results arecompared to existing protected areas. It isconceivable that high conservation priority areas arerepresentations of the important forest functions thatmaintain the ecological vitality and balance, and toensure safety of the society. in short, forestconservation planning using GIS-based MCDMapproach has gained legitimacy from the applicationof the C&I. As such, community of forest scienceprofession has contributed toward a betterconstruction of criteria and indicators for landuseplanning.
The Analytic Hierarchy Process inNatural Resource and Environmental
DecisionmakingD. Schmoldt, Kangas, J., Mendoza, G., and Pesonen, M.USDA, Forest Service, Southern Research Station, VA
Blacksburg, USAEmail: [email protected]
The analytic hierarchy process (AHP, developed byThomas Saaty in the 1970's) has been applied to avariety of decision-making problems. For example,it has been used for planning, resource allocation,and priority setting in business, energy, health,marketing, forest management, and transportation.Three important components of the AHP thatfacilitates the analysis of complex problems are: (1)decomposition of a problem into a hierarchyconsisting of a goal and subordinate features of theproblem, (2) assignment of a numerical weight toeach element in the hierarchy (through pairwisecomparisons between elements at each level), and(3) aggregation of those weights into an overallpreference score for the alternative decisionoutcomes.
The AHP is relevant to nearly any naturalresource/environmental management applicationthat requires multiple opinions, multipleparticipants, or a complex, decisionmaking process.Considering the complexity of most managementissues and compliance regulations, the AHP canextend to a wide array of managerial and planningtasks. in addition to its breadth of application, the
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AHP is relatively easy to apply, to understand, andto interpret.
4.04 Recent advances in forest resourcemanagement and economics
Does standard discounting incorrectlyshow an advantage of leveragingforestry investments with debt?
David KlempererProfessor of Forest Economics, Department of Forestry
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University,Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, USA
Typically one uses a risk-adjusted discount rate(RADR) larger than the risk-free rate to calculatethe net present value of a project with risky cashflows. In those cases, one can show a present valueadvantage of borrowing funds at a loan interest ratelower than the RADR. This results because, underthe above conditions, the negative present value ofloan payments will be less than the positive loanvalue. Using a zero inflation example forsimplicity, at a 5% loan interest rate, annualpayments on a $100,000, 10 year loan will be$12,950. Incorporating this loan into a discountedcash flow analysis using a 7% real risk-adjusteddiscount rate, the negative present value of loanpayments is $90,955, or $9,045 less than the loanamount, thereby boosting the project’s presentvalue. However, the borrower should view loanpayments as risk free cash flows based on a legallybinding contract, in which case payments should bediscounted with a risk-free rate, say 3%, which islower than the risk-adjusted rate and lower than theloan interest rate. In that case, the negative presentvalue of loan payments will exceed the loan valuebecause the loan interest rate will be above the risk-free discount rate. For the above example, thenegative present value of loan payments would be$110,466 at 3% interest, which is $10,466 morethan the loan amount. Thus, the previously-calculated present value advantage of borrowing isreally a disadvantage. Analyses show how resultswill vary depending on levels of relevant interestrates, inflation, income tax interactions, loanduration, project life, and the degree to whichborrowing increases the overall risk of a project.Forest policy implications are that typicaldiscounted cash flow analyses of leveraged forestryinvestments could make borrowing appeardeceptively attractive. The result could beoverpayment for leveraged investments in forestedproperties or forest management. The analysisraises interesting questions about economicefficiency. Do incorrect analyses of leveragedinvestments cause a sub-optimal distortion toward
higher borrowing levels? Could the result behigher-than-optimal levels of leveraged forestryinvestment, strictly from a financial efficiencyviewpoint? Further research is needed to determinethe degree to which such inefficiency is manifestedin actual practice in forestry and other investmentareas.
Forest Ownership as an Inflation HedgeAntrei Lausti
Helsinki School of Economics and BusinessAdministration, Center for Doctoral Programs,Runeberginkatu 15 A, 00100 Helsinki, Finland.
Tel: +358943138371, Fax: 358943138305, E-mail:[email protected]
Keywords: forest ownership; private housing; returnand risk; inflation; hedging
This paper analyses the extent to which forestownership, private housing and stocks were a hedgeagainst the expected and unexpected components ofinflation in Finland, using the traditional method ofdividing inflation into expected and unexpectedcomponents. The expected inflation is proxied bythe inflation forecasts of the Research Institute ofthe Finnish Economy (ETLA). Unexpected inflationis the difference between actual inflation and thisinflation forecast.
A novel contribution of this study is to construct anduse comprehensive, national return series for forestownership to estimate their relationship to inflation.This estimation of the inflation-hedgingcharacteristics of forest ownership is also the first touse systematically created value-weighted returnseries that include all economically relevantroundwood assortments. Moreover, this study is thefirst in Finland to estimate the inflation-hedging ofother asset classes than stocks, namely, privatehousing, in addition to forest ownership.
Results indicate that forest ownership did notprovide a hedge against expected inflation over theperiod 1973-1998 at all, but provided some hedgeagainst expected inflation over the period 1978-1998. One reason for this may be that expectedinflation was at very high levels during the 1970s.To summarise, it can be said that the forestownership has provided a hedge against expectedinflation only to some extent and has offered a veryeffective hedge against unexpected inflation. Forestownership, or more precisely stumpage prices, havehowever been a leading indicator of the inflationtrend. Private housing provided a hedge againstunexpected inflation at a statistically significantlevel. Forest ownership and housing provided somehedge against expected inflation, but not at astatistically significant level.
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Stocks did not provide a hedge against expectedinflation at all; in fact, the relation was evennegative, but stocks provided some hedge againstunexpected inflation, although not at a statisticallysignificant level. It seems that forest ownership andprivate housing are better assets than stocks for theinstitutional investor in terms of inflation hedging.Both these asset classes have provided effectivehedges against unexpected inflation. It is valuableto have a hedge against unexpected inflation,because an inflation hedge against expectedinflation can often be obtained through bondmarkets.
When the longer five- and ten-year holding periodsare considered, the results are almost the same.Forest ownership is a hedge against expectedinflation to some extent and a very effective hedgeagainst unexpected inflation. It turned out that thelonger the holding period, the more effective ahedge forest ownership has provided againstexpected inflation as well. These inflation-hedgingproperties of forests may support regeneration andother investments by forest owners and therewitheconomically sustainable forestry.
Trees outside forests: why shouldforesters think about this resource?
Christoph KleinnCATIE, Costa Rica
Trees outside the forests are increasingly discussedas an important natural resource. Agroforestry andurban forestry are but two examples of disciplinesdedicated to trees outside the forestry context.While the great majority of studies on trees outsideforests has a local, small area focus, the presentpaper attempts to look at it from a large
area, landscape perspective, discussing the differentfunctions of trees outside forests. Some preliminaryresults of studies in Costa Rica are presented thatunderline the relative relevance of this resource.Comparisons to the forest resource are made, thoughone should clearly see trees outside forests as aresource on its own, that needs particular attentionand a particular management.
4.11.00 / 4 .01.03 Planning of long-termobservations
Long term observations and research inforestry
Christoph KleinnTropical Agriculture and Higher Education Center
(CATIE), Costa RicaTel: +506 556 1530, FAX: +506 556 7954, Email:
Long term and large area are amongst the principalcharacteristics of experiments and observations inforest research. When the International Union ofForest Research Organisations (IUFRO) wasfounded in 1891 one of the most urgent tasks wasthe exchange of knowledge and experienceregarding the planning of long term experiments.While in those days long term experiments weremainly conducted to study timber production, it isnowadays widely accepted that long termexperiments are an outstanding tool to describe,quantify and model the effects of changes inenvironmental conditions.Various aspects arerelevant in the context of long term observations:statistical considerations with respect to plotnumber, plot size, number of replications; aspects ofdata management; practical aspects of establishinglong term experiments.
This paper summarizes an IUFRO 4.11 InternationalSymposium that was held in February 1999 inCATIE, Costa Rica.
Characterization of central tendency andspatial variability of growth and
mortality of forests: A comparison ofsome statistical models
George W. Weaver, Harun, Ismail; Appanah, S.USDA Forest Service, 3200 Jefferson Way, OR 97331
Corvallis, USATel: 541-758-7779, FAX: 541-758-7760, Email:
george.weaver/[email protected]
Forest growth can be expressed as single tree annualdiameter increment or as annual basal areaincrement for an entire stand. Mortality can beexpressed as single tree annual probability ofmortality or as annual basal area lost to mortality.These measures exhibit differences in variation overtime as well as differences in central tendency,depending upon whether they are expressed at theindividual tree or whole stand spatial scale ofmeasure. This talk will contrast/compare severalmodels for characterization of central tendency andvariation of these measures of growth and morality:generalized least squares, generalized linear models
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(Poisson regression for growth, logistic regressionfor mortality), and quantile regression. Estimates ofcentral tendency are similar for these models, thebiggest differences between the models are in theway that they model the variation of growth andmortality rates over time. Differences between themodels indicate the degree to which they partitionthe variability in growth and mortality as spatialvariation or random variation. Differences betweenthe models will be illustrated using a 15 yearpermanent sample plot data set from a HillDipterocarp Forest in Peninsular Malaysia.
Long-term experiments: long-termcommitments
Andreas ZinggWSL, Birmensdorf, Switzerland
Email: [email protected]
Long-term experiments in forestry research laywithin a area of conflict: on side research needsgood data e.g. long data series of optimal quality, onthe other side there are costs and long-termcommitments which are necessary to get such data.Long-term commitments can be guaranteed best byforest research institutes. But due to shortage offunds these long-term commitments are questionedin such institutes too. Forestry research and researchin related fields, e.g. in other ecosystem types, isbased on long-term experiments because of therelatively slow development in these ecosystems.Therefore changes in such ecosystems can bemonitored only using adapted "slow" researchmethods. Investments, as long as the experimentsare not intensive studies usually are overestimated.This can be shown on the basis of long-termrecorded time studies. Examples of long-termexperiments illustrate the usability of data whichexceeds often the questions asked, when theexperiments were started.
4.12.00 Integrat ion of GIS and RemoteSensing for Assessment of Forests and
Landscapes
Forest Cover Change Assessment at thePan-Tropical Scale using Earth
observation satellite dataFrederic Achard, Hugh Eva, Philippe Mayaux, Tim
Richards and Hans-Jürgen StibigJoint Research Centre of the European Commission,Space Applications Institute, 21020 Ispra (VA), Italy
FAX: +39-0332-789960, Email: [email protected]
Of major concern is the issue of forest distribution.Assessing the state and the evolution of tropicalforest cover is relevant for studying the impact ofhuman activities on the global environment.
New information technologies make possible thedevelopment of more advanced systems of datagathering and analysis which can accurately assessthe current status of forest cover.
In the framework of the TREES-II project,techniques for the assessment and monitoring ofmoist tropical forest cover are developed at the pantropical level. These techniques make use of anextensive satellite data set analysed in an ad-hocmanner. This paper presents a new approach for theassessment of deforestation rates in the moisttropical regions for the period 1992 to 1997 usingEarth observation techniques. The approach is basedon intensive sampling with fine spatial resolutionsatellite image pairs, focusing on the most activedeforestation areas.
As a first step the humid tropical forest belt wasmapped using coarse spatial resolution imagery(NOAA-AVHRR), with fine spatial resolutionsatellite data (Landsat-TM) used as a reference datasource. The 1.1 km resolution of NOAA AVHRR iswell adapted to the geographic scale of themonitoring exercise (pan tropical). However, thisspatial resolution leads to a loss of detail that makesit difficult to derive a good proxy variable for themeasurement of deforestation rates.
At the global level a sampling scheme for forestchange assessment has been defined using samplingunits independent of any particular satellite sensor.For this purpose an equal probability samplingframe has been chosen.
In the case of spatially correlated data, such as forestcover change, estimates can be improved byperforming a preliminary stratification to reduce thevariance of the estimated variable. However, at thepan-tropical scale little reliable spatial informationis available to stratify on the basis of deforestationrates. Stratification is performed using percentagesof forest area (derived from the 1.1 km resolutionmaps) and areas of known current or recentdeforestation activity (elucidated from expertconsultation) estimated for each sampling unit.
Sample site selection is performed by using asample frame based on a tessellation of hexagons ona sphere. This approach allows for sensorindependent sample from which unbiased estimatorsand error variance may be computed.
This sampling scheme is currently in theimplementation phase. The total target sample sizehas been set up to ninety-five as a feasible targetlinked to availability of resources. Observation unitshave been selected and image pairs for the nominalperiod 1992 to 1997 have been acquired. Theseimage pairs are currently being photo-interpreted
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on-screen by local experts who have groundknowledge of the forests. Digital copies of theinterpretations will be collated and analysed andestimates of deforestation rates over the observationperiod determined. The latest results of estimationof forest cover change in the humid tropics will bepresented during the congress.
Monitoring forest fuel maps for helpingcontrol and prevention of forest fires
Carlos Bahamondez, Gerardo MeryInstituto Forestal de Chile, Huérfanos 554, Santiago,
ChileEmail: [email protected]
The aim of this study is to provide a direct, rathersimple and friendly methodology for monitoringforest fuel maps. The classification of the vegetationcover of Chile in fuel classes according to itsinherent flammable characteristics was theprocedure utilized for developing the maps. Theforest fuel maps were developed in order to providebasic information for applying fire behavior models.The use of these models facilitates forecasting andcontrol of forest fires. Additionally, application ofthe models allows an optimal resource assignationfor forecasting, prevention and extinction of forestfires. Two methods for monitoring fuel maps werecompared, namely the principal component methodand the images difference method. These methodshaven been used in many forestry applications andare well documented. However, their utilization formonitoring of fuel maps seems to be a novelty. Forcarrying out the comparative study, satellite imagerydata, ground field information and forest fuel mapclassification in a pilot area were utilized. Thesatellite material consisted of two SPOT scenes ofthe same area (the pilot area covered approximately20 000 hectares and it was located in MallecoProvince, IX Administrative Region in the central-south part of Chile) acquired in 1991 and 1994. TheChilean Forest Research Institute (INFOR) providedground field information as well as the fuel map ofsuch an experimental area. The methods wereselected considering that they can be applied in astraightforward manner and they do not speciallydemand sophisticated software. The results pointedout that both methods are not necessarily mutuallyexcluding, but are rather complementary ones. Theapplication of principal component methoddemonstrated that this approach is particularlysensible to detect small changes of canopies as wellas large and destructive ones like clearcuttings orforest fires.
Although images difference seems simple andhighly intuitive compared with principal component
method, it became time consuming when a largeamount of information is processed. Therefore, inthe latter case - that is the usual situation that onecan expect when monitoring forest fuel maps -principal component demonstrated to be moreefficient. Finally, some recommendations areconcluded.
User Requirements for remote sensing-based spatial information for the
sustainable management of forestsAlfred de Gier, Edouard Westinga, Sjaak Beerens,
Patrick van Laake and Herman SavenijeInternational Institute for Aerospace Survey and EarthSciences (ITC), Hengelosestraat 99 Post Box # 6, 7500
AA Enschede, NetherlandsTel: +31 (0)53 4874309, FAX: +31 (0)53 4874399,
Email: [email protected]
Sustainable forest management requires properdecision-support systems. The effectiveness ofthese, however, is jeopardized by problems relatedto the timely availability of relevant information, asconfirmed, e.g., in Agenda 21, theIntergovernmental Panel on Forests and theIntergovernmental Forum on Forests. The FAME(Forest Assessment and Monitoring Environment)concept addresses this problem, by suggesting anend-to-end forest assessment and monitoringsystem, ranging from data acquisition, up to thedelivery of information to the desk of the user.
As a first step, the Dutch government charged aconsortium of Dutch organizations and FAO with aUser Requirements Study to assess the needs forspatial information on forests from a userperspective. This study included an interactivequestionnaire survey among stakeholders/users,detailed studies in four tropical countries, anassessment of capabilities of current and plannedremote sensing-based systems, the development ofan international user network and an internationalworkshop. The study revealed a substantial andurgent global need for spatial data and informationon forests, referring to both "state" and "change"parameters. This was particularly observed at a localand at sub-national levels. These information needscannot be fully satisfied by current or near-futureremote sensing-based systems. On the other hand,there is a considerable under-utilization of existingdata sources. Accessibility to and affordability ofexisting data and information are the majorconstraints for all users, with distribution being theweakest part of the chain. The concept of an "end-to-end" information system was re-defined,including the required information infrastructure,comprising data capture, data acquisition and
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distribution, data processing, data integration andcapacity building as essential components. Aninformation strategy at national level should supportthis system. Furthermore, international protocols areneeded for the exchange of data. A furthervalidation of the end-to-end concept is needed.
European forest mapping andmonitoring within the frame of the FIRS
(Forest Monitoring from RemoteSensing) Project - a review on progress
and results.Sten Folving, Pam Kennedy
Joint research Centre of the European Commission,Sector for Forest and Catchment studies, Environment
and Geo-Information Unit, 21020 Ispra (VA), ItalyTel: +39 0332 785009, FAX: +39 0332 789469, Email:
The FIRS (Forest Information from RemoteSensing) Project was launched early 1994 as themain European forest activity of the EU SpaceApplications Institute under the 4th FrameWorkProgramme. After a two-year foundation actionphase, during which studies on regionalization andstratification of pan-European forest eco-systemsand on European forest nomenclature for remotesensing applications were carried out, the projectlaunched several major application studies incollaboration with other services of the EuropeanCommission.
The four most important studies concerned: 1) Theprovision of a 1km forest probability map of thepan-European area based on NOAA-AVHRR data;2) an evaluation of high resolution satellite data formapping European forest types and other woodedland --followed by a study on using mediumresolution (200m) satellite data for regionalmapping of forest and OWL; 3) a study on theassessment of above ground biomass and volume inMediterranean and Boreal forest types using highresolution imagery; 4) a study on the assessment ofchanges in forest areas using high resolutionsatellite data combined with a study on thedevelopment of methods for assessing the structuraldiversity, at a landscape level, of forested areas invarious European test sites. All studies have beencarried out under external contracts on a competitivebasis. They have been supported by in-house andexternal software development.
Based on the results from the first phase of the FIRSProject new forest mapping and monitoringactivities have been defined and launched for the 5thFrameWork Programme. These activities arestrongly linked to the support of the development ofrural areas, both regarding economic aspects, but
also regarding environmental issues. They will,among other things, address the development ofoperational Criteria and Indicators on sustainabledevelopment and bio-diversity, the development ofautomatic or semi-automatic methods for assessingforest growth conditions and forest health, and, newmeans for assessing the protective function offorests. Methods for integration of statistics andmapped information from Earth Observation datawill be developed in support to the EFICS(European Forest Information and CommunicationSystem).
Forest Cover Monitoring andAssessment in South and Southeast
AsiaChandra Prasad Giri, Surendra Shrestha
Asian Institute of Technology, UNEP EnvironmentAssessment Programme for Asia and the Pacific, PostBox # 4, 12120 Klongluang, Pathumthani, ThailandTel: (66-2) 524-6236, FAX: (66-2) 516-2125, Email:
Keywords: Forest Resources, Deforestation, RemoteSensing, GIS
Deforestation is one of the major environmentalconcerns in South and Southeast Asia. Accurate,timely and accessible information base on thepresent status of forest resources and their changepatterns is lacking in many countries. This is one ofthe limitations in formulating sound forest resourcesplanning and management strategies at national,regional and global levels. The present studyprovides a synopsis of forest cover monitoring andassessment project of UNEP EnvironmentAssessment Programme for Asia and the Pacific.Monitoring and assessment was performed usingtime series coarse spatial resolution satellite datasuch as NOAA AVHRR. The paper presents theoutcome of forest cover change analysis of 12countries in South and Southeast Asia. Majordeforestation fronts (called "hot spots") wereidentified and investigated in detail using high-resolution satellite data such as SPOT and Landsatsupported by field information. GIS and socio-economic databases were prepared and used forfurther analysis. The major forest cover changepatterns and underlying causes of deforestation andforest degradation were underlined. Policy optionsto arrest the problem of rapid and unprecedentedforest cover change were suggested.
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Relationship between Forest Parameters(Volume and Basal Area) and Jers-1 Sar
BackscatterKhali Aziz Hamzah
Regional Centre for Forest Management (RCFM),Kepong 52109, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Tel: 603-6377633, FAX: 603-6377233, Email:[email protected]
Keywords: JERS-1 SAR, backscatter coefficients,peat swamp forest.
The empirical relationships between Japanese EarthResources Satellite-1 Synthetic Aperture Radar(JERS-1 SAR) backscatter and two forestparameters (volume and basal area,) are evaluated.These parameters were collected from nine fieldplots covering a wide range of peat swamp forestclasses including Primary, Regenerating andDisturbed forests. The backscatter coefficients wereextracted from SAR image acquired in a dry season.A window size of 5x5 pixel was used to suppressthe effects of speckle and to correspond to the sizeof the actual field sample plots. The relationshipswere evaluated by correlation and linear regressionanalyses. Results show that basal area and volume(forest parameters that are commonly used in forestinventory) exhibit positive correlations withbackscatter coefficients for the dry season SARimage. The highest significant correlation (r=0.7186) was observed between the dry season JERS-1 SAR backscatter coefficients and forest basal area.This suggest the usefulness of JERS-1 SAR data indetermining the density of peat swamp forest stand.
Large Digital Aerial Imagery Mosaics inLand Use and Forestry Planning
Mikael Holm, Janna Puumalainen, Janne Sarkeala, SeppoVäätäinen & Markku Rantasuo
VTT Automation, Measurement Technology, P.O.Box13002, FIN-02044 VTT Otakaari 7, Finland
Tel: +358 2046 24957, FAX: +358 2046 24960, Email:[email protected]
The poster presents the latest developments of anairborne digital camera image acquisition and imagemosaic creation. The developed methods arereviewed for their potential for land use and forestryplanning particularly in regions where the use oftraditional optical remote sensing data is difficult,for instance in the tropics.
Airborne digital camera imagery is a convenient toolfor gathering rapid and accurate true or false colourdata of the environment with an adjustableresolution of 0.4 - 4 m. The image acquisition canbe done from below the clouds and the image
quality can be assessed immediately. One of themain problems, however, has been that in order toanalyse large areas thousands of images are needed,and a single image only covers a small proportion ofthe area of interest. A related problem is that theimages often have large radiometric and geometricdifferences.
In order to overcome these problems a system hasbeen developed for collecting the data and creatinglarge image mosaics. The airborne part of thesystem includes digital camera, GPS, navigation andcamera control hardware and software. After theflight the mosaics are created semi-automatically ona standard PC. in order to obtain a result of goodradiometric and geometric quality aphotogrammetric mosaic is made by correcting foraircraft inclination, camera distortion, terrainelevation differences, sun angle differences andlocal radiometric differences. Digital terrain modelscan be created internally or entered from externalsources to eliminate the prevailing elevationdifferences, i.e. to produce an orthomosaic.
The system is in operational use and more than onemillion hectares on four continents have beenimaged and processed for forestry mapping, landuse planning and monitoring of natural resources.Further developments are on way for digital infra-red imagery, image processing system based onparallel computers and for automatic single treedetection based on pattern recognition.
The system is in operational use and more than onemillion hectares on four continents have beenimaged and processed for forestry mapping, landuse planning and monitoring of natural resources.Further developments are on way for digital infra-red imagery, image processing system based onparallel computers and for automatic single treedetection based on pattern recognition.
Remote sensing and spatial data for theestablishment and visualisation of 3D
computer landscape models for impactassessment
Barbara Koch, Harm J. and Reidelstürtz P.University of Freiburg, Forestry Faculty,
Tennenbacherstr. 4, 79085 Freiburg, GermanyTel: 0049-761-203-3694, FAX: 0049-761-203-3701,
Email: [email protected]
In many cases there is a need to assess and visualisethe landscape in order to evaluate measures, whichare suspected to have an impact on the landscape.There are many methods to assess a landscape,according to beauty, individuality, diversity or otherparameters to estimate the impact of measures on
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landscapes. Until now the assessment of the impacton the landscape was in general based on qualitativeparameters and 2D data based visualisation likemaps and photographs. Nevertheless for theacceptance and realisation of planned measures, theinclusion of quantitative parameters and a 3D databased visualisation seem to be good tools.
A research project at the department of remotesensing and landscape information systems dealswith the potential of 3D landscape models for thedevelopment of for quantitative impact assessmentparameters and visualisation. The models werebased on photogrammetric measurements fromaerial photographs on one hand and auxiliary spatialdata from different data pools on the other hand.
The measurements were taken with an analyticalplotter (Zeiss P3) which was connected to a CAD-programme (Bentley MicroStation). Themeasurements included the land-surface as well assurfaces of different forest stands, roads, individualtrees and houses. Objects close to the plannedimpacts (power-lines) were measured, the otherobjects were modelled based on auxiliary spatialdata.
The planned power-lines were also modelled withMicroStation.
In contrast to photographic layout manipulations,this method is based on 3D data. That allows tovisualise the impact on the landscape from eachposition within the model and to calculatequantitative parameters like sensitivity of thelandscape, visibility of the impact, a.s.o. on a solid3D geometric basis. There were two categories ofparameters derived from the model, the first wasused to assesses the sensitivity of the landscape topossible impacts. The other category is used toquantify the size of the impact. in addition to theusual planners point of view, in which the landscapeis studied from above, the individuals point of view,which studies the landscape from within, was usedto calculate the visibility of the impacts. Variousimages and animations of the landscape modelswere rendered, to visualise the impact, in addition tothe above mentioned parameters. Most visualisationproducts employed the individuals point of viewfrom within the landscape.
In addition to the assessment of the status quo,different situations could be simulated in the model,including variants or future changes, like the growthof vegetation or seasonal aspects.
Identification of landscape types inCroatia using remote sensing methods
and spatial analysisVladimir Kusan, Renata Pernar, Oleg Antonic
University of Zagreb, Faculty of forestry, Svetosimunska25, HR-10000 Zagreb, Croatia
FAX: +385-1-218616, Email: [email protected]
Landscape analysis is the process of describing andinterpreting the landscape ecology of an area.Resource patches and a landscape network ofconnecting corridors are identified, described andclassified. Theusual set of data acquired for alandscape analysis includes :topographic maps,forest cover maps, digital elevation models, satelliteimages and air photos. A geographic informationsystem is very useful inthis process. In the processof landscape analysis combined methods of remotesensing, spatial analysis and terrestrial works shouldbe used to identify and quantify landscape variablesand/or spatial, temporal and functional aspects oflandscape.
In Croatia there are a variety of different landscapes,from lowlands inthe north, hilly and mountainregion in the middle and the coastal areasin thesouth. Different agricultural use and urbandevelopment in such variety influenced very muchthe forest landscapes. The investigation ofrelationships between different agricultural, urbanand forest types was performed on the set of 15 x 15kilometres LandsatTM subscenes. The subsceneswere chosen around the most important settlementsin all regions in Croatia. On each subscene theseveral classification methods were used to describeland use of each region.The accuracy of eachclassification was calculated usingtopographicmaps, fotointerpretation and terrestrialwork. The best classification of each subscene wasused for landscape analysis. The results show howmany different landscapes can be found in Croatia.
Estimation of Land Cover Change inPeruvian Tropical Rainforests using
JERS-1 imagesDavid Lopez Cornelio
Shimane University, Faculty of Life and EnvironmentalScience, Office #505, 690 Matsue, JapanEmail: [email protected]
In Peru, nearly 1,800 acres of tropical andsubtropical forests are cut daily, amounting to670,000 deforested acres each year; this phenomenaeliminates critical habitats for wildlife and plantsspecies (Peru ranks number two in the world in birddiversity, number three in mammal diversity andnumber five in plant diversity, within it's borders
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exists 83 of the world's 114 natural communitytypes ). An accurate and up to date assessment offorest area and rates of depletion is fundamental tothe development of improved national forestmanagement strategies. Satellite observationsprovide an objective and quantitative approach tothe measurement of land-cover change; a research isproposed in order to determine the land use change,the conversion from active agriculture to secondaryforest (re growth), infer the patterns of land use bytype in the long term considering the past andpresent trends, and propose an ideal map ofsustainable land use according to the ecological andsocioeconomic characteristics of the site, in arepresentative area of Peruvian tropical rainforests(Iquitos region, a 75km x75 km area located in theAmazon watershed at 3*43*46" South Latitude,73*14*18" West Longitude) using JERS-1 images.The Japanese Earth Resources Satellite - 1 has beencontinuing to observe and collect data since 1992with a mission data recorder by the highperformance Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) andOptical Sensor (OPS); TNT mips will be used inorder to process the images, a processing system forgeo spatial analysis with fully integrated GIS, CAD,TIN, desktop cartography and geo spatial databasemanagement.
A forest inventory and informationsystem for forest operations and
planningDavid H. McNabb
Forest Resources Alberta Research Council, Bag 4000,Alberta T9C 1T4 Vegreville, Canada
Tel: (780) 632-8264, FAX: (780) 632-8379, Email:[email protected]
The measurement, classification, and interpretationof forest resourcesfor a multitude of forest values isconstrained by single purpose databases of oftenpoor quality. Contemporary data bases must allowspatial and temporal manipulation to meet thedynamic planning and operational needs of forestry.The Alberta Research Council in partnership withprivate industry has developed and tested anintegrated hardware andsoftware system thatautomatically links digital image data with elevationthat has many uses in forestry. The initial product ofthis system is the automated production of ortho-rectified images and photo mosaics. Other softwarehas been developed that analyses these primary datato give tree location, crown diameter, height, andspecies, which are combined to produce forestinventories. New software to automate the mappingof landforms and combining landform and otherforest attributes into a system to automatically mapsoils is also under development. These data are also
being used to automate the polygonization of thestand boundaries, soils, and ecosites with expertsystems and user defined attributes. The combinedapplications he combined applications are anintegrated inventory and information system thatwill have multiple values in developing forestmanagement plans and implementing operations.
Multiple Criteria Analysis andGeographic Information Systems forAssessing Criteria and Indicators in
Sustainable Forest ManagementGuillermo A. Mendoza, Ravi Prabhu
University of Illinois, Department of Natural Resourceand Environmental Sciences, Urbana, USA
Tel: (217-333-9347), FAX: (217)-244-3219), Email:[email protected]
Keywords: Criteria and indicators, multi-criteriaanalysis, geographic information systems
This paper describes applications of MultipleCriteria Analysis (MCA) in assessing criteria andindicators (C&I) in evaluating sustainable forestmanagement. The MCA methods include: ranking,rating and pairwise comparisons or AnalyticHierarchy Process. These methods were used in aparticipatory decision making environment undertwo evaluation approaches; a top-down approachand a bottom-up approach. The former involves ateam of interdisciplinary experts from differentdisciplines such as social forestry, resourceeconomics, ecology, forest management,silviculture, and forest policy and administration.The latter involves a local team representing variousstakeholders, interest groups, and other communitypeople affecting, and affected by, the managementof the forest. The top-down approach essentiallyconsists of selecting relevant sets of C&I from ageneric set such as those proposed by the ForestryStewardship Council (FSC) and the Center forInternational Forestry Research (CIFOR). Thebottom-up approach involves both the generation ofsets of C&I and their final selection at the field levelby local forest communities and other stakeholders.Both approaches are structured and organized in aparticipatory decision making environment.
In addition to describing the procedural details ofthe two approaches above, the paper also describesthe concepts and the underlying theory behind theMCA methodologies. Computational details andother concepts related to consistency of groupdecisions, priority rankings, and the estimation ofrelative weights or degrees of importance of eachC&I as estimated by the MCA methods arediscussed. The steps involved in the application ofthe MCA methods in assessing C&I on a Forest
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Management Unit (FMU) are also described. Theevaluation process detailing how the Teams providetheir expert opinions on each C&I along with theirjudgment on the suitability and applicability of eachC&I to a FMU is also described. Ultimately, theestimation of a performance index of the FMUbased on the ranked or prioritized list of C&I is alsodescribed.
A forest concession located in central Kalimantan,Indonesia is used as the FMU for the case study.Results from the study show that the multicriteriamethods are effective tools that can be used asstructured decision aids to evaluate, prioritize andselect sets of C&I for a FMU. Feedbacks receivedfrom the two Teams and other participants indicatethat the methods are transparent easy to implement,and provide a convenient environment forparticipatory planning and decision makingespecially for a complex problem such as theassessment of sustainable forest management.
Finally, the paper also describes an integratedmodeling framework for assessing forestsustainability using the biodiversity conservationcriterion. The framework essentially involves twogeneral methodologies -- Geographic InformationSystems (GIS), and MCA. in assessing overallsustainability using the biodiversity-based C&Ielements, the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) isused to determine the relative importance of eachC&I. Besides measuring the relative importance ofeach C&I, their impacts (i.e., degree of negative andpositive impacts) are also calculated using a methodbased on fuzzy set theory. Ultimately, the integratedMCA and GIS-based model allows the estimation ofarea-specific sustainability index values. Hence,sustainability can be measured particular tracts ofland, which can also be geographically identified onthe ground (i.e. site-specific). An illustrativeexample based on an actual forest in Indonesia isdescribed to demonstrate the applicability of themodel.
Mapping of 'Green' Cover in PutrajayaNew Township Using Landsat Tm
Aswati SurepForest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM), RegionalCentre for Forest Management, Kepong, 52109 Kuala
Lumpur, MalaysiaTel: 603-6377633, FAX: 603-6377233, Email:
The need to manage the resource in a moresustainable way and the changing demands ofsociety on its forest are confronting the modernforester. Rapid population growth and developmentactivities has caused high growth of urban
environmental quality and traffic disturbances. Theobjective of this study is to assess the usefulness ofLandsat TM data in "green" cover mapping of a newtownship Putrajaya. A Landsat TM image of 126/58(path/row) in Computer Compatible Tape (CCT)form, taken on June, 1996, with less than 5% cloud,was acquired for image processing and analysis.Results indicated that band of 4-5-3 False ColourComposite (FCC) was the best combination for thepurpose of the study since it can clearly differentiatethe "green" cover. A supervised classification of theimage result in 12 classes of "green" covercategories. A total of four classes were allocated aspotential sites for the development of a forestlandscape map. The overall accuracy obtained forthis study was 70%. Urban forestry landscaping andplanning has great potential in Putrajaya because thearea is still mostly surrounded by a "green" cover.
4.04.02 /4 .13.00 Sustainable forestmanagement under condit ions of growing
global pressures
Possible unfair competition frominternational taxation differences:
examples from Scandinavian and otherselected countries
Finn G. AndersenNorwegian Agricultural Economics Research Institute,
Postboks 8024 DEP, 0030 Oslo, NorwayTel: + 47-22-36 72 33, FAX: +47-22 36 72 99, Email:
Keywords: Taxation, Forestry, Scandinavia
This paper will deal with taxation of forestry, bothin principle and with description of the actual taxscheme in some selected countries. Forestry taxationis of course part of the general tax regime in eachcountry, but in this paper the emphasis is attached topossible special taxation conditions to forestry.
The main purpose of a national taxation scheme isto confiscate capital from the citizens for public use.in addition to this main purpose, there can be manyother purposes the politicians also want to stimulatefor instance development of forestry.
In forestry it is most common that income assessesdirectly to the annual result. Both in Sweden andNorway there are different possibilities to distributethe annual result for a couple of year. The meanreasons to insert these rules is to cut the top of theresult in years with special high cutting and withthat a high income. Some years ago the marginal taxrates were extreme high in the Scandinaviancountries and therefor the permission to distributethe result for several years was of big importance.
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To day the marginal tax rates are lower so thedistribute rules are of less importance than earlier.
Another way to assess the yield of forest is to usesustainable yield, annual increment or area ofproductive forestland as base for taxation. Thetaxable amount is for example total annualincrement or total productive forestland multiplieswith a standard value. in Norway the annualincrement was the base for income taxation till 1954as the productive forestland was it in Finland downto 1993. Finland has now changed over to assess theannual result but with a voluntary changeoverperiod till year 2006. The tax system Finland nowleaves has given tax advantage to active forestowners and tax intensification for more passiveowners.
Directly taxation of the annual result stimulates tosave capital in standing timber and forestregeneration, and can in this way be an obstacle toincrease the cutting volume. The increase of capitalin the forest will not be taxable before the timber issold.
In some countries as United Kingdom and theNetherlands, forest incomes from woodlands aretaken completely out of the scope of income tax.This tax exemption applies to sales of both felledand growing timber, but other incomes as shootingrights are taxable. On the other hand there are nodeduction for operating expenses etc. The reasonsfor the income tax exemption are both to get morestanding timber and the multifunctional use of land.
In a lot of countries they are in the beginning to tryto use subsidies and tax structure to supportenvironmental quality and sustainable economicdevelopment in the forestry.
In many countries they use a lower VAT rate thanthe standard rate for sale of timber and other forestproducts. Some of the EC countries also made useof a special system with flat rate for farmers. Theflat rate scheme should be a neutral system, but as amatter of fact in some countries the system uses tosubsidise the farmers.
International Interdependencies of theForest Accounting System and Their
Effects on Business ManagementJames N Hogg, Hans A Jöbstl
Jaakko Pöyry Consulting (UK) Ltd, Century House,Station Way, SM3 8SW Cheam, Surrey, United KingdomTel: +44 181 770 2144, FAX: +44 181 770 2115, Email:
Forest business accounting has long proven itspositive contribution to management of forestenterprises. Accounting supports the management inmonitoring the success of fulfilling the businessstrategy be it continuation of the business orshareholder value creation. Due to the highproportion of small-scale holdings only a small partof forest management units utilise accounting tosupport decision-making and information. Thevariety of business accounting systems around theworld is also reflected in the accounting of forestenterprises. While most rules and regulations ofstandard business accounting can be applied inforest enterprises, some particularities of forestryhave posed problems for both foresters andaccountants: The nature of the forest asset asappreciating, self-regenerating asset and the longtime horizons involved in forestry can be consideredas the two most important specific problems.
The valuation of the forest assets and treatment ofgrowing stock changes through growth,management and removals and the reflection ofthese values in accounts has not only engaged theminds of leading forest economists since the lastcentury, but is also facing forest enterprises andcorporations around the world. While the treatmentin internal operating accounts is up to theinformation requirements of the enterprise andtherefore developed individually to the demands ofmanagement, the financial reporting legislationdetermines the reflection of forest assets in externalaccounts.
Globally a number of methods has been developedto capture forest values and their change inaccounting, but a both accurate and feasible methodremains elusive.
The different methods contrasted using examplesfrom Europe, North America, Asia and Oceaniashow the interdependencies of forestry accountingpractices with cultural traditions, forestry practices,legislation, economic theory, etc. Differences asparamount as the distinctions between CentralEuropean small-scale forestry, Tropical concessionforestry or large-scale plantation forestry in Oceania
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also exist in the different methods of accounting forthe growing stock and its changes.
While international accounting harmonisation aimsat improved comparability and the emergence ofmultinational forest industries results in increasedattention from the accounting profession, the task offinding more accurate and workable methods willremain a challenge for the next millennium.
The Evolution of Forest Regimes inIndia and China (A Comparative
Analysis)Shashi Kant
University of Toronto, Faculty of Forestry, Toronto,Canada
Neo-classical framework based on profitmaximization leading to a single equilibrium is notsufficient to understand the dynamics of forestregimes. in the world of imperfect markets,transaction costs, and uncertainties, the observableregularities are not a solution to a static problem, butare outcomes that understandable dynamic processeshave produced from known and plausibly conditionsin the past. These dynamic processes can beunderstood in the framework of evolutionaryeconomics which has the elements of increasingreturns, path dependence, multiple equilibria,institutional hysteresis, and adaptive efficiency. Thedynamics of forest regimes in India and China isanalyzed in this framework. in India, forest regimeshave completed a full cycle from the communityregime in the pre-British period through stateregimes during the colonial period and the first post-independence phase, and finally back tocommunity-based regimes in the 1990s. in China,forest regimes have also completed a full cycle butstarting from private ownership in the hands oflandlords and bureaucrats prior to 1950's andreverting back to private regime in the form ofhousehold responsibility system in 1980's. in India,during the colonial period, change in forest regimeshas been discontinuous but path-dependent in ageographical sense which reflected organizationalinertia of colonial structure developed in othercountries. in the first phase of post-independenceperiod, many self-reinforcing mechanisms such asincreasing returns organizational and institutionalinertia, and adaptive expectations contributed totemporal path dependence. in the second phase,forest regimes have moved closer to adaptiveefficiency. in China, in late fifties and early sixties,the transition from private regime to communesystem was discontinuous, and was a result oforganizational energy similar to change in forestregimes in India during colonial period. However,continuation of commune system demonstrated the
prevalence of different elements of pathdependence.
The latest reforms, in both countries, can becharacterized by search for equity-consistenteconomic efficiency, devolution of the decisionmaking to local communities, and adaptiveefficiency. Multiple equilbria are another commonfeature in both countries. These common elementsand their impacts on sustainable forest managementelements from two Asian giants with differentgovernance structures can be used for designingforest regimes for sustainable forest management indeveloping economies.
Operations research, economicplanning and decision models: how can
international co-operation helpadministration and decision making in
forest enterprisesJean-Luc Peyron
ENGREF/INRA, 14, rue Girardet, CS 4216, F-54042Nancy, France
Tel: 00 33 (0)3 83 39 68 31, FAX: 00 33 (0)3 83 32 7381, Email: [email protected]
As in most of the research fields, international co-operation is essential to improve the grounding indecision making relative to forest enterprises. Thegeneral reasons underlying this statement areprobably the same in each part of sciences and referto the similarities between questions raised indifferent countries, to the complexity of the realworld in comparison with available analysismethods and models, to the weakness of meansallocated to research beside the hugeness of the task,and to the continuous change of social demand thatrequires to solve permanently new problems.Obviously, after they are brought back to theadministration and management of forestenterprises, these items are worth being commented.
Forest management has been developed at theinternational level for about three centuries. France,Germany and Austria have played a major role atthe beginning. Methods elaborated in thesecountries have then been exported to the rest of theworld where they have been adapted to othersituations and supplemented with new tools,exported in their turn and so on. Thus internationalco-operation is an historical fact. Today, there is stilla more favourable context because commoninternational issues have been highlighted, such ashabitat conservation programmes, carbon sinkissues, criteria and indicators for sustainable forestmanagement, ecocertification and labelling,environmental accounting.
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Decision making is a complex subject that usesadvanced developments in operations research,economic theory, statistics and even computerscience. According to this complexity, any co-operation is essential to progress, not onlyinterdisciplinary one but also international one. Thisis all the more true that many new methods arenowadays available, that some fundamentaleconomic concepts are not yet quite clear (e.g.discount rate value), that risk and uncertainty areinvolved in the processes under study, thatenvironmental considerations have to be integratedwith economic ones, that biological bases becomemore and more important in economic models.
It must be recognised that ecology, on the one hand,and forest products, on the other hand, concentratemost of attentions on them. Conversely, only a fewresearchers work on forest economics in eachcountry. in such a context, international co-operation gives the opportunity to gathercomplementary approaches on the same subject, tocreate synergies between researchers, to broader thescope under consideration, to generalise existingmethods and, in a dynamic perspective, to increasethe chance, when a new problem occurs somewhere,to find first features in another country.
Keywords: decision making, quantitative methods,economic planning, international co-operation,forest management.
Sustainable Forest Management UnderConditions of Growing Global Pressure -Challenges for Forest Enterprises from
International Agreements to MarketPressuresRoger A. Sedjo
Resources for the Future, 1616 P Street NW,Washington, D.C., USA
Tel: (202) 328 5065, FAX: (202) 939 3460, Email:[email protected]
This paper briefly describes some of the recentchanges designed to promote sustainable forestmanagement globally. These changes can haveimportant implications for the types of products thatreach markets, the cost and availability of variouswood products and, importantly, on the comparativecompetitive position of various regions andcountries. The discussion examines theseimplications with particular focus on thecomparative advantage and the comparitive positionof various countries for forest products trade. Therole of forest certification and ecolabeling is alsodiscussed. The paper argues that the regionsadvantaged and disadvantaged are importantly
related to the "rules of the game" as reflected in thevarious standards applied for sustainability.
Pricing Carbon Retention by means ofReduced Impact Logging: a Case Study
from East MalaysiaJohn Tay, J.R. Healey and Colin Price
School of Agricultural and Forest Sciences, University ofWales, Bangor, Gwynedd LL57 2UW, UK
Tel: +44-1248-382454 / 382281 / 351098, Fax: +44-1248-354997, E-mail: [email protected]
Reduced impact logging in tropical countriesenhances the local sustainability of forestmanagement. It also significantly reduces theamount of carbon volatilised during and afterlogging. For this reason, it may attract financeglobally as a means of achieving carbon offsets. Amodel of forest regrowth and of necromassdynamics allows long-term estimation of the impactof different logging systems on both cropregeneration and on carbon fluxes. Overall, reducedimpact logging had the expected advantages overconventional logging. However, there were severalkinds of additional financial outlays. Moreover, thereduced volume yield from reduced impact loggingmeans that either a large opportunity cost isincurred; or, to achieve a given level of production,a greater area must be exploited. This spillovereffect can be incorporated in cost–benefit analyses.These show that, according to the assumptions madeabout the appropriate level of analysis and thediscount rate adopted, the cost of retaining carbonby reduced impact logging may be much greater, ormuch less than carbon prices which have beenderived in other ways.
Keywords: pricing carbon retention, reduced impactlogging
Correspondence address: Colin Price, Prof.,School of Agricultural and Forest Sciences,University of Wales, Bangor, Gwynedd LL57 2UW,United Kingdom
Tel: +44-1248-382454 / 382281, Fax: +44-1248-354997, E-mail: [email protected]
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Division 5Forest Products
CoordinatorJohn A. YOUNGQUIST
USDA Forest Service
Forest Products Laboratory
One Gifford Pinchot Drive
Madison Wisconsin 53705-2398,
United States of America
fax: +1-608-2319265
tel: +1-608-2319398
email: [email protected]
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5.01.00 Wood qual i ty
The control of cambium activity andwood formation in forest trees
Roni AloniTel Aviv University, Department of Plant Sciences,
69978 Tel Aviv, IsraelFAX: 972-3-6409380, Email: [email protected]
The problems to be dealt with concern the biologicalcontrol of wood production in forest trees andsolutions for improving wood quality andproductivity by hormonal modifications. As thevascular tissues are complex, being comprised ofseveral types of cells, they are induced by a numberof developmental signals which flow in the axialand radial directions. The hormonal signals controlthe type of differentiating cells, their wall structureand chemical composition. Therefore, understandingthe nature and biology of the signals is needed forimproving tree quality and productivity by geneticmodifications. Studies on transgenic plants withaltered levels of hormones confirm this generalstrategy for improving wood production and quality.The major signals that control cambial activity andxylogenesis are the following four hormones: auxin,cytokinin gibberellin and ethylene. (1) Auxin is theprimary controlling signal involved in all aspects ofvascular differentiation. The continuity of thevascular tissues along the plant axis is a result of thesteady polar flow of auxin from leaves to roots. Lowlevel streams of auxin induce phloem in strands andphloem anastomoses between the strands, whilehigher auxin levels induce xylem. Auxin whichmoves preferably through the cambium controlstogether with gibberellin, the activity of thecambium. Auxin also controls the gradual increasein vessel size from leaves to roots. During evolution,increased sensitivity of the cambium to auxinoccurred in limiting environments resulting in thedevelopment of the specialized ring-porous woodthat maximized the efficiency of water conduction.The wide earlywood vessels in ring-porous trees areinduced by low-level streams of auxin at earlystages of bud development. (2) Cytokinin from theroots increases cambium sensitivity to shoot signalsand promotes vascular differentiation along the treeaxis. (3) Gibberellin which promotes tracheidelongation, has become during evolution a specificsignal for fiber differentiation. From the originalmechanism for tracheid differentiation in conifers, acombination of auxin and gibberellin, the signals foreach xylem element in angiosperms becamespecific: auxin by itself induces vessel elementswhereas gibberellin, in the presence of auxin,induces fibers. Auxin and gibberellin are the factors
that control the structure of lignin in the cell walls.(4) Ethylene produced in the xylem seems to be amajor signal in controlling the initiation, size andspacing of rays. Ethylene also reduces vessel width,promotes tracheid differentiation in the radialdirection and is involved in reaction woodformation.
Wood Quality Challenges and Prospectsfor the New Millenium
David J. Cown, Phil WilcoxNew Zealand Forest Research Institute, PO Box 3020,
Rotorua, New ZealandTel: +64 7347 5525, FAX: +64 7347 507, Email:
As the world's natural forest continue to decrease inarea and production, the role of plantations willinevitably become more important. They will serveto increasingly supply the wood products needs ofexpanding populations and simultaneously reducethe need for the harvest of natural forests. The woodcharacteristics of plantation-grown material cannotbe assumed to be the similar to the same speciesfrom natural forests: factors which can stronglyinfluence physical properties and performanceinclude:
The potential for plantation-grown wood to supplantnatural forests is great because there are greateroptions for- species selection- site and climate- silvicultural regime- genotype selection
A large body of research results already existscomparing the wood properties of plantation andnatural forests. in some species (eg pines) whichexhibit strong juvenile wood characteristics, it iscommon to observe a decrease in average qualitywhen expressed in terms of properties such as wooddensity, fibre length, spiral grain. This is mainlybecause artificial forests are encouraged to growthrapidly and are harvested at relatively young ages,resulting in a significantly higher proportion ofjuvenile wood. To counteract these, often negative,effects, silvicultural management enables someoperations such initial spacing, thinning and pruningand manipulation of felling age to improve generallog quality and uniformity (size, shape, branching).
Characteristically, the effects of features such ashidden internal defects, (decay, compression wood)are less in managed plantations.
In some parts of the world, plantations have becomethe dominant form of commercial forestry duringthe past 50 to 100 years, and many lessons have
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been learned along the way. The importance ofmatching species (and provenances) to availablesites is now accepted. There are many examples ofoutright failures with species which have specificrequirements. A broad trend is apparent:
1. Species trials and selection of "winners"
2. Development of management schedules tomaximise growth rates
3. Commencement of tree improvement programsfocused on volume production
4. Selection and propagation of genotypes yieldingdesirable wood characteristics
Wood products manufacturers and end-users areincreasingly seeking uniformity in wood propertiesand predicability in performance attributes. We areabout to enter an era in which the power ofmolecular breeding technology will be challenged toextend both the range and uniformity of availablewood properties from plantations. Clonal forestryoffers some exciting possibilities.
Mechanical Properties of Acaciamangium planted in Sarawak, Malaysia
Alik Duju, Takashi NakaiTRTTC, Forest Department, Sarawak, Km10 Old Airport
Road, 93660 Kuching, MalaysiaTel: +60-82-612211, FAX: +60-82-612490, Email:
Ten trees of 13-year old Acacia mangium weresampled and fifty-four small clear specimens weretested. The British Standard (BS 373.1957) methodon testing small clear specimens of timber wasadopted to obtain the strength properties of thespecies. It was found that the mean values ofmodulus of rupture, modulus of elasticity andcompressive strength tested at green condition were86.4 MPa, 10.9 GPa and 36.8 MPa respectively. Theaverage moisture content was 114 % and their basicdensity was 0.51 g/cm3. Based on their compressivestrength, the timber was classified under StrengthGroup C by Burgess's grouping. It was revealed thatthe strength properties and basic density were higherat outer portion compared to the inner portion of thewood.
Keywords: Acacia mangium small clear specimens,strength properties and basic density
Density and Sapwood Variation ofMalaysian-Grown Teak
S. C. LimForest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM), Kepong,
52109 Kuala Lumpur, MalaysiaTel: +603-6342633, FAX: +603-6367753, Email:
Five trees each of plantation-grown teak in Malaysiaages 8 and 28 years were studied. Discs of 50mm inthickness were cut at 10%, 30%, 50%, 70% and90% heights of the clear bole. The sapwoodthickness was measured at four different positionsof a disc and an average sapwood percentage wascalculated. For the density determination, specimenswere obtained from the same disc at two radialdirections opposite each other with three samples ateach radius. The volume of sapwood presence wasfond to be quite substantial in both the 8 years and28 years old teak. The results of the study alsoindicate that three was a slight decrease in thesapwood percentage with age. On the variation indensity, it was found that the Malaysian-grown teakwas comparable to teak found elsewhere. Age of thetree has also been found to have a significant effecton the density of the timber.
Physical and Anatomical Features ofAcacia mangium planted in Sarawak,
MalaysiaAndrew Tukau Salang, Tomoyuki Fujii
Timber Research and Technical Training Centre, Km. 10,Old Airport Road, 93660 Kuching, Sarawak, MalaysiaTel: 082-612211 (O), FAX: 082-612490 (O), Email:
The Acacia mangium is a major species planted inthe reforestation sites throughout the State ofSarawak. To complement reforestation project, theeconomic utilisation of this species must be found inorder to be sustainable. The utilisation potentialdepends on the properties of the timber. This studyinvestigated and quantified the physical andanatomical features of 13-year old Acacia mangiumplanted in Compartment No. 8401 and 8402 inSampadi Forest Reserve, Lundu, Kuching, Sarawak.in this study, 12 timber sample discs were collectedat DBH and specimens were made from two stripscrossing one another through the pith at 90°. Thephysical features that are important to the utilisationaspect of the timber are the thickness of sapwood,colour and density.
The anatomical features that have the greatestinfluence on wood properties and secondaryprocessing are the vessels parameters (such as vesselgrouping and arrangement, diameter, content,
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frequency and vessel element length), and fibreparameters (such as length, diameter and fibre wallthickness).
The average thickness of the sapwood is 11 mm,whitish in colour and the heartwood is slightly palebrownish to purplish brown on prolonged exposure.Average oven-dried density of 469 kg/m3,substantial variation amongst trees from 419 to 584kg/m3, higher variation within a tree of 340 kg/m3 atthe pith and 585 kg/ m3 at the sapwood, and densityincreases towards the sapwood. Mostly solitaryvessels, multiple vessels common especiallymultiple of 2; average diameter of 200 µm*,progressively increases towards the sapwood; 4vessels/mm2*; evenly distributed. Average vesselelement length of 332 µm that also increasestowards the sapwood. The average fibre length is1,073 æm that also increases towards the sapwood.Fibre length variation is higher from the pith up to80 mm radially and variation decreases to constantlength towards the sapwood. Preliminary findingsshowed that fibre diameter and fibre wall thicknessdo not showed significant increases from the pith tosapwood. Preliminary results as some measurementsand counting are still not completed and this datawill be amended in the paper later.
Effect of environmental factors on thefibre properties of Norway spruce (Picea
abies [L.] Karst.)Pekka Saranpää, H. Mäkinen
Metla - The Finnish Forest Research Institut, PO Box 18,FIN-01301 VANTAA, Finland
Email: [email protected]
Wood quality is an important basis for forestindustry. While the external features of the trees,e.g. branchiness, straightness of the stem, havereceived attention from tree breeders, the physicaland chemical properties of wood have been lessstudied, except for specific gravity. Until now thepulp and paper industry has examined the physicalproperties of the fibres and the chemicalcomposition of wood mainly after processing, butthe biological aspects related to wood formationhave not been studied. However, variation e.g. in thefibre length and cell wall thickness, or the chemicalcomposition of the wood have influence both on thequality and quantity of the end products. Thevariation of fibre properties in pulp could be duepartly to the processing methods to methods offorest management, seasonal and environmentalfactors, and to the genetic characteristics of thetrees. The main cause for the variation of fibreproperties within-tree is the maturation of thecambium (cyclophysis, topophysis).
We have studied the changes in tracheid length, cellform, lumen diameter and cell wall thickness fromthe pith to the bark and at various heights in thestems of Norway spruce with image analysis usingthin sections cut by a cryo-microtome. A fast andconvenient method is described to analyse thedimensions of tracheids from a thin section. Theanalysis is based on 2-dimensional fast Fouriertransformations. Data created by the model will becompared with the original data. Cell wall thicknesswill be analysed accurately with the method.
The effect of fertilization on wood structure ofNorway spruce is also investigated. Trees (34-years-old) have been fertilized and irrigated the last 10years. The structure of the annual rings is comparedwith samples from control trees withoutfertilization. in this way we could study how maturewood structure is affected by increasing diameterand height growth. According to the preliminarydata, cell length decreases slightly with increasingdiameter growth but tracheid diameter remainsunaffected. Tracheid diameter is correlated morestrongly with distance from the pith than with ringnumber from the pith.
Pulping, Bleaching and PapermakingCharacteristics of Some Native
Sumatran HardwoodsYu-Chang Su, I-Chen Wang
Taiwan Forestry Research Institute, China-TaipehEmail: [email protected]
Thirty-seven native species of Sumatran hardwoodswere collected and analyzed for their chemicalcompositions. Subsquent to kraft pulping, bleachingand handaheet making, their pulping characteristicswere elucidated. Lignin content of the woods rangedfrom 37.6 to 20.2%, averaging 29.6%; holocellulosecontents were 76.7 to 55.7%, averaging 68.6%;Alcohol-benzene extractive contents ranged widely,from 1 to 18.1%. Pulp yields ranging from 34.7 to51.7% of bone-dry wood at an equivalent kappanumber of 20. Pulp yields tended to decreaseslightly with increasing wood densities. Chemicalcharges also tended to increase with wood density;but digester efficiency was higher with higherdensity woods. in terms of pulpability, Diospyrospuntielosa and Poyena sp. were the best, whileAlphonsea javigata and Palaquium gutta were theworst. A standard regime of C-E-D-E-D bleachingsequence could give all the pulps brightness of 80%ISO or better. PC numbers of the bleached pulpswere generally acceptable. Average breaking length,tear index, bursting index and compound strengthindex were 6.94 km, 11.6 mN·m2 g-1, 4.97 kpa ·m2 g-
1, and 8.83, respepctively. Pulp from Artocarpuseluticus had the best strength index, while
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Tetramerista celabra pulp showed the pooreststrength index. Bleached pulps showed the sameorder of strength ranking for these two species.
Impact of precommercial thinning ontree and wood characteristics, Product
quality and value in Balsam firShougong Zhang, Y. Corneau, and G. Chauret
Chinese academy of forestry, Forintek Canada Corp, 319rue Franquet, Sainte-Foy, G1P 4R4 Quebec, CanadaTel: 86-10-62884229, FAX: (418)-659 2922, Email:
Based on a 47-year-old precommercial thinningtrial, this study examined the response of varioustree and wood characteristics, product quality andvalue in balsam fir to different thinning intensities.in 1995 (35-year after precommercial thinning), 150merchantable trees were selected to cover all themerchantable diameter classes in the control,moderate and heavy thinning plots. Based on thesample trees, impact of precommercial thinning on anumber of parameters was evaluated at the diameterclass level. Parameters studied include treediameter, tree height, tree volume, tree taper, livecrown length and width, length of the log withoutlive crown, branch diameter, bark thickness, wooddensity, heartwood content, moisture content, logvolume recovery lumber volume recovery, lumbergrade recovery, lumber dimension recovery, lumbervalue recovery, lumber strength and stiffness, chipvolume and value recovery, chip and paperproperties, and total value recovery. Furthermore,this study examined the 25- and 35-year response ofselected parameters (e.g., basal area, tree diameter,merchantable volume, product value) at the standlevel.
Based on the responses, optimal thinning intensitieswere recommended for specific objectives and fordifferent industries. Other important questions (e.g.,when to thin balsam fir stands, which stands shouldbe thinned) were discussed.
Compared to trees of the same diameter class fromcontrol plots, the trees from thinned plots aregenerally characterized by a shorter tree height, alarger tree taper, a larger live crown width andbranch diameter, a shorter length of the log withoutlive crown, a lower tree volume and lumber volumerecovery, and a lower total product value recoveryper tree. Lumber from trees of the same diameterclass in heavily thinned plots has a lower recoveryfor the best grade, and a lower MOE and MORvalue, but moderate thinning has a relatively limitedeffect on lumber strength and stiffness. On the otherhand, tree and wood characteristics, product qualityand value vary remarkably with tree diameter.
This study shows that a thinning intensity of 3,500trees/ha or less is required to achieve a significantgain in tree diameter. Furthermore, precommercialthinning of dense balsam fir stands also increasesmerchantable wood volume and product value at thestand level. Overall, this study suggests thatprecommercial thinning of very dense young balsamfir stands appears to be an effective and viablesilvicultural treatment. It can reduce rotation age byup to 10 years. A reduced rotation age will alsoreduce the possible occurrence of rot and decay inbalsam fir stands. Furthermore, a larger treediameter in thinned stands will reduce harvestingand manufacturing costs, and produce largerdimension products. Since the difference in standvalue between thinning intensities of 1,000 to 3,500trees/ha is relatively limited, an appropriate thinningintensity to be taken for balsam fir, to a large extent,depends on what the industry really wants toachieve. For the lumber industry, a thinningintensity of 2,500-3,000 trees/ha is required tomaximize the stand (product) value and to producequality products. For lumber producers whose majorobjectives are to maximize diameter growth and tominimize rotation age, a heavier thinning intensityof 1,000-2,000 trees/ha could be considered, but inthis case product quality may decrease significantly.For both pulp/paper industry and panel industry, athinning intensity of 2,500-3,000 trees/ha appears tobe optimal.
Occurrence of Pith Flecks in TropicalTimbers of Malaysia
Ani SulaimanFRIM - Forest Research Institute Malaysia, Kepong,
52109 Kuala Lumpur, MalaysiaTel: +603-6342633, FAX: +6036367753, Email:
Pith flecks are abnormal parenchymatous tissuesembedded in the wood as irregular strands and onlongitudinal surface appearing as a streak. Thaffected tissues showed large parenchyma cells withrandom orientation. Pith flecks were formed as aresult of traumatic conditions during tree growth,which injure the cambium locally. Such xylemformation may be caused by many factors such asmechanical wounding, harsh environmentalconditions (drought, wind or low temperatures),microbial infections or insect attacks. The abnormalxylem may vary in structure according to the causeand tree species involved. Callus may be formed bythe proliferation of parenchyma cells adjacent to thecambial injury and eventually restored the orderlydivisions of cambial cells.
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Normal cells on all sides enclose the callus or pithflecks. The size of the callus pocket presumablycorresponds to the extect of the injury. Malaysiantimbers showing the presence of pith flecks arethose from the family Aceraceae, Alangiaceae,anacadiaceae, Anonaceae, Apocynaceae,Aquifoliaceae, Bombacaceae, Burseaceae,Combretaceae, Casuarinaceae, Celasstraceae,Polygalaceae, Rosaceae, Sapindaceae, Sapotaceae,Sterculiaceae, Theaceae and Thymetlaceae.
5.02.00 Timber engineering
Analysis and classification of acousticemission waveform
Shih-Hao LeeChi-Yi Institue of Technology, The Department of Forest
Products Industry, 600 University Road, 600 Chi-Yi,Taiwan, R.O.C.
Tel: 886 5 2717510, FAX: 886 5 2717497, Email:[email protected]
Keywords: Fracture; Acoustic emission; Signalprocessing; Cluster analysis; Classification
Detection of AE (acoustic emission) from failure ofwood is becoming more important as wooden framehouses grow rapidly in Taiwan. AE is releasedenergy from micro or macro fracture of material. Toclassify the relationship between wood fracture andAE, AE signals were recorded during the bendingtest of red oak and their features of AE wereextracted and analyzed. The event rate feature mightbe excellent indicator of loading phase. Features intime and frequency were selected for classification.Cluster analysis showed that AE signals could besuccessfully classified. Each class might beassociated with individual fracture source from fiberbreakage, debundling, debonding and matrixcracking.
Predicting the strength of sawnproducts based on X-ray scanning of
logsJohan Oja, Stig Grundberg, Anders Grönlund
Lulea University of Technology, Skelleftea Campus,SKERIA 3, S-931 87 Skelleftea, Sweden
Tel: +46 910 585373, FAX: +46 910 585399, Email:[email protected]
The successful running of a sawmill is dependent onits ability to achieve the highest possible valuerecovery from the saw logs. Today many sawmillsare increasing the amount of customer adaptedproducts. One such trend is that strength gradedlumber is becoming more common. When sawinglumber for strength grading in special dimensions itis very important to select the right logs, i.e. the
sawmill must be able to predict the strength of thesawn products before the actual sawing operation.
The strength of the sawn products is correlated todensity and knottiness. in order to be able tomeasure internal properties of saw logs an industrialX-ray LogScanner has been developed. Simulationshave shown that this scanner can measure variablesthat would be possible to use for prediction of thestrength of the sawn products, e.g. knot volume andgreen density. Hence, the aim of the study was toinvestigate the possibility of predicting the strengthof centerboards from Norway spruce (Picea abies(L.) Karst.) saw logs, based on simulated X-rayLogScanner measurements.
The study was based on eight logs. Two fast grownand two slow grown logs from northern Sweden andtwo fast grown and two slow grown logs fromsouthern Sweden. After CT-scanning, fourcenterboards were sawn from each log and themodulus of elasticity and the bending strength of theboards were measured. The CT-images were usedfor simulations of the industrial X-ray LogScannerresulting in simulated measurements of knot volumeand the green density of heart and sapwood. Finallymultivariate models were calibrated using PLS-regression. These models predict the bendingstrength and modulus of elasticity based on thevariables measured by the X-ray LogScanner. Bothbending strength and modulus of elasticity weredefined as the mean value of the four boards fromeach log.
The results were very promising with strong modelsfor prediction of both bending strength (R2=0.73)and modulus of elasticity (R2=0.77). The resultsalso showed that the measured variation of knotvolume between different parts of the log explainssome of the difference in strength between differentcenterboards from the same log (R2=0.41).
The study is based on a very small material with anumber of special properties. The fact that the logsare of approximately the same dimension and thatall logs have relatively large amount of heartwoodprobably makes the predictions better compared to alarger and less homogenous material On the otherhand the large logs have other properties, e.g. largepith shakes and four boards from each log, thatmake it more difficult to predict the strength of theboards.
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White Spruce behavior duringcompression perpendicular to grain
Taghi Tabarsa, Y.H. ChuiUniversity of New Brunswick, Faculty of Forestry &
Environmental Management, E3B 6 C2 Fredericton, NB,Canada
Tel: (506) 453 - 4501, FAX: (506) 453 - 3538, Email:[email protected]
The intention of this study was to provide anadvanced understanding of wood behaviour duringtransverse compression at ambient and elevatedtemperatures. in addition the feasibility of amechanical based model for predicting woodbehaviour in transverse compression based on cellgeometry and cell wall properties was examined. Anew test procedure and apparatus were developed.
This study was carried in two phases: in phase one,specimens of white spruce were subjected tocompression tests under microscope at roomtemperature at three levels of magnifications (low,medium, and high). Wood behaviour at differentlevels such as: gross behaviour (specimenpossessing several annual rings), one annual ring,early-wood, late-wood, cell wall deformation, andmechanism of failure (collapse) was characterized.in addition load-deformation data was collectedduring compression tests under microscope at lowand medium magnification. Geometry of all cellslocated in one annual ring subjected to compressiontest was measured. Cell wall properties (modulus ofelasticity and yield point) was determined based ontransverse compression test results and average cellgeometry of same annual rings. The validity offindings of this study was approved duringverification tests. The second phase of this study isin process, during this phase the effect oftemperature on cell wall properties will beinvestigated. The results of this study will providevaluable benefits for modelling applications.
Effect of Open-Shed Environment on theEdgewise Bending Properties of
Laminated Veneer LumberR. C. Tang, J. H. Pu, J. N. Lee
Auburn University, School of Forestry, USAFAX: +334-844-4221, Email: [email protected]
In recent years, Laminated veneer lumber (LVL)members have been popularly used in the light- andmedium-frame of building constructions as headers,joists or flanges in I-beams because of its highstrength and uniform stiffness and they can befabricated in unlimited lengths and/or sizes. Atpresent, most experimental works concerning thestructural performance of LVL are conducted under
constant relative humidity (RH) and/or temperature.However, LVL is a layered structural woodcomposite made of veneers which are biologicalmaterials and hygrothermal-elastic in nature.Obviously the large fluctuation of RH andtemperature in our living environment will havesome weakening effect on LVL's structuralperformance but such information is very limited.
Thus, experiment of long-term exposure of LVL inopen-shed environment will provide usefulinformation for wood composite industries toimprove LVL's manufacturing design as well as forTimber Engineers to better design structures that areusing LVLs as components.
In this study, the effects of open-shed environmenton the edgewise bending properties of LVL wereinvestigated. Three types of 13-ply LVL werefabricated with southern pine veneers of B, C, and Dgrades and liquid phenolic formaldehyde and theirlayups were: LV L-1: all B grade veneer; LVL-2:two plies of B grade veneer on both faces and all Cgrade veneer in the core plies; and LVL-3: all Dgrade veneer. The dimension of specimens was 3.8cm (thick) x 8.9 cm (deep) x 244 cm (long). Twentyfive randomly selected specimens in each LVL typewere edgewise bending tested after being exposedunder the open-shed environments for one and twoyears.
Air temperature, as hot as 37.8 C (100 F) and ascold as -9.4 C (15 F), under the open-shed roof wasrecorded. The highest temperature recorded on theinner surface of open-shed roof was 52.2 C (126 F)while average values of 43.9 C (111 F) and 37.2 C(99 F) were recorded respectively on the top andbottom specimens in the LVL pile when the airtemperature was 37.8 C (100 F). During a year,many high RH (90-98%) days were observed whilelowest RH recorded was 23%. Testing results fromprevious studies indicated that structuralperformance of southern pine LVL was affected bythe veneer grade and MOR values: 77.44 MPa,72.30 MPa and 51.13 MPa and MOEs: 14.64 GPa,14.25 GPa and 11.56 GPa, for groups of LVL-1,LVL-2 and LVL-3, respectively, evaluated underconstant 65% RH and 23.9 (75 F) were used ascontrols for comparison in this study. After 1-yearopen-shed exposure, 8.9%, 13.0% and 4.9%reduction in MORs were observed respectively inLVL-1, LVL-2 and LVL-3 and further reductions,11.4%, 13.7% and 15.3% were recorded in thespecimens subjected to 2-year open-shed exposure.The reduction of MOEs for these LVLs after 1-yearopen-shed exposure was insignificant, and however,6.6%, 16.8% and 13.1% reductions were observedin the members after subjected to 2-year exposure.
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Thus, tests of longer open-shed exposure of LVLsmay be needed for the development of models foraccurately predicting the degradation rate of MOEand MOR due to the long-term open-shedenvironmental exposure.
Keywords: Laminated Veneer Lumber, SouthernPine, Bending Strength, Bending Stiffness, Open-Shed Environment.
5.03.00 Protect ion of Wood from decay andfire
The Effect of Borate Preservatives onPreventing Decay of some Wood
Species Used in EgyptHussein Ibrahim Mahmoud Aly, I.E.A. Kherallah, M.
Abou El-Seoud and A.S.O. MoharebAlexandria University, Forestry and Wood Technology
Dept., Alexandria, EgyptFAX: 00203-5446914, Email: [email protected]
This investigation was carried out to study the effectof boric acid and borax against wood decay fungi. Italso aimed to study the penetration and retention ofborate in selected woods. The fungus species, whichshowed serious affect on poplar wood, wereSchizophyllum commune Fr. and Trichoderma viride(Fr.) Pers. The EC50 values were varied accordingto preservatives and fungi types. Wide effect ofboron compounds against the two species of fungiwas detected.
The results indicated that the ability of boronpenetration in selected wood species wassignificantly increased by increasing the woodmoisture content. The mean values of penetration inpoplar wood were 5.95 mm and 15.32 mm at 12%and 80% MC, respectively. On the other hand,boron retention in seasoned poplar wood was higherthan that of the poplar wood of 80% MC in outerlayers.
Also, there were significant differences between theretention of boron in Casuarina glauca at 12% and40% MC. This study is considered the firstinvestigation in the wood preservatives field ofimported wood species in Egypt.
Keywords: boric acid, borax, penetration, retention,Casuarina glauca .
Leaching Characteristics of Water BornePreservatives According to Tree
SpeciesAyben Kilic, Hasan Vurdu, Hikmet Yazici
Zonguldak Karaelmas University, Faculty of Forestry,74100 Bartin, Turkey
FAX: +90.0378.2277421, Email: Mehmet Sabaz[[email protected]]
In this study, leaching degrees of four different treespecies impregnated with Tanalith C-S a waterbornepreservative were determined.
Scotch pine, Fir, Beech and Chestnut wereimpregnated by 3 % Tanalith C-S. Wood sampleswere prepared in three different dimensions as50x25x15, 30x20x10 and 10x10x10 mm. Usingthirteen different methods leaching degrees of woodsamples were determined.
Results showed that, among four tree species thehighest leaching was found in Scotch pine. Leachingwas found to decrease in the order of Fir, Chestnutand Beech respectively. When comparing the effectof dimension, it was found that there is a linearrelation between leaching and sample dimensions.The eluted preservative increased by the increase ofsample dimension. Highest leaching occurred in50x25x15 mm.
Application of Electron Microscopy inWood Protection Research
Adya P. Singh, B.S. Dawson and A.H.H. WongNew Zealand Forest Research Institute Limited, Private
Bag 3020, Rotorua, New ZealandTel: +67-7-347-5889, FAX: +64-7-347-9380, Email:
Keywords Electron microscopy, Woodbiodegradation, Wood protection, Preservativepenetration, Coating penetration
For decades electron microscopy has played acrucial role in understanding the process of woodformation and has helped unravel those factors andprocesses affecting the utilization of wood. Anotable example of the extensive application ofScanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) andTransmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) in woodprocessing is in the field of wood protectionresearch, in particular, wood preservation.Extending the service life of wood requires effectiveprotection of wood from the factors which adverselyaffect its performance. The methods of protectionwith wood preservatives and other wood protectingchemicals (including coating materials) varydepending upon the environmental conditions towhich wood is exposed. Optimization of theperformance of these wood protectants depends on
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detailed knowledge of the mode of interactionsbetween these chemicals, the wood substrate andtheir target degrading organisms. Suchultrastructural studies have made significant in-roads in understanding the fundamentals ofdeterioration in a selection of important tropical andtemperate wood species by specialized wood-degrading bacteria and fungi. For example suchstudies have helped confirm the high preservative orwood extractive tolerance of wood-degradingbacteria and specific rot fungi attacking certainpreservative treated and naturally durable timbers,respectively. Indeed a thorough understanding ofwood degradation factors, assisted in part byadvances in EM, has helped advance the field ofwood protection research overall. Examples of theuse of electron microscopy in the research workrelated to these areas will be presented, includingstudies on wood biodegradation and patterns ofpenetration and distribution of preservatives,protective coatings and other wood protection andproperty enhancing substances.
Fire Performance of Hardwood SpeciesRobert H. White
USDA, Forest Products Laboratory, One Gifford PinchotDr., WI 53705-2398 Madison, USA
Tel: 1-608-231-9265, FAX: 1-608-231-9508, Email:rwhite/[email protected]
In this era of performance-based building codes,there is an increased need for models and datapertaining to the fire safety of building materials. inaddition to data for the prescriptive regulatory firetests, material property data are needed to optimizethe advantages of the performance-based buildingcodes that are being introduced worldwide. in thisreview of our research on the fire performancecharacteristics and fire safety engineering of woodproducts, we will present results on the fireperformance of hardwood species. Two broad areasof fire safety engineering of materials are (1) Fireinitiation and growth, and (2) Fire containment.
Fire initiation and growth include ignition, thespread of flames, and fire growth to flashoverconditions. The introductions of heat releasecalorimeters in the 1980's reflect the changes fromolder prescriptive fire tests to tests that produce datasuitable for fire safety engineering analysis. Withinformation on ignition characteristics and heatrelease rates, it is increasingly possible to model thespread of flame over a material and the fire growthin a room. The best known of the heat releasecalorimeter is the cone calorimeter. The worldwideuse of the cone calorimeter has increased theavailability of information on ignition, heat release
and smoke development of materials. Research inthis area includes a study on the fire performance ofhardwood plywoods.
Fire containment is mainly the fire resistance or fireendurance of structural members and assemblies tocontain a post-flashover fire. Unlike the tests for firegrowth, the test for fire resistance of members andassemblies has remained essentially the samethroughout the world. The fire endurance of woodmembers often depends on the charring rate of thewood. The charring rate of wood has beenextensively researched. Recently, the charring ratesof composite lumber products of both softwood andhardwood species have been investigated.
Like most wood properties, fire performanceproperties are affected by density, moisture content,and chemical composition. The high densities ofmany hardwoods contribute to relatively low flamespread indexes and slow charring rates. However,the low lignin content of the hardwood speciesreduces the residual char content which results inhigher flame spread index and faster charring rates.Fire retardant treatments can be used to increase theresidual char content. The limited extractivecontents of hardwood species contribute to reducedflame spread and heat release.
Wood protection of six U.S. species byNHA: the wood anatomical perspective
of fungal decayAlex C. Wiedenhoeft, Regis B. Miller, Willy Stockman,
and Frederick Green IIIUSDA, Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory, OneGifford Pinchot Drive, WI 53705-2398 Madison, USA
Tel: 608-231-9200, FAX: 608-231-9592, Email:[email protected]
Progress in understanding the mechanisms of wooddecay has not resulted in concomitant improvementsin protection of wood from decay. Most woodpreservatives fail to target decay-specific processes,but rather are broad-spectrum biocides. in part, thisfailure comes from a lack of understanding of wooditself, how wood preservatives bind to and interactwith wood, and the steps fungi must use to colonizewood in order to destroy it.
Sapwood of six U.S. species with different pit typeswere selected: spruce (Picea sp.), red pine (Pinusresinosa), western red cedar (Thuja plicata),northern white-cedar (Thuja occidentalis), yellowbirch (Betula alleghaniensis), and poplar (Populussp.). Blocks were cut into 19 mm cubes and thenwere vacuum treated with a 1% aqueous solution ofthe calcium precipitating agent N-napthaloylhydroxylamine (NHA). Half the treated
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samples were leached for two weeks in dailychanges of distilled water, untreated control blockswere added, and then all blocks were subjected to amodified ASTM D-2017-81 standard soil-bottle test.Three bottles were prepared for each treatment(leached, unleached, and untreated, per fungus, perwood species) with two blocks per bottle. Fourfungi were used: the brown-rotters MAD 698 Postiaplacenta, MAD 6137 Tyromyces palustris, MAD617 Gloeophyllum trabeum, and the white-rotterMAD 697 Trametes versicolor. One block of eachtreatment was removed at four weeks and another ateight weeks and was sectioned for light microscopicevaluation of colonization progress. At twelveweeks, the remaining four blocks were ovendriedand weight losses were calculated.
Anatomical observations were broken into twocategories; comparisons among the softwoods andcomparisons among the hardwoods. Four softwoodswere chosen to represent variations in specific andgeneral features. Spruce and red pine both haveaxial and radial resin canals and ray tracheids, butred pine has large fenestriform cross-field pits andspruce has small piceoid cross-field pits. Northenwhite-cedar and western red cedar are softwoodsthat lack resin canals but have taxodioid cross-fieldpits. These pits are smaller than those of red pine,but larger than those of spruce. Furthermore,northern white-cedar is known to have adifferentiated torus in the circular bordered pits,whereas western red cedar lacks a well-differentiated torus.
The hardwoods were chosen because they arediffuse-porous woods with similarly sized vesselsand little axial parenchyma. Birch has scalariformperforation plates while poplar has simple plates,but the spaces between bars are ample for hyphae topass through with ease. The major differencesbetween these woods are in the nature of the pitting;birch has minute intervessel and ray-vessel pitswhereas poplar has large intervessel pits and large,simple ray-vessel pits.
With the exception of Tyromyces palustris, whichcaused an average of 25% weight loss in bothunleached and leached samples, the fungi causedgenerally less than 10% weight loss in unleachedNHA-treated blocks, and roughly 13% weight-lossin leached blocks. The untreated blocks showed anaverage of more than 45% weight loss. By lightmicroscopy, differences in the degree ofcolonization and visible damage to the woodbetween untreated, leached, and unleached blockswere evident at both four weeks and eight weeks.
The anatomical observations indicated that NHA didnot prevent colonization of any of the woods
studied. Despite this failure to prevent colonization,NHA did decrease the weight loss caused by thesedecay fungi.
Current experiments examining the potentialcytotoxic properties of NHA are incomplete, butsuggest that NHA protects wood in part byinhibiting normal cellular processes inbasidiomycete fungi, rather than targeting wooddecay mechanisms as expected. Localizing thepreservative to the pit membranes is nonetheless anelegant delivery system perhaps fungi, whichtypically seek the pits to pass from cell to cell,encounter locally high concentrations of a toxicsubstance and are partially thwarted.
Common Problems of InadequateTreatment of Mixed Species of
Peninsular Malaysian Hardwoods withCopper-Chrome-Arsenic Preservatives
for Structural UseA. H. H. Wong, S.C. Lim, K.H. Henriksen, K.T. Choo, S.
Salamayh, and J. Mohd. DahlanForest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM), Kepong,
52109 Kuala Lumpur, MalaysiaTel: +60-3-6342633, FAX: +60-3-6367753, Email:
Industrial timber preservation has had a long historyof development in Malaysia, virtually from the timewhen the nation's sawmill industry developed fromabout the beginning of the twentieth century. Woodpreservation research in Malaysia began in 1918with research activities focusing treatment ofMalaysian hardwoods of quality strength andpermeability with oily creosote for use as railway-sleepers and in ground-contact. Performance of suchwood products was gauged from numerous wooddurability field trials conducted by The ForestResearch Institute Malaysia (FRIM) particularlythrough the 1930's and 1950's. From these trialscommercial hardwoods of high strength group andpermeability with preservatives were identified apartfrom the durable woods, and many of these woodsare members of the Dipterocarp species. >From the1960's the water-borne Copper-Chrome-Arsenic(CCA) gradually replaced creosote for botheconomical and environmental reasons, with theintroduction of the Bethell process in the country.Through much of the 1980's and 1990's, shortfall inquantities of commercial logs has led to the widertreatment of lesser used species convenientlygrouped as the mixed hardwoods with a mixed ofdense and light material and preservativepermeability. The wider use of competing materialsmade of concrete and galvanized irons from the late1980's have replaced treated wood for ground-contact applications. Currently practically all CCA
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treated hardwoods in Peninsular Malaysia are usedin the building industry for roof and ceilingconstruction (roof rafters, purlins and battens), andessentially for above-ground contact.
Occurrences of inadequate treatment of such woodproducts with CCA in the building industry are notrecent, being a major factor prompting thepreference for alternative construction materials forground-contact use since the 1980's. Due tochanging availability of wood resources, anincreased utilization of lesser used mixedhardwoods with a dearth of research on their woodproperties and inadequate appreciation of correctindustrial wood treatment or pre-treatmentconditions, are among the common problems in theproduction of quality CCA treated wood.
Inadequate treatment of hardwoods with CCA isalso attributed to the lack of a regulated woodtreatment industry, despite the existence of officialnational standards on wood preservation inMalaysia. Inadequacies of certain specifications ofCCA treated wood in these national standards andbuilding by-laws also need to be redressed.. Theinevitable abuses of preservative treatment withCCA, in the midst of a price- (versus quality-)competitive domestic market for CCA treatedproducts has prompted action for improvement inwood treatment. This paper highlights the widerange of mixed species Malaysian hardwoods usedin the building industry and their relativepermeability to CCA preservatives, wood durabilityor strength groupings, examples of poor pre-treatment timber conditions, adoption of inadequateBethell process treatment schedules, and examplesof inadequate preservative penetration and retentionversus that for for well treated mixed hardwoods. Asummary outline of a national quality controlsystem for CCA treated Malaysian hardwoods isproposed to overcome production of CCA treatedwood which does not meet the required preservativeretention for protection against a termite and decayhazard in the country.
5.04.00 Wood processing into the nextmil lenium (I)
Control of quality of sawn wood in thestate of Paraná, Brazil
Martha Andreia Brand, Danièlle Previdi OlandoskiUniversidade Federal do Paraná - FUPEF - Rua Bom
Jesus, 650 - Juvevê - 80.035-010 - Curitiba - PR - BrazilTel: (5541) 352.2443, Fax: (5541) 253.2332; E-mail:
Palabra clave: Calidad de madera asserada, Paraná,Brasil.
Las ventajes del control de calidad en el sectormaderero son obvias, pero en Brasil el es solamentepraticado en las maderas aserradas destinadas paraexportación. Asi es que se percibe la necesidad derealizar trabajos de investigación con el objetivo delcontrol de calidad en la industria maderera engeneral, y principalmente en aserraderos, donde elproblema es mayor, con un gran desperdicio dematéria prima y generando mayores costos deproducción.
El trabajo desarrollado en el Centro de EstacionesExperimentales de Cangüiri, de la UniversidadFederal de Paraná, localizadado en la regiónmetropolitana de Curitiba, Paraná, tuvo comoobjetivo principal la determinación de calidad de lamadera aserrada de 60 rollizos de Pinus spp, por elmétodo de clasificación por defectos.
Los rollizos fueron clasificadas en 6 clases segun lalongitud y la distribuición diamétrica, con 10rollizos en cada clase. Estos rollizos fuerónaserrados en sierra sinfin ancha para retirar loscostaneros, sierra circular para retirar recortes ysierra circular pendular para despuntes. Fuerealizada la clasificación visual cualitatiba de lastablas, antes de secar, con base en las normas TB397, NB 1381, PB 1560, CB 205 e EB 2169,elaboradas por la ABNT (Asociación Brasileña deNormas Técnicas) para clasificación de maderaaserrada de coníferas provenientes de rreforestaciónpara uso general, adecuadas por las investigadoras.
La calidad de las tablas fue evaluada segun 4 clases:en la 1a clase ausencia de bolsas de resina y médulay el número y gravedad de los defectos deberia sermenor en relación a las clases posteriores. En la 2a
clase podria presentar médula en menos de la mitaddel espesor y menos de 1/3 de la longitud de latabla, diferencia entre una extrenidad y otra de latabla en espesor deberia estar entre 0,2 cm e 0,5 cmy la diferencia de ancha entre las extrenidades de latablas entre 0,2 cm y 0,5 cm. La 3a clase fuedividida en dos sub-clases A y B, siendo que na sub-
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clase 3A a diferença de espessura y largura entreuma extremidade y otra da tablas deveria ser mayorque 0,5 cm, con corteza ocupando menos de ¼ dolongitud de un o ambos lados de la tablas. La sub-clase 3B deberia tener las mismas especificacionesde la sub-clase A, pero con corteza ocupando masde ¼ de la longitud de un o ambos lados de lastablas.
Después de la clasificación, el nível de calidad fueatravés de la observación del mayor número detablas en determinada clase. Do total de 193 tablasanalizadas, 38 tablas pertenecierón a la 1º clase(19,69% del total), 26 a la 2º (13,47%), 105 a la 3ºA(54,40%) y 24 a la 3ºB (12,44%).
La evaluación de los resultados mostró claramentala falta de calidad de la matéria-prima y del procesode aserrado convencional en aserrraderos depequeño porte, pues mas de 50% de las tablasfueron clasificadas como de 3a clase. La inferioridadde calidad puede ser atribuída a los equipamientos ya las técnicas utilizados, además del pocoentrenamiento de los operadores.
Se sugiere la utilización de equipamientos y técnicasmas modernas, uso de sierras com dientes menosgruesos y equipamientos com menores desvios decorte, realización de manutención preventiba yadecuada de los equipamientos de las sierras,aserrado de los rollizos con mayores diámetros ylongitudes, siendo estos de mejor calidad.
Workplace improvement program for thefurniture industry in Malaysia
K. S. HoFRIM, Kepong, 52109 Kuala Lumpur, MalaysiaTel: 603-6342633, FAX: 603-6367753, Email:
The furniture industry in Malaysia has played animportant role in the country's economic growth.The growth in furniture export is very impressivefrom RM 171 million in 1989 to over RM 2.8billion in 1997. There are over 2000 furnituremanufacturers in Malaysia, of which over 200manufacturers are engaged in the export of furnitureand the remaining are small- and medium- sizedenterprises. Being small- and medium- sizedentrepreneurs, they are very busy looking afterproblems of finance, production and marketinggiving them very little time to spare for improvingenvironment of workplace, operational safety andefficiency, motivation and efficiency of workers andtheir welfare.
A project entitled "Environmental improvements inthe wood processing industry" had been funded byDanish Cooperation for Environment and
Development (DANCED) and executed by ForestResearch Institute Malaysia (FRIM) since October1996 and ended on October 1998. Under the projectthere were three main activities viz. 1) cleantechnology, 2) waste management, and 3)occupational health and safety. It was under thethird activity that a workplace improvementprogram was adopted and introduced to two groupsof furniture companies in assisting them to identityand implement areas of possible improvements. Theprogram is based on the Workplace Improvementsin Small Enterprises (WISE) methodologydeveloped by the International Labour Office. Itaims to demonstrate to entrepreneurs and workersthat better working conditions can result in higherproductivity and improvements in quality of work.For example, simple measures such as the regularcleaning of the work area and machines, improvedlighting or proper storage of materials, can reducework hazards while upgrading efficiency. Welldesigned equipment and organisationalimprovements can increase the efficiency,motivation and capability of employees, whilereducing fatigue, strain, absenteeism, and labourturnover.
Activities in the program are oriented in accordingwith the concept of learning by doing and theparticipation of participants are greatly encouragedthrough trained facilitators. These activities areoutlined and described in this paper. These includevisiting participating companies by the programfacilitators, workshops to present technical subjectsand ideas, and two intermediate periods forpreparing action plans and implementing proposedimprovements. All these activities were spannedover a period of one month. Follow-up workshopswere carried out in 5 - 6 months' time after thecompletion of the above activities as a mean tomonitor the progress of the participants in relation tothe implementation of improvements and to provideany technical assistance as needed.
Achievements of the program were highlightedbased on the results from the two groups ofcompanies. These are supported with statistics onthe planned improvements and also on theimprovements that were fully implemented.Examples of improvements are selected to illustratethe situations before and after implementation.These cover areas on material storage and handling,work station design, lighting, productive machinesafety, control of hazardous substances, welfarefacilities, work organization, ventilation andpremises. A reasonable balance between theproductivity and occupational health and safety sideof the implemented and the planned improvementscan be seen from the results of the WISE program.
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CT-scanning during dryingTom Morén, Pär Wiberg
Luleå University of Technology, SE-931 87 Skellefteå,Sweden
Tel: +46 910 585300, FAX: +46 910 58 53 99, Email:[email protected]
Wood drying has been studied for several years on amore fundamental level, as well as in more appliedprojects often in co-operation with the woodworking industries. in such projects the objectivehas often been either to develop fundamentalmathematical models for the moisture migrationwithin the wood during drying, or on an appliedlevel, to optimise and construct drying schedules fordifferent wood species and plank dimensions.
A serious drawback in such cases is often the lack ofreliable experimental techniques for verifyingmoisture migration models by in situ measurementsof the moisture redistribution. Such techniquesshould ideally be non-destructive in order not todisturb the drying process. The development ofmedical CT-scanning technology has made itpossible to make high-resolution X-ray imageswhere the X-ray attenuation is converted to adensity image by image processing of for instance across section of wet wood, or even more interesting,wet wood during drying.
Green wood contains a lot of water; often the weightof the water is more than the weight of the dry woodsubstance. Most of this water is capillary bound inthe sap wood portions of a plank, whileapproximately 30% of the moisture content is boundin the cell walls by hydrogen bonding. The moisturemigration mechanisms are quite different for thesephases: The bound water moves mainly with thevapour partial pressure acting as the major drivingforce, while the capillary water migrates frominterior to the surface driven by capillary forces.
If free water is present in the sapwood, the densitywill be affected in a significant way. This factmakes it possible to use CT-scanning fordetermining the decrease of density caused by forinstance air circulation or micro-wave drying of apiece of wood. The X-ray attenuation values arethen transformed into density levels, which in turncan be visualised by adopting image processingwhich correlates colours to density levels.
Using such CT-scanning technique during dryingexperiments of green wood, we have been able toshow some significant phenomenon that are ofmajor interest for modelling moisture transport insap wood as well as to reaching a phenomenologicalunderstanding of the process. Also, the formation of
surface checking and cell collapse can be studiedsimultaneously.
The conclusions for soft wood of pine and spruceare- A receding evaporating front develops in green sapwood creating a thin dry shell between the surfaceand the evaporating front- The resistance to water flux within green sap woodis little as long as there is capillary contact in thewet portion of the wood- The heat- and mass transfer flux between theambient air and the evaporating front controls thedrying rate during the capillary regime of drying- Since heat- and mass transfer controls the dryingprocess in the capillary regime, industrial kiln dryerscan be constructed for much higher power inputthan what is normally the case today. The dryingtime can thus be dramatically shortened for sapwood planks without causing damage to the wood.
Sawing characteristics and mechanicalstrength properties of branchwood of
Aningeria robusta and Terminaliaivorensis
Reynolds Okai, Abubakar I. MohammedForestry Research Institute of Ghana, University P. O.
Box 63, Kumasi, GhanaTel: 233-51-60123, FAX: 233-51-60121, Email:
Keywords: Branchwood; Sawing characteristics;Lumber yield; Specific gravity; Strength properties
In Ghana, it is estimated that for every tree felled,nearly 50% of the tree volume are left in the forestin the form of branches and stumps. To ensure thattimber harvest can be sustained into the future, thereis the need to utilise a greater proportion of the totaltree volume. in this regard, sawing characteristicsand mechanical strength properties of branchwoodof Aningeria robusta and Terminalia ivorensis weredetermined to clarify the suitability of branchwoodas raw material for downstream processing at thewood industries. Sawing tests were then conductedon branchwood of Aningeria robusta andTerminalia ivorensis. The log length was 2 m and itsdiameter ranges from 10 cm to 25 cm. The machineused for the log breakdown is a horizontal mobilebandmill. The saw blade (spring set) had thefollowing dimensions: tooth pitch 22 mm, width 30mm, kerf 1.6 mm, gullet depth 5 mm. The logs weregrouped into four diameter classes and sawn intoboards of dimensions 25 mm ? 75 mm using liveand cant sawing patterns. The surfaces of the sawnlumber were examined for woolly or fuzzy grain,knot, pinworm holes and washboards. They werethen graded into first and second grade boards. It
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was observed that washboards were induced onsome of the boards from Terminalia ivorensis.There was absence of woolly or fuzzy grain on allthe boards from Aningeria robusta and Terminaliaivorensis. The mean lumber value yields for firstgrade boards from Aningeria robusta andTerminalia ivorensis were 25% and 20%respectively, and the mean lumber volume yield was40% for Aningeria robusta and 32% for Terminaliaivorensis. Within each diameter class there were nosignificant differences in lumber yield between liveand cant sawing patterns. However, significantdifferences in lumber yield exist between some ofthe diameter classes.
The bending strength, modulus of elasticity,compressive strength, tensile strength and shearstrength of small clear test specimens of standarddimensions from branchwood of Aningeria robustaand Terminalia ivorensis were determined. inaddition, the moisture contents and nominal specificgravity were also determined. The results of thisstudy indicate that branchwood of Aningeriarobusta and Terminalia ivorensis were morehygroscopic, that is, their green moisture contentsbased on the oven dry weight were higher than thatof their corresponding stemwood. It was observedthat the moisture content has an influence on thestrength properties. in particular, as the moisturecontent increased, the strength properties decreasedand above the fibre saturation point the strengthproperties of branchwood did not further decreasebut remained constant. It was also observed that thenominal specific gravity of branchwood was higherthan the nominal specific gravity of thecorresponding stemwood. The specific gravity ofthe heartwood from a branchwood was higher thanthe specific gravity of the sapwood whereas forstemwood the reverse occurred, that is, the specificgravity of the sapwood was higher than the specificgravity of the heartwood. Statistically, there were nosignificant differences between specific gravity ofbranchwood and stemwood. This indicates that thebranches used for the study are not reaction wood ortension wood. The strength properties of thebranchwood were slightly less than the strengthproperties of the corresponding stemwood. Withinspecies, there were no significant differencesbetween strength properties of branchwood andstemwood. However, there were significantdifferences in strength properties between species.Branchwood of Aningeria robusta exhibited thehighest strength properties. Judging from the resultsobtained for lumber yield and strength properties, itis satisfactory to use branchwood of Aningeriarobusta and Terminalia ivorensis as raw material fordownstream processing.
Plasma and corona treatments of wood:modification of surface properties
Laurence Podgorski, F. Schambourg, Bruno Chevet,Ludivine Onic, Andre Merlin
CTBA Technical Center for Wood and Furniture, All‚ede Boutaut BP 227, 33028 Bordeaux Cedex, France
FAX: +33.556436486, Email:[email protected]
The durability of an outdoor wood-coating system islow, especially when the coating is a stain. The mostimportant degradations come from the dimensionalvariations of wood which strain the coating and leadto its cracking. Thus the service life of a woodcoating system can be increased through differentroutes:
- improvement of the coating flexibility: it can beobtained by decreasing the glass transitiontemperature (Tg) below the temperature of use. Butin this case the coating is more sensitive to water.
-dimensional stabilization of wood: thermal andchemical treatments (acetylation) are efficient butmost of them decrease the wettability of the woodsurface and therefore the adhesion of the coating isno more guarantee Surface treatments areconvenient either to improve wettability andtherefore coating adhesion or to decrease wettabilityin order to provide an extra protection.
That is why plasma and corona treatments havebeen applied to wood in two ways:
-the first one consists in improving the wettability ofwood surface to increase the coating adhesionespecially after a thermal treatment. Firstexperiments consisted in selecting treatmentparameters (type of gas, treatment duration, power)leading to better surface characteristics of wood,before and after thermal treatments. Plasma andcorona treatments are effective to improve thewettabilty of wood but no improvement of thecoating adhesion has been observed.
-the second one consists in decreasing thewettability so that the surface becomes waterproof.Some tests have been performed to deposit thinfilms (based on ethylene or flourine) by plasma orcorona treatments. This kind of deposits can beconsidered either on bare wood or on coated woodwith a low Tg stain, that is to say a stain whosesensitivity against water will be solved thanks to thiskind of films. This is the aim of an on-goingresearch programme.
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New Opportunities in Forestry for theWoodworking Industry in the Russian
FederationIrina Rykunina
Moscow State University of Forest, Institutskaya-1,141005 Mytischi, Russia
Tel: +7 095 588 52 21, FAX: +7 095 586 80 12; 7 095586 91 34, Email: [email protected]
Since financing for forest operations is presentlylimited and only 25 percent of the allowable cut isharvested, forestry in the Russian Federation shouldbe more oriented to demands from industry. Morethan half of the timber harvested in Russia isdirected to saw mills. Large-scale saw millsprofitably produce chips, but the chip production atsmall saw mills is not always profitable.Possibilities to increase the chip production are notrealistic in the near future because of largeinvestments needed for the further stages of theproduction process. So the main customers fortimber from the forests are saw mills andwoodworking enterprises. The number of small sawmills (which produce less than 10 thousand cubicmeters of lumber per year) is increasing.For these smaller mills, it is critical that the qualityof raw materials should be strictly determined. Thepresent study was conducted to find someopportunities for the Russian forestry andwoodworking industry to work more efficientlyunder current economic conditions.
Information was obtained from interviews withmanagers of saw mills, woodworking and forestryenterprises. For one woodworking enterprise, ananalysis for profit maximization was done with thehelp of linear programming methods.
Presently, the importance of wood quality by sawmills and woodworking enterprises has not beenstressed. Many forest management approaches,which originated under the old centrally plannedsystem, can produce obstacles for development inthe new economic environment. If an enterprisedoes not take into consideration the features of thepresent economic system, the enterprise can loseconsiderable money. There are also some loggingtechnology features which are not favorable forwood quality identification. But on the other handmore and more managers of saw mills andwoodworking enterprises have begun to realize thatwood quality could be a key factor in making aprofit. in the centrally planned economy, forestrywas oriented to volume of material and notnecessarily to wood quality.
Most timber is harvested in natural forest stands,where wood quality characteristics are more variedin comparison to planted stands. The level of woodquality on a volume basis can be determined bythree different quality characteristics: knot-freetimber, timber with sound knots, and timber withunsound knot. These quality characteristics are nottaken into consideration in the present inventorysystem. New methods are needed to evaluate timberquality to meet the specific needs of the saw mill.
Keywords: quality, forest inventory, sawmills,economics
5.04.00 Wood processing into the nextmil lennium. II
Performance of Coated Carbide Tools inCutting Wood-Based Materials (The
Effect of Coating Materials and CuttingSpeeds on the Wear, Noise and ForcesCharacteristics of the Coated Carbide
Tools)Wayan Darmawan, Chiaki Tanaka, Hiroshi Usuki,
Tadashi Ohtani, Kiminori SatoShimane University, Department of Natural Resources,Nishikawatsu 1060, 690-8504 Matsue, Shimane, JapanTel: +81-852-32-6562, FAX: +81-852-32-6598, Email:
Keywords: coated carbide tool; tool wear; cuttingspeed; turning; wood-chip cement board
Introduction
Machining wood-based materials such asparticleboard or wood-chip cement board causescutting tools to wear out much faster than machiningsolid wood. Rapid dulling of cutting edge of steelrouter bit, saw teeth, or other cutting tolls whenmachining particleboard is well-known occurrence.Furthermore, the use of tungsten carbide tool, whichis widely used in the wood working industry forcutting particleboard is also limited because ofrelatively high rate of wear. An effort of coating thesurfaces of the carbide tool with a hard coatingmaterial has been already developed in order toincrease the wear resistance of carbide tool.
Experimental procedure
This paper presents the performance of coatedcarbide tools when turning wood-chip cementboard. Coating materials studied were titanium,carbonitride (TiCN), titanium nitride (TiN),chromium nitride (CrN), and titaniumaluminumnitride (TiAIN), which were synthesizedon the P30 carbide substrate. Cutting tests were
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perforrmed in turning at cutting speed of 30, 40, 50,and 60m/s and feed of 0.05mm/rev.
Results and discussion
The results of the study that the coated carbide toolprovides better performance especially in reducingthe progression of tool wear and in retaining lowercutting forces and noise level compared to theuncoated P30 carbide tool at every cutting speedperformed. The TiAIN coated carbide tool could bethe best in retaining a gradual increase in thesevalues with an increase in cutting speed.Furthermore, the results in Table 1 will suggest thatthe TiAIN coated carbide tool will provide widerranges of cutting speed in its application. TheTiCNcoated carbide tool was the lowest both in amountof wear and rate of wear cutting speed of 30 m/s,however these values after cutting speed of 50 m/sincrease drastically and matched with those of theCrN and TiN coated carbide tools investigated.Therefore, the TiCN coated carbide tool would besuitable to be used only for low cutting speed, byconsidering that the TiCN coated carbide tool retainhardness at the low cutting speed due to the cuttingtool temperature (435°C) fell under its limitoxidation temperature (435°C).
Table 1. The amount of clearance wear (µm) at finallength (5 km), the rate of wear of the toolsinvestigated and cutting temperature during cuttingat four different cutting speedsTools Cutting speed (m/S)
30 40 50 60Uncoated P30 carbide 125 247 289 399
(39.0) (118.0) (167.9) (276.5)CrN coated carbide 112 228 283 335
(37.3) (112.9) (159.8) (241.5)TiN coated carbide 90 169 278 324
(35.0) (76.6) (163.3) (242.7)TiCN coated carbide 76 139 270 343
(24.2) (61.6) (164.5) (276.1)titian coated carbide 78 83 104 110
(25.7) (33.4) (47.4) (52.2)Cutting temperature(°C) 435 630 800 1010
Values in the brackets determine the rate of wear.
Both the cutting forces and noise level of the toolsinvestigated increase with an increase in cuttingspeed, and could show the same behavior during theprogression of the tool wear. High cutting forcesgenerated during turning with high cutting speed areprobably causes by more wear attained by the toolsfor the high speed turning. Then, the high noiselevel for the high cutting speed is probably due tohigh impact force to be imposed on the cutting tools.
An overview of the light organic solventpreservative (LOSP) treating of radiata
pine: Modelling of solvent loss, residualsolvent composition, and paint
adhesionBernard Dawson, H. Kroese
Forest Research, Private Bag 3020, Rotorua, NewZealand
Email: [email protected]
Radiata pine boards were treated with a lightorganic solvent preservative solution, placed in arandomised manner in a timber stack of five layersand the residual solvent loadings in the boards weremonitored over time by measuring weight change.An exponential model was fitted to the residualsolvent loading data, expressed as a percent of theinitial solvent loading, to allow calculation ofsolvent loading, at any position in the timber stackat any time, over the 108 day trial period. Theexponential model was linearised by a natural logtransformation in order to estimate parameters of theinvolved variables in the model, i.e. time and the x,y and z positions of each board in the timber stack.A stepwise multiple regression procedure was usedto select the significant variables in the model. Thecoefficient of determination (r2) for the fit of themodel to the data was 0.88.
Solvent uptake, rates of solvent evaporation andconsequent change in the composition of theresidual solvent in another set of LOSP treated pineboards were examined. The variability in LOSPuptakes in timber was large and was attributable tothe natural heterogeneity of timber.
There was a measurable difference in residualsolvent composition in samples taken from thecentre and from the outside of treated boards. Thesolvent composition of samples taken from theboards at various stages of ventilation shows, asexpected, a relative increase in the concentration ofthe higher boiling alkylbenzene components.
The control of residual LOSP solvent contentappears to be the single most important factoraffecting paint adhesion on radiata pine wood andits impact is seen strongly with a paint systemcombining oil-based and water-based paint layers.Results show the average residual LOSP solventafter ventilation was 51 % of initial uptake at 13days, 36 % (22 days), 23 % (41 days) and 18 % (92days). Blocking (sticking together of paint surfaces)was high for the acrylic primer and low for the oil-based primer. Acrylic layers dried rapidly throughwater evaporation while oil-based paint layers curedslowly through solvent evaporation and paint resinoxidation. Adhesion failure was highest where
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acrylic undercoats or topcoats were applied over anoil-based primer/undercoat when the initial LOSPsolvent uptake was 30 L/m3 or higher. Adhesionfailure, while decreasing 92 days after painting, wasstill significant.
High-Temperature Drying of BlackSpruce for Value-Added ProductsGordon Duplain, Yves Fortin, Pierre Laforest
Université Laval, Departement des sciences du bois et dela Forêt, G1K 7P4 Québec, Canada
FAX: (418) 656-3177, Email: [email protected]
High-temperature (HT) drying in eastern Canadahas been so far mainly applied to softwood lumberused in construction. The lumber is thus dried to anaverage final moisture content (MC) of about 15%with an allowable fairly large variation in the MCbetween boards. The export markets for dimensionlumber becoming more and more competitive, andbecause of the imposed quotas on Canadiansoftwood dimension lumber exported to the US, thelumber industry in eastern Canada is looking forways to diversify its production. The remanufactureof lumber into value-added products such as doors,furniture and windows appears to be a veryattractive alternative. A great proportion of thedimension lumber manufactured in eastern Canadacomes from high-temperature kiln dried blackspruce (Picea mariana Mill.) B.S.P. This species isin general fairly easy to dry although its tends toshow severe warp when being dried at MC's below10%.
The ultimate goal of this project was to develop aHT drying strategy for black spruce lumber withrespect to the production of value-added productsdried at low moisture contents. The specificobjectives were to develop: 1) a HT drying strategythat leads to a final MC of 10% with 90% of theboards between 8 and 12%; 2) a HT drying strategythat minimizes warp and check formation; and 3) aHT drying strategy that minimizes residual stressesand final MC gradients.
Dimension stock of 2.4 m in length and 42 mm x 69mm in cross-section (2x3) was kiln dried using twodifferent drying schedules and two levels of top-load restraint. Eight matched batches of 182 studseach were dried in a 2.5 m3 capacity HT steam-heated laboratory kiln. All the requiredmeasurements were taken before drying (width,thickness, weight, twist, bow and crook). The samemeasurements were repeated after drying and thefinal MC was measured in two locations of eachstud with a resistance-type moisture meter. Warpwas assessed after planing the lumber to a final sizeof 38 x 64 mm. A sample of 25 studs was resawn
across the thickness and another one across thewidth into two identical pieces which weremeasured for warp again. Internal checking wasassessed from the resawn face of each of thesepieces. Profiles of residual stresses across thethickness were also determined on some of thestuds. The results showed that high quality productscan be obtained from black spruce dried at lowmoisture contents by the high-temperature dryingprocess. The drying strategy has, however, to beadapted accordingly and the drying time increasedsubstantially. Presteaming and top-load restraintwere shown to be effective ways of controlling warpin both the raw product and the resawn lumber,although a good proportion of the pieces withdiagonal grain or spiral grain were affected byinternal checking.
Measurement of Internal Features inLogs
Anders Grönlund, Stig GrundbergLulea University of Technology, Skelleftea Campus,
Skeria 3, S-931 87 Skelleftea , SwedenTel: +46 910 585307, FAX: +46 910 585399, Email:
Today many sawmills strive for an increasingamount of customer adapted products. in a customeradapted production it is crucial to be able to selectthe right logs for a certain product, i.e. we must beable to predict the properties of the sawn productsbefore the actual sawing operation.
There are several systems used in sawmills for thescanning and automatic grading of logs. Thesesystems use either optical scanners or gamma-rayscanners. The optical scanners used for grading logsmeasure the log diameter every 10 mm along the login two or three directions. From these consecutivediameter values new variables such as taper, butttaper and bumpiness are calculated.
With the aid of these new secondary variables,statistical classification algorithms can bedeveloped. The gamma-ray scanner called Tina isprincipally used in the same way, but Tina is usinggreen density variables together with the outer shapevariables for prediction of the internal log quality.
The log-grading scanners described above have sofar been more or less focused on normal exportgrades for commodity products. in the future it isanticipated that the selection of sawn timber for aspecific customer will be more and more based on aspecific feature or some specific features. in order tobe able to measure specific internal features of logsan industrial X-ray LogScanner has been developed.The measurement performance for this X-ray
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LogScanner has been studied. The objective withthis investigation was to determine if it is possible todevelop accurate models for knot volume, knot type,annual ring width and distance between whorlsusing a LogScanner with two modern industrial X-ray sources. The study was based on simulatedsignals from the LogScanner.
The study shows that when the different modelswere tested against a test set the strongest model hada R2 =0.95 (the distance between whorls for Scotspine) and the weakest model R2 = 0.66 (the annual-ring width for the twenty innermost annual rings onNorway spruce). The results indicate that a two-direction X -ray LogScanner can be a good tool forcontrol of a customer adopted production.
Analysing the Efficiency of NorwegianSawmilling
Anders Qvale Nyrud, Baardsen, S.University of Norway, Department of Forest Sciences,
270199 P.O. Box 5044, N-1432 Aas, NorwayEmail: [email protected]
Norwegian commercial sawmilling consists of about200 units (5 employees or more). Its annualproduction amounts to approximately 2.5 million m3
sawnwood and planed sawnwood, equivalent to agross value of about NOK 5.6 billion ($ 750million). Even though the size of the sawmillsdiffer, production ranging from < 10000 m3 to140000 m3 per year, the output is relativelyhomogenous.
In this paper the efficiency of Norwegiansawmilling will be examined using DataEnvelopment Analysis (DEA). By the means oflinear programming efficient production units areidentified, and, when assuming convexity, anefficient ("best practice") production frontier isfitted. The inefficient units' distances to the frontierare minimized with respect to input saving orproduction expansion regimes. Thus, correspondingefficient peer units are identified, and the relativeefficiency of the units located inside the frontier canbe measured.
The analysis will be carried out on an extensivepanel data set consisting of 3101 individual sawmillobservations over the period 1974-1991. Severalinput and output variables are available - physicalquantities as well as economic measures. The DEAapproach is cross-sectional by nature. Using paneldata adds the dimension of time to the analysis,making it possible to investigate the development ofNorwegian sawmilling (for example technicalchange and production efficiency) throughout theperiod. For this purpose, the Malmquist productivityindex will be used. This index corresponds to the
efficiency measure originally developed by Farell(1957). It distinguishes between technical changeand changes in production efficiency.
Production Structure in the SwedishSawmilling Industry
Anders Roos, Matti Flinkman, Armas Jöppinen, MatsWarensjö
Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Departmentof Forest Management and Products, Post Box # 7054, S-
750 07 Uppsala, SwedenTel: +46 18 671564, FAX: +46 18 673522, Email:
Wood products face market competition from arange of materials, e.g. plastic, concrete, steel. Thesematerials are furthermore constantly being improvedand adapted for different end-users. On the otherhand, wood products have important competitiveadvantages-especially aesthetical and environmentalqualities -- that need to be recognized and betterexploited. One way for the sawmilling industry tomeet the market challenges is to diversify and adaptthe production according to the needs of differentcustomers. This involves for example more dryingto orders, length trimming, stress grading, fingerjointing, surface treatment-and less bulk production.
For the sawmills this approach requires more effortsand investments in training, computers, dryingtechnology, and other equipment to add more valueto the product. in this way a mutually beneficialsituation could be reached, where the customers ofwood products receive a higher grade good andsawmills -- and the whole forest sector -- receivebetter prices for their products.
However, more advanced and specializedproduction can also increase risks as investmentsincrease and niche markets sometimes are rathervolatile. Therefore the production structure andmarket conditions of the sawmilling industry haveto be thoroughly analysed in order to allow theindustry to identify feasible strategies and to findfactors for success. What characterizes, for instance,the technologically advanced sawmill and how dodifferent types of sawmills perform concerningvalue-adding processes? One step in this analysis isto conduct systematic empirical studies of thesawmilling industry.
In this study, production strategies by Swedishsawmills today are described and analysed. Thefocus of the study is on input factor use, innovationand value adding processes. We compare differentcategories of sawmills and describe the mostfrequent ways to organise the production. Plant leveldata from 1995 about the Swedish sawmills is usedin multivariate statistical analyses.
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The results include a description of the generalsituation of the production structure of thesawmilling sector. Relationships between plant size,ownership, productivity, log handling, saw type,value-adding processes, drying, and computer useare investigated. Moreover, different alternativeways to organise a sawmill today, especiallyregarding technology adoption and value addingprocesses, are identified.
The adoption of different value adding processes isfast in the industry. It follows different dimensions,which reflect the technical and the marketorientation of the enterprise. Value added shares ofthe total production depend generally on ownership,location and size of the sawmill.
Still, however, an important share of the sawmillstreats only small quantities of lumber in valueadding processes. Many sawmills apply 'standard'value adding processes based on planing and extradrying to orders. Smaller groups of sawmills have amore specialized production where the lumber istreated for specific uses.
Sawmills are classified in different strategic typesalong the axes: size, value added share and labourproductivity. A number of strategic groups in theSwedish sawmilling industry can be identified. Theimplication of the results for the competitiveness ofthe sawmilling industry will finally be discussed inthe presentation.
5.04.00 / 5 .05.00 Innovations in woodbonding and uti l isat ion of wood residues
Composting of Furniture ManufacturingWoodwastes and Phenolic-bonded
Softwood Plywood SawdustHamid Borazjani, Susan V. Diehl and Harold A. StewartMississippi State University, Forest Products Laboratory,
Box 9820, MS 39762 Mississippi State, USATel: 601-325-2116, FAX: 601-325-8126, Email:
Two six-month outdoor studies were conducted toevaluate different amendments for composting offurniture woodwastes and sawdust from phenolic-bonded plywood. in the first study, furniture wasteswere amended with 5% and 10% horse manure withthe unamended wastes as controls. All treatmentsand controls were replicated three times. Moisturewas provided through precipitation and substrateswere aerated once or twice weekly. Samples werecollected at 30-day intervals and analyzed for pHand toxicity. All treatments showed a significantreduction in dry matter by 180 days. The treatmentscontaining 5% and 10% horse manure showed
nearly twice the weight loss as the controls but therewas no significant difference between 5% and 10%manure treatments. A reduction in toxicity occurredin all treatments and all treatments maintainedneutral pH after 30 days.
In the second study, phenolic-bonded plywoodsoftwood sawdust was amended with 5% chickenmanure, 5% cow manure, 5% horse manure, 3%cotton gin trash, and 500 ppm inorganic fertilizersolution with the unamended sawdust as control,and three replications per treatment. Sampling,watering, and aerating was done as described for thefirst study. All treatments showed a reduction intoxicity and maintained a neutral pH after 30 days.All treatments showed almost double the percentageof weight loss compared to unamended control.
The composted sawdust was also evaluated in agreenhouse study to determine its effect on thegrowth of row crop plants. Twenty-five percent byweight of the composted sawdust was mixed withpotting soil, in which corn, soybean, and cottonseeds were planted. The pots were watered daily andallowed to grow for 55 days. The chicken manuretreatment showed no significant difference in meanweight of the plants when compared to potting soilonly. Other treatments were comparable to chickenmanure, except gin trash, which showedsignificantly less plant weight compared to theothers.
Aspects et tendances concernantl'utilisation des lignosulphonates
techniques dans les adhesifs pourl'industrie du bois
Valeriu Petrovici, Daniela Mihai, Valentin PopaUniversiti Transilvania Brasov, B-ul Eroilor 29, 2200
Brasov, RomaniaEmail: [email protected]
On connait le fait que la lignine technique estobtenue dans la phase industrielle, comme unsousproduit à la désincrustation alcaline ou acide dubois de résineux ou de feuillus et par la hydrolise decelui-ci dans le milieu acide. Jusqu’à présent, lestentatives de créer une industrie pour valorifier lalignine résiduelle ont eu des succès partiels, pour lesproduits obtenables, en employant, en général, desquantités réduites de trois types de ligninestechniques.
On y ajoute aussi certaines difficultés dans latransformation des lignines, liées à uneconnaissance insufisante sur la nature et sa structurechimique complexe, la diversité de ses unitésstructurales, des liées avec les autres composantschimiques du bois et surtout des aspects
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économiques concernant la rentabilité de telsprocédés.
Partant des considérations de ci-dessus et du fait quece produit aromatique naturel qu’on isolé du bois,mais qui d’une facon où d’autre revient dans cemême bois, aurait une compatibilité meilleureenvers les polymers synthétiques, nous avons étudiequelques posibilités de valorisation sous diversesformes des lignines techniques, comme produitschimiques employés dans le secteur del'industrialisation du bois. L'emploi delignosulphonates techniques d'amonium ou ducalcium s'est realisé soit sous forme de poussièresatomisées, soit sous forme de solution ayant desconcentrations variables entre 35-45%.
Dans une prémière catégorie d'expériments ceux-ciont étè employés comme de simples supplémentsdans des adhésifs uréo-formaldéhidiques pour:
la fabrication des panneaux de particules de bois ensubstituant 25% de l'urée technique pour la coucheextérieure ou pour celle de l'intérieure ;
la fabrication des panneaux type sandwich pour lesmeubles, en substituant intégralement la farine deseigle;
le placage des panneaux pour les meubles, ensubstituant intégralement ou en proportion de 50%la clorure d'amonium, 50% de l'urée technique et75% de la farine de seigle.
Dans une autre catégorie d'expériments les mêmeslignosulphonates techniques d'amonium ou decalcium ansi que ceux qu’on à métalliquementcomplexes avec les cations mentionnés ci-dessus ona utilisé comme substituants en proportion de 15, 20et 25% du phénol technique, utilisé à la synthèse dela résine phénol-formaldéhidique classique, enobtenant ainsi deux résines phénoliques modifiées:
résine lignin-phénol-formaldéhidique type P pour lafabrication du contre-plaqué pour d'extérieur;
résine lignin-phénol-formaldéhidique type F pour lafabrication des panneaux de fibres de bois.
En partant du lignosulphonate technique d'amoniumet de calcium par des modifications chimiquesadéquées, on a obtenu aussi deux produits tannantsvégétaux pour la tannerie et le retannage du cuir.
La lignine de hydrolise acide de la cellolignine enbois de chêne a été utilisée aussi comme unsupplément simple à l'adhésif uréo-formaldéhidiquepour la fabrication du contre-plaqué pour l'intérieur,en substituant totalement la farine de seigle.
On remarque le fait que dans toutes ces recherchesexpérimentales, les limites des suppléments de
lignines techniques n'ont pas dépassées 20-25% descomposants substituées.
Les éssais d'augmentation de la proportion delignine au dessus de ces valeurs n'ont plus conduit àdes produits agglomérés ou stratifiés de qualité,ceux-ci présentant des caracteristiques physico-mécaniques inférieures aux éprouvettes témoins.
Pour accroître le degré d'emploi des ligninestechniques, y compris dans le domaine des adhésifspour l'industrie du bois, nous estimons résoudredeux problèmes importants à présent:la réalisation d'une uniformisation du degré depolydispersion;l'augmentation de la réactivité chimique des ligninestechniques.
Dans la réalisation de tels désidérats il fautconjuguer les efforts de tous les chercheursscientifiques qui travaillent dans ce domaine, par laréalisation des programmes communs de travail, deséchanges d'expérience, des publications et, pourquoipas, l'organisation d'une rencontre scientifiqueinternationale dédiée à ce sujet.
Adhesive innovation and production ofNorth American glued-wood and related
productsTerry Sellers
Mississippi State University, Forest Products Laboratory,Forest and Wildlife Research Center, Box 9820, MS
39762 Mississippi State, USATel: +1 (601) 325-3110, FAX: +1 (601) 325-8126, Email:
Based on 1998 estimated m3 data, about 36% of thewood composites in North America were plywoodand laminated veneer lumber products, 29%oriented strand products, 19% particleboards, 6%medium-density fiberboards and 10% a variety ofother glued-wood and fiber products. The expandedarray of glued-wood products has increased demandfor a variety of wood adhesive resins and fosteredadhesive systems with enhanced properties. in 1998in North America, consumption of adhesive resinsolids required to bond the glued-wood and relatedproducts were estimated to be about 1780 kilotonnes(kt). Considering the percentage of glued-woodproducts in North America as a basis, the calculatedresin solids consumed by country were 1370 kt(77%) for the United States of America (U.S.), 374kt for Canada (20%) and 36 kt for Mexico (2%).
In 1998 in North America, particleboards,fiberboards, and decorative and hardwood plywoodswere bonded principally with amino resins (1060kt). The ratio of resin solids consumed by theparticleboard and medium-density fiberboard
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industries was similar to the ratio of production ofthe two products (76:24) since both industries add asimilar amount of resin binder to the respectiveproducts. The vast majority of the amino resins areurea-formaldehyde based, however, METLAmine isadded for some upgrades. METLAmine-formaldehyde resins in North America are primarilyapplied in overlay coating applications for woodproducts. Phenolic additions to amino resins arebeing explored.
In 1998 in North America, the quantity of phenolicresin solids consumed by the wood compositeindustries was 568 kt. The phenolics are primarybinders for oriented strand products, constructionplywood, and laminated veneer lumber. in addition,selective medium-density fiberboards and high-density compressed fiberboards (wet- and dry-process hardboards, including dry-process doorskins) are bonded with phenol-formaldehyde (PF)resins, and other engineered lumber products arebonded with phenol-resorcinol-formaldehydemodified resins.
Over the past 15 years in North America, polymericdiphenyl methylene diisocyanate (PMDI) hasestablished an entry into the glued-wood productsindustry. The consumption of PMDI for theseproducts is estimated to be 90 kt with 90% of thisvolume being applied as binder in oriented strandpanel and lumber products. About 18% of the binderrequirements for oriented strand boards (OSB) areestimated to be PMDI with the balance OSB bindersbeing liquid PF and powder PF resins. PMDI resinshave been shown to be the preferred binder foragrifiber boards (wheat straw furnish, etc.) unlessthe agrifiber has been modified by mild chemicaland steam pretreatment and fiber bundle refining.
Vinyl compounds (50 kt) for gluing wood in NorthAmerica are consumed mostly as assembly glues,but some are utilized as adhesives for hardwoodplywood and hardwood lumber flooring products(flatbed trailer and railway car flooring). The vinylmay be a homopolymer polyvinyl acetate or anupgraded cross-linked vinyl product. The vinylupgrades may be based on phenolic, isocyanate orother thermosetting additions to the emulsionpolymers.
Excellent historical data, including cost, have beenpublished on many wood-based composites forCanada and the U.S. Substantial research anddevelopment on wood adhesives continues in NorthAmerica, including amine, phenolic, polyurethane,vinyl, soya and accelerator modifications.
The Role of Temperature, Humidity andFungus On The Adhesion Failure of
Alkyd Paint On Timber SubstrateAhmad Shakri Mat Seman, P.D. Evans
Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM), Kepong,52109 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Tel: 603-6342633, Email: [email protected]
During natural weathering opaque paint finishes onwood experience surface discolouration, checkingand loss of finish adhesion. These effects arethrough to be due to the action of complexcombinations of weathering factors such asmoisture, heat and micro-organisms. The relativeimportance of each of these factors has not beenwell defined. The controlled laboratory experimentwas then carried out to determine the importance ofeach of these weathering factors in the adhesionfailure of paint on wood.
Painted Kempas (Koompassia malaccensis Maing.Ex Benth.) specimens were exposed to controlledenvironments in which each of the factors,temperature, humidity and fungus exposure, wereheld at pre-determined, fixed levels. Additionalfactors investigated were the effects of artificial pre-weathering of substrate and cutting of the paintfinish. The ultraviolet light factor was not taken intoconsideration.
Results showed that a relative humidity had themost deleterious effect on paint adhesion, followedby the presence of the stain fungus. Loss of paintadhesion was further increased when pre-weatheredspecimens were exposed to a high relative humidity.The presence of a cut on painted wood surfacesincreased the deleterious effect of the blue stainfungus on adhesion presumably because it allowedthe fungus greater access to the underlying wood.
Application of Industrial Wood Waste forthe Development of Multipurposes Glue
Galia ShulgaState Institute of Wood Chemistry, 27 Dzerbenes St., LV
1006 Riga, LatviaTel: +371 7 553063, FAX: +371 7 310135, Email:
It is known that environmental restrictions putsulfite pulps mills that produce industrial recoveringlignin - lignosulfonates (LS), a large-scale woodwaste, out of business. At the same time, a chemicalmodification of LS offers the great opportunities toproduce novel polymer products on their basis. insuch a way, environmental demands, economicreality and a high efficiency of the biomassconversation might be involved into producing of
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the multipurpose, environmentally friendly and highquality polymer products.
In this work, we would like to show how it ispossible effectively modificate lignosulfonates andwhat the real applications of the polymer productsformed are. Synthesis of lignin-based interpolymercomplexes (LIC) is based on the interaction betweenthe oxidized lignins and the water-soluble polymersor oligomers (Shulga et al. 1997). LIC obtainingproceeds, as a rule, in water media at roomtemperature, normal pressure, and without using ofany catalysts. These polymer products exist both inwater-containing solvents and a solid state. Themain reason of LIC structure stability to the actionof different outward factors ( pH, elevatedtemperature, UV-radiation) is conditioned by acooperative system of the macromolecules couplingthat has entropy nature. The nature of linkingbetween LS and synthetic polymer/olygomer can bedifferent: ionic, donor-acceptor, covalent etc.
The established relationships and mechanisms ofinterpolymer reactions as well as the nature of theinteraction with different interfaces have allowed todeveloped the new glues on the LIC basis withcontrolled adhesive properties.
LIC-based glues are able to substitute almost 45-55% of UF-resin in the fibres composite materials(Shulga et al .1990). Besides that, it is no anynecessity in additional power consumption for theirproducing at an increased lignin-based glue content.The advantages of the composite materials obtainingare as follows: using of the significantly lowertemperature for pressing and drying, no necessity ofany curing agent. There are some advantages of thecomposite materials themselves in comparison withones obtained with UF-resin such as a highermechanical strength, a higher hydrophobicity, asignificant lower evaluation of formaldehyde duringthe manufacture and in use as well as a lower cost.
LIC-based glues may be applied as ecologicallyfriendly soil conditioners with pronouncedstructure-forming and adsorbing properties on sandysoils (Shulga et al. 1998). For their obtaining, theformation of LIC proceeds in the presence of saltsof multivalent metals. It allows to approximate LIC-based conditioners to the structure and theproperties of soil organic-mineral formations.
The soil structure obtained by LIC application hasthe important influence upon water-holdingcapacity, water transport, aeration and heat transferin soils, and indirectly improves the conditions ofthe vitality of plants and microorganisms. Owing tostructural peculiarities, LIC-based conditioners arecapable of cementing the particles of sandy soil and
forming a composite polymer-sand coatings, whichare able to withstand wind and water erosion andprevent blowing off a fertile layer. Field tests haveshown that composite coatings formed reduce theevaporation of moisture from the soil, but at thesame time, do not prevent water and air transfer intothe soil. Perennial grass seeds germinate easilythrough composite coatings, forming the turf of agood quality with a thick-branched root system.
References:
Shulga,G., Telysheva, G., Soms, A., et al., 1990.Lignosulfonate-based compositions as chemicaladmixtures in manufacture of building materials.Proc.Int.Scient.Conf. "Application of chemicaladmixtures in manufacture of cellulose, paper,timber and building boards from wood fibres,Bulgaria, Sofia, pp.30-31.
Shulga, G., Telysheva, G., Zezin, A., 1997. Specificfeatures of the interpolymer interaction betweensodium lignosulfonate and polyacrylic acid inaqueous solutions. Polymer Science, vol.39A,no.10, pp.1130-1134.
Shulga,G., Rekners F., Varslavans, J., 1998.Environmentally friendly lignin-based adhesives forreinforcement of drainage channel slopes. Proc. 8thInt.Scient.Conf. on Agricultural Engineering,Norway, Oslo, pp.989-990.
An environmental friendly compositemade from hydrated lime, pozzolanicmaterial, spent carbon dioxide and
reinforced with recycled cellulose fibersMaruli H. Simatupang
Universiti Sains Malaysia, School of IndustrialTechnology, Division of Wood, Pulp/Paper and Coating
Technology, 11800 Penang, MalaysiaFAX: 60 4 65 65 326, Email: [email protected]
The reasons why asbestos fibers reinforced cementcomposites are still used in many developing andless industrialized countries are briefly elaborated. Anew kind of cellulose reinforced laboratory boardwas developed as possible alternative for non-compressed asbestos cement panels. Pinus radiatakraft cellulose (PKF), recycled newspaper (RNF) oroil palm trunk soda fibers (OPF) were used asreinforcement. The binder consist of slaked lime andground rice husk ask (RHA) or pulverized-fuel ash(PFA), also designated as fly ash. The web wasformed by mixing the reinforcement and the bindermixture with water and dewatering the slurry. It wasthen compacted by vacuum and pressure. The stillsoft board was placed in a pressure vessel.Pressurized carbon dioxide was introduced aftervacuum treatment. The gas reacted with slaked lime
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to form calcium carbonate, which gave the panel itsearly strength properties. If the carbonated panel iscured in a moist cubicle for 14-28 days theuncarbonated slaked lime reacts with RHA or PFAto form calcium silicate hydrate. This bindercontributed significantly to the ultimate strengthproperties and improved the moisture resistance anddimensional stability. The parameters influencingcarbonation were examined. It was feasible to use amixed gas with 15% carbon dioxide content. Suchcarbon dioxide enriched gases are emitted fromthermal power stations fired with coal or liquid fuel,at calcination of lime stone or magnesite and in thefermentation industry. Carbon dioxide is one of themain green-house gases. in the new process this gasis recycled. The technological properties of thenovel board are compared with those of asbestos-free commercial panels.
Utilization of residues at sawmills,plywood mills, and precut factories in
JapanTsutomu Takano, Kohji Murata, and Katsumi Nishimura
Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute, P. O.Box 16 Tsukuba Norin Kenkyu Danchi, 305-8687
Tsukuba, JapanFAX: +81-298-73-3798, Email: [email protected]
Japanese total timber consumption was 110 millioncubic meters in 1997. of total timber are 44 % forsawn lumber, 40 % for pulp and papers, 14 % forplywood. We investigated how many residues wereremained and how the residues were utilized atsawmills, plywood mills, and precut factories. of theresidues at the sawmills, 10 % was bark, 20 % wasslab, and 14 % was sawdust. The bark is utilized asfuel, livestock bedding, and fertilizer. The slab isutilized for manufacturing pulp chip. The sawdust isutilized as fuel, livestock bedding, fertilizer, andculture ground of mushrooms. Less than 10 % of theresidues at the sawmills was thrown away or throwninto fire.
Plywood recovery was 64 %, and main kind ofresidues at plywood mill was green veneers (25 %),dry veneers (24 %), cores (16 %), and plywoodedges (13 %). 76 % of the residues was used asboiler fuel for veneer drier and hot?press, and 20 %of the residues was reused as wood chips for particleboard, MDF, fiber board, or fuel. Only 1.5 % of theresidues, which contained 95 % of bark was thrownaway or thrown into fire. Precut means machiningof timber joints of building members for Japanesetraditional wooden houses (post and beamconstruction) at a factory (precut factory) instead ofhand cutting by a carpenter. We machined about 20million cubic meters of timber at the precut factories
in 1997. Five percents of odd, 0.5 % of sawdust, and1 % of chip were generated from the total timbermachined at the precut factories. The odd is utilizedfor manufacturing pulp chip, small size lumber, andglue laminated lumber. The sawdust and chip wereutilized as livestock bedding and fuel. in Japan,almost the residues at the sawmills, plywood millsand precut factories are effectively utilized.
Production Technology and Advantagesof Environment Protective Fibreboard
Cao ZhongrongResearch Institute of Wood Industry, Chinese Academy
of Forestry, 100091 Beijing, ChinaTel: +86 10 62889424, FAX: +86 10 62881937, Email:
In order to meet the requirement of environmentalprotection, the production of environment protectivewood based panels will become a developmenttrend. This paper introduces the productiontechnology and advantages of environmentprotective fiberboard. On proper conditions,environment protective high density fiberboard (S2SHDF) can be produced, on the general dry-processhardboard or medium density fiberboard (MDF)production line, without adhesive and change ofequipment.
The production process of environment protectivefiberboard is as follows:
Raw materials - chipping - screening - refining (-wax addition) - fiber drying - forming - prepressing- cross- cut - loading - hot pressing - unloading -trimming - stacking - inspecting and grading -product storage.
The results studied show that the hot-pressingtechnique is the main key to produce environmentprotective fiberboard. The technological parameterof hot-pressing includes a temperature of 190 ~200°C and a pressure of 4.0 ~ 5.4 Mpa. The pressingtime depends on the thickness of board to be madeand wood species. Generally, the pressing time foreach one millimeter board thickness does not exceedone minute.
After completing a technology study on themanufacture of environment protective fiberboard atthe laboratory, a pilot-scale trail was conducted onthe MDF production line with an annual capacity of10000 cubic meter to examine further technologicalparameter obtained by a series of technologyexperiments and determine the physical mechanicalproperties of the commercial environment protectivefiberboard is suitable and feasible.
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5.05.00 Composite and reconst i tutedproducts
The wood- based composite industry inChile: a general overview
Aldo BalleriniUniversidad del Bio-Bio, Relaciones Internacionales,
Casilla 5-C, Concepción, ChileTel: (56-41)26 12 61, FAX: (56-41)31 67 37, Email:
The wood-based composite industry in Chile hasbeen playing a mayor role, in the forest productsector during the last 10 years. Growth has averaged15% per year based on the volume produce. There isan installed capacity of 1.28 million cubic meterswithin 19 mills, which are producing particleboard,medium density fiberboard (MDF), hardboard,plywood and veneers. The Chilean wood-basedcomposite industry is very dynamic, and is currentlyinvesting in other Latin American countries:Argentina, Brazil and Venezuela, to produceparticleboard and MDF. in addition, several newplants are projected for the next five years.
The Chilean market account for 64% of the totalpanel products produced. The remaining 36% isexported mainly to Europe, America and Asia.Current and future new plantations in Chile assumethe availability of commercial timber, which suggestsignificant increase of the panel sector over the next10 years.
Developments in Composite Researchand Industrial Manufacture of
Composite in JapanShuichi Kawai
Kyoto University, Wood Research Institute, Uji, 611-0011 Kyoto, Japan
Tel: +81-774-38-3673, FAX: +81-774-38-3678, Email:[email protected]
Recent developments in the research on woodcomposite products and their applications in theindustrial manufacture in Japan are being reviewed.Engineered wood products are playing anincreasingly important role in timber constructions;glulam and laminated veneer lumber (LVL) are nowwidely accepted as timber construction members,and are already produced commercially by usingdomestic softwood species. Structural panels suchas plywood and oriented strandboard (OSB) areoften used, even as Japanese conventional post &beam housing structures for bearing wall panels.Medium density fiberboard (MDF) is useddominantly as a base panel for secondaryprocessing.
More reliable and higher performance woodcomposite products are being developed by aligningthe elements along the fiber direction; a cylindricalLVL made of helically wound veneer tapes providesa bio-mimetic structure of wood cell and proves toexhibit high bending performance despite its lightweight. in panel products, an advanced OSB ismanufactured with thin strands in order to achieveimproved surface properties, dimensional stabilityand mechanical properties. This advanced OSB isnow in the process of being produced on acommercial scale. High performance oriented MDFwith long lignocellulosic fibers is now beingdeveloped, whereas vertically oriented fiberboardwith an ultra low density has been marketed as asubstitute to the foam plastic materials. A newtechnology for producing high-performance cementbonded particleboard by using rapid curing processof either super-critical fluid or gaseous state ofcarbon dioxide is now under development.
Currently, new concepts of zero-emission andrecycling processes have been introduced to supportthe sustainable utilization of wood resources. Newprocessing technology to convert forest residues,non-wood lignocellulosic materials, agriculturalwastes, and recycled wood into new types of lumberand panel composite products is necessary to ensuresustainable utilization of the existing forestresources.
Jute Composite By Resin TransferMoulding -A New Techno Economically
Viable ProductM. Sarkar, A. Mandal, A.K. Rana, K. Jayachandran
Indian Jute Industries' Research Association, 17, TaratolaRoad, 700 088 Calcutta, India
Tel: +(033) 401 4615/17 - 20, FAX: +(033) 4014621/4298, Email: [email protected]
Various forms of jute reinforcement alone andalongwith glass were used successfully to reinforcecomposites moulded following Resin TransferMoulding process using Unsaturated PolyesterResin as the matrix. Products include panels, chairseats, trays, angles, etc. Properties of these types ofcomposites were evaluated. Advantages of usingjute reinforcement include reduction of costs,lowering of density and the use of anenvironmentally friendly, renewable, reinforcement.The lower mechanical properties of jute compositescould be compromised where higher mechanicalproperties of high value glass reinforced compositesare not justified. Commercial viability of resintransfer moulded jute composites has beenestablished from techno-economic feasibilitystudies.
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Wood Modification Towards PracticalApplication: An European Perspective
Joris van AckerSHR Timber Research, Wildekamp 1c, NL-6704 AT
Wageningen, NetherlandsTel: +31-317-425422, FAX: +31-317-425783, Email:
During decades, efforts are made by researchorganisations and industries to develop woodmodification methods. Most of the efforts, however,were done on laboratory scale and never reachedpractical application. Whereas the research in the1960's and 70's mainly concentrated to the US andJapan, during the last decades different Europeanresearch and development programmes weredirected to wood modification. Main goal in most ofthese programmes was the search of environmentalacceptable modification chemicals and reactionswith potentials for the European wood industries. Asoutcome of these efforts, the last few years some ofthe developed methods were yet introduced topractice or under pilot scale evaluation. This paperwill give an overview on these technologies. State-of-art, problems and challenges will be discussed,for solid wood modification as well as compositesmodification treatments.
Wood/polymer composites - a state-of-the art reviewJohn Youngquist
USDA Forest Service Forest Products Laboratory, OneGifford Pinchot Drive, Wisconsin 53705 Madison, USA
Tel: 608-231-9398, FAX: 608-231-9582, Email:[email protected]
Interest has burgeoned in combining wood and otherraw materials, such as plastics, into compositeproducts with unique properties and cost benefits.The primary impetus for developing such productshas come from one or more of the followingreasons:- Reducing material costs by combining a lower costmaterial (acting as a filler or extender) with anexpensive material.- Developing products that can utilize recycledmaterials and be recyclable in themselves.- Produce composite products that exhibit specificproperties that are superior to those of thecomponent materials alone.
Composites made from wood and other materialscreate enormous opportunities to match productperformance to end-use requirements.
The use of lignocellulosic materials withthermosetting polymeric materials, like phenol- orurea-formaldehyde, in the production of compositeshas a long history. The use of lignocellulosics with
thermoplastics, however, is a more recentinnovation. Broadly defined, a thermoplastic softenswhen heated and hardens when cooled.Thermoplastics selected for use withlignocellulosics must melt or soften at or below thedegradation point of the lignocellulosic component,normally 200oC. These thermoplastics includepolypropylene, polystyrene, vinyls, and low- andhigh-density polyethylenes.
Markets for these hybrid composites have expandedin the past 6 years to include a host of consumerproducts, components for the automobile industry,packaging materials, and now, products designed forbuilding applications.
This paper reviews technologies used to producethese materials, reports on recent researchaccomplishments in the field, and provides adetailed review of products now on the market orbeing developed for commercial application. A lookto the future will also be included in this review.
5.06.00 Propert ies and ut i l izat ion oftropical woods
Wooden school furniture forunderdeveloped and developing
countriesCarl Eckelman, Eva Haviarova, Hui Zui, and Jorge
AcunaPurdue University, 1200 Forest Products Bldg., IN
47907-1200 West Lafayette, USATel: (765) 494-3635, FAX: (765) 496-1344, Email:
Keywords: school furniture, underdeveloped,developing countries, plantation thinnings, woodresidues, cottage industries.
In many underdeveloped and developing regions ofthe world, school furniture is poorly designed, oflow quality, and often unfit for school use, yet it iscostly and consumes a disproportionate share oflimited educational budgets. This situation need notcontinue. Our research indicates that attractive,well-designed, durable, maintenance-free furniturecan be produced from locally available woodymaterials including plantation thinnings and semi-processed materials such as pallet deck boards bylocal industry. Only the simplest machining andjoinery processes are required to construct thefurniture. Cost of the furniture is generally less thanthat of competing products, yet performance testsindicate that the furniture produced is several timesmore durable than furniture currently in use.
Production techniques vary from those best-suited tocottage industries to those more appropriate for
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small factories in more developed areas. Smallstems can be converted into squares or dowels thatare subsequently cut into furniture parts, or thestems can be converted into small strips that aresubsequently used to fabricate individual furnitureparts or entire frames. Curved laminatedconstruction can be used when woods can be easilysteam bent. Creep bending with simple jigs can alsobe used to form parts with sharp corners and straightsides. Green bending can be used to form parts withmild bends such as seat and back slats. Simplechemical bending with household ammonia mayalso be used to form extreme bends in the ends ofsuch items as seat slats.
Cross lap laminated construction can be used withthose woods in which only short lengths of clearwood can be obtained or which have poor bendingcharacteristics. This method of constructionproduces strong, durable, geometrically accurateframes with very simple equipment.
Round mortise and tenon construction provides asimple yet strong and reliable method of connectingmembers and side frames together. Round tenonsmay be produced on a conventional wood lathe orthey may be cut with a simple hole saw.
In conclusion, preliminary results indicate thatsturdy, well-designed school furniture can beproduced from small woody stems and other woodresidues by a variety of production processes --some best suited to cottage industries, others tomore developed industries. Thus, school furnitureand the accompanying production processes can bematched to the level of development of essentiallyany interested country. Finally, none of theprocesses involved in the construction of the framesare inherently costly so that attractive, sturdy, easilymaintained furniture can be produced at modest costin any developing country.
Acacia mangium An Alternative TimberBuilding Material: A Case Study
Hamdan HusainFRIM, Kepong, 52109 Kuala Lumpur, MalaysiaTel: +603-6342633, FAX: +603-6367753, Email:
Keywords: glue laminated-Acacia mangium,alternative building material, engineeredcomponents
The diminishing supply of timber from naturalforests due to increasing demand for forest productshas stimulated interest in forest plantations. Naturalforest takes considerable time to rejuvenate andcompensatory forest plantations are seen asalternatives to fulfill the needs of sustainability.
Among the fast growing tree species promoted inMalaysia is Acacia mangium. A. mangiumplantations now cover some 80% of the total forestplantation areas (51,745 ha.) in Peninsular Malaysia.General aspects of research on this timber have beenconducted but records and proper documentation onits potential usage are still lacking.
In order to assess the suitability of using A.mangium for construction, a house was built in1998. The objective was to analyse the utilisation ofA. mangium as a building material taking intoaccount the preparation of raw material, drying andpreservative treatment, timber engineering aspectsand construction. This will be followed bymonitoring the in-service performance to determineits performance under local environmentalconditions. Special attention will be focussed on thestructural performance of the engineeredcomponents. The economic aspects of the projectwill however not be discussed in this paper.
Logs of 1.8m and 2.4m lengths were obtained from13 year-old thinnings. Owing to the inherentpresence of heart rots in the logs, care was taken toexclude or minimize them when obtaining the sawntimber. The timbers were conditioned to about 10-12 percent and then cross-cut, planned, fingerjointed and glue-laminated with PRF to obtain therequired lengths for the construction. Each stage ofproduction of the glue laminated members wasmonitored although it was not possible to strictlyadhere to the established regimes in preparation ofthe material.
Various problems encountered during thepreparation of the components and construction arediscussed. However, the project has indicated thepotential of using A. mangium as buildingcomponents. Being able to control the sawing of thelogs and the use of smaller size logs will help tooptimise utilisation of the timber. The performanceof the house constructed will be monitored and thedata collected will contribute towards informationon the use of plantation grown timbers forconstruction.
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Eucalypts from South America: asustainable raw material in the
international market for solid woodproducts
Erich Gomes Schaitza, Antonio R. Higa, Admir LopesMora, Jose Carlos Duarte Pereira
National Centre of Forestry Research, CP319, 83411-000Colombo, Brazil
Tel: 55 +41 766 1313, FAX: 55 41 1276, Email:[email protected]
South American countries, specially Brazil, Chileand Argentina, have a large experience in theproduction of Eucalyptus pulp and charcoal, but theuse of Eucalypts as solid wood was somewhatlimited to small companies. in the last years, due toa reduction in the offer of woods tradicionally usedby sawmills and plywood industries, consumptionof Eucalypts has been graddually increasing.
As this region has 4-5 million hectares of highproductivity eucalypt plantation, it is expected thatonce Eucalypts solid wood establishes a domesticmarket and production scale grows, Eucalyptsproducts will also be sold to the internationalmarket. Some large companies from Brazil asAracruz, Klabin, CAF and Flosul are operating orwill start to operate new saw mills using Eucalypts.
The same process is occurring in Argentina, Chile,Paraguay and Uruguay. Eucalypts wood present aseries of problems for solid wood industry as it has avery strong tendency to log splitting, board splittingand warping during sawing process and collapseduring drying.
Research on eucalypt wood properties and treebreeding has followed the same trend of itsutilization, i.e. most early research was focoused onpulping and heat properties and only lately problemsrelated to eucalypt solid wood production wereseriously considered. Currently, utilization ofeucalypt wood as sawn timber, specially the controlof growth stresses through silviculture and geneticbreeding and development of sawing and dryingtechniques are considered as a key point for forestresearch.
Lignin, cellulose and extrative contents and specificgravity are some traits usually considered by geneticimprovement programs when final product was pulpor charcoal which are not of real importance whensolid wood is considered, and log splitting, warping,shrinkage and collapse have been introduced as newvariables of the breeding process.
This paper discusses the following topics:
- Current trends in reforestation in Latin America,with a special focous in Brazil is presented togetherand changes in the silviculture of Eucalypts requiredto meet solid wood industry requirements;
- Impacts of eucalypt plantations in Brazil;
- Wood quality for solid wood of E. grandis, E.dunnii, E. urograndis, E. pilularis, E. salignaplanted in Brazil;
- Perspectives of using log splitting, board splitting,warping, shrinkage and collapse in breedingprograms of eucalyps for solid wood, with basis onthe analysis of Eucalyptus pilularis, E. grandis, E.deanei provenance and progeny combined tests,clones of urograndis hybrid and open populations ofE. dunnii and E. deanei;
- Market possibilities of solid products of the mainEucalypts planted in Brazil based on a comparisonof their wood quality and machining properties withthat of tradicional tropical woods.
Selection of Pulpwood for PlantationDevelopment for Pulp and Paper Makingin Tropical Countrys - the case of Ghana
Daniel SekyereForestry Research Institute of Ghana, Post Box # 63,
UST Kumasi, GhanaTel: +233-51-60123, FAX: 233 - 51 - 60121, Email:
Keywords: Selection, pulpwood, plantationMusanga cecropiodes, hardwood
An indication is given of ways in which woodspecies with properties suitable for pulp and papermanufacture can be selected. Before any suchselection can be undertaken it is essential to knowjust what are the desirable characteristics from thepulp and paper aspect.
The present study was conducted on Musangacecropiodes to determine the desirable propertiesand their influence, namely: longer than averagefibre length, Runkel ratio less than 1, average basicdensity, low extractive content, low lignin contentand suitable hemicellulose content. in addition tothese the pulp characteristics were also determined.
Musanga cecropiodes was obtained fromexperimental plots in Kumasi, Ghana. The samplewas debarked and sawn into discs of approximately18mm thickness and then split along the grain witha knife to give a chip size of approximately 18 x 18x 6mm. A portion of chips prepared for pulping wasground in a Wiley-Mill.
Chemical analyses were made on wood meal whichpassed a BS 40 mesh sieve (425µm) but retained on
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a BS 60 mesh sieve (250µm). For the chemicalanalyses an extractive: free sample of wood mealwas prepared by successive extraction withalcohol/benzene, alcohol and water. The followinganalyses were also carried out: cellulose, acidinsoluble lignin, 1% sodium hydroxide and hotwater.
Preparation for fibre measurements were madeaccording to Franklin's (1945) method. For themeasurement one hundred fibres were made.
For the pulping trials chip samples (600gm) wereweighed and placed in a 15 litre digester withinternal electric heat exchanger. This digester slowbut constant rotation when in operation. Thecooking conditions adopted were the following:Active alkaline (%) - 15, 16.5 and 17.5Sulphidity (%) - 25Time at maximum temperature (mins) - 90Cooling time (mins) - 15Wood to liquor ratio - 1.5Maximum temperature (°C) - 170
The cooked chips were washed off black liquor andbroken up in a disc refiner with a clearance of0.5mm. The yield of pulp was determined by thedilution method. The physical characteristics of thepulp were determined by preparing sheets from thepulp in a British sheet mould. The sheets ofapproximately 60gm/m2 were tested afterconditioning at 65% relative humidity. Thefollowing tests were made: Tensile index, tearindex, burst index and Canadian Standards Freeness.
The results indicate that the density of Musangacecropiodes 320 kg/m3 oven dry weight/greenvolume was lower than that for some hardwoods,such as birch, beech and Eucalyptus commonly usedfor pulp; but similar to others, such as poplars andaspens. Fibres were slender (24.11µm) and thin-walled (3.00µm) and consequently flexible. ThusMusanga cecropiodes with Runkel ratio of 0.32 andco-efficient of flexibility of 0.75 stands out ashaving good fibre structure suited for pulp andpaper-making. A high co-efficient of flexibility, likea low Runkel ratio is desirable in a fibre becausethis leaves a thin-wall material which is suitable forstrong inter-fibre bonding in paper sheets.
The cellulose content of 53.7% for the speciesindicates that the pulp yield will be high. Comparedwith values usually found in temperate hardwoodsused for pulp, the alcohol-benzene solubility(3.70%) and 1% Na0H solubility (13.1%) wereaverage.
Using 15% active alkali for sulphate cook, amaximum temperature of 170°C with 1 hour toreach and 1 hours at that temperature Musanga
cecropiodes yielded 55% pulp with a kappa numberof 28.2. The burst strength of 6.8 kPam2g-1 andtensile index of 115 mNm2 g-1 for a hardwood papersheet of basis weight 60 gm-2 form at a pulpfreeness of (Canadian Standard Freeness, C.S.F)300 reported for M. cecropiodes are veryremarkable paper strength properties for a hardwoodwhose average fibre length is 1.25mm. However,the tear index of 4.1 mNm2 g-1 recorded for thespecies was low.
The fibre dimensions, chemical analyses and pulpevaluations show that it is possible to produce pulpfrom M. cecropiodes and that there is a need tostudy its silviculture for plantation development forthe species for use as source of pulpwood.
Eucalypts, according to some literature reports,render the soil infertile after some period. This isattributed to the excessive intake of water from thesoil which later on renders the soil unsuitable forcultivation of other species. To overcome this andother problems associated with introduction ofexotic species emphasis should be placed on localwood species with characteristics similar to oursuperior to Eucalypts. One of such species isMusanga cecropiodes. Musanga cecropiodes is atree species which grows in West Africa CentralAfrica and East Africa and extends to Angola. Itsnatural growth is very prolific. It is a small tomedium -sized tree up to 90 feet high and has a girthof over 6ft at full maturity.
For pulp and paper plantation established species offast growing species should be considered. Some ofthe other important characteristics to be consideredinclude:(i) fast growing species for economic plantation(ii) longer than average fibre length(iii) Rynkel ratio less than 1(iv) average basic density(v) low extractive content(vi) higher than average cellulose content(vii) low lignin content(viii) suitable hemicellulose content
The features listed above indicate clearly that theanatomy of raw material as well as its chemicalcomposition must be carefully considered in aplywood plantation establishment.
These various features which are the most desirablewill depend largely on the product to bemanufactured but for all products, long fibres highproportion of fibres in the wood volume, lowextractive content, high cellulose content and lowlignin are the most valuable characteristics.
Musanga cecropiodes as a tropical hardwoodspecies satisfies most of the features listed and
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should be encouraged to be used for plantationestablishment, especially in developing tropicalcountries for use as a
Woods from mediterranean andsubtropical dry areas: possible uses
besides fuel and charcoalBernard Thibaut
CIRAD-Forêt, Maison de la technologie, 73, Rue Jean-Francois Breton, BP. 5035, 34032 Montpellier, Cedex 1,
FranceTel: 33.4.67.61.44.97, FAX: 33.4.67.61.57.25, Email:
Due both to climatic and human historical reasons,mediterranean and subtropical dry forest ecosystemsare today rather poor, with low standing volume perhectare and mostly small diameter trees.
More often the demand in these countries is highboth for energy and for wood material dedicated to alot of domestic uses: tools, furniture, smallcarpentry, poles, .
Although the information about these woods are fewin the classical wood data banks, most of them haveinteresting basic properties like fine grain, aesteticalaspect, high hardness, high natural durability, sothey can fit lots of uses for the local communities.
Besides the need for more information on thesespecies, there is also a huge need of specifictechnology dedicated to small diameter logs.
After a short review of main dry forest species withtheir specific properties and of today availabletechnologies in sawing or peeling and of todayavailable technologies in sawing or peeling smalldiameter trees, a possible way of value added woodsmall industries as by product of fuel wood activityis looked at.
5.06.02 Qual i ty teak t imber fromplantat ions
Non-destructive techniques for woodquality assessment of plantation-grown
teakHenri Bailleres, Patrick Y. Durand
CIRAD-Forêt, Maison de la Technologie, 73 rue J.F.Breton BP5035, 34032 Montpellier Cedex 1, France
Tel: +33 4 67 61 44 51, FAX: +33 4 67 61 57 25, Email:[email protected]
Keywords: Tectona grandis: Plantation wood;Quality, Technological properties
Teak (Tectona grandis L.f.), because of itsoutstanding technological properties, is one of themost preferred tropical timber in the world. For this
reason and due to the depletion of its natural stands,teak is increasingly coming from plantations ofmuch shorter rotations. It would therefore be ofinterest to determine whether the wood quality issimilar when it comes from natural forests andplantations. After defining the method of woodquality assessment, results from the literature andfrom the teak wood research programme of CIRAD-Forêt indicate significant between- and within-treevariations in plantation-grown teak.
This need for assessing wood quality of plantation-grown teak has led CIRAD-Forêt to develop its ownmethodology and non-destructive techniques onstanding trees, which are presented hereafter. Themethodological options proposed here arespecifically focused on teak, taking into account itsfinancial value, its specificity in terms of colour andhigh oleoresin and chemical extractive content. But,basically, the same methodology could be applied toother plantation tree species, after some keyadjustments (e.g.: in spectrocolorimetry or NIRspectroscopy calibration as described hereafter).
A new promising but more sophisticated technique,currently explored by Cirad-Forêt, is presented here,is fully justified by the high market price of teakwood as well as the high investments required forteak plantation establishment and maintenance.
Technology Packages for Quality WoodProducts of Teak Plantations:
Challenges and Promises for the 21stCenturyK. M. Bhat
Kerala Forest Research Institute, Wood Science Division,680 653 Peechi, India
Tel: +91 487 282037, FAX: +91 487 282249 (Offi) /282205, Email: [email protected]
Keywords: Sustainable forest management; Tropicalhardwood; Industry; Marketing; Regional network
Teak (Tectona grandis L.f.) appears to have thegreatest potential as a hardwood for sustainableforest management (SFM) in the tropics to meetmarket demands for quality products in the newmillennium. With an estimated area exceeding 3million ha extending over almost all the tropicalcountries, teak - the world's most versatile andoutstanding timber- accounts for 75% of highquality tropical hardwood plantations. Undoubtedly,it stands to gain as a product from new technologiesand has a proven record of being managedsuccessfully to the fastest growing economies.However, the current situation of teak producercountries calls for intervention of more appropriaterather than the traditional technologies in the
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production-processing-market linkage throughresearch/ technology transfer/ training programmes.Forecasting the future trends in demand-supply,price and marketing system of small dimensional(SD) timber resource of teak plantations is aprerequisite for evolving suitable technologypackages for the 21st century.
The challenges of plantation technology forincreasing export market include geneticimprovement, novel biotechnology as well as highinput site management (shorter rotation,fertilisation, irrigation, wide spacing/thinning,pruning, etc.) practices that can modify tree formand wood. The newly developing technologypackages should aim at:- Improved log form (straight cylindrical bole withhigher proportion of heartwood and desireddimensions) by minimising timber defects (boletaper, log crookedness, fluting/buttressing,proportion of knots, sapwood, tension wood, etc.)- desired wood figure (colour, grain, texture)- more durable and stronger juvenile wood withmore uniform distribution of properties.
Optimising technologies to a great variety andcombination of situations of producer countries willbe another challenge for significant gains inprocessing (conversion, solar drying andpreservation with environmentally acceptablemethods) efficiency and utilisation of smalldimensional timbers (SD). They also includeutilisation of thinnings and SD materials for themanufacture of value-added products such as finger-jointed structures (acceptable to architects andbuilding designers), decorative veneer,panel/composite products, furniture components,handicrafts/ toys/ souvenirs as well as potential newproducts to meet societal needs. Revisions ofgrading rules and evolving industrial codes ofconduct are necessary for internal quality controland to assure the quality products as labelledcommodities of SFM.
The new promises of recent teak wood researchprogrammes include:- The productivity of short rotation teak plantationsis significantly high with mean annual increment of10-20 m3/ha.- Without altering timber strength, plantationmanagers can now aim at producing larger diameterlogs with greater yield (larger cylinder) of naturallydurable heartwood per tree by accelerating treegrowth with judicious fertiliser application/geneticinputs.- Teak can produce the timber of optimum strengthin relatively short rotations of 21 years.
- Fast growing provenance's/clones of superiorgenotypes can be selected for teak managementwithout reducing wood specific gravity.- Wider rings of fast grown teak generally yieldhigher proportion of more uniform Lakewood withgreater percentage of fibres, making the timber moreresistant to weathering/biodeterioration.- Newly emerging processing technologies allow theuse of smaller and younger trees.
Effective Regional / international networking,among the newly established institutions such asTEAKNET, IUFRO 5.06.02 (Teak Wood WorkingParty) and TEAK 2000, is suggested to pool thelimited available resources for sharingtechnology/expertise that would avoid theduplication of wasteful efforts.
Quality Tropical Hardwood Sub-Sectorin Crisis
Raymond M. KeoghTEAK 2000, 27 Loreto Grange, Bray County Wicklow,
IrelandTel: + 353-1-2864697, FAX: + 353-1-2861188, Email:
Keywords: Tropical hardwood; Sustainable ForestManagement; Carbon sequestration; TEAK 2000The greatest challenge of the 21st century is to findways to achieve sustainable development. This isthe wider canvas against which forestry must beviewed in future. To achieve sustainable forestrydevelopment it is imperative that the resource wehand on must be able to satisfy the widest range ofneeds conceivable so that the ability of futuregenerations to meet their own needs is notcompromised.Unfortunately, an aspect of forestry that has beenneglected is growing, on a sustainable basis, ofquality tropical hardwoods. The paper shows thatthe sub-sector is far from sustainable - it is in deepcrisis. Almost all of the supply of high gradetropical hardwoods originate from deforestation anddegradation.It will be difficult to bring sufficient areas oftropical forests under sustainable management tosupply present and future needs. This is partlybecause management systems in natural forests,designed to supply timber, have had variable levelsof successes. Most of these have been abandoned orare only applied on a minor scale. However, naturaltropical forests have the potential to sustain, notonly the output of timber, but a wide range of goodsand services.The annual allowable timber cut must, therefore,take into consideration the effects on the sustainableoutput of other goods and services and thus theallowable cut is less than the volume which could be
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removed if only timber had to be considered.Defining allowable cut, therefore, is a contentiousissue and a spectrum of opinions have arisen,depending on viewpoints from a wide range ofdisciplines. Some conservationists question thewisdom of logging natural tropical forests that arenot under immediate threat. Creating conditions forincreased access may heighten the risk ofdestruction.The level of disagreement around the subject ofnatural forest management and conservationdemonstrates that we are on the slopes of a verysteep learning curve and it may be some time beforewe know whether or not it is possible to managetropical forests in perpetuity outside traditionalmethods.Therefore supplementary sources of sustainablehardwoods will have to be found or extremeshortages are inevitable. Substitution may provide apartial solution but is an admission that a balancedoutput from forests as a whole is not possible. Thisis totally counter to most definitions of sustainableforest development. Besides, shortages will putincreasing pressure on remaining sources and couldlead to further deforestation. Supplementary sourcesmay be developed by creating quality hardwoodplantations and these could assist in the shift - inpart or whole - from natural harvesting to domesticcultivation.However, quality hardwood plantations experienceconsiderable disadvantages compared to shortrotation, high volume softwood and fast growingbroadleaf species.A solution is to discriminate positively in favour ofquality hardwoods. One simple but effective way toachieve this is to allow advanced economies gaincarbon credits in developing countries within theKyoto Protocol, specifically and exclusively forplanting quality tropical hardwoods.A new initiative, TEAK 2000, has been designed tofind ways of solving the present crisis in practicalways on the ground.
Fungal decay resistance of Brazilian-grown teak in soil-bed assay
Peter B. Laming, R. Sierra-AlvarezWageningen Agricultural University, Division of WoodScience, Sub-Dept. Forestry, Post Box # 324, 6700 Ah
Wageningen, NetherlandsTel: +31 317 478078, FAX: +31 317 483542, Email:
Keywords: Tectona grandis; Juvenile wood, Soft rotfungi; Natural durability; Soil exposure.
Teak (Tectona grandis L.f.) is one of the world'sbest known and most valuable timber. Generally,
the heartwood of mature teak trees is graded as verydurable. As experienced in field tests, teak has highreputation for its resistance to attack by wood-destroying fungi in ground contact.
Being native of South-eastern Asia (India,Myanmar, Thailand) and being planted extensivelyin many other tropical areas, the existing plantationsin Brazil, the Southern part of the state of MatoGrosso near Caceres, are relatively less known. Dataon the resistance to fungal decay of teak grown inLatin-America, especially Brazil are very scarce.For different reasons it is important to gain thoroughknowledge about the natural durability of the woodfrom young plantation teak trees.
The natural durability of Brazilian-grown relativelyyoung teak trees was investigated based on themethodology of the modified European pre-standardENV 807-Test 2 (CEN 1993). The protocol is basedon implementation of test procedures under soil-bedtest conditions which promote soft rot decay. Massand static bending (modulus of rupture and Young'smodulus) losses were determined at periodicalintervals of exposure in the soil-bed.
Material was investigated from three trees: two 22year-old- and one 14 year-old-teak tree. The testswere conducted on heartwood and sapwoodsamples. Wood sampling was carried out in such away that specimens of the same age were drawnfrom the different logs. By doing so, material wasobtained from the real juvenile period of growth ofthe trees, viz. one age limit was at a few growthrings from the pith; the other age limit is formed bythe last growth rings in the sapwood. in the twoelder trees, two other sample locations providedmaterial: one from the growth rings situated half-way, and the other in the outer zone of theheartwood. in the younger tree the half-way positionin the growth ring was omitted.
The preliminary results demonstrate that teak fromthe middle West region of Brazil, grown inirregularly distributed trial plots of planted teaktrees, shows fungal decay resistance comparable tothat of naturally grown material in Asia. Thesefindings enable a good and reliable relevantprognosis on aspects of the natural durability of theteak growing on the neighboring plantations.
The heartwood halfway its width and just borderingthe sapwood in 22 year- old teak trees was ranked inthe highest durability class (class 1). Heartwoodfrom a younger tree (14 year- old) was also found todisplay high decay resistance (class 2). Even thefirst formed heartwood around the pith showed, inall trees, high decay resistance (class 2). To a certainextent it is surprising to record that the sapwood
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material was ranked in class 3 (moderately resistantto fungal attack). The high durability of Brazilianteak suggests that it can be confidently assigned thepractical end-uses under the conditions of exposureinvolving high risk of fungal attack.
Cytological characteristics of heartwoodformation in teak (Tectona grandis L. f. )Todashi Nobuchi, Yuuko Higashikawa, Yusuf. S. Hadi,
Wasrin Syafii, Togar L. TobingKyoto University, Faculty of Agriculture, 606-8502
Kyoto, JapanEmail: [email protected]
Keywords: Heartwood formation, ray parenchymacell, living wood fiber, starch grain, lipid droplet.
Teak (Tectona grandis L.) is one of the popular treespecies planted in tropical countries. Thecharacteristics of teak heartwood are considered tobe the most significant factors that influence thehigh grade of wood quality. in this report, therefore,radial changes of cell contents from cambium to pithwere cytologically observed. General characteristicsrelating to heartwood formation such as sapwoodwidth, growth/annual ring, and wood color werealso investigated. To understand the waxy nature ofwood, chemical experiment was carried out.
Two plantation sites of different meteorologicalconditions especially of rainfall in Indonesia wereselected. The plantations were located in Cepu(Central Java) which has relatively a dry season andSukabumi (West Java), where precipitation in dryseason is rather abundant. The age groups ofsampled trees included 5, 25, and 80 years in Cepuwhile they were 21, 26, 36 years in Sukabumi. Afterfelling, disks were collected from two differentpositions of the tree trunk representing tree base andclear bole height. One part of the radial strips in adisk was fixed with 3% glutaraldehyde for thecytological observations. Radial sections cut usingsliding microtome were stained with Sudan IV, Nileblue for lipid droplets and I2KI for starch grains.Part of small wood blocks was embedded in Epoxyresin for the investigation especially of "living woodfiber". Transverse sections were also prepared toinvestigate growth/annual ring structure. The colorof sapwood and heartwood was measured by acolorimeter (Nippon Denshoku Co. Ltd.). Woodpowder was extracted with chloroform-methanol toevaluate the total amount of lipids.
Sapwood widths remained more or less constant intwo vertical positions of the tree trunk in both theplantation sites. Except for the young 5-year-oldtrees, the sapwood widths remained almost same atthe lower part of the trunk in all selected age groupsof the trees. in the cytological observation, ray and
axial parenchyma cells in the outer part of sapwoodshowed greater amount of starch grains as a reservesubstance. To the direction of inner sapwood theamount of starch grains decreased. Coupled with thedecrease of starch grains, lipid droplets graduallyincreased towards heartwood region. in addition toparenchyma cells, wood fibers contained both starchgrains and lipid droplets in the sapwood. Thesefibers were considered to be "living wood fibers". inthe heartwood, ray and axial parenchyma cells aswell as fibers showed no trace of starch grains. Theamount of lipid droplets, on the other hand, washigher in the heartwood. Between the two plantationsites, there were no significant differences incytological features.
Chloroform-methanol extractives showed about 5and 8% of extractive content in sapwood andheartwood respectively. Lipids were found as themajor components of the extractives, whichappeared to be responsible for the waxy nature ofteak wood. The samples from Cepu showed moredistinct growth ring boundaries than those collectedfrom Sukabumi. The former had large sized pores ascharacteristics of "ring porous wood". The growthring structure had the influence of rainfall in eachsite. From the measurements of a*, b*, L*, it wasclarified that sample from Cepu had more yellowishbrown heartwood while that from Sukabumi haddark brown color.
Based on the above results, the characteristics ofheartwood were discussed in relation to woodformation in teak.
Growth Stresses and Some WoodQuality Attributes in Planted Teak
Takashi Okuyama, H.Yamamoto, I. Wahyudi, Y.S. Hadiand K.M.Bhat
Nagoya University, School of Agricultural Sciences, 464-8601 Nagoya, Japan
Tel: +81-52-789-4151, FAX: +81-52-789-4150, Email:[email protected]
Keywords: Teak; Growth rate; Wood quality;Growth stress; Girdling
The tropical man-made forest has been recognizedto achieve the global environmental stability by wayof carbon sink as well as by the sustainable supplyof forest resources. Increase in the teak forestaiming at timber production rises the value oftropical man-made forest and realizes the aboveobjectives. Natural old-growth teak is widelyaccepted as a high grade timber because of itsdesired colour and luster, moderate wood density,high dimensional stability and good processingproperties. However the trade of natural teak isbeing prohibited with some exceptions. in order to
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promote timber production in fast growing teakplantations, assessment on the qualities of plantedteak in relation to the growth conditions is importantto maximize the potential of the trees by geneticimprovement as well as silvicultural control.
This paper discusses some of the results of our on-going research program that aims to elucidate therelationship between growth rate of planted teak andthe wood qualities including growth stress. inaddition, the effects of girdling treatment on thequalities of teak were investigated as well. Releasedstrain caused by growth stresses was measured inteak stands in Central Java in Indonesia while somewood properties were compared between theplantations of Indonesia and India.
- Annual increment in diameter as taken from thecount of growth rings showed that the diameterincreased linearly up to 30 years. The diameterrange of 30-year-old plantation grown trees was 30-50 cm in India in contrast to 15-25 cm for the sameage stands of mountain sites in Indonesia. Teakfrom India with a dbh range of 45-88 cm at 60 yearsstill continued its growth, while that in Indonesia of16-34 cm dbh at 38 years did not show decline ingrowth.
- The relationship between the heartwood ratio(HR%) and the stem radius (R cm) is represented bytwo linear lines. For the younger stands with lessthan 10 cm dbh the value is HR = 9.2R while HR =0.31 R + 84.0 was obtained for the older stands of38-65 years with a radius of greater than 10 cm.That is, the heartwood ratio rapidly increases to90% at the diameter of 15-20 cm during youngerage.
- The density increased towards the bark by 5-6 cmfrom pith and then stabilized at the age 10 -12 years.On the other hand, the microfibril angle decreasedtowards bark until 10-12 years. From theseobservations, it is expected that the planted teakmatures around 10-12 years. The density of 5-year-old fertilized teak in India was greater than the non-fertilized ones in spite of a faster increase indiameter in the former.
5.07.00 Energy and chemicals from forestbiomass
Bioenergy production potential fromAustralia's forests, its contribution to
greenhouse targets and developmentsin conversion
Paul Fung, M.U.F. Kirschbaum, R.J. Raison and C.Stucley
CSIRO Forestry and Forest Products, Private Bag 10,Clayton South MDC, 3169 Vic, Australia
Tel: +61-3-95452222, FAX: +613 9545 2448, Email:[email protected]
Australia is highly dependent on fossil fuels forenergy. Under the Kyoto Protocol, Australia wasone of only three industrialised nations allowed toincrease its greenhouse emissions by 2010 to 108%of 1990 emissions. This represents a majorreduction as estimates for "business as usual"suggest emissions would rise to 128% of 1990 netemissions. The Australian Government hasannounced various measures to reduce Australia'semissions to meet the agreed Kyoto target. Oneinitiative is a mandatory target for electricityretailers to source an additional 2% of electricityfrom renewables by 2010. With limitedopportunities to expand other renewable sources,namely wind and hydro-power, and withtechnological and cost limitations on photovoltaics,wood has a potential to make an importantcontribution to both renewable energy supply andgreenhouse gas mitigation by sequestering carbon inthe wood of living trees. Energy from wood can begreenhouse neutral. Australia's consumption ofenergy was about 3,000 petajoules annually (PJ/y)producing carbon dioxide emissions of 275 milliontonnes (Mt/y).
Of the 23 million cubic metres (Mm3) of woodharvested from Australia's forests in 1996, theproduction of wood products, accounted for 15Mm3. The remaining residual wood of some 8 Mm3
would be a potential source of bioenergy. There arealso more than 3 Mm3 of harvesting residues in theform of defective stems and branches which couldbe recovered. Significant areas of native vegetationare still being cleared from woodlands forconversion to grazing or cropping. The amount ofunutilised wood was measured at 38 Mt (dry). inaddition, there is on-going clearing of regrowth aspart of normal grazing, which provides furtherresources. There are also opportunities to expandthinning programs in commercial forests to improvethe quality of the growing stock to producebioenergy from the young wood. These
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opportunities have not yet been quantified. Anothermajor forest biomass resource, currentlyunquantified, is forest litter consisting of branches,twigs, leaves and bark. The quantity of this materialis large and very rough preliminary estimates put itas high as 90 Mt (DW) yr-1. When this materialaccumulates on the forest floor it can become aforest fire hazard. Even excluding forest litter andpotential thinnings, the combined availablebioenergy resources have a primary energy potentialof 870 PJ/y of which 97 PJ/y is currently being usedfor energy purposes for domestic heating, cookingand industrial energy applications. The uncommittedwood could potentially supply 26% of Australia'sprimary energy needs.
New plantations are offering opportunities forcarbon sinks and already, this has spawned afledgling market for carbon futures trading. There isa national vision to treble the area of plantations to 3Mha by the year 2020 - much of this will be privatefarm forestry for multiple benefits includinggreenhouse gas mitigation. Some of this wood couldbe used for bioenergy, and such markets couldfacilitate forest expansion. With expected growthrates for new plantations averaging 20 m3/ha/y, thisis equivalent to sequestration of about 20 t/ha/y ofcarbon dioxide. Thus one million ha of plantationcould potentially sequester 7% of the nationalannual carbon dioxide emission.
To convert wood to energy, there are a number oftechnologies available or under development. Theseare classed into combustion, carbonisation,gasification and liquid fuels. Technologies incombustion are well developed using packed bed,fluidised bed and suspension combustion systems.Small to large systems are commercially availablefor home heating of several kW to large-scaleindustrial boilers up to 60 MW for process heat orpower generation through a conventional steamcycle. Technology for charcoal making is mainlybased on primitive, low-cost batch kilns that arelabour intensive where cheap labour is available.Large-scale mechanised systems are used wherethere is a large production of wood feedstocks. inone efficient system the volatiles of carbonisationare burnt to recover energy for process heating andpower generation. Gasification technologies havebeen commercially developed for heat production.Small-scale gasification technology is underdevelopment that should offer efficient electricitygeneration. Gas turbines are providing prospects ofhigh efficiency. There is some interest in ethanolproduction by cellulose hydrolysis in Australia. Fastpyrolysis has been the centre of developmentattention in Europe to produce pyrolysis oil to runboilers and even diesel power plants. Some activity
in this area is also commencing in Australia forchemicals.
With the availability of a large biofuel resource andemerging technology to make efficient use of it,wood as biofuel has enormous potential tocontribute to Australia's energy supply and reducenet Greenhouse gas emissions.
The Use of Fuelwood for Energy in RuralAreas
Hoi Why KongForest Research Institute Malaysia, Kepong, 52109 Kuala
Lumpur, MalaysiaTel: +603-6342633, FAX: +603-6367753, Email:
Fuelwood such as rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) is thedominant source of energy for many rural industriesin Malaysia. Almost 85% of the energy source fornumerous medium-scale industries such as for thesmoking of rubbersheets, curing of tobacco leaves,firing of bricks and the drying of foodstuff comesfrom fuelwood. This paper therefore attempts tohighlight some of the problems faced by theseindustries such as the lack of technical and scientificknowledge to improve existing energy conversionsystems and the availability of fuelwood atcompetitive prices. It also focuses on the role of R& D institutions towards overcoming theseproblems through better process heat productionsuch as gasification and improved heat exchangersystems. Special attention is focused on ways toreduce the specific fuelwood consumption (SFC)through better drying regime, better insulationtechnique and improved front furnace control. Thetechnical and economic appropriateness of thesemeasures in terms of combined energy savings andpay-back period for one of the system is discussed.
Public Perceptions to Wood in EnergyProduction - Does the Environment
Matter?Ritva Toivonen, Liisa Tahvanainen
Pellervo Economic Research Institute (PTT), Eerikinkatu28, FIN-00180 Helsinki, Finland
Tel: +358-(0)9-3488844, FAX: +358-(0)9-34888500,Email: [email protected]
The Kyoto Agreement and energy relatedatmospheric emissions have been among the maintopics in international environmental discussionlately. Common understanding is that emissionsneed to be reduced in order to preserve theenvironment. It can be assumed that consumers'interest towards bioenergy has increased due to thegeneral concern about environment. But only aminor share of consumers are willing to pay a price
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premium for environmental product characteristics,and there is limited knowledge about other factorsinfluencing the potential demand of bioenergy, suchas consumers attitudes and interest towardbioenergy. This information is, however, of vitalimportance for promotion and thus development ofbioenergy markets.
This study is conducted to describe consumersopinions and expectations related with energy, inparticular wood based bioenergy, in Finland. Thedata for the study was collected in late spring 1997through a mail survey to 1 200 households in threeregions in Finland: an urban region in SouthernFinland, and a small town and a rural municipalityin Eastern Finland. A structured questionnaire wasused, and 400 questionnaires were sent to eachregion. Response rate was 44 % and thus the dataconsisted of 524 accepted answers of consumers ofage between 18 to 70. The data was analysed usingmultivariate statistical methods: factor analysis anddiscriminant analysis.
The results show that Finnish consumers emphasisesafety as one of the most important characteristics inenergy production. On average, consumers preferredthat solar energy, wind power and wood basedenergy should be increased in Finland’s energysupply in the future.
Consumers’ demographic background seems to belinked with different energy attitudes. Persons beingin high decisive roles in the society emphasise lowpriced energy as necessary for economic growth butthey emphasise environment less than others. incontrast, high education and living in urban areaseemed to be connected with more than averageconcern on environment. Female and youngconsumers were the most willing to reduce theirstandard of living and compromise the generaleconomic growth in order to reduce harmfulenvironmental impacts of energy production. Lowenergy price and continuing use of fossil fuels ornuclear power were seen necessary for economicgrowth most often by male and relatively agedconsumers and those in high professional positions.
Consumers in rural areas regarded domesticity andlow price somewhat more important in energychoices than consumers in urban areas.
Overall, price seems to be a very important criteriain consumers’ energy choices. But most consumersassume that they would change to use "green"electricity if this would be available without extracost in comparison to other alternatives. About halfof respondents think that they would choose "green"electricity also if the price is a few percents aboveother alternatives.
Even though the results of this study are limited tothree regions in Finland, it can be assumed thatFinnish consumers, on average, would like to seeincreasing use of biofuels in energy production, anda few might even pay a small premium in energyprice for this. But probably increase in pricecompetitiveness is still needed before bioenergyproduction grows in large scale. However,environment can be expected to matter in energychoices: Bioenergy may reach considerable marketshare as soon as it becomes fairly price competitiveand is available for the majority of consumers.Currently there may be special market segments forbioenergy even with some price premium. Thegeneral preference of renewable energy sourcesgives also a reason to assume that consumers mightsupport society’s investments in bioenergy.
5.07.01 Fundamentals of woodcarbonizat ion
Effluent gas analysis as a tool forstudying wood carbonisation processes
M. A. Connor, D. C. ShallcrossUniversity of Melbourne, Department of Chemical
Engineering, Vic. 3052 Parkville, AustraliaTel: +61-3-83446631, FAX: +61 3 9344 4153, Email:
Wood carbonisation, or charcoal-making, is anancient process. Historically, its main use was in therecovery of metals from their ores. This remains itsmost important use today; however, charcoal alsofinds widespread use as an urban fuel and inspecialised applications such as silicon metalproduction.
Charcoal is produced by a variety of techniques. Theefficiency with which these convert wood intocharcoal varies widely. The most efficient approachwould appear to be thermal decomposition underpressure, a technique developed recently at theUniversity of Hawaii. Retorts are alsocomparatively efficient. However, both theseapproaches require a level of technicalsophistication beyond the reach of many small tomedium scale charcoal producers. For theseproducers, kilns are likely to remain thepredominant means of charcoal production.
Whilst some of the smaller kilns are decidedlyinefficient, some of the more established designsperform quite well. Undoubtedly the present designsof such kilns and current operating practices are theresult of much hard won practical experience and agood deal of on-site research and developmentwork. However, it now appears as if further gains inefficiency are most likely to come from a better
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understanding of carbonisation processfundamentals. These fundamentals, as they relate toa charcoal kiln, can be divided into two groups.There are the microscale processes, or the processesthat occur within or adjacent to individual woodpieces. Then there are the macroscale processes, i.e.the fluid flow, heat and mass transfer and reactionprocesses that occur in and around the stack ofwood as it slowly decomposes into charcoal.
There has been considerable research undertakeninto the processes occurring within individual woodpieces during carbonisation. Since these normallyoccur in the absence of air, methods for the study ofthese pyrolytic decomposition processes usuallyinvolve maintaining the wood pieces under study inan inert gas environment. Following the process ofdecomposition is usually done by thermogravimetry,which has the disadvantage that it sheds little lighton the chemical changes occurring in the wood. It ispossible to study the off-gases from the pyrolyticdecomposition process using sophisticatedinstrumentation employing one or more massspectrometers. Such instruments provide a wealth ofinformation but the costs are high.
An alternative and more affordable effluent gasanalysis approach is being tested at the University ofMelbourne. in this approach, a mixture of sand andthe material under study is heated at a constant ratein a controlled flow of some oxidising gas, usuallydry air. The O2, CO2 and CO content of the effluentgas is measured. Experience to date has shown thatthe levels of these components exhibit peaks andtroughs that appear closely related to thedecomposition peaks identified usingthermogravimetry. in addition, information can beobtained on the rate of evolution of carbon and otherelements at different stages along the heatingprocess. With the addition of instrumentation tomeasure the moisture content of the exit gases, theabove technique should yield quite detailedinformation on the types of chemical changesoccurring at different points along thedecomposition pathway.
To date this technique has been used solely to obtaininformation on the processes that occur withinindividual decomposing particles. However, theconditions in the reactor where the wood or otherbiomass is heated have a number of similarities toconditions in the wood stack of a charcoal kilnduring the preliminary heating stage, when air isbeing admitted. It would seem possible that theeffluent gas analysis technique can be used to obtaininformation related to this phase of charcoal kilnoperation, and the prospects for doing this areexamined.
Keywords: Analysis; carbonisation; charcoal; gas;pyrolysis; wood.
Energetic valorisation of wood wastesand by-products by staged pyrolysis
W. Quirino, A. Donnot, E. Mougel, A. ZoulalianUniversité Henri Poincare - Nancy I, LERMAB - Equipe
Genie des Procedes, BP 239 Vandoeuvre les Nancy,54506 Nancy, France
Tel: 33.383.91.20.57, FAX: 33.383.91.21.02, Email:[email protected]
New European regulations will forbid the disposalof wood wastes (waste wood from demolition,framing, packing, pallets, etc.) or wood processingwastes (particleboards, wood composites, varnishedand painted woods, etc.). in these wastes wood isassociated with other, different materials (glues,paints, preservatives, paper, etc.). Their recycling isnot always feasible and presently the preferredmethod for their disposal is energetic valorisation.This last option can be achieved in two ways, bydirect combustion or by pyrolysis in the absence ofoxygen; both approaches yield a solid and a gasphase, both fuels.
The direct combustion route produces a largevolume of hot flue gas containing not only the mainproducts of wood combustion (CO2, H2O) but alsoseveral undesirable pollutants such as nitrogenoxides (NOx), volatile organic compounds, andvolatile metals (mercury, lead, etc.). The most recentEuropean Community accord on environmentalpreservation requires that the combustion gasesshould be treated before their release to theatmosphere. The volume of gas to be treated issignificant but it can be decreased if the energeticvalorisation process is split into two or more stages.
For several complex wood wastes, the thermaldegradation of the materials present in associationwith the wood (urea-formaldehyde resin,polyurethane varnish, etc.) takes place attemperatures different from the ones at which woodconstituents degrade. So, by operating attemperatures between 250°C and 280°C, it waspossible to achieve substantial degradation of theurea-formaldehyde resin (53%), while at the sametemperature level only 20% of the wood wasdegraded. As the volume of gases produced at thistemperature level is limited (30% of the totalpossible), treatment of these gases to removepollutants is economically more feasible. Moreover,the solid residue obtained is practically free ofpolluting elements. Similar approaches have beenused for two other wood additives, polyurethanevarnish and preservatives based on chrome, copperand arsenic salts.
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In this paper only the pyrolysis of wood wastesassociated with UF resin is considered. The optimalconditions for their treatment by pyrolysis are given,specifying the compositions of the gas phase and thesolid residues. After that, the pyrolysis stages aremodelled in order to get relevant kinetic models thatcan be used to design an industrial pyrolytic unit.
Keywords: Analysis; carbonisation; charcoal; gas;pyrolysis; wood.
Destructive distillation of woodErnesto O. Sanabria, José Paz
Universidad Nacional del Nord Este, ComandanteFernandez No 755, 3700 Chaco Pcia. Roque Saenz Pena,
ArgentinaFAX: +54 - 3732 - 420137, Email:
Keywords: Distillation of wood; Aspidospermaquebracho-blanco; Pyrolysis; Charcoal; Fixedcarbon
The charcoal that is produced in the Province ofChaco, Argentina comes mainly from wastes fromsawmills and carpenter's shops. This charcoal ismade from different species such as: Aspidospermaquebracho-blanco, Schinopsis balansae, Astroniumbalansae, Patagonula americana, Prosopis sp, etc.
The species Aspidosperma quebracho-blanco is themost abundant in the region of Parque Chaquenoand the charcoal, which comes from it, is the bestpaid in the market. The production of charcoal fromthis species is made in typical kilns, like the onesused in the building industry, with a charcoal yieldof an approximately 25 % and a fixed carboncontent of 74 %, both percentages on a dry basis.
Because of the above mentioned, the purpose of thispaper is to propose a more efficient alternative forthe use Aspidosperma quebracho-blanco, namelyproducing charcoal by destructive distillation.
To do so, charcoal was produced fromAspidosperma quebracho-blanco throughdestructive distillation. This raw material, whichcame from waste from sawmills of the wholeprovince, was processed in a Destructive DistillationPilot Plant which has a vertical retort, with enoughroom for 50 kg of wood, with indirect heating; anair condenser and a cross-current water one, amultiple temperature meter connected to athermocouple type "K".
The destructive distillations were made according toa Central Composites Design for heating ratebetween 60 °C/h and 120 °C/h and finalcarbonisation temperature between 450°C and 550°C.
The wastes used for the destructive distillation andthe charcoal obtained from it were analysed underspecific Argentine Institute of MaterialRationalisation (IRAM) standards.
The results obtained show a charcoal yield ofapproximately a 48 % by weight and a fixed carbonyield of greater than 82 %, both calculated on a drybasis. To sum up, the charcoal yield, on a dry basis,produced from wastes by destructive distillation ofthe species Aspidosperma quebracho-blanco isenlarged in a 49 % as regards the typical kilns,operating at a heating rate of 60 °C/h and with afinal carbonisation temperature of 450 °C. The fixedcarbon yield, on a dry basis, achieved through drydistillation of wood wastes under conditions leadingto greatest weight yield, was 83,9%. This is 13 %greater than the corresponding figure forconventional kilns.
5.08.00 Production and ut i l izat ion ofbamboo and related species . Chal lenges for
the new mil lenium
Increasing the Service Life of BambooRajamoney Gnanaharan
Kerala Forest Research Institute, 680 653 Peechi, IndiaTel: +91 487 78 2037, FAX: +91 487 78 2249, Email:
Bamboo is one of the fastest growing plants in theplant kingdom. Bamboo clumps can be establishedin 5-6 years from the time of planting. Culms reachmaturity in about three years. Once the clumps areestablished mature culms can be harvested everyyear. Bamboo, because of the fibrous root system, iswell-known for its soil binding property. Thepotential of eco-friendly bamboo for variousapplications is now being realized throughout theworld. Unlike some timbers which are naturallydurable because of the presence of toxic chemicals,any species of bamboo is naturally non-durable. inSouth and Southeast Asian countries, where bamboogrows naturally there is a 'bamboo culture'. Bamboois referred as 'poor man's timber' and for centurieshas been meeting the society's need for low valueproducts like mats, baskets, agricultural implements,constructional material (scaffolding, rafters), etc.Most of these products could afford to be replacedafter a short use. However, to ensure sustainableavailability of bamboo resource to meet the society'sneeds, the service life of bamboo should beincreased. Whether bamboo is used as 'poor man'stimber' or as value-added products for variousapplications like furniture, building components likeflooring, trusses, etc., treatment with preservativechemicals becomes essential.
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Depending on moisture condition of bamboo (ingreen or air-dry); hazard condition of application (inground contact, out-of-ground contact exposed orunder cover); method of treatment (pressure or non-pressure) and type of material (in round form, splitform or slivers), different preservative chemicals aresuggested. This paper reviews critically theadvantages and disadvantages of the differenttreatment techniques available (like sapdisplacement, steeping, hot-and-cold, pressureimpregnation, etc.) and the different preservativechemicals (coal tar creosote, copper-chrome-arsenate, boric acid, sodium pentachloro phenoxide,etc). Also, the traditional methods evolved indifferent bamboo using countries for providingprotection to bamboo are also critically reviewed.
Bamboo as a housing materialJules J.A. Janssen
Eindhoven University of Technology, B/CO, P.O. box513, NL 5600 Eindhoven, Netherlands
Tel: +31.40. 247 29 48, FAX: +31.40.243 85 75, Email:[email protected]
Bamboo has been a valuable material for housingfor centuries. The tradition shows many goodexamples how people could solve their own need forhousing and other type of building. Unfortunatelyalso many examples can be seen of short durability,lack of resistance to disasters, etc. Here results ofapplied scientific research and good engineeringpractice can improve the use of bamboo towards aproper engineering material with a status equal torecognised materials like steel, concrete, brickworkand timber. Local traditional knowledge is limited tothe region of origin; this knowledge cannot betransferred to a different region or climate. Aknowledge based system as a decision supportduring the design process can improve thisconsiderably. Standardisation of test methods canimprove the level of testing in local laboratories,and can allow the comparison of test results from allover the world. Next to such an internationalstandard, a manual with simple and clearexplanations about how to do tests can be a greathelp for laboratory staff. For engineers andarchitects, national building codes are lacking withrespect to bamboo as a building material. Aninternational model for national building codesmight be helpful. The said documents will be treatedin the paper, as well as simple handbooks for fieldpractitioners.
Self help will remain very important in housing, notonly to save costs but also to be sure about theinvolvement of the future inhabitants. This self helpcan be supported with a balanced aid byprefabricated and industrialised housing systems.
Evidently, joints are the key problem, but aconsiderable progress can be seen. in modernbamboo housing, not only full bamboo culms arebeing used, but also sawn or split bamboo strips,and panels made of bamboo. Roofs mainly aresupported by trusses, in which field considerabledevelopment towards good engineering applicationswill be reported.
Houses have to be resistant against disasters likeearthquakes and hurricanes. Applied scientificresearch has made good progress; evaluation reportsmade after disasters give also guidelines forimprovement. Emergency shelter, or prefabricatedor by self help, is also an aspect of bamboo housingrelated to disasters. The paper will highlight the saiditems.
China Bamboo Industry: ComparisonStudy on Socio-economics, Marketingand Policy in Some Main Production
AreasFu Maoyi, Yang Xiaosheng, Zhong Maogong, R. Manuel
Perez, B. Belcher and Liu CanResearch Institute of Subtropical Forestry, CAF, 73#
Daqiao Road, 31400 Fuyang Zhejiang, ChinaTel: 0086-571-3310001, FAX: 0086-571-3341304,
Email: [email protected]
China bamboo industry is now contributing USD1.5 billion annually to its economy development.For its clear understanding and further developmentin the region and the world, a cooperative projectamong two Chinese institutions, CIFOR andINBAR was laid out recently. From east coast tosouth-west marginal areas of China, totally 500farmer families, 69 factories and 77 traders, whichare located in 6 main bamboo production countieswith various levels of intensive management forbamboos, have been surveyed. Based on dataassessment and analyses, the production-to-consumption system has been made, the partakingmain bodies in bamboo sector and their systems,major running departments and theirinterests/conflicts with the partaking main bodiesand the running mechanism of activities have alsobeen identified. It is found that bamboo sector isreally important to farmer's and county's economy inall main production areas, particularly to thepotential target groups such as poverty rural peopleand disadvantaged group, for the income fromwhich can occupy more than 60% of their totalfamily incomes. The socio-economic environmentof bamboo sector's development, such as policy,marketing mechanism and scientific technology, isdescribed, from which both problems/constraintsand potential/opportunities faced to the local farmer,factory manager, trader and government officer are
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identified and discussed. Finally, the main measureswhich could overcome those problems andconstrains for leading to sustainable bamboo sectorare put forward for discussion.
Bamboo Aesthetics: New Dimensions ofForm and Function
Raja Fuziah, Bte Raja Tun UdaCrafts Council of Malaysia, c/o B-12/2 Jalan Selaman 1,
68000 Ampang, MalaysiaTel: +6 03 4703145, FAX: +6 03 4703146, Email:
Bamboo Aesthetics: New Dimensions of Form andFunction introduces a brief historical glimpse of therich tradition of bamboo craftsmanship in Malaysiaand in the region. It describes how bamboo, as anindigenous raw material, has had an immenseimpact on the economic, social and cultural life ofthe community, the artisans and the craft industry. Italso highlights the influence of bamboo on thedevelopment of concepts and design issues relatedto the world of interior design and its imaginativeand creative application and usage in the design ofliving spaces of modern homes and institutions. Toillustrate this, a special collection of images (slides)will be presented to illustrate the variety anddiversity of its form and function that has evolved inthe last hundred years. It would include the use ofbamboo as a traditional and contemporary product.
The paper will also discuss the areas of concern andissues relating to bamboo as a material, the use oftechnology and tools, design development andsocio-cultural factors that have contributed to thisprocess. More importantly, the primary concern is tofocus on the plan for the future use of bamboo: toexplore how bamboo as a vital source of indigenousraw material to the craft industry could be sustained:to ascertain how efforts in research anddevelopment, product development, promotion andmarketing of bamboo products could be furtherenhanced.
Finally, in the context of the spirit of cooperation, itwould be essential to explore and determine astrategy, direction and methodology which couldfoster regional as well as international collaborationfor the development of bamboo for the future. Inthis context, what programmes, initiatives andincentives for example, should be developed toencourage a greater effort in tapping the potentialusage of bamboo within the next five years.Suggestions will be offered with a view to developspecific proposals and recommendations at thisdiscussion of international gathering.
Bamboo as raw material for woodprocessing in Europe
Joris van Acker, de Vos, Joris, De Guyter, Sigrid andStevens, Marc
SHR Timber Research, Wildekamp 1c, NL-6704 ATWageningen, Netherlands
Tel: +31-317-425422, FAX: +31-317-425783, Email:[email protected]
Bamboos are endemic in all parts of the worldexcept in Europe where they did not survive the lastglacial period. The most northern naturaldistribution limit is the North of China,corresponding to the latitude of south of Europe.Since the first introduction of Bamboo in Europe(1827), about 400 different genotypes have beenimported. The actual annual production of bambooplants in Europe is estimated in millions units nearlyexclusively for ornamental purposes. Europe istechnologically more advanced in areas like micro-propagation and the selection of superior genotypesof bamboo. The bamboo plant producers envisage atlong term the industrial transformation of bamboo.
Co-ordinated by the industry a group of researchinstitutes and universities have been working on theevaluation of bamboo as a large-scale crop to beused as alternative raw material for wood processingindustry in Europe. Some 10 different bamboospecies, mainly of the genus Phyllostachys wereselected and evaluated on their production andadaptation parameters in plantations representativefor western and southern Europe. From additionalresearch work on harvesting techniques andcorresponding crop management systems it seemedthat bamboo has potential as an alternative crop forthe agricultural sector in Europe.
Growing bamboo, taking into account the Europeaneconomic structures, is however not feasible withoutmajor industrial applications. Within the frameworkof the research project called 'Bamboo for Europe'financed by the European Commission bothproduction criteria and market potential were takeninto consideration. The goal of this project was toconsider the use of bamboo as alternative rawmaterial to wood however without changing woodprocessing. It is generally accepted that at thismoment no industry in Europe will invest inprocessing techniques specific for bamboo.Furthermore labour costs in Europe do not allowinput of extra manpower in production processes.
Different industrial uses were considered, tested andevaluated. The possibilities for large-scaleutilisation of bamboo as additional or alternativeraw material for the wood processing industry rangefrom low quality commodities to highly developed
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engineered products. The main areas for potentialuse in industrial wood processing techniques inEurope are particleboard, medium densityfibreboard and laminated products. Although severalproduction problems needed to be solved and somelimitation have to be taken into account, it can bestated that the wood processing technology can usebamboo. The successful introduction of bamboo inEurope as alternative crop for the agricultural sectorwill need the additional support from Europeanpolicy makers. The result of this research proveshowever that the forest sector could well profit froman alliance with the agricultural sector in producingadditional high quality lignocellulosic raw material.
Properties of Exterior GradeParticleboard from Bamboo: Influenceof Age, Particle Size and Wax Addition
Jalaluddin Harun, Jamaludin Kasim, Abd Latif Mohmod& Mohd Nor Yusof
University PUTRA Malaysia (UPM), Faculty of Forestry,Serdang, 43400 UPM, Selangor, Malaysia
Tel: 603-9486101 ext 2411, FAX: 603-9483745, Email:[email protected]
In the study of exterior grade particleboard frombamboo, homogenous and three-layeredMETLAmine urea-formaldehyde particleboardswere produced. For the homogenous board, theeffect of age was found to affect the boardproperties significantly but since the differencesbetween actual mean values were rather small, it canbe assumed that the particles from any age group aresuitable for particleboard manufacture. The increasein resin content was observed to be accompanied bya significant increase in the mechanical strength,reduction in water absorption and thickness swellingproperties. By varying the particle sizes, themechanical and physical properties behavedsignificantly different. Wax used significantlyincreased the water resistance but reduced themechanical properties. For the three-layeredparticleboard, the mechanical properties anddimensional stability of the sample were found todecrease with the increment of core particle sizes.Wax addition, on the other hand, increased theboard stability towards water exposure butdecreased the mechanical characteristics.Comparison between homogenous and the three-layered board were also discussed in this paper.
Bamboo Silvicultural Theory andPractice in China - Review and ProspectYiping Lou, Xiao Jianghua, Fu Maoyi, & Sheng Weitong
International Network for Bamboo and Rattan, NaturalResources and Ecological Applications, Branch Box 155,
P. O. Box 9799, 100101 Beijing, ChinaTel: +86-10-6495 6964/ 82 Ext. 404, FAX: +86-10-6495
6983, Email: [email protected]
China has a long tradition of cultivating bambooresources and using the resources as materials forhousing, tools, furniture, pulping, medicines, andfoods. in China modern cultivation theory andtechnical practices started in late of 1950's. Basedon the research progress in bamboo atonomy,resource inventory and zoning, biology, physiology,and ecology, a systematic bamboo silviculture hasbeen developed, which includes theory andtechnology of bamboo seedling propagation,afforestation and high-yielding cultivation andmanagement obviously characterized by Chinesefeatures. These bamboo silvicultural theory andtechnology have greatly promoted resourcecultivation and management, in which bambooproductivity has been greatly raised. Theachievements and development of silviculturaltheories and practices in China are unique in forestsilviculture in the world. of the bamboo silviculturaltheory and technology, the high-yielding cultivationtheory and technology to improve stand productivityis a very important component. Based on theresearch findings in experimental trials incomparison between technical practices, thetechnical prescriptions on control of bamboocommunity structure and soil management havebeen developed. From late of 1950's to 1970's, thetheoretical research and practices were concentratedon improvement techniques for low-yielding standsaiming at raising productivity of low-yieldingnatural bamboo forests, in which the techniquesprogressed and were implemented slowly. in 1980's,a high-yielding cultivation technical system, toachieve high-yielding products in edible shoots andtimbers, have largely progressed and beenimplemented in extension practices. in 1990's, ahigh-yielding technical system on high-yielding,good-quality, high-benefits with oriented cultivationgoals and techniques, in terms of principles of forestmanagement by categories, have been developedand implemented in a large scale, in which bambooforests are managed in 13 types of 4 categories suchas timber-producing stands, shoot-producing stands,ecological maintenance stands, as well aslandscaping and reservation stands, to exploit thepotential of bamboo forests in economic, ecologicaland social benefits.
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By the brief review of the bamboo silviculturaltheory and technical practices in the past 40 years inChina, it is found that there are many limitations inexisting silvicultural theory and technology andsome important issues should be addressed to meetthe increasingly demand for bamboo resources andecologically sustainable management in the comingnew century.
Firstly, the limitations exit in theoretical foundationof forming present high-yielding cultivationtechniques, which are mainly characterized by lackof understanding of the unique mechanism onbamboo self-crowed generation and propagation andbamboo physiological integrity in culm-rhizomesystems in synthesis, consumption, transportation,and storage of nutrients and physiological matters,which results in lack of control mechanism ofbamboo stand productivity. The future researchshould aim at simulating and modeling physio-ecological process to control productivity process ata mechanic level. Secondly, the existing techniqueshave a poor capacity to control productivity process-based at quantitative level. As a fact, existingtechniques were based on the experimental trials,which lacks of modeling and controllingmanagement techniques based on growth and yieldsimulating models with emphasis on quantitativerelation in/between well-organized rhizome-culmsystems. The future research should aim atsimulating and modeling dynamic growth and yieldand management models reflecting the impacts ofmanagement practices. Thirdly, there is noquantitative site evaluation and classification andthe evaluation of capacity and potential for bambooforests which has no secondary meristem growth indiameter and height once they matured in relativeshort months. The future research in this aspectshould aim at matching site with managementpractices for specific management-oriented goals.Fourthly, future research should aim at themaintenance of long-term site productivity toovercome the negative impacts of existingsilvicultural practices on sustainable siteproductivity and to rehabilitate degraded site.Fifthly, the existing silvicultural practices producesome negative impacts on the function ofconserving water and soil of bamboo forests. Thefuture research should aim at develop a technicalsystem to a achieve harmoniously the economic,ecological and social benefits from managedbamboo forests.
Studies On Fertilizer Requirement ofCulm Cuttings, Seedlings and Cultivated
Stands of Bamboo (Dendrocalamushamiltonii L. Munro)
Harsh NayyarCOA, Himachal Pradesh Agricultural University,
Department of Agroforestry & Environment, 176 062Palampur, India
FAX: 91-1894-30511, Email: [email protected]
DendroCalamus hamiltonii L.Munro is a versatilebamboo of Hilly state of India, Himachal Pradesh.The planting material is a major limitation in itsrapid multiplication and plantation. Organisednurseries and plantations are extremely rare henceawareness in their management is lacking whichrestricts the potential bamboo productivity in theState which otherwise has least area under bambooplantation among other States of India. We areinvolved in raising its planting material throughvarious vegetative methods and supplying the sameto foresters. An organised plantation has also beenraised in about 25 ha of wasteland, which acts as asource of resource material for its furtherpropagation. in separate experiments, fertilizerrequirements of juvenile culm cuttings, transplantedsaplings, seedlings and cultivated stands of localbamboo "Maggar" were investigated to improve itsproductivity. Single nodal juvenile cuttings (I-yearold) of uniform size (5.0 cm) and age were plantedin March in the field in 3 replications in a field plotsize of 1.0m x 0.30m. Nitrogen as urea was appliedin different doses viz. 3.0(N1),6.0(N2),9.0(N3) and12.0g(N4) per culm cutting in combination with5.0(P1) and 10.0 g (P2) of phosphorous as singlesuper phosphate(SSP). Nitrogen was applied as halfdose during planting and another half atrhizogenesis stage. SSP was applied as single doseat the time of planting. The days to sprouting ofthese cuttings was reduced by all the treatments overthe control but the reduction was most significantwith N2P2, N2P1, N3P1, N3P2, N4P1 and N4P2treatments. These treatments were, however,insignificantly different from each other. Days torooting was significantly reduced over the controlby N1P2, N2P2, N2P1, N3P1, N3P2, N4P1 andN4P2treatments. Out of these treatments, N3P2 wasmost observed to be most effective. The days torhizogenesis were reduced significantly over thecontrol by N3P1, N3P2, N4P1 and N4P2 treatmentsand N3P2 was found to be most effective amongthese. The differences among these were, however,insignificant.The rooting % was increasedsignificantly over the control by N2P1, N3P1,N3P2, N4P1 and N4P2 treatments. N3P2 and N4P2caused maximum rooting among all the treatments
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though the differences between them wereinsignificant.Though all the treatments increased thesprouting % but the increase was non-significant.N1P1 was particularly effective but the differencefrom the control and other treatments wasinsignificant.A significant increase in survival %over the control was observed with N3P2, N4P1 andN4P2 treatments while other treatments resulted ininsignificant increase in survival %.The saplingsgenerated from cuttings were transplanted in thefield in subsequent year in March and fertilizerdoses were applied as Farm yard manure @ 5Kg/pit/sapling(T1), FYM+15 g N+10g P+5g (T2),FYM+30 g N+20g P+10g K(T3), FYM+45 gN+30g P+15g K(T4), FYM+60 g N+40g P+20gK(T5).A significant increase in tiller height wasobserved over the control with T3, T4 and T5treatments with T3 as the most effective one. T3, T4and T5 resulted in significant increase in internodelength over the control. T3 caused maximum andsignificant increase among these treatments. T4resulted in a significant increase in the no. of tillersover the control. Adult clumps of uniform age anddimensions were selected for the experiment andfertilizer doses were applied as Farm yard manure10 Kg/Clump (T1) FYM+100 g N+ 50 g P+25g K(T2), FYM+200 g N+100 g P+50 g K (T3),FYM+300 g N+150 g P+75 g K (T4). A significantincrease in the production of new culms wasobserved with T4 over the control while othertreatments caused a non significant increase over thecontrol. Internode length and culm height wereincreased significantly by application of T4 incomparison to control. A significant increase inculm girth was observed with T2 over the controlwhile the other treatments caused a non significantincrease. The no. of nodes was increasedsignificantly over the control by application of T2,T3 and T4. Among these T4 was observed to be themost effective treatment.
5.09.00 Tree r ing analysis
Dendroecology of Fagus grandifolia var.mexicana, a beech species growing in
an extinct volcano in MexicoMargaret Devall, Guadalupe Williams-Linera
USDA Forest Service, Center for Bottomland HardwoodResearch, P.O. Box 227, MS 38776 Stoneville, USA
Tel: 601/686-3161, FAX: 601/686-3195, Email:mdevall/[email protected]
Fagus grandiflora var. mexicana has a veryrestricted distribution in the montane cloud forestsof Mexico. It occurs in five small stands in additionto the population we studied, which is thesouthernmost Fagus forest in the world, at Acatlan
in the state of Veracruz. This stand is inside thecrater of a volcano with a conical shape and verysteep slopes. On the rim and inside the volcano,Fagus is the only canopy species, while it iscodominant with Quercus spp. on the edge of thecrater. Few saplings are present in the forest, butseedlings occur. The volcano is in a valley that isalmost completely deforested; even the flanks of thevolcano have been converted into cornfields andpastures.
We collected cores from the Fagus population atAcatlan. We prepared the cores using standarddendrochronological techniques and developedmean chronologies for the cores from the crater, topand rim of the volcano. We examined the individualchronologies for periods of suppression and release.We analyzed the chronology from the crater withtemperature and precipitation data from nearbyXalapa, Veracruz, recorded since 1920. Wescreened all possible climate models by computingleast-squares regressions of the standardizedchronology against all the climate variables, andthen fitted climate models to the beech chronology.We also collected seedlings, counted their bud scars,then cut several disks from the base of each one andcounted the rings.
The oldest core from the crater dated to 1877. Theoldest trees were growing in the crater, and itappears that the beech trees spread from the top tothe rim of the volcano. The cores were taken atDBH so the trees are likely older than our samples.The seedlings we collected were 16-46 cm in heightand had as many as 13 rings and bud scars. CurrentFebruary mean temperature and February and Julyprecipitation of the previous year were the bestpredictors of growth of the Fagus population in thecrater, but the variation explained in the chronologywas only 16% (R2=0.16, p.=0.006). Similar resultshave been obtained by other researchers for Fagusspp. in other parts of the world. Apparently growthof beech is affected more by other factors than byvariation in precipitation and temperature. Theindividual chronologies showed that the treesexperienced long periods of unrestrained growthwith fewer periods of suppression than Fagus spp.that have been studied in other areas.
We will discuss the arrival, establishment andpermanence of Fagus in the volcano. We willconsider periods of growth and suppression in theindividual chronologies, and the factors thatinfluence ringwidth of the trees. We will comparegrowth of trees in this population with that of otherFagus populations.
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Interregional comparison of long-termgrowth variability, growth responses
and growth controlling climatic forcingsin Finland using millennial chronologies
of Scots pineMarkus Lindholm, Matti Eronen, Mauri Timonen, Jouko
MerilänenSaima Centre for Environmental Sciences, Linnank. 11,
FIN-57130 Savonlinna, FinlandTel: +358-15-575 9856, Email:[email protected]
The number of tree-ring chronologies built inFinland is increasing as research interest isspreading from the open canopies of the northernforest limit to the closed and more complicatedstand structures of the south. We have built ring-width chronologies of Scots pine for the northernand southern parts of the boreal forest belt, coveringthe last 7500 and 1300 years respectively. Thepresent work focuses on long, high-resolutionclimatic proxies during the Holocene. These recordsprovide e.g. an indication of natural, pre-anthropogenic climate variability, either singly atspecific geographical locations or in combination oncontinental and perhaps even hemispheric scales.We have applied means of measuring the strength ofthe common 'signal' both within and between thetwo millennial chronologies. in addition we haveestimated chronology reliability, as ExpressedPopulation Signal, and as a function of time. Overallcorrelation between the two chronologies, over thelast millennia, is 0.32, and significant at the 0.01level, when both chronologies were standardised thesame way, using 67 % n splines. The present workshows evidence that a common climatic forcinginfluences the northern and southern pine stands.Interestingly, the signals show opposite features aswell, which is evidence for growth inversions,caused possibly by climatic inversions. During someperiods, growth conditions seem to have beenfavorable in the south, while they have beenunfavorable in the north.
Using various response function approaches, wehave confirmed that growing season temperaturesgovern the growth rates of northern pines. We havealso demonstrated that towards south, tree-growthbecomes less effected by temperatures, and moreeffected by e.g. precipitation. Going from the northto the south, the variability of radial growth clearlydecreases, and the variance of ring-width seriesbecomes smaller.
The spectral densities of the northern and southernchronologies were also compared as functions offrequency, viz. cycles per year. Very generally,
there is more periodic behaviour in the north than inthe south in high, medium, as well as lowerfrequencies. in the north there are concentrations ofvariance clearly evident corresponding roughly toperiods of 2.5, 3, 4, 11, and over 33 years. in thesouth the peaks in spectral density occur at about3.3, 5, and 10 years. A most remarkable feature ofthe two chronologies is their remarkable spectraldissimilarity. However, the two chronologies varysimilarly around several pointer years, e.g. 1050,1075, 1210, 1350, 1395, 1550, 1770, and 1840.
The periodicity of growth of tropicaltrees for dendrochronological studies:
the genus CedrelaMario Tomazello, Paulo Cesar Botosso, Claudio Sergio
LisiUniversidade de St. Paulo, Departamento de Ciencias
Florestais, ESALQ, St. Paulo, BrazilEmail: [email protected]
The genus Cedrela is constituted by 7 specieswidely distributed in the tropical and subtropicalamerican forests. Three of them occur in Brazil: C.odorata, the amazonian forest's cedar; C. fissilis, thedry land forest's cedar and C. angustifolia, theatlantic forest's cedar. Among the tropical genera,Cedrela is potentially one of the most important fordendrochronological studies.
In the present paper, some aspects related to thegrowth periodicity of these species and C. lilloi,which occurs in Argentina, are discussed withemphasis in research done in America Latina.Results refering to the phenological rhythm (leaf falland flush, flowering and fruiting), seasonality ofcambial activity by dendrometer measurements andcambial marking are shown and related to climaticconditions, mainly rainfall. Descriptions on themicroscopic wood structure of these species ofCedrela are also presented. The appearance andnature of the growth rings show distinct and well-defined annual growth rings, which are delimited bya thick band of initial parenchyma partly includingthe wide earlywood vessels forming a semi-ring-porous probably arised in the beginning of rainyseason. The X-ray densitometry analysis of the intraand inter growth ring density variations normallyshowed that the minimum density values werecoincident with the initial parenchyma bands,marking precisely the growth ring boundary. Thegrowth ring analysis on cross section of the disctaken from the base of the trunk allowed the datingand growth rate determination of Cedrela odoratatrees.
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Dendroclimatic network throughoutRussia
E. A. VaganovInstitute of Forest, Siberian Branch, Russian Academy of
Sciences, 660036 Krasnoyarsk, RussiaFAX: (3912) 433686, Email: [email protected]
There are several main purposes of establishingdendroclimatic network over whole Siberia:1)creating of dense net of sites to design the longtree-ring width and density chronologies for analysisof tree growth response to climate change at local,regional and global scales; 2)quantitativereconstruction of temperature and precipitationvariation in different parts of Siberia based on tree-rings and dendroclimatic zonation of territory;3)using statistical and simulation models whichdescribe the relations between tree growth andclimate in evaluation of net primary productivity ofwood component of ecosystem and carbon budgetboth at regional and global levels; 4)comparison ofsupra-long temperature variations during several lastmillennia of the Holocene inferred from tree-ringswith other indirect indicators of temperature change;5)to extract the tree growth response due toanthropogenic changes from natural ones.
Dendrochronological material was collected frommore than 240 sites in Siberia. The densest networkcovered the Subarctic (64 sites), Middle Siberia(Enisey meridian)(52 sites), Altai mountains (22sites), steppe zone in Buryatia (18 sites), the regionaround Lake Baikal (28 sites). The oldest livingtrees (Larix cajanderi) which own age reaches 850-880 years were found in the low part of theIndigirka river. Most of the tree-ring chronologiesbased on living trees has a length between 300 and850 years. For some remarkable sites with abundantdead and subfossil wood the chronologies withlength more than 2000 years were built. These sitesare located in subarctic region (lowland of the Tazand Indigirka rivers, Eastern Taymir) and intimberline of the Altay mountains. in addition totree-ring width the tracheid radial size and wooddensity chronologies were measured which allowsto analyse the tree growth response to climatechange with high resolution in time (seasonal,monthly).
In Subarctic the main climatic factor affecting radialtree growth is the early summer temperature. Thesynchrony of the year-to-year tree-ring variations indifferent parts of Subarctic was used fordendroclimatic zonation of subarctic belt and 6subdivisions were revealed with commoninterannual variations of summer temperatureanomalies. Analysis of supra-long chronologies
clearly shows the coherence of long-termtemperature and tree growth changes in differentparts of Siberian Subarctic. That long-term changeagrees well with temperature changes in thenorthern hemisphere inferred from other indirectsources (as for example, from Greenland ice cores)and shows the constant appearance of cycles with180, 76-78, 22 and 11 years length. For instance,tree growth increases during the Medieval WarmPeriod (900-1200 A.D.) as well as in the middle ofthe current century.
At a regional level there is a regularity in treegrowth response to climate along the temperaturegradient from northern timberline to steppe zone inMiddle Siberia. Limiting effect of the early summertemperature in northern taiga is replaced by effect ofwinter precipitation (negative) and June temperaturein middle taiga, and spring precipitation (positive)and early summer temperature (negative) in theforest-steppe transition zone. But the conditions atthe beginning and in the first part of a season (soilmoisture and temperature) play the key role forannual radial tree growth and wood productivityalong the meridional transect. This conclusion wasalso tested using statistical and simulation models.The high relationship between limiting factors andtree growth allows to reconstruct summertemperature, winter or spring precipitation based onregional tree-ring chronologies. The reconstructionsreveal weak positive trend in summer temperature inSubarctic during the last century and cleardecreasing summer temperature and increasingwinter precipitation in the middle taiga of CentralSiberia. If such trends relate with documentedwarming in the northern hemisphere it means that atthe regional scale climate changes show their ownregularities and tree growth responds to regionalcombination of temperature and moisture more thanto the global trends.
Dendrochronological data are used to evaluate thelong-term basal area increment of trees in differentparts of Siberia. Only in Subarctic the long-termchanges of basal area increment correlate well withthe northern hemisphere temperature, but in themore southern areas of Siberian taiga they do not.So, in the first approximation the annual primaryproductivity of wood component of forestecosystem doesn’t increase due to global warmingtrend but depends more on regional changes oftemperature and precipitation. The same resultswere obtained from the reconstructed fire history indifferent taiga zones using absolutely dated firescars and tree-ring chronologies. in the northerntaiga the fire frequency agrees well with summertemperature changes (similarly both at the regionaland global scale), but in the middle taiga the fire
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frequency is determined more by moisture changesand during the last several centuries completelydisagree with northern hemisphere temperaturechanges. The ways how tree-ring data use in carboncycle models of forest ecosystems are discussed.
How useful are wood anatomicalfeatures in tree-ring analyses?
Rupert WimmerUniversity of Agricultural Sciences, Institute of Botany,
Gregor Mendelstrasse 33, A-1180 Vienna, AustriaEmail: [email protected]
The most frequently used variable in tree-ringstudies is ring width, including that of theearlywood and latewood separately, as well as therelative proportions of the two zones. Other studiesinclude tracheid dimensions in softwoods or vesselsize and arrangement in hardwoods. Wood densityprofiles have been frequently measured insoftwoods and also in hardwoods. Most studiesconsider usually a narrow selection of tree ringfeatures rather than comparative studies using alarge set of features; this research, however,includes 16 anatomical parameters measured indated tree ring series from twenty spruce trees fromthe Eastern Ore Mountains, Germany. .The purposewas to show differences in climate sensitivityinferred from the tree rings features, as well aspossible effects of features upon wood properties.
Ring width and latewood proportion did not showsignificance relationships to monthly climatic data,whereas maximum density, latewood cell wallpercentage in latewood density both were highlycorrelated to temperature and precipitation. Theclimatic signals expressed in resin duct density, rayheight, tracheid length and microfibrillar angleswere less pronounced and therefore only of limitedimportance. of 16 tree ring parameters, densitometry- as an indirect measure of xylem anatomy - seemsto have the greatest potential to indicate climaticconditions.
5.10.00 Forest products marketing
Environmental activity and timbercertification in marketing of forest
productsJari Kärnä and H. Juslin
University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Economics,Post Box # 24, FIN-00014 Helsinki, Finland
Tel: +358 9 1917736, FAX: +358 9 1917729, Email:[email protected]
Keywords: Environmental marketing, Timbercertification, Marketing of forest products
Environmental and social concerns in the societywill set new challenges for companies. in this newage of environmental consumerism, products arebeing evaluated not only on performance or price,but on the social responsibility of manufacturers.This may create strategic marketing opportunitiesfor manufacturers who can demonstrate strongenvironmental performance. However, marketersmay feel unsure how environmental issues shouldbe integrated into traditional marketing. Onespecific and currently topical issue for forestryindustry is the potential of timber certification astool of environmental marketing. Implementation oftimber certification could be considered as anexample of marketing function that could be areflection from environmentally oriented strategicdecisions.
The purpose of the study is to describe and comparehow environmental issues are emphasised in themarketing planning of European forest relatedindustry. The countries surveyed are Finland,Germany, Sweden and the UK. Theoretically, theconcept of environmental marketing was examined.
The cross-sectional data for the study was collectedby using standardised personal interviews withsample size ca.100 in all countries. The Finnish,German and UK data was conducted in 1997 in thecontext of an EC-FAIR research project on potentialof timber certification. Equivalent data from Swedenwas collected in autumn 1998 in order to get anotherbig European producer of forest products forcomparison. The industries / marketing channelssurveyed were the following: Pulp and paperindustry, Sawmills and panels, Joinery and othersecondary wood processing, Marketing channelintermediaries, and Paper buyers. A special measureinstrument was constructed by using multivariatemethods to assess environmental activity of theindustries of each country. The summated scale wasdone by focusing how environmental issues areemphasised in three hierarchical decision levels of
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marketing: strategic, structural and functional level.The validity of the scale was tested by examining itsrelationship with the importance of timbercertification in marketing. Thus, the potential oftimber certification as a marketing tool wasassessed.
Most of the European forest industries are relativelywell prepared for integrating environmental issuesin their marketing. Environmental issues are centralin the marketing strategies of the European forestindustries. On the other hand, it must be said thatthey are not the most central ones. Integratingenvironmental issues in marketing planning is not agenuine proactive strategic decision. The industryhas been forced to do it. The development ofintegrating environmental issues into marketingplanning could be even deeper if genuineenvironmental responsibility is regarded important.
The companies also regard timber certification as anecessary tool for marketing of forest products. Theresults show that the level of environmental activityvaries between countries and industry sectors.Finland seems to be the country whereenvironmental issues are emphasised most inmarketing of forest products. in the UK these issueswere emphasised less than in the other countries.From the industry sectors, pulp and paper industryseems to be the most active in environmental issues.Generally, two thirds of the forest industries in allcountries thought that a widely used certificationsystem is needed. However, German forest industryhad most reservations towards certification.Regarding the importance of certification asmarketing tool, the level of greenness of thecompanies seems to have significantly moreexplanatory power compared to the backgroundfactors such as country or industry sector. The moreenvironmentally active the companies are the moreimportant marketing tool they regard certification.
The Development of an EffectiveMarketing Communications Network for
Successful Technology Transfer: AnEmpirical Study Based on the Diffusionof Portable Timber Bridge Technology
Robert Smith, Ren-Jye ShiauVirginia Tech, Department of Wood Science and ForestProducts, 1650 Ramble Road, 24061 Blacksburg, VA,
USATel: 540-231-9759, FAX: 540-231-8868, Email:
Keywords: IUFRO; Technology transfer;Communication channels; Timber bridges, andMarketing
The ability to use scientific or engineering advances(new technologies) to meet market needs hasbecome a primary business success factor. Newtechnology is also a major factor influencing growthand productivity within a firm. However, the forcesthat lead to technological innovation are not alwaysfrom within. Often a company receives technologypush from outside sources. However, the transferprocess is not always smooth. Public sector researchrepresents an important source of technology. in themajor Western industrial countries, government anduniversity research organizations account for over40 percent of the national research and development(R&D) expenditures. However, many technologytransfer efforts between public (federal government)and private sectors have been disappointing.
Like all businesses, government organizations buy,sell, provide, and deliver ideas, services, and goods.Government organizations today face limitedfunding and personnel. But they must grapple withgrowing needs for their services. Publicorganizations often find it necessary to seek helpfrom other organizations and individuals to achievetheir objectives. in the case of diffusion ofgovernment-sponsored innovations, it is challengingto find parties who can facilitate technologytransfer, and once the parties are identified, elicit thenecessary assistance from them. Numerous researchefforts have been conducted on the technologytransfer efforts between government-sponsoredinnovation and private sectors. However whenresearchers try to gain an understanding of theefforts, they primarily look for end-results and tendto neglect the information flows and communicationprocesses that lead to these results.
The Wood in Transportation Program, USDA ForestService, has put considerable effort in transferringtimber bridge technology to the private sector.However, much of these efforts have focused uponpermanent timber bridge structures for highways orpedestrian use. Another potential large market mayexist for portable timber bridges for use in forestryand logging operations. and little research has beenconducted on how to facilitate technology transferto the target users (loggers).
The main goal of this study was to evaluateinformation flow through the entire communicationchannel to logging operations and identify keyintermediaries who can help the USDA ForestService - WIT Program facilitate effectivetechnology transfer. This study utilized a uniquebackward-trace method to gain an understanding ofhow innovations (portable timber bridgetechnology) are diffused. The research consisted ofthe following steps to attain the final goal of
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developing strategies to successfully diffuseportable timber bridge technology from publicresearch sectors to private sectors. First, the researchevaluated how the end-users (loggers) receiveinformation, why they prefer certain channel(s) toothers, and how they make decisions to use or notuse technology from developers (WIT). Second, theintermediaries were identified by loggers and wereevaluated on how they receive information fromtechnology developers; how they evaluate theinformation; how they currently promote; anddiffuse ideas or innovations. Finally, the technologydevelopers were evaluated on how they currentlypromote and diffuse ideas or innovations. Uponanalysis of the network of information flows, astrategic marketing plan for successful transfer ofportable timber bridge technology was developed.
Method For Forecasting Demand andProfitability of Wood Products OnMarket - Wood Product Analysis
Jussi VirtanenHelsinki University of Technology, Laboratory of WoodTechnology, Post Box # 5100, 02015 Helsinki, Finland
Tel: +35894514268, FAX: +358-9-4514277, Email:[email protected]
Keywords: wood, wood products, demand, demandanalysis, profitability, profitablity analysis,forecasting, forecasting demand, quality, qualityestimation, price, price estimation
The research aims at developing a method forforecasting wood product specifications, amounts,qualites, and prices.
The method opens an opportunity to analyzeprofitability, competitiveness, and strategic positionon market for wood products, e.g windows, doors,and other wood construction products. The methodenables reseach scientists and companies to estimatefuture's wood product volumes, productspecifications as well as to create products' priceestimates. The method combines product's technicalspecifications and market factors related to productcompetitiveness. This kind of wood product analysismodel has never before been developed. The goalfor this research project is closely linked with totalgoal of adding value for products of wood industry.
In the first phase we have chosen a group of woodproducts and created a method of definition for allneeded product properties. The choice of the woodproducts is based on the specific needs of the woodproduct industry as well as the computer model thewood product analysis is closely linked with. Thewood product analysis covers a wide range ofproducts of solid wood, engineered wood as well as
products of pulp and paper industries. However, inthe first phase we have studied products likewindows, doors, various glued wood products,panels and different components of wood housingproducts. The method for wood product analysis hasbeen created with a perspective of gainingadvantage of computer optimization modelling andeconomical analysis, which are closely linked withthis area of research. For instance a process ofdesigning new wood products for a new customergroup will sig-nificantly benefit of this kind ofmethod.
In the second phase we have collected detailedsource information of various wood products for theanalysis. This started with a litterature analysis,databases as well as material given by researchorganisations and companies. Besides we collectinformation by interviews from product and marketareas, which are essential for wood productcompetitiveness.
In the third phase we develop a method forforecasting wood product specifications, amounts,qualites, and prices. The use of this methodcombines product qualities, costs, volumes, andother factors related to product competitiveness.Likewise this method can be used in a new way toseek new value added products or productspecifications for a company. This forecastingmethod for instance helps a company or other userof this method to define a potential position for awood product on markets, which opens a newinformation decision level for wood productdevelopment and investments.
The Internet: Implications for BusinessPractices in the Forest Products
IndustryRichard Vlosky, Rene‚ Fontenot, Lydia Blalock
Louisiana State University, School of Forestry, Wildlife,and Fisheries, Rm. 227, LA 70803 Baton Rouge, USA
Tel: (225) 388-4527, FAX: (225) 388-4251, Email:[email protected]
Keywords: Internet, forest products, eBusiness,North America
eBusiness is the application of Internet-basedtechnologies for conducting business. eBusinessoffers revolutionary tools for business developmentand management. Through the Internet, manybarriers that were once roadblocks to new markets,resources and competitive positioning can bereduced or even eliminated. in addition, the Internetlevels the playing field by allowing small companiesto be as visible and accessible as the largestcompanies. Although businesses vary greatly, along
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with their depth of participation on the Internet,their goals are often the same: to find newcustomers; new sources of profit; and new ways ofdoing business in a global marketplace. Technology,while important, is not the limiting factor ineBusiness. What is difficult is managing the changesin business strategies and internal corporateprocesses that must take place for a company to takeadvantage of eBusiness.
eBusiness was studied in the context of the forestproducts industry in the United States and Canada.One thousand solid wood products and 300 pulp andpaper companies were surveyed. The sample framesincluded the top 100 companies (by productionvolume) in each sector (solid wood products, pulpand paper). The remaining companies sampled wererandomly selected from the population.
Overall, respondents were asked to discuss theircurrent or planned eBusiness strategies and theimpacts that have on dealings with customers andsuppliers. Specifically, the study objectives were to:Examine the current and future uses of eBusiness inthe industry and to identify how the forest productsindustry is investing in and leveraging eBusiness.
Mail questionnaires were used to conduct the study.A list of questions was generated for the surveyinstrument drawing from constructs and measuresdeveloped by the researcher in previous studies oradapted from other sources. The survey wasreviewed and revised by the researcher, a pre-testingsample of five companies and the research client.An iterative process resulted in the final instrument.
Results indicate that 40 percent of respondentcompanies are conducting some type of eBusiness.Implementation of eBusiness by respondents hastaken place in the recent past. Nearly ninety percentof respondents developed eBusiness in the past threeyears. Earlier implementation (before 1996) wasdone by larger companies, typically lead adopters oftechnology. The primary reason respondentsimplemented eBusiness was as part of an overallcorporate strategy (mean of 3.5 on a 5-point Likertscale of agreement). These technologies are well-planned activities that are meshed into the corporatefabric as opposed to being independent or non-integrated. Second, and the only other reason rankedabove neutral (3.0 on the 5-point scale), was thegoal of retaining customers. Respondents registereda number of general concerns they have aboutconducting eBusiness with concern about security ofinformation ranking highest.
Companies seek products, processes, andtechnologies that add value to their offerings in aneffort to become or remain competitive in the
marketplace. Firms that consistently deliver superiorbenefits are highly valued by business partners. Thisalso helps to establish, develop and maintain strongrelationships. eBusiness is one means fordeveloping such a competitive advantage.
5.11.00 Non-wood forest products
Wild sago palm and the role it plays inthe culture of Papua New Guinea
Sudesh AggarwalUniversity of Technology, Department of Forestry,
Private Mail Bag Lae, Papua, New GuineaEmail: [email protected]
Spontaneous occurrence of sago palms (Metroxylon)in the swamp forests of Papua New Guinea hascreated vast reserves of this natural resource in thecountry. The world's largest contiguous swamps andforests of sago palms are found in Papua NewGuinea. These forests cover an estimated area of onemillion hectares spread over different provinces.The people of Papua New Guinea consider sagosocially important as they use it extensively onspecial occasions, rituals and feasts. It constitutes astaple food and an essential building material. Sagoforms the backbone of rural economies in manyprovinces. There are numerous ways in which sagopalm has become a part of people's daily life.Unfortunately, forestry literature of this countryoften lacks mention of sago palm as a resource.
There are five species under the genus Metroxylon,of which two occur in PNG. M. Sagu is found on themain land and M. Solomonense grows on theBougainville and Solomon Islands. Both speciesvary considerably in general characteristics as wellas growth habit. Locals consider M. Solomonense abetter yielding species that is easier to work with.While the paper discusses the biological andecological differences between the two species, italso highlights some reasons why there has been noeffort to cultivate M. Solomonense on the mainland.
Sago is a tree of tropical low lands with highirradiance and humidity, and an average temperatureof 26oC. Its natural distribution is confined to SEAsia and nearby Pacific Islands. Aerial and groundsurveys conducted in Papua New Guinea show thatsago palms grow here till 1200m above sea level. Assago palms grow on a range of soils that vary fromthe land inundated with water most of the year todrier and less flood prone areas, vegetation types inwhich they grow vary accordingly. The paper makesan effort to provide a description of these vegetationtypes. It also discusses the effect of traditional socialforestry practices on the distribution of sago palms.
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Sago is a staple food in Papua New Guinea, yet itscultivation is not a common practice. The ease withwhich it grows in the forests of PNG enables thepeople to meet most of the daily needs of palmsfrom the wild. Locals have planted some palm treesin the past but left them unattended after planting.These so-called cultivated areas acquire a wildappearance after a few years.
Cultivation of this kind has been motivated by eitherscarcity or the need to bring palms closer todwelling areas. in order to benefit the largepopulations living in other remote locations,cultivation of sago needs to be spread to otherswamplands and potential sites. To them sago canprovide a good supplement towards food and abetter substitute to kunai grass or coconut thatch forconstructional purposes.
Finally the paper concludes that sago is a vitalresource for people of Papua New Guinea. Sagopalm as such may not be contributing to the casheconomy of the country, but its significance in thesubsistence economy can’t be ruled out. At present,sago palms are in abundance in the forests of PNGand not much attention has been paid towards itsmanagement. However with increasing population,demand for sago palm is steadily rising. Therefore itbecomes necessary to develop sustainablemanagement systems for sago palms that will notonly rehabilitate some of the unproductive swampsbut will provide a sustained supply of sago in manyyears to come.
Marketing of Non-Timber ForestProducts: A Key to Conserve Natural
Tropical Forests?Michel Becker, Antonia Engel
University of Freiburg, Institute of Forest Policy, Marketsand Marketing Section, Freiburg, Germany
FAX: 62 251 622100, Email: [email protected]
Expanded and improved commercialisation of non-timber forest products (NTFP) will increase cashincomes of rural households in tropical countries,thereby motivating local actors to conserve foreststhrough sustainable management. This expectationhas recurrently been raised by environmentalists anddevelopment professionals over the past 15 years.But does the very nature of NTFP markets andmarketing underpin this expectation? This paperreviews the main features of NTFP markets andmarketing based on experiences made in the pastand current market trends. Particular attention isgiven to the role of rural households in themarketing chain and how their economic positioncould be strengthened.
Notwithstanding the scarcity and erratic nature ofglobal NTFP data, there is evidence that NTFPrepresent an impressive economic asset in manytropical countries. The overall value of NTFPextracted from tropical forests is estimated at US$90 billion per year. The trade in the 150 mostsignificant NTFP alone amounts to around US$ 11billion per year, with the major part being exportedfrom tropical countries to the northern hemisphere.
Nevertheless, some researchers question theviability of NTFP economies. They conclude fromexperiences made with individual NTFP traded oninternational markets, such as rubber or rattan: onceNTFP become high value goods in internationaltrade they are believed to suffer from economicpressure to overexploit the resource base, or facecompetition from plantation products or cheapersubstitutes. Thus, it would only be a matter of timeuntil NTFP from natural forests lose their marketshares and, consequently, plant extractiveeconomies would disappear.
It may be doubted that substitute-induced marketcollapse is a distinctive feature of NTFP markets.That products become obsolete should rather beviewed as a typical feature of any commodity tradedon whatever market. Marketing and related policiestypically aim to extend the life cycle of products andto prevent substitution. If this challenge has notbeen met in the past concerning important tropicalNTFP, this may be understood as a consequence oflacking marketing strategies and poor resourcemanagement rather than being a distinctive featureof NTFP markets. It should also be borne in mindthat reported examples for substitute-inducedmarket collapse primarily concern internationalmarkets while there are numerous examples ofNTFP which long have been sold successfully onlocal and national markets despite the modernsubstitutes available. Even on international marketsdeclining demand for certain NTFP must not beconclusive, as consumer preferences may shift backto products that had lost significant market shares inthe past.
There is evidence that negative examples ofextractive economies primarily result from the lackof even basic marketing strategies. This is partly dueto low accessibility of adequate market information,in particular as regards demand for NTFP traded oninternational markets. in addition, actors on NTFPmarkets face uncertainty when land tenure is vagueand, hence, NTFP are open access resources. Thedevelopment of medium-term marketing strategiesis further hampered by the at times ephemeral natureof consumer preferences, poor post-harvesttreatment, lacking processing facilities to meet
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consumer needs, and low investments in customerrelations.
At the very beginning of many NTFP marketingchains are rural households. When involved in themere collection of NTFPs, they typically receive anominal portion of the final sales price. Theirbargaining power tends to be weak and, worse, thepoorest among them may be deprived of lucrativeNTFP resources by external forces. To change thissituation, improved marketing alone is insufficient.Providing extractors with the control over NTFPresources and acknowledging the crucial role NTFPplay in rural economies is also indispensable whenrural households are to be empowered. Based onsuch general pre-requisites, specific steps to developNTFP marketing in favour of rural communities areto be made , e.g. encouraging co-operativeprocessing and sale, introducing appropriate marketinformation systems, and promoting the access topromising segments of national or internationalmarkets through preferential chains.
Management and production of NTFPand the commercialisation/conservation
propositionBruce Campbell, Wil de Jong
University of Zimbabwe, Institute of EnvironmentalStudies, Center for International Forestry Research,
Harare, ZimbabweEmail: [email protected]
Central in much of the discussion on NTFPs is theproposition that their commercialisation will lead tobiodiversity conservation. This proposition hasseveral problems. The theory of the historical cycleof extractive economies predicts that when a NTFPbecomes demanded widely, this eventually will leadto its cultivation or the production of substitutes. inaddition agricultural transformation theory predictsa diminishing role of NTFP extraction when ruraleconomies expand.
This paper is based on research on local forestmanagement among Dayak farmers, and ribere¤ofarmers in Peru and extensive literature review. Itconcludes that when NTFPs become economicallymore important, swidden agriculturists who rely onthe forest for an important part of their livelihoodneeds, will produce NTFP through some kind offorest management. As a result, managed forests arecommon in among many swidden agriculturists.These forests often maintain important levels ofspecies diversity and structure, sometimes similar tothe natural forest that they replace. If some NTFPsbecome the major source of income, intensifiedproduction may develop. This will lead to changesin local land use, with consequent impacts on the
cover, structure, and floristic composition of theforest. However, in some case this may lead to anincrease in forest cover, rather than the opposite.
These findings justify speculations on alternativedevelopment options such as estate cropdevelopment, as currently is taking place. Oil palm,for instance, originally an NTFP, is currently aprominent plantation crop in Sumatra andKalimantan, the two largest islands of Indonesia.Especially when local incomes are considered themost important, NTFP development may lead tosmallholder production with much less impact onbiodiversity, carbon storage, and otherenvironmental features.
These findings suggest that the commercialisation-conservation proposition needs to be broadened toaccount for changes as described in this paper.Natural forest conservation as opposed to convertingfor agricultural use is only one effect of NTFPcommercialisation. This effect can be expected tooccur only under a limited number of circumstances.in other cases, NTFP can be commercialised in away that it can be produced by smallholders andbecome an alternative for large-scale estatedevelopment. Such NTFP development will alsohave a beneficial effect on biodiversity and otherenvironmental functions of the forest landscape.
NTFPs and rural poverty alleviation: theeconomics of scepticism
William CavendishImperial College-Royal School of Mines, T.H.Huxley
School, London, United KingdomEmail: [email protected]
Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) have beenembraced by the international community as ameans of simultaneously promoting the economicdevelopment of poor, rural households and ofconserving forests and woodlands. This paper usesthe perspective of household economic analysis anddata results from various sources to suggest thatmuch of this enthusiasm is misplaced.
First, there is nothing special about NTFPs from theperspective of rural households. They are simplygoods and services with particular economiccharacteristics, and their use can only be explainedwith reference to the constrained economic choicesfaced by most rural households. The typical ruralhousehold is extremely poor; faces very hightransactions costs of trading in formal markets andtherefore extensive formal market failure thanks to apoor infrastructure; faces considerable productionrisk against which it is hard to insure; has onlypartially monetised economic activities; has low
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levels of education; and has low levels of financialand physical capital.
There is much evidence that poor, rural householdsrely heavily on NTFPs for economic goods andservices, so that these resources are a critical -though often hidden - source of welfare for ruralhouseholds. However, this heavy reliance on NTFPsis a function of the poverty and economicconstraints of rural households rather than freechoice. Indeed, it is the economic characteristics ofNTFPs that makes them attractive to poorhouseholds. NTFPs are usually derived fromcommons areas and are collected and consumedrather than purchased with cash; as open accessgoods they are low value and can be consumed bythe poor; NTFPs are collected using unskilledlabour, in which rural households are abundant;NTFP processing requires low levels of educationand physical capital; and NTFP use can help offsetproduction risk. So NTFP economic characteristicsmatch the economic constraints of the rural poor.
In consequence, there will be many problemsassociated with the commercialisation of NTFPs todrive rural socio-economic development. inparticular, there is little evidence that as householdsget richer they still wish to consume most NTFPs.Most NTFPs are inferior goods so that demand willfall as incomes rise. There are considerableproblems overcoming the high transactions costs oftrading in NTFPs and the lack of storage facilitiesfor perishable goods. If an NTFP is commercialised,high demand levels have led in the past to rapidextinction of the resource, especially where heldunder open access, and can trigger the process ofresource privatisation. Higher prices for NTFPs willalso trigger investment in domestification or thesearch for technical substitutes.
Non-wood Tree Biomass - a RawMaterial of Coming Century
Mauris DaugavietisLatvian Forest Research Institute "Silava", Rigas str. 111,
LV-2169 Salaspils, LatviaFAX: +(371) 7 901359, Email: [email protected]
The commercial stem wood harvesting is adominant method of forest utilization today. Theutilization of knot wood and small sized items fromthinnings for energy is developed only in countrieswith intensive forest management.
The forest biomass studies show that 5-20 % of treebiomass is a tree foliage (succulent tissues or livingpart of tree biomass) - i.e., leaves, neadles, twigs,flowers, nonlignified shoots, called "logingresidues" today. A lot of investigations show a great
concentration of biologically active substances andnutritions in the tree foliage and possibilities toutilize it as a raw material for animal feed (mainlybroadleave foliage) and for obtaining hight qualitynatural substances for pharmacy, cosmetics, foodindustry and other branches of economy (mainlyconiferous and some specific broadleave speciesfoliage). The another non-wood part of tree - barkalso content many usable substances. A largenumber of such natural substances urgently neededfor insuring of peoples and animals vitality, but wecan't obtine its by modern technologies of synthesis.The many of them is founded only in the treefoliage, for example different terpenes, polyprenolsa.o., but not founded in agricultural crops and otherflora.
The genetic older gymnospermous species containmore specific biologically active substances tocompare with angiospermous trees. The risk todecrease the forest productivity by tree foliageremoval from forest area simultaneously with finalcutting is minimal for boreal forests. The harvestingof tree foliage may be done on the basis of moderntree harvesting technology and technic using inforest industry, for example, "green chipstechnology" and other. The environmental friendlytechnologies for tree foliage processing andobtaining more than 30 commercial products areelaborated and tested. The new profitable productlines for replacing synthetic substances inpharmacy, food industry, pesticide industry, fodderand other branches of economy are tested, themarket of natural substances is rapidly growing. Themost popular today is different solid extracts formtree foliage on the basis of polar and nonpolarsolvents as well as concentrates or pure compoundsobtained from extracts. The present knowledgesabout tree foliage and bark chemical composition ofPinus, Abies, Pices, Betula, Ginko, Eucaliptus andother species is a good basis for development ofutilization but for many species we need additionalinvestigations. The expierence of different countriesshow that utilization of non-wood tree biomass,mainly tree foliage, will become a very importantpart of forest economy, especially in theagroforestry, forest plantations and borealconiferous forests in the early of 21st century.
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A comparison of theories on institutionrelevant to non-timber forest products
developmentWil de Jong
Center for International Forestry Research, P.O. Box6596 JKPWB, 10065 Jakarta, Indonesia
Tel: 62-251-622622, FAX: 62-251-622100, Email: [email protected]
Besides the resource base and markets theinstitutional environment in which NTFP arecollected or produced is of crucial importance forany successful exploitation. Institutions areunderstood here as property rights, rules of conduct,more formalised regulations and laws, in shortinstruments that condition behaviour in theeconomic and social sphere, but also theorganisational structures that govern resource use.This paper compares five important theories thatrelate to institutional issues in the NTFP undersituations where NTFP based development is anoption to understand their scoop and compatibility,and to understand under which circumstances theframework of a particular theory is the moreappropriate one for analysis. These theories are: newinstitutionalism; common property theory; politicalecology theory; new social movements theory;social capital theory.
New Institutionalism theory explains the historicalprocesses of institutions to reduce transaction costs,and so to optimise economic gain for society atlarge. Common Property theory takes a specific caseof tenure, namely common property and explainsunder what conditions common property willemerge and are viable. On the other hand PoliticalEcology theory Social Capital theory and NewSocial Movement theory explain contested access tonatural resources, for instance NTFP that havebecome economically attractive. Political ecologytheory describes vagaries of NTFP exploitation forlocal social groups as part of wider power networks.Social movements theory highlights the processes offormation of these groups and what defines theirsuccess in claiming access or local ownership.Social Capital theory explains why groups aresuccessful in organising themselves, why they aresuccessful to build social control mechanisms, orconcerted efforts in achieving sustained NTFP baseddevelopment. These theories, when compared,appear to complement each other as they explaindifferent aspects of the institutional dimensions ofNTFP based development processes. NewInstitutionalism and Common Property theory areclosest related as they explain the rules aspects ofinstitutions, being Common Property a morespecific case of tenure rules that new
Institutionalism explains more broadly. Oppositethese two theories are Political Ecology theory andNew Social Movements theory that focuses on theactors and their group formation and action. inbetween these categories is Social Capital theorythat explains why groups become successful inbuilding common property regimes, why they aresuccessful in building united efforts to benefit fromeconomic opportunities or engage struggle for rightsto resources. Social Capital theory may also explainwhy previously contesting groups may find commonground and engage in concerted efforts to addressmutually identified conflicts of development orenvironmental problems.
These five theories, when compared, for a large partcomplement each other in explaining the severalprocesses that take place when NTFP basedeconomies develop. They therefore, are eachimportant when addressing institutional issues inNTFP based development efforts.
Conservation Protection andSustainable Use of Medicinal PlantsP. L. Gautam, S.P. Raychaudhuri, Neelam SharmaNational Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, Pusa
Campus, 110012 New Delhi, IndiaTel: +91-11-5783697, FAX: +91-11-5785619, 5819459,
Email: [email protected]
Keywords: conservation & protection, genebanks,bioresources, threatened plants, medicinal plants
The last decade has witnessed skyrocketing interestin herbal medicines. At present, 95% collection ofmedicinal plants is from the wild usingunsustainable practices of collection/harvesting.Indiscriminate exploitation of natural resources tofulfil escalating consumer demands besides otheranthropogenic activities have led to the decline ofnatural and wild populations. Current rate of speciesextinction coupled with inter alia ravages ofdiseases/insect pests has made conservation ofmedicinal plants, an urgent activity. There is aglobal recognition of safe conservation ofbioresources of medicinal plants. These resourcescan be conserved employing holistic approach ofamalgamating both in situ and ex situ methods usingnew emerging technologies to ensure sustainableuse.
In situ conservation approach allows for continuedand dynamic adaptation of plants to environment.Contrastingly, ex-situ conservation requiresmaintenance of germplasm outside their originalhabitat. Plant diversity is being conserved in fieldgene bank, seed gene bank, in vitro gene bank andcryobank. Among the ex situ methods, rare andcurious plants can be conserved as living collection
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in field genebanks, arboreta, botanical/herbalgardens etc. Conventional conservation of seeds inseed genebanks is the most popular strategy.However, it sometimes poses problems in case ofthreatened species, as the seeds may be inadequateand/or recalcitrant. in vitro genebanks areincreasingly being used as an alternative to conservesuch species. Cryopreservation offers the possibilityof conserving germplasm under suspended growthfor indefinite period in a limited space withminimum inputs. DNA storage also needs to beintegrated in conservation programme in a plannedmanner.
The comprehensive and safe conservation ofavailable diversity including medicinal plants is themajor aim of conservation efforts at NationalBureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR). Thecollection, conservation, documentation andscientific management of the precious biowealth hasthus emerged as a priority area. in this endeavour,considering the need to survey enormous geneticresources and their distribution, priorities have beenworked out, keeping in view the relative degree ofthreat. Attention is given to adopt differentconservation methodologies available in acomplementary way to conserve the collectedgermplasm.
The precious germplasm has been collected atNBPGR through explorations from differentphytogeographical zones of India. The germplasm iscollected from forests; villages and herbal gardensin the form of live plants, seeds, fruits and otherplant propagules. of these, over 100 species aremaintained in pots and under field genebanks at itsregional stations. Seed samples of 579 and 220accessions are conserved in seed genebank andcryobanks, respectively. in vitro techniques havebeen used as an aid to clonal propagation andconservation especially for threatened species. Theapplication of tissue culture techniques formultiplication and conservation of these plantsappears a promising option. Employing thesestrategies, cultures of a few medicinal plants such asKaempferia galanga, Rauvolfiaserpentina,Tylophora indica, Picrorhiza kurrooa,Rheum spp and Gentiana kurroo have beenconserved for varying periods. in vitro repositorymaintains 60 collections comprising 20threatened/important species as shoot cultures.
Many important forest medicinal plants likeSandalwood (Santalum indicum and Santalumalbum), Eucalyptus suffer from infection withPhytoplasma (earlier designated as Mycoplasmalike organisms, MLOs). Raychhaudhuri and hisgroup worked on 'Spike disease', which has
devastated the chief sandal growing areas of SouthIndia. Temporary remission of the diseasesymptoms by tetracycline treatment and electronmicroscopy confirmed Phytoplasma to be thecausative agent. The present paper will elaborate onthe above activities.
The significance of NWFP for tropicalsocieties: an analysis of statistical data
on NWFP utilization in East andSouthern African countries
Wulf Killmann, H. Küstel; Laura. Russo; P. Vantomme;Sven Walter
FAO, Forestry Department, Wood and Non-WoodProducts Utilization Branch, Viale delle Terme di
Caracalla, 00100 Rome, ItalyFAX: +39-06-570-55618, Email:
Accurate, reliable information on non-wood forestproducts (NWFP) utilization and trade is anessential tool for forest management decision-makers at all levels. in most tropical countries, thecurrent coverage and quality of existing informationat a national, sub-regional and regional level isinadequate for policy analysis and decision making.
By compiling national reports on the importance ofNWFP in tropical countries, FAO aims to improvethe availability and dissemination of statistical dataon NWFP. in this effort, the major NWFP areidentified by country, and their utilization andsource, as well as production system, are described.Key findings are presented in a summary by region.
For countries in East and Southern Africa,preliminary results indicate the following regionalpatterns: in East Africa, gums and resins, medicinalplants and bee products are the main NWFP;whereas in Southern Africa, edible plants, medicinalplants and bushmeat are the NWFP of majorimportance.
The analysis of available production and trade dataon NWFP revealed that they are often mixed withstatistics on agriculture crops and that, although notalways easy, a proper segregation betweenagriculture crops and NWFP is required.Internationally agreed-upon terminology, conceptsand definitions on NWFP, combined with improvedmethodologies for the regular collection ofstatistical data and for monitoring of NWFP use, areessential for a better understanding of thesignificance of NWFP to tropical societies.
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Peoples Dependence on Forest and theChanging Legal Profile
Neil B. MajumdarIndian Institute of Forest Management, Post Box # 357,
462 003 Bhopal, IndiaTel: 91-0755- 775716, FAX: 91 0755 772878, Email:
People in India are dependent on forests for thegoods and services produced since timeimmemorial. Apart from timber poles, andfueldwood which were classically categorised as"major forest produce", the dependence is also andeven to a larger extent,on several other producewhich were referred as "minor forest produce".Though the nomenclature for the later has beenchanged in the recent years, as "non timber forestproduce" (NTFP), dimension and magnitude of theproblems remain unchanged. Present paper opts fortwo such produce viz., Bamboo and Tendu leaves(Diospyros melanoxylon) to elaborate people'sdependence and the changing legal profile in thecountry. As per the Indian Forest Act, the prime actregarding forest, bamboos are classified as timber.Poor forest dwellers use bamboo in the constructionof their huts though the other modes of use varyfrom eating young bamboo rhizome, fencing theirfield to making mats, baskets and various otherartifacts and selling them in the market to earnlivelihood. "Nistar rules" (rules for concessionalsupply of forest produce to the villagers) at manyplaces have provisions for supplying bamboo to thevillagers though due to shrinkage of forest resourcesprovisions can hardly be followed.
Tendu leaves on the other hand, are used in the largescale "Bidi" manufacturing process (Bidi is countrycigarette prepare by rolling tobacco within the driedtendu leaves) and forest dwellers/villagers come inthe picture in this regard, as labourers to collect theleaves from the forests and to sell it to thecontractors. As per the Minor Forest Produce(Regulation) Act in most of the cases, trade in tenduleaves is a state monopoly. An amendment to theWildlife (Protection) Act, in the early nineties hascreated distinct hardship in the life of the peoplecollecting tendu leaves from the wildlife sanctuaryareas. Though National Forest Policy and variousActs did not provide an important status to theNTFPs, various management systems partiallyrecognised its value. in "coppice with reserve(CWR)" system of management, which is an Indianmodification of "coppice with standards (CWS)",the need of the local people particularly for NTFPshas been given due weightage.
In the present philosophy of forest management, inthe participatory line, people's dependence onNTFPs is being considered as a crucial determinantfor the success. Forest Protection Committees(FPCs) constituted by the villagers for protectingand regenerating the forests as per the standingorder of the government, have been given the'usufructary rights' on the NTFPs. However,"Panchayat Extension to the Scheduled Area Act(PESA, 96) empowered 'Gram Sabha' (i.e. villagecommittee) members with the ownership right onthe NTFPs. This underlines the conflict between theusufructory rights and the ownership rights beingenjoyed respectively by the Forest ProtectionCommittee and the village committee members, incase they are not exactly the same. Forest play animmensely important role in the ecological securityof the country. However its contribution as a naturalresource being used by the people, most of whomstand below the poverty line, cannot also beundermined. An apt forest policy therefore shouldmaintain a balance.
Strategy for Sustainable NTFPManagement in India
Ram PrasadIndian Institute of Forest Management, Nehru Nagar, PO
Box 357, 462003 Bhopal, MP, IndiaTel: +91-755-775716, FAX: +91-755-772878, Email:
Non-timber Forest Products (NTFP) playincreasingly greater role in the social and traditionallifestyle of millions of forest dependent populationparticularly the tribal, landless, women and otherrural poor. in view of increasing realisation forecological, socio-cultural and economic dimensionsof forests, the Sustainable Forest Management hascome to be reckoned as most important managementinnovation for ensuring sustainable development.Similarly, participatory forest management,popularly known as Joint Forest Management inIndia, is an important forest managementintervention to attain the goal of sustainable forestmanagement. and, to ensure successfulimplementation of Joint Forest Management, flowof benefits through production of Non-timber forestproducts (NTFP's), offers the best incentives to theparticipating communities on sustained basis. inorder to sustain the interest of the participatingcommunities in forest conservation sustainableNTFP management assumes key role. However, thecurrent NTFP management practices areecologically and socially unsustainable. This paperattempts to highlight the current managementpractices and presents strategy for sustainablemanagement of NTFP in India. Although, NTFP's
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have been providing subsistence to the forestdependent communities since time immemorial, itcame into great prominence in the last decade due topreference for natural product based medicines,cosmetics, dyes and chemicals, pesticides, food,fibre etc. Importance of NTFPs as a source ofrevenue to forest department also increased due torestrictions on timber harvesting for environmental-reasons imposed by Supreme Court of India. JointForest Management (JFM) arrangements, that is themanagement of forest resources by govt forestdepartment and local communities with the explicitunderstanding for sharing of products (timber andnon-timber), responsibilities, control andmanagement decision making. Due to uncertainty ingetting benefits from timber harvesting being along-term proposition, NTFPs for their capacity toyield year round benefit starting from first year ofprotection is an important incentive to theparticipating communities. There is thus a need tostrengthen this useful links between NTFPmanagement and Joint Forest Management so thatthe synergy of their linkage can be profitablychannelled for the well being of the forests and thedependent communities. Although no preciseestimate of the total amount of NTFP extracted fromthe natural forests is available according to aguestimate, it could vary between 10,000 to 50,000tons annually providing earnings that runs intobillions of rupees each year. About 60 percent ofNTFPs go unrecorded and are consumed or barteredby about 15 million people living in and aroundforests. Large revenue flowing to the stateexchequer from NTFPs have given the state thevested interest in marketing the produce with hugecosts both to the poor who rely on gathering themfor their subsistence needs and to the users ofNTFPs. Most of the products are sold in raw formand therefore it is not remunerative to gatherers.After walking long distance and spending severalhours the gatherer is able to get less than minimumgovernment prescribed wages. Thus, they try tocollect as much as possible to maximise theirearning from day's collection. in the process theyresort to destructive harvesting. As a result of thismany important NTFP species are getting depletedin the natural forests. in several studies it has beenshown that processing and value addition at primarycollector's level increase the earning from NTFP by4-5 times. Simple value addition measures such ascleaning, washing, air drying, grading, packing etc.,which can be carried out at household andcommunity level, without any investment can alsoresult into remunerative returns to gatherers by 2-3times. Institutional support for awareness andtraining for value addition process and marketing
can motivate collector's to adopt sustainableharvesting practices. The NTFP gatherers havetraditionally been conservationists and in normalcase would not resort to destroying the naturalresource base that their forefathers protected andworshipped for generations. The middlemen andcontractors operating in and around forest areashave been exploiting the gatherers taking theadvantage of absence of local level institutions,credit facilities and value addition options.Organising the communities through joint forestmanagement (JFM) offers best option to reduce theexploitation by middlemen and ensure better returnsfrom the collection and sale of NTFP.
Community's interest in sustainable production ofNTFP may sustain Joint Forest Management andensure sustainable development of forests and thepeople dependent upon them.
NTFPs Pivotal for Sustainable ForestManagement to Solve Global Forestry
Probelms and Society NeedsMahabir Prasad Shiva, Alka Shiva
Centre of Minor Forest Products (COMFORPTS), 8,Indirapuram, P.O. Majra, 248 171 Dehradun, India
Tel: +91-135-621302, FAX: +91-135-629936, Email:[email protected]
Human and cattle population explosion,urbanization, land grabbing for agriculture, grazingand industrial development have resulted in sickbiodiversity, disturbed ecosystem, depletion ofnatural resources, environmental pollution andnatural calamities. As a result, the very existence oflife on earth has become at stake. Since, problemsare being addressed by different agencies for aparticular strategy in isolation, no headway could beachieved. To meet this global challenge, it issuggested that holistic multi disciplinary integratedapproach should be adopted. Forest Managementwhich is still mainly timber dominated should betransformed into Non Timber Forest Products(NTFP) oriented need based sustainable forestmanagement as NTFP species play pivotal role indifferent forestry programmes, viz., Joint ForestManagement (JFM), Joint Rural Development(JRD), Watershed Management, Global Warming,Environmental / Biodiversity Conservation and allsociety needs.
Understanding the global need, the author conveyshow the task of global importance can beimplemented by the modern information technologyto acquire primary or site information on NTFPs,which in turn may serve as a basic tool to supportthe forest managers, foresters, policy makers,scientists, entrepreneurs and other user groups for
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the utilization of Minor Forest Products (MFPs) orNon Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) or Non WoodForest Products (NWFPs) for socio-economicdevelopment as well as for the maintenance ofvegetal biodiversity and ecosystem / environmentalconservation because lack of information has hitherto been the major obstacle to the NTFP orientedforest management.
COMFORPTS is the only institute in India andabroad, specifically and exclusively devoted to thepursuits of NTFP, which has evolved a "StandardNTFP Classification and Documentation Manual" in26 categories for universal use by Shiva & Mathur(1997). The paper explains how the Manual can beused by India and other countries also in selectingthe species of NTFP importance according to theiredapho-climatic situations for various purposes.
COMFORPTS is acting now as a Resource Centrefor NTFPs and the author is the Contact Person andDy. Coordinator of IUFRO network for NWFPswith the help of MFP Database evolved by theauthor.
The Web Site address of COMFORPTS is:http://www.angelfire.com/ma/MinorForestProductsand that of IUFRO is: http://iufro.boku.ac.at"Inventory of Forest Resources for SustainableManagement and Biodiversity Conservation" by Dr.M.P. Shiva, with lists of multipurpose tree speciesyielding both Timber and Non Timber ForestProducts (NTFP) and shrub & herb species of NTFPimportance has been published and released insecond South & East Asian Countries NTFPNetwork (SEANN) workshop on 27th October,1998 by Dr. Barry Deren of the World Bank.
The author has suggested in his paper how Researchand Community Development Projects can beexecuted through indigenous NTFP species byraising mixed crops of multipurpose tree speciesyielding both wood and NWFPs/NTFPs and shruband herb species of NTFP importance.
About five propagation methods have already beenperfected by the author and his co-workers. A bookon "Plant Biodiversity for Sustainable CommunityDevelopment" by Dr. M.P. Shiva & S.S. Bartwal,has also been published and released in secondSEANN workshop on 27th October, 1998 by Dr.Ana Doris Capistrano of The Ford Foundation.
The paper conveys how COMFORPTS can offerexpertise globally on the following aspects ofNTFPs to tackle forestry problems and societyneeds.
1. Mechanism for making choice of suitablespecies based on edapho-climatic conditionsincluding forest types etc.
2. Standardizing propagation methods for massiveafforestation on land husbandry programmes, onforests and other vacant lands.
3. Evolving harvesting techniques for optimumproductivity and biodiversity conservation.
4. Determining marketing and trade channels forNTFP based enterprises for socio-economicdevelopment and equitable distribution ofprofits particularly to disadvantaged groups ofboth men and women dwelling in urban, ruraland forest areas.
Research for a) Augmenting regeneration of mixedNTFP species of trees, shrubs and herbs forbiodiversity conservation and socio-economicdevelopment. b) For ensuring increased productivityof NTFPs. c) Marketing research for equitabledistribution of profits, upliftment of disadvantagedgroups of people; study of marketing channels andprice regime; assess and regulate demand andsupply of NTFP for enterprises according to trends.
6. Strengthening information for generating trainingmaterial to create awareness among all user groups.
The overall impact will be sustainable forestmanagement of existing resources withreplenishment of naturally regenerating forests andextending man made forests, which wouldultimately result in conservation, enrichment ofbiological diversity and socio-economicdevelopment of village community and forestdwellers including tribals globally.
Contributions of NTFP-basedeconomies to development - a
conceptual framework between growthand distribution
Jochen StatzUniversity of Freiburg, Institute of Forest Policy, Markets
and Marketing Section, Freiburg, GermanyEmail: [email protected]
It is widely believed that use and trade of NTFP docontribute to economic development, being both,ecologically and socially sustainable at the sametime. Over the last years, many scholars andpractitioners have adopted this suggestion. But, asmuch as being tantalising this thesis is unspecificand lacking conceptual clarity - this explains, inparts, it's widespread support. The conceptualunderstanding of what development is remainsobscure.
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The concept of development can be traced throughhistory. in antiquity, development originally had aclearly the character of a procedure of unfolding anidea or an argument. in a larger sense developmentstood for any unfolding of potentials, generallyfollowing a given (but mostly hidden to theobserver/audience) finality. Since the eighteenthcentury, this understanding was translated to humansociety: mankind as a whole, specific societies orindividuals were meant to unwrap their intrinsicpotentials, thus fulfilling a prescribed (but notknown) agenda established by god or nature.Advances in the natural sciences, especiallyevolution biology, lead to the recognition thatdevelopment is not linear, not moving neither naturenor society straight towards a given destination.Development, it became clear, does not have a goal,yet it has a direction. Since its beginnings shortlyafter World War II, development assistance hasfollowed an end-vision: so called underdevelopedcountries were to follow the example of theindustrialised world. Economic growth would be thestarting point for their take-off. It was believed thatonce entered this road, any underdevelopedcountries would follow a given sequence of steps,ultimately reaching the state of being developed.The primary sector of national economies was seenas the key to ignite development, with agricultureand forestry as key economic activities. This rathersimplistic view has been questioned andreconsidered in the political discussion of the lastfive decades. Today, a consensus has been reachedover a set of components that do not serve as goalsto development, but rather as a direction forinternational development assistance. The five keycomponents of development comprise Work,Growth, Participation, Equity, and Independence.
Since UNCED these elements have beencomplemented by a temporal dimension: onlyactivities that sustain the development potential of a(natural or social) system in the longer run, can beperceived as developments (otherwise contributingto the development of under-development).Development of society is today seen as the processby which endogenous potentials are being unfoldedleading to an ever more complex system, withoutnarrowing future options for further changes.
Following the contemporary understanding ofdevelopment, the benefits and contributions ofNTFP-based activities have to be valued not only interms of economic wealth and growth, but in thelight of the other components of development, aswell. Interdependencies between contributionsattributed to the five elements have to be taken intoaccount. It follows that economic growth does not
necessarily lead to development. Growth withoutdistribution can be seen as underdevelopment, as anarrowing of future options to a society. Anyassessment of the contributions that the NTFP-basedeconomies make to the development of a society hasto take into account potential benefits of all fivedevelopment dimensions. They need to be valuedwith their interdependencies and their beingsustained over time. So far, the support for the thesisthat „use and trade of NTFP favours economic andsocial development“ is due in parts to it’s vague andthus indisputable conceptual founding.
5.12.00 Sustainable wood industry
Sustainable production of forestproducts in Southeast Asia: what
products and production systems?Kamis Awang, Suree Bhumibhamon
Universiti Putra Malaysia, Faculty of Forestry, 43400UPM Serdang, Malaysia
FAX: 943 2509, Email: [email protected]
Keywords: Sustainable production; Forest products;Production systems; Southeast Asia
Forest lands and their associated resources haveplayed significant roles in the socio-economicdevelopment of most of the Southeast Asiancountries. Much of these forests have either beenconverted into other land-uses such as agriculture,mining and settlement or disturbed due to harvestingof wood and various other products in support of theforest product industries. Apart from theseindustries, large proportions of the rural populationsof these countries are dependent on the forestresources for their livelihood. The forests supply thebasic needs in terms of energy, shelter, food,medicines and water of these rural dwellers.
There are varying degrees of advances intechnologies, utilization and market development inthese different countries. Sustainable managementof these resources will therefore have to take intoconsideration these different stages of development,and the ecological, economic and social dimensionsof the production and other uses. It must adopt aholistic approach and research must be strategic innature.
Past supplies of forest products have come mainlyfrom the harvesting of the natural forests. Todaymuch of these forests have been exploited orconverted into other uses. They are fast diminishingor degraded. However, attempts are being made toput the remaining forests under an appropriatemanagement system with sustainable objectives.Other strategies are also being adopted to meet the
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expected shortage of supplies due to increaseddemand following population increases.
The increasing reliance on other production systemsis emerging in many of these countries. For exampleinterest in plantations, both on a small or industrialscale, has grown in recent years. However, thenumber of species used is limited to a few, mainlythose with fast growth rates. Likewise, increasinglymore products are being produced from communityforests or on small farms of individual farmers.Various models of agroforestry practices are in use.Other nontraditional sources of cellulosic materialssuch as oil palm fibers, bagasse and Hevea wood arealso fast becoming important particularly incomposite industries.
Similarly, the utilization pattern has evolved fromthe selective harvesting of a few limited species ofonly large dimension to a wide range of speciesincluding those of small dimension. Improvementsin processing technologies and market developmenthave produced new products and opened moreopportunities. Solid wood utilization is giving wayto composite products. More uses are finding theirway for each species. Besides wood, other parts oftrees are being more intensively researched forcomplete utilization. Multipurpose species arebecoming increasing popular. The products obtainedcan be used for subsistence or cash income, hencegrowing trees on farm is becoming more attractive.
Sustainable Forestry and WoodProduction. Common Ground andConflicts. the Mission of Research
Group S5.12.Jamie Barbour, Andrew H. H. Wong
USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest ResearchStation, P.O. Box 3890, 97213-3890 Portland, OR, USA
Email: [email protected]
Keywords: sustainable forestry, forest products,silviculture, wood
The concept of sustainability in the context of forestmanagement holds a different meaning to almostevery group that espouses it. Many of thesedifferences arise because of the varying goals andobjectives of those who promote the idea ofsustainable forest management. When discussingthis topic, the question of "sustainability of what"must be answered prior to reaching a commonunderstanding of goals and objectives.
In general, a sustainable approach to forestmanagement uses new strategies to conservebiodiversity, improve the balance among alternativeforest values, and sustain healthy ecosystems. It isoften also expected to retain the aesthetic, historic,
and spiritual qualities of the land. Varioussilvicultural techniques may be used to alter thedevelopmental trajectory of existing stands toprovide this range of values.
In some cases, management strategies includeremoving wood as a primary goal. in other cases,wood is removed as a secondary objective duringtreatments to improve forest health, restore wildlifehabitat, create recreational opportunities, mitigateimpacts of forest pests, or alter the vegetative mixfor increased biodiversity.
Forest management strategies that aim to producewood on a sustainable basis take many differentapproaches. A common model is one where thetenets of conservation biology are implemented onparts of the managed landscape, often as a networkof reserves, or near reserves, on the areas consideredmost biologically sensitive, and management forwood occurs on adjacent, less sensitive and oftenless productive lands. Another less commonapproach, is to attempt to mix production of woodand other resource values on the same piece ofground under the doctrine of management ofecosystem processes. in these cases, forest managersmust either have the trust and confidence ofmembers of the public who advocate sustainableforest management or they must have sufficientautonomy to avoid or ignore public scrutiny.
These sustainable forest management strategies areusually implemented on large landscapes and judgedusing broad indicators of success. They are,however, implemented on a project-by-project basisoften at the stand or watershed level. It is importantto be able to link activities at all scales and throughtime in order to understand the implications ofactivities at each scale to outcomes at other scales.
The Division 5 Research Group S5.12 SustainableProduction of Forest Products was created in 1998to: 1) promote research on the sustainableproduction of wood products; 2) encouragecommunication between IUFRO Division 5, otherIUFRO Divisions, and other organizations that areconcerned with sustainable forestry. These goals aredescribed in the context of real and hypotheticalexamples of production of forest products undersustainable forest management objectives.
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The Role of Wood Removals inSustainable Forest Management in the
United States: the Contribution ofFederal Land.
Marlin Johnson, Hal Salwasser, Barry L. BollenbacherUSDA Forest Service, Southwestern Region,
Albuquerque, New Mexico, USATel: 505-842-3242, Email: [email protected]
Keywords: Sustainable forestry, ecosystemmanagement, fire, biomass
Forest ecosystems are dynamic; they do notmaintain balance in a "steady state." Sustainabilityof dynamic ecosystems means that, over the long-term, growth and loss will be about equal (the "loss"can be from human use as well as naturaldecomposition.) For the past 500 years, the humanelements of Earth's ecosystems have not been insteady state; growth has far exceeded loss. Thatgrowth has consumed ever-increasing amounts ofland, water, energy, crops, wood, and biodiversity.Regardless of desires for sustainable forests, we willnot achieve forest sustainability withoutsimultaneously reaching reasonable sustainability inthe human component of Earth's ecosystems. Thus,the grand experiment in sustainable forestry cannotstop at the forest border; it must encompass thehuman enterprise as well.
Conserving and restoring diverse forest ecosystemcomposition, structure and function while producingwood resources requires an understanding of boththe biophysical and socio-economic dimensions offorest management. Among society's desires fromforests are diverse opportunities for recreation, cleanwater from productive aquatic systems, wood,wildlife, fish, livestock forage, and a sense of placecoupled with the knowledge that those forestsremain healthy, productive, and pleasing to look at.This set of potentially conflicting desires is whatconstitutes a sustainable forest in the eyes of manyAmericans. in the United States, many of thesesocial values are reflected in legal mandates, such asFederal and state laws and regulations concerningendangered species, water and air quality, and howcitizens may participate in forest decision making.These mandates provide guidance for managementof public and, to a more limited extent, privateforestlands. in the past four decades, substantialareas of federal forestland has been "set-aside"through reservations for uses and values other thanwood removal. These reservations have not beenmatched by a commensurate reduction in domesticwood consumption, thus, U.S. wood demand andproduction has shifted to U.S. private lands and
forests in other countries. This raises the question ofwhether U.S. federal forest policies contribute to orperhaps detract from the sustainability of forests andforestry at the global scale. The United States ForestService manages 31 million hectares of forestland in42 states, and 73% of the major vegetation types inthe country. The USDA Forest Service can play amajor role in advancing knowledge aboutsustainable forest management by using this land totest new ideas. This paper describes part of that role.
The USDA Forest Service adopted ecosystemmanagement as a guiding philosophy in the early1990's. Ecosystem management blends the resourceneeds of people with the protection of wildlandenvironments to sustain diverse, healthy, productiveand adaptable ecosystems. Wood utilization underecosystem management is based on the integrationof objectives for fiber production with desiredecosystem conditions at scales ranging from sites towatersheds to landscapes to whole regions of thenation. in one example, natural fire cycles have beendisrupted for nearly a century on many nationalforest lands, especially those in the Interior West.Biomass harvest has also been much less thanannual growth for the past 50 years, resulting inincreased stand density. These densities cannot besustained nor can intensive fire be safely returned tothese forests without mechanical removal of someof that biomass. Developing economically feasibleand socially acceptable silvicultural techniques torestore healthy forest ecosystems, through removalof smaller, under story trees, is the major challengewe face in nearly 17 million hectares of federalforests.
Sustainable Production of ForestProducts in Australia
Peter KanowskiAustralian National University, Department of Forestry,
ACT 0200 Canberra, AustraliaTel: +61 (0) 2 6249 2667, FAX: +61(0)2 6249 0746,
Email: [email protected]
Keywords: Sustainable Forestry, Australia,Montreal Process
The sustainability of production from Australia'sforests - especially but not exclusively its nativeforests - has been a strongly contested issue for thepast three decades. Australia's first National ForestPolicy Statement in 1992 committed Australia to thegoal of sustainable forest management in the contextof a broader commitment to ecologically sustainabledevelopment. It is being translated from policy topractice by - for the first time in Australia's history -a suite of nationally-coordinated processesconsistent with international initiatives. Although
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progress towards sustainability in forestmanagement far exceeds that in other Australiannatural resource sectors, the sustainability ofproduction from Australia's forests remains bothcontested and challenging.
Over the perhaps 50000 years of their settlement,the land management practices of Australia'saboriginal people - principally their extensive use offire - altered the distribution of Australia's forests,ecosystem structure, and the forest fauna. TheEuropean settlers' displacement of aboriginalpeople, and their conversion and use of forests, bothhad profound impacts. The fragmentation andconversion of forests to other uses, and Europeanfarming practices have adversely affected for thesustainability of Australian agriculture and its rurallandscapes, including their forest and woodlandremnants. These impacts have generally been mostsevere in the widespread broad-acre cropping andgrazing regions; it is not yet clear whetherproduction from these ecologically-degradedlandscapes can be sustained.
The historical focus, and continuing emphasis, ofAustralian native forest management has been onthe closed forests; their discontinuous continentaldistribution coincides with the distribution of themajority of Australia's population near the southernand eastern coasts. With the exception of forest-richTasmania, the majority of these forests are in publicownership; their principal products and services arebiodiversity, recreation, a diversity of wood andnon-wood products, and water. Whilst the economicimportance of wood production from these forestsremains significant, the relative value accorded it bythe majority of the Australian population has beenprogressively diminishing. Continuing communityconflict over the management of these forests led, in1995 the Australian governments to institute aRegional Forest Agreement process, first mooted inthe National Forest Policy Statement.
Australia's Regional Forest Agreement process isthe first nationally-coordinated attempt to assess thediversity of Australian forest values - economic,environmental and social - and agree forestallocation and management based on thisinformation. Regional Forest Agreements are beingnegotiated between the Commonwealth andrespective State governments for eachcommercially-important native forest region. Thegoals of the process are expressed in terms ofgreater certainty: for biodiversity conservation,based around establishment of a national reservesystem with a target of incorporating 15% of thepre-European extent of each forest ecosystem, andaround the development of ecologically sustainable
forest management regimes in forests outsidereserves; for the forest-based industries, basedaround secure access to resources outside thereserve system; and for indigenous and Europeanheritage, based on explicit recognition of thosevalues in forest allocation and managementdecisions. Concomitantly, Australia's woodproduction has been shifting progressively fromnative to plantation forests. Most existingplantations were established on sites converted fromforest; almost all new planting is established onfarmland, much in partnership with farmers. Thisexpansion poses both challenges and opportunitiesfor enhancing the sustainability of production.
The Montreal Process is providing the frameworkfor the development of criteria and indicators ofsustainable forest management for all Australianforests. The formulation and testing of criteria andindicators are paralleled by the development ofCodes of Forest Practice and by institutional reformin which State regulatory and management roles areseparated. These measures are relatively well-developed for State forests, but are – with theexception of Tasmania – as yet poorly developed forthe increasingly important private forest sector,including its extensive woodlands. Substantialresearch and implementation challenges remain inimproving, monitoring and communicating thesustainability of production from all Australia’sforests.
A conjoint analysis of New Zealandconsumer preference for
environmentally certified forestproducts
Lucie K. Ozanne, Hugh Bigsby and Christopher GanLincoln University, Commerce Division, Post Box # 84,
Canterbury, New ZealandFAX: 64 3 325-3847, Email: [email protected]
Keywords: Environmental certification, conjointanalysis, cluster analysis, forest products, marketing
One of the major challenges facing the forestproducts industry over the past ten years has beenhow to address consumer concerns about theenvironmental impact of forestry activities. Onestrategy suggested by the environmental communityand some industry groups is to provide certificationfor forests and the products from those forests whereforest management practices meet particularenvironmental standards. Many concerns have beenraised by the industry about the wisdom ofcompanies pursuing certification. A particularquestion is whether consumers are really interestedin certification and in turn, whether they will bewilling to bear the additional costs associated with
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certification activities. A number of studies haveexamined this issue; however these studies haveonly looked at consumers making a trade-offbetween price and environmental certification andhave not examined all of the relevant trade-offsconsumers may have to make when purchasingcertified wood products.
This study was designed to address the question ofhow consumers value environmental certificationwhen combined with a number of other woodproduct attributes. The particular example used tolook at the relative importance of environmentalcertification was the purchasing decision forwooden outdoor furniture by New Zealandconsumers. The method used in the study wasconjoint analysis, a recent development inmathematical psychology that has been appliedextensively in the marketing field. Conjoint analysismeasures the joint effect of two or moreindependent variables on the ordering of adependent variable. in the area of market analysis, itrelates the buyer's preferences to a set of pre-specified brand attributes. Using a survey,consumers were asked to rate a label outlining theattributes of a wooden outdoor furniture. Each labelhad a different set of combinations of attributes,including, price, length of product warranty, thecountry of origin of the wood, and forest type thatthe wood came from (plantation-grown versusnatural forest). For each attribute, there were twopossible values or levels.
For wooden outdoor furniture in New Zealand, theconjoint results indicate that environmentalcertification ranks highly as a product attribute, butis just one of a number of important productattributes. Other important attributes include thecountry of origin of the wood, with New Zealandwood being preferred over imported wood, andforest type, with plantation grown wood preferredover wood from a natural forest. Price and length ofwarranty were less important attributes. Clusteranalysis was used to segment the respondents basedon the relative importance they attach to eachproduct attribute in the conjoint analysis. The clusteranalysis results indicate that there are six marketsegments with unique furniture attribute preferencesin New Zealand. Three segments, comprising 56.4%of the sample, view environmental certification asthe most important attribute, preferring certifiedover uncertified wood. A fourth segment,comprising 16.3% of the sample, indicated that theywere most concerned with where the wood wassourced, preferring wood sourced from NewZealand. A fifth segment, comprising 14.8% of thesample, was price sensitive. The sixth segment,
making up 12.4% of the sample, indicated thatforest type is the most important furniture attribute,preferring wood harvested from plantation forestsover natural forests. in terms of profiling thesesegments, results indicate that commondemographic variables, such as age, sex, andeducation, do not provide a basis of description.
Wood Products Research for the 21stCentury in China
Chen XuheChinese Academy of Forestry, Div. of International
Cooperation, Wan Shou Shan, 100091 Beijing, ChinaTel: +86-10-62889051, FAX: +86-10-62884229, Email:
Keywords: carbon sequestration, wood supply,China, value-added processing, wood based panels
Wood is wonderful and it is the most important andwidely used raw material on earth except water. It isrenewable and beautiful, with a high strength toweight ratio, and it is easy to process with lowenergy consumption. Further more, the growth ofwood and wood utilization reduces CO2 emissionswhich makes wood an environmentally friendlymaterial. As the economy and population grow, thedemand for wood and wood products will alsocertainly continue to increase. The future of thewood products industry largely depends on thestable supply of wood resources from sustainablymanaged forests. China holds the potential developa sustainable wood supply because of its favorableclimate, vast land area, and the abundant workforce.Wood currently plays an increasingly important rolein the economic and social development in Chinawhere the annual consumption of timber (250million m3) equals to the sum of that of steel,aluminum and plastic. Further research is, however,needed to support the sustainable development ofthe wood industry in the 21st century.
The major objective of forestry has shifted fromsimply supplying timber products to providingmultiple functions including ecological,environmental, and social benefits while stillsupplying timber and timber products. Under thissustainable development principle, the woodproducts research in China should further developthe cultivation and utilization of industrialplantations environmentally compatibletechnologies and products that meet the needs of themarkets, and to improvement in the competitivecapabilities of the forestry and wood productsindustry.
Many timber-producing countries have restricted ordecreased their exports of logs and sawn timber to
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encourage developed down stream value addedwood processing. Malaysia is a good example of acountry where the government policy ofrestructuring for down stream value-addedprocessing has reduced the export of raw logs andprimary wood products. These policies willinfluence the availability of raw material supply forcountries like China. It can be concluded that thefuture of wood products industry in China largelydepends on a stable wood supply from sustainablymanaged forests.
To meet the demand for wood products, the Chineseindustry has made remarkable improvements intechnology in recent years. This is especiallyevident in the in the wood based panel industry in1997, the production of wood based panels in Chinareached a ranking the 2nd in the world at 16.48million m3. As the wood resources available forindustrial purposes shift from the natural forests toplantations, the industry needs technical supportfrom research institutions in developingtechnologies for establishing plantations andutilizing the fast growing and high quality treesfrom them. Effective value added processing ofenvironmental friendly products requires R&Dconducted to address issues specific to theconditions in China. A proposed set of topic areas isas follows: wood properties, wood drying, wood andthe environment, wood preservation, woodcomposites, pulp and paper, economics and policy.
209
Division 6Social, Economic,Information, and PolicySciences
CoordinatorProf. Dr. Niels Elers KOCH
Danish Forest and Landscape Research Institute
Hoersholm Kongevej 11,
DK-2970 Hoersholm ,
Denmark
fax: +45-45763233
tel: +45-45763200
e-mail: [email protected]
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6.01.00 Tools to integrate natureconservation and recreation for landscape
management
Prospect of Community-BasedEcotourism in the Sundarbans
Mangrove Forest in BangladeshA. Emran Ali, Tsuchiya Toshiyuki
Iwate University, Faculty of Agriculture, Forest Policy,3-18-8, Ueda, Morioka, 020-8550 Iwate, Japan
FAX: +81 19 621 6129, Email: [email protected]
Bangladesh is one of the densely populated countryin the world. The economy of the country is mainlydependent on agriculture and the country facesenormous constraints for the development of itself.Sustainable development in Bangladesh needs astrategy which would accelerate economic growthwith equitable distribution of benefits acrossdifferent segments of population without harmingthe environment. Planned and ecologically soundutilization of natural resources is a prerequisite forsustainable development. The government has takendifferent policies for sustainable development.
Ecotourism, as a logical component of sustainabledevelopment, requires a multidisciplinary approach,careful planning and strict guidelines andregulations that will guarantee sustainable operation.The focus of this paper is on achieving sustainabledevelopment objectives through the development ofCommunity-Based Ecotourism in the Sundarbans,the largest mangrove ecosystems in the world, issituated in the southwest coastline of Bangladesh.Sundarbans forest is the natural habitat of the worldfamous Royal Bengal tiger, spotted deer, crocodiles,jungle fowl, wild boar, lizards, rhesus monkey andan innumerable variety of beautiful birds. Migratoryflock of Siberian ducks flying over thousands of sailboats loaded with timber, golpatta (round-leaf), fuelwood honey, shell and fish further add to the serenenatural beauty of the Sundarbans. All of these aregood potentials for ecotourism development in thisarea to become a significant revenue and incomegenerator.
According to a survey of ESCAP 500,000 to600,000 people of local areas directly depend onSundarbans for their livelihood. The ForestryDepartment (FD), the government agency, is incharge in management of the forest and forestresources. The FD is established in 1989 and afterthe creation of FD there is conflict between the FDand local communities. There is also very negligible
relationship between the tourists and the localpeople.
The domestic market for tourism in Bangladesh isvery small and largely independent on smallunorganized groups. A very low number of foreigntourists arrive to visit Bangladesh and the nationaltour operators are also very small in number. Theseindicate that the service sector is not wellestablished in Bangladesh. At present there is littleinvolvement of local communities but there is thepotential. Local involvement will be essential iftourism is to meet conservation objectives.
The premise of the present paper is that if properlyplanned, ecotourism has the potential to generate areasonable return on investment and offersubstantial community benefits. The successfulCommunity-Based Ecotourism initiatives aresupported by partnerships between communities andgovernment, non-government and private sectors.
This objective of the paper is to find out the way todevelop the relationship between the FD and localcommunities by using primary data collected fromface-to-face interviews with tourists, tour operators,FD and the community people. The communityleaders are asked about tourism activities in theirarea, giving emphasis to the community role ineach. It will also examine the possibilities ofcommunity-based ecotourism in the Sundarbansarea and will try to find out the proper policy for theexpansion of ecotourism in Bangladesh.
Planning for recreational forest. Is therean optimal distance to forest
Lisa Hornsten, Peter FredmanSwedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department
of Forest Management and ProductsBox 7060, SE-831 25 Ostersund, Sweden
Tel: +46 (0)18-67 38 19, FAX: +46 (0)18 67 38 00,Email: [email protected]
Keywords: forest recreation; visiting frequency;distance; urban
This paper presents a study of the relationshipbetween the time span since a person's lastrecreational visit to a forest, the size of amunicipality and the distance between the place ofresidence and the closest recreational forest. Thestudy was carried out as a mailed inquiry distributedto 2500 randomly selected Swedish citizens, agedbetween 16 and 75 years. The response rate was 52percent.
The time since the last forest visit varies from 0 to365 days with an uneven distribution largely
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dominated by low values. The distance to the forestaffects the time since last visit. The longer thedistance between a residence and the closestrecreational forest, the larger the time span since therespondent's last recreational forest visit. Whendistance exceed 2 km a large increase in time sincethe last forest visit is observed.
Visiting frequencies is grouped according torespondents' present distance and comparisons aremade between groups. For the lower quartiles, i.e.the quartiles where respondents state the shortesttime since last visit, visiting frequencies are similarirrespective of distance. For the upper quartiles,however, where respondents state the shortest timesince last visit, visiting frequencies increasesignificantly with the distance to the forest.
Results show fewer forest visits for respondentsliving in an urban environment compared with thoseliving in a rural context, here defined asmunicipalities larger than 90,000 and smaller than5,000 inhabitants, respectively. Also after correctionfor distance to the closest forest, results show fewerforest visits for respondents living in an urbanenvironment compared with those living in a ruralcontext.
Benefit-based recreational forestmanagement in Corea
Won Sop ShinChungbuk National University, School of Forest
Resources, 361-763 Cheongju, Korea R.Tel: +82 431 261 2536, FAX: +82-431-273-2241, Email:
Benefits-based management seeks to providerecreation benefits for recreation participants bymanaging the physical environments in whichrecreation occurs. This study investigates therelationship between benefits desired by visitors andthe physical, social and managerial characteristics ofsettings that facilitate realization of recreationbenefits. Data were collected from 370 visitors toSorak-san National Park in the eastern part of theKorean peninsula. Cluster analysis was used togroup visitors desired benefits into twelve domains:relationship with nature/scenery, escaping pressure,learning about nature, family togetherness,introspection, exploration, autonomy/achievement,being with friends, leading others, skills/learning,risk taking, and meeting/observing new people.Multiple regression was used to link benefitdomains with the characteristics of settings. Thesocial attribute of recreation settings was found tobe linked to eight of the ten benefit domains. Therewere two strong multiple regression correlations:(1)between "relationship with nature /scenery" and the
attributes "forest/water", "attractive nature", and"facility/maintenance" (R .40) and (2) between"escaping pressure" and the attributes "attractivenature" and "social" (R.386). The paper discusseshow the findings can be used to develop recreationservices and marketing strategies to respond toclient needs and preferences.
Keywords: benefits-based management, Sorak-sanNational Park, recreation benefits
Motorized Access Control as a WildlandRecreation Management Tool: Access
Changes and Visitor's Behavior atDaisetsuzan National Park
Keiko Shiratori, Taiichi ItoYamanashi Institute of Environmental Sciences
5597 Kenmarubi, Kamiyoshida, Fujiyoshida, 403-0005Yamanashi, Japan
Tel: +81-555-72-6211, FAX: +81-555-72-6205, Email:[email protected]
Keywords: Wildland recreation; Motorized access;Access control; Daisetsuzan National Park
Environmental deterioration triggered by overuse isa common issue in wildland recreation. There areseveral ways to minimize the problem such as lawenforcement and regulation of visitor number.However, these approaches require a certain budgetand staff, both of which are often under supply. Onthe other hand, controlling motorized access towildlands seems more practical as well aseconomical, while enhancing the visitorexperiences.
In order to clarify the feasibility of the motorizedaccess control method in wildland recreationmanagement, the authors studied the relationshipbetween access improvement and visitor increase atDaisetsuzan National Park, Hokkaido, Japan. Thispark, with the area of 2,300 km2 including vastwilderness, is the largest in Japan. Still, previousstudies indicate increasing impacts on vegetationand soil erosion. The authors first analyzed visitorstatistics since the 1960s when road improvementand tramway service began. Second, with GIS dataincluding the information from previous researchresults, changes of the walking rigor were evaluatedat the major trails. Third, visitor's preferences ofhiking routes and opinions on access improvementwere analyzed from mountaineering plans submittedin past few years and from on-site surveys to hikers.
First, historic statistics revealed that motorizedaccess improvement rapidly increased the number ofvisitors to Daisetsuzan area, especially to trailheadsat higher altitude with connection to othersightseeing routes. Second, such improvement also
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changed walking access patterns. Areas requiredover-night stay disappeared, and day-use areasexpanded. Most of core areas of the park withfragile alpine vegetation fall under the category ofday-use areas now. Third, almost 70% of visitorscome by their own cars and tend to prefer short andeasy walks. Such day-use visitors expect moreaccess improvement, while overnighters welcomelonger walking access. Fourth, more than 20 % oftramway users mentioned willingness to walkparalleling trails, but those who really walk suchtrails are very small. This gap between intention andbehavior implies that they know more walking givethem deeper experiences and other benefits, butcannot resist the temptation of tramways.
From these analyses, we suggest that motorizedaccess should be regulated and walking accessenhanced. From the point of nature conservation aswell as rich visitor experience, closing mountainroads and suspension of tramway service is ideal.But, we should not ignore local economy. Visitorswill walk longer if motorized access is regulated byeconomic incentives such as higher tramway ticketsand introducing parking fees at high seasons. Suchextra revenue should be directed to improvement ofpublic transportation service and existing trails.Especially, interpretational activities on trailssupported by such fund will enhance the visitorexperience. Higher cost may divert some visitors toother areas. Even if the total visitation decreased,increased overnight visitors contribute more to localeconomy than passing-by day-use visitors.Eventually the impact on the natural environmentwill be reduced. Thus, motorized access control canbe a powerful and effective tool to wildlandrecreation management.
Recreation monitoring at the DutchForest Service
Peter A. M. VisschedijkInstitute for Forestry and Nature Research (IBN-DLO),
Post Box # 20, 6700 AA Wageningen, NetherlandsTel: +31 317 477713, FAX: +31 317 424988, Email:
In 1996 the Institute for Forestry and NatureResearch started to develop a system to monitor therecreational use of forests and other grounds ownedby the Dutch forest service. The aim was todetermine the number of visitors, their activities andthe percepted quality. This information provides avaluable management tool for targeting of resources.The systems uses three methods to gather theinformation:1. Monitoring vehicle and bicycle use at the sites byusing traffic counters with induction loops installedin the road (all year round).
2. Visual counting of visitors at all entrances (on 12days during the year).3. Survey of visitors (on 12 days during the year).
When the system is fully implemented their will bea network of 48 sites. All of these will be monitoredby using this method once in every 10 years, onaverage 5 sites a year.
ad. 1 The use of traffic counters enables one togather information about the number of passingvehicles and bicycles all year round. The countersautomatically register the numbers and also provideother details such as date, time and speed. With thisinformation it is possible to see the variation in usethroughout the year.
ad. 2 Counting all the site-entrances visually isessential for determining the exact number ofvisitors. With traffic counters is it impossible tocover the complete site, only cars and bicycles canbe counted and you don't know how many peopleare for instance in the vehicles. in combination withthe figures from the traffic counters it is possible tocalculate the number of visitors during a certainperiod of time.
ad. 3 With the visitorsurveys information is gatheredamong other things about activities, use of facilities,number of visits a year, place of residence, durationof visits and last but not least the percepted qualityof the site.
The qualityscore is generated by asking the visitorstheir opinion about 17 items concerning outdoorrecreation. First through 17 thesis about recreationin general in which the visitors are asked about theimportance of the items (general importance), in thenext question the same thesis are asked inconnection with the visited site (verdict). Then thequestions are combined, the answers about the siteitself are weighted by the answer about the generalimportance of a certain subject. The next tableshows the weightfactors.
General importanceVeryunim-portant
Unim-portant
Neutral Im-portant
Veryimportant
Verynegative
-1 -2 -4 -6 -8
Negative 0 -1 -2 -3 -4Neutral 0 0 0 0 0Positive 0 1 2 3 4
Ve-r-d-i-c-t
Verypositive
1 2 4 6 8
When an item is being considered as very importantby the visitor, then his verdict about the item in thevisited can raise a score between -8 and +8.However, when an items is qualified as unimportantthen score is between -2 and +2. When an itemsraises a total average score of more than 1 thequality is qualified as being sufficient.
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Since this system of monitoring is only carried outin 48 sites, there was a need to get informationabout all the other grounds of the Dutch forestservice. Since counting is too expensive to be donein all sites, in the sites not covered by themonitoring network visitors are going to be given aquestionnaire which they can fill out and send backby mail. Through extrapolation we try to predict theunknown factor, the number of visitors. Test arecarried out in 1998 en 1999 and the first results lookpromising.
6.01.00 Nature experiences and sustainablemanagement of landscapes and recreation
resources
Visitors' perceptions on themanagement of recreation forests - a
qualitative case study in southernFinland
Eeva KarjalainenFinnish Forest Research Institute, Unioninkatu 40 A,
00170 Helsinki, FinlandTel: + 358 9 85705766, FAX: +358 9 85705717, Email:
Keywords: perceptions, experiences, forestmanagement, recreation areas, qualitative research
The aim of this study was to explore how visitorsperceive and experience the management ofrecreation forests. A recreation forest in southernFinland was chosen for a case study area. This area'sprimary use is to provide recreation for visitors, andthe forests are managed to some extent. There havebeen conflicts concerning the management of theareas; nature conservationists demand that theseforests should be left untouched, while othervisitors' needs remain unknown.
A qualitative study was needed to meet the aim ofthe research, although results do not represent allvisitors of the area. During the summer, 1998 a totalof 22 visitors were interviewed. The researcherwalked together with each visitor a path onekilometer long, and each visitor was allowed tocomment freely about the environment. Interviewswere audio-recorded and tapes were transcribed.Transcripts were analyzed using a qualitativecontent analysis.
Visitors were very knowledgeable about forestmanagement and the biological processes going onin nature, as well as the processes caused byhumans. They mentioned that trees grow, die, falldown and decay, and different plants and trees fightfor living space. Respondents had clearunderstanding that narrow paths are formed by
people walking a certain route, and that these pathswould disappear if people did not use them anymore.
The following ways of perceiving forestmanagement were identified; aesthetic andexperiential perceptions (exploring), safety,possibilities to move, educational perceptions,impacts on nature and economic perceptions. Whenvisitors' perceptions on the paths were studiedadditional dimensions of perceiving and evaluatingwere found; social relations, maintenance of the areaand the activities one can perform.
Visitors supported the current soft forestmanagement; there are uneven-aged forest standswith many tree species and undergrowth, no clear-cutting, and some of the fallen and dead trees areleft. Respondents compared this area to commercialforests and appreciated that there are mixed forestsand no large openings in this area. Some visitorsalso preferred this area to forests in their naturalstate. They agreed that there could exist small piecesof untouched forests so that people can see hownature develops. Visitors suggested that some of theforest stands should be thinned or appreciatedthinned forest sites, because after thinning forestsbecome more spacious and light, and trees havemore space to grow. However, some respondentsdid not like when they saw that trees were cut. ingeneral, visitors thought that logging residue shouldbe removed because it could be used for firewoodand it looks ugly. Several respondents thought thatdead standing trees and fallen trees belong to nature,while others were worried that dead standing treescould fall over someone.
Application of Sustainable DevelopmentConcept to Recreation Resource
Management in ForestsJoong Myung Kim
Forestry Research Institute, 207 Chongnyangni, Seoul,Korea R.
Tel: 961-2532, FAX: 961-2530, Email:[email protected]
In 1987, the World Commission on Environmentand Development broadly defined sustainabledevelopment as development that meets the needs ofthe present without compromising the ability offuture generations to meet their own needs and theterm became widely adopted within the internationalcommunity related with economic development andenvironment conservation. Since then, many arguefor the development of sustainable economies as thenew guidepost to deal with issues of growth,economic and community development, andenvironmental protection. The concepts of
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sustainable development has been incorporated intoforest management and it became known as thesustainable forest management. There have been,therefore, many initiatives towards implementingsustainable forest management at the internationaland regional level. The sets of criteria and indicatorshave been developed through the initiatives toenhance the awareness and improve theunderstanding of forest sustainability as well as tospecify the fundamental elements of sustainableforest management. in the paper, criteria andindicators for tourism and recreation in forests arediscussed as developed by several initiatives forsustainable forest management and in this contextrecreational forests managed mainly for recreationactivities in Korea are analyzed for sustainableforest management. Due to the socio-economicchanges in recent years in Korea, demand forrecreation and tourism has been steadily increasedand thus forest resources play an important role inthe provision of various outdoor recreationopportunities to meet recreational needs of thesociety. The sustainable forest management hasbecome a main goal of forest policy and relevantcriteria and indicators have been developed forimplementation at the international, national, andforest management unit level. The criteria andindicators on recreation and tourism developed byinternational initiatives are discussed, including theMontreal and Helsinki Processes. The recreationalforests designated and developed for generalrecreation and tourism in Korea started in 1989 andsince then attracted many visitors into forestenvironments across the country. Based on thespecific indicators related to recreation and tourism,the management of recreational forests are discussedin this paper. The number and area of recreationalforests has increased up to 60 and over 110thousand ha, respectively, during the past decade.As of 1997, recreational forests accounted for about1.71% of total forest land and attracted more than2.6 million persons accounting for over 5.5% oftotal population. The facilities in recreationalforests, as suggested by an indicator, are discussedand future directions suggested.
The Experience of ForestsJohn Murray
Edinburgh College of Art/Heriot Watt University, Schoolof Landscape Architecture, Lauriston Place, EH3 9DF
Edinburgh, ScotlandTel: 0044 131 221 6094, Email:[email protected]
This project, commissioned by Simon Bell, TheForestry Commission's Chief Landscape Architect,was undertaken as a pilot study on peoples'experience of forests. Its objective was to contribute,along with other parallel studies, to design theory &applications which relate to the restructuring ofproduction forests for recreational purposes.
The two sites selected for the study were:
1. The Waterfall Walk at the David Marshall LodgeQueen Elizabeth Forest Park near Aberfoyle
2. The Allean Walk near Queen View, LochTummel, Pitlochry
In investigating forest experience we wished to tapmultisensory experiences (not solely visual) in anunconstrained way. As a consequence the study wasin two parts. Firstly, an open ended qualitative andflexible approach was used with minimal intrusion.Walkers were invited to make a self-directed film oftheir walk (with comments) using a hand helddigital camcorder. No guidance was offered otherthan to film anything of interest or anything whichthey liked or disliked. The second part of the projectwas essentially a de-briefing in the form of a shortquestionnaire. Data was gathered mainly atweekends between the 11th July and 8th August1998.
The weather was mixed to fine on the walks. Thegender split of walkers was approximately 60:40 infavour of men and at each site there were relativelyfew walkers over 50 years of age. It was of interestthat most people had travelled from 10-50 miles inorder to go on the walk with relatively few 'locals'i.e. within a 10 mile radius participating.
RESULTS
A total of 37 people participated at both sites.
Video Data
A content analysis of the video data identified 6general categories of interest. These were:1. Objects (e.g. sculpture, building, waterfalls)2. Aspects of path (e.g. waymarking, surface, width)3. Views (e.g. panoramic, scanning)4. Human Interest (e.g. other people)5. Flora and Fauna6. Human Intervention (e.g. litter, pylons)
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The degree of attention given these categories wasestimated from the frequency of stopping points tofilm each category across both walks.1. The rank order of stopping point frequency wasconsistent over both walks2. Objects had the highest frequency, followed byviews. Next were paths, then flora & fauna. Thelowest frequency of interest was attached to humanactivity and interventions.3. Only 50% of views and 50% of spaces identifiedby the landscape architect research assistants werefound to be of interest to the lay groups.
Questionnaire Data1) Approximately half the sample went for forestwalks more than once every two months.2) Approximately 40% of walkers had travelledover 50 miles to visit the site, with a further 40%travelling between 10 & 50 miles.3) Approximately equal numbers of walkers wereeither with or without children.4) Nearly all participants reported enjoying the walkexperience. Approximately 50% reported theexperience as moderately exciting (pleasant andaroused). The other 50% reported the experience asrelaxed (pleasant and unaroused)5) Sight was recorded as the most important ofsensory information. Sounds in the forest wereranked second in importance. Most participantswere neutral about the role of smells and touch.6) Most walkers commented that a central functionof the walk was to have contact with nature and notbe reminded of people. This reinforces the lowlevels of interest in human activities shown in thevideo filming.7) Likes:a) spatial change clearings & viewsb) narrow paths, enclosed by the forestc) waterfalls/water flora & faunaDislikes:a) crowded placesb) uphill sections & clear fellingc) signs of human intervention
DESIGN IMPLICATIONS
The context data and the stated preferences of thewalkers provide some useful information for thedesign process. One special challenge for designersemerges from this study. The walkers clearly wantwayfinding information and facilities (e.g. seating,shelters, WC's) to be marked. These are seen asnecessities. At the same time the walkers want thisinformation in a way which minimises indicationsof human intervention. A major function of forestwalks appears to enable visitors to get closer to theiridea of nature.
Sustainable Management of NaturalResources: Is It Possible at the Urban-
Rural Interface?Joanne M. Westphal
Michigan State University, MI 48824 East Lansing, USATel: (517)353-7880, FAX: (517) 353-0006, Email:
Keywords: Sustainable Landscapes, Land UsePlanning, Urban-Rural Interface
Despite the vast landmass of the United States,resource managers, landscape architects, andplanners are becoming increasingly aware of thedifficulty in protecting natural resources at theurban-rural interface. Part of the problem stemsfrom the fact that a comprehensive national land useplan has not been forthcoming from the federalgovernment. Thus, state, county, and localgovernment bodies have been left to determinepriorities in land use as well as preservation and/orprotection strategies for properties under theirjurisdiction. Because each of these layers ofgovernment has different agenda, oftentimes, acoordinated, effective land use planning effort thatcould protect natural resources, especially at theurban-rural interface, is impossible to develop.
This paper examines historic land use managementtools in the United States from a planningperspective, and it provides insight to the politicaland economic factors that determine the success orfailure of these tools to create and/or enhancesustainable landscapes. Suggestions for alternativeland use planning strategies in the face of urbansprawl are provided. A case study using a rapidlygrowing area in Michigan (USA) will be used toillustrate the need to integrate some of the oldplanning strategies with the new alternatives to beeffective deterrents to uncontrolled growth and lostsustainability of our natural and agriculturallandscapes. A brief discussion on how this newapproach may be used to overcome some of thegovernmental barriers of the past will conclude thepaper.
Assessment on Recreational Impacts inMalaysian Recreation Forests
Noor Azlin YahyaFRIM, Urban Forestry Section, Forest Plantation
Division, 52109 Kuala Lumpur, MalaysiaFAX: 03- 630-2105, Email: [email protected]
Keywords: Recreation, impacts, eco-tourism
A study was conducted at three Recreation Forestsnear Kuala Lumpur to assess impacts of recreationalactivities on the natural resources of the area. This
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paper mainly reports the results of the study andsuggests a management action to be taken.
Recreation Forests in Malaysia are usually scenicforests with rivers where the most popular activitiesconducted are picnicking, swimming and relaxingunder the forest shade. Camping, trekking andphotography are also carried out but to a lesserextent. As owner of the Recreation Forests theForestry Department usually manages the areas.However, some areas are fully or partly privatisedwhere the management of certain facilities or thewhole area is given to private concessionaires.
Visitors to Recreation Forests have been shown to inbe great numbers especially during weekends andschool holidays. Studies showed that visitation toeach Recreation Forest often exceeds 100,000 ayear. The majority of visitors to the RecreationForests are the Malays who are also the major ethnicgroup in Malaysia, from the middle and the lowerincome group, and with highest educationattainment of secondary education.
Impacts of recreational activities on the naturalresources of the three Recreation Forests, namelySungai Chongkak, Lentang and Sungai Tua wereassessed for soil and vegetation parameters. Fromthis study it was found that soil compaction isalways higher at recreation sites compared to controlsites for all three Recreation Forests. For vegetationparameters, it was found that vegetation cover isgreater and there are more mother tree species at thecontrol sites. It was also found that, there is adomination of forest species at the control sites,whereas vandalism signs were found to be morecommon at the recreation sites. The results on soiland vegetation parameters show that areas used forrecreational activities are losing their naturalconditions whereas similar control areas along theriver that was not used by visitors shows betterregeneration and in more natural conditions.
Visitor's opinion on problems of the RecreationForests was also evaluated to assess perceptions onthe conditions of the natural resources. Out ofseveral parameters tested, it was found that manyvisitors to the recreation forests are aware of thelitter problem and many perceived it as a bigproblem. The conditions of tree vandalism and soilerosion are also considered as big problems tovisitors.
6.03.00 Forest information services forforesters and society
Using Information Technology to MeetChanging Knowledge Needs in Forestry
Philip Edge, Patricia Neenan, Gillian Petrokofsky andPeter Scott
CAB International, OX10 8DE Wallingford, UnitedKingdom
Email: [email protected]
Keywords: information network; electronicpublishing; bibliographic database; community ofusers
At a time when there are fundamental changes in thestatus of forests, in their perception by the public,and in forest-related environmental issues, there isan unprecedented need for sound decision making inforestry. This has led to a new requirement forknowledge, organized in a way that providesconvenient decision support. InformationTechnology (IT) can greatly facilitate this process.Partnerships of people and organizations withcommon information needs and a mutually-dependent interest in facilitating information sharingand knowledge management can take advantage ofthe power of IT to realise their aspirations rapidlyand effectively.
Bibliographic databases exemplify the power of ITto render huge volumes of facts accessible as usefulinformation. This can be illustrated by a database,conceived and maintained by cooperativepartnerships, containing over half a million abstractsand spanning more than fifty years of the worldliterature of forest science. It allows access throughmultiple routes, including CD-ROM and theInternet, and can be built into knowledge bases asrequired.
IT allows information to be presented to the user ina convenient and friendly way, so that knowledgeresults. Examples in the forestry context includetaxonomic information systems, geographicinformation systems, and multimedia knowledgetools such as Electronic Compendia. The ForestryCompendium illustrates how varied informationsources can be brought together to make a singlecoherent knowledge base.
The Internet, Intranets, the World Wide Web, CD-ROMs, and email provide unprecedented newopportunities for innovative approaches to meetingthe need to conserve knowledge and pass it on. Theimplementation of electronic publishing andinformation dissemination presents new challengesin the achievement of efficiency, economy,convenience, and standardization. CABI believes
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that the Internet provides the medium for theprovision of large bodies of related information to'communities' of users with common needs. Thecreation of these bodies of information requiresCABI to form alliances with and developcollaborations with organizations which can provideinformation and/or communities of users whichcomplement its own; and create novel informationproducts by combining primary, secondary andtertiary information in innovative ways. Central toInternet resource development is CABI's furtherbelief that the future of information access on theInternet lies in developed networks of interlinkedinformation. Internet sites of bibliographic data,with other information where possible, formplatforms which provide the forum for combiningwith the information of other organizations throughlinkage. CABI's concept of linkage is that abstracts,structured within a database, provide the navigationto and from full text and other material, thusfulfilling the dual function of a searchableinformation resource and a powerful mechanism forlocating information.
While the Internet is an extremely powerfulenabling mechanism, there are still large areas of thedeveloping world where connectivity is limited andaccess to the Internet is not available. CABI hasproposed the establishment of "KnowledgeNetworks" that comprise moderated exchanges ofknowledge using email between established groupsof scientists working in a related field. Selectedextracts from many of the above resources used fora virtual "community" can also be provided byemail to these groups, and discussion paperssummarizing the exchanges can be added to theInternet resource for access by a wider audience.
Capacity building through information:the role of international forestry
research centresMichael Hailu, Rita Mustikasari
Center for International Forestry Research, (CIFOR),Jalan CIFOR, Situ Gede, Sindangbarang, 16680 Bogor
Barat, IndonesiaTel: +62(251) 622 622, FAX: +62(251) 622 100, Email:
Keywords: natural resources management; forestryinformation; agroforestry information; capacitybuilding; networking; international collaboration
The Consultative Group on InternationalAgricultural Research (CGIAR) has largelyneglected research on natural resources managementuntil the system recognized the need to address thisimportant area and expanded its membership. in1991, the CGIAR admitted three centres into its
fold, including the International Centre for Researchin Agroforestry (ICRAF), and decided to establishthe Centre for International Forestry Research(CIFOR). Since this change, a number of networksand system-wide programmes dealing with naturalresources management, including forestry, havebeen launched. These networks and system-wideprogrammes provide not only a useful mechanismfor international research collaboration, but as amajor vehicle for information exchange anddissemination. Specialized information systems andservices, developed at centres such as ICRAF andCIFOR, provide a useful source of information fornetwork members and other users. Such servicesinclude specialized forestry databases, publications,CD-ROMs, modeling and decision support tools,web sites, and library/documentation services. Thepaper reviews some of these services and highlightstheir relevance to the forestry research communityand explores avenues for enhancing theiraccessibility.
The paper also explores capacity building ininformation and its impact on the work of scientists,including foresters. Using the case study of theAfricaLink Project-aimed at providing electronicconnectivity to several research networks in Africa-the paper explores problems national scientistsencounter due to poor communication facilities andlack of access to relevant and timely information. Itdemonstrates how a modest effort in providing basicemail connectivity-especially in remote researchstations-can make a significant difference inenhancing information exchange and researchcollaboration among network members. The paperconcludes by highlighting how the Internet and theWorld Wide Web can be used to facilitatecollaboration and information access for regionaland global research networks.
The Rainforest Interpretation Centre - AContribution to Forest Conservation and
Environmental Education in SabahBernadette Joeman, Hilary Macleod & Michael
TrockenbrodtForest Research Centre, Forestry Department, Post Box #
1407, 90715 Sandakan, Sabah, MalaysiaTel: +60-89-531522, FAX: +60-89-531068, Email:
Keywords: information centre; extension service;teacher training; rainforest information
The Rainforest Interpretation Centre (RIC) is anEnvironmental Education facility located within theSepilok Arboretum, Sandakan, Sabah, Malaysia.The Centre was constructed in 1995 with funds fromthe Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische
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Zusammenarbeit (GTZ). However, this facility isnow run by the Environmental Education Unit of theForest Research Centre, Sabah Forestry Department.
The RIC houses an exhibition that covers a widevariety of aspects of the rainforest (e.g. importance,characteristics, distribution, effects of theirdestruction) and a collection of artefact displays,ranging from dipterocarp seeds to traditionalhandicrafts made from forest products. Adjacent tothe RIC is a 'Rainforest Walk'. The trail is guided byinterpretative boards.
There are two main aims behind the establishmentof the Rainforest Interpretation Centre:- to increase public awareness of the rainforest, itsimportance and the consequences of its destruction- to change attitudes and behaviour towards therainforest and the environment as a whole.
The Environmental Education Programme at theRIC has been divided into three main components:
1. an environmental education component forvisiting primary and secondary school groups. Theaim of this component is to plan and conductenvironmental education programmes for primaryand secondary students using the RIC facilities.
2. an environmental education component for in-service and pre-service teachers and teachereducators. The aim of this component is to trainteachers to implement environmental education andenable them to plan and conduct their ownenvironmental education programmes at theRainforest Interpretation Centre.
3. a public awareness component which caters forthe general public and tourists. The aim of thiscomponent is to produce quality interpretivematerials and programmes for the public.
In addition to the target components, there are twosupporting components:
- an Environmental Education Resource Collectionto establish a resource base for the sustainability ofthe environmental education programme.
- an Administration and Training component toestablish procedures for the running of theprogramme.
Since the RIC opened for visitors in July 1996, over3400 tourists have visited the centre. About 20workshops for teachers and teacher trainers havebeen conducted. The workshop programmes containa general introductory lecture on environmentaleducation including the principles and ademonstration of some selected activities thatteachers can do with their students. To support theworkshops, a training manual for the participants
was produced. The manual contains information onenvironmental education, the RainforestInterpretation Centre, and sample activities as wellas programmes that can be run with students. Themain target group is school students for whom halfday and full day programmes for both primary andsecondary groups are conducted. So far about 50schools visited the RIC. in many cases theprogrammes incorporate a visit to the nearbySepilok Orang Utan Rehabilitation Centre.
The RIC is becoming increasingly popular withschools, tour operators and other visitors. Themajority of the visitors is interested and eager tolearn. Young students have expressed an increasingdegree of awareness and concern about the state ofthe environment especially the forest. Thus, the RICand the Environmental Education Programme of theForestry Department is considered a small, butnevertheless important contribution to forestconservation in Sabah.
Developing an Integrated Protected AreaNetwork (IPAN) System for Biodiversity
Conservation: Lessons LearnedVinod B. Mathur, Pradeep K. Mathur, Vineet Sood
Wildlife Institute of India, Post Box # 18, 248 00248 001Chandrabani, Dehradun, India
Tel: +91-135-640112 to 115, FAX: +91-135-640117,Email: [email protected]
Keywords: information system; informationtechnology; resource management; modelling; GIS
With the rapid advancement in the field ofInformation Technology (IT), natural resourcemanagers have become conscious of the need andutility of developing and managing databases inorder to facilitate informed decision making.Likewise, advances in the field of Remote Sensingand Geographical Information System (GIS)technology provide natural resource managerssynoptic, repetitive spatio-temporal coverage's formanagement and monitoring of complex anddynamic landscapes. Realizing the global as well asthe national need for developing a rapid, transparent,participatory and informed decision making processin the field of biodiversity conservation, wedeveloped an Integrated Protected Area Network(IPAN) System for the Maharashtra State ForestDepartment (MFD) India.
A generic approach, capable of evolving solutions ina participatory and transparent manner was adoptedin the development of the IPAN system. The IPANsystem is 'modular' and 'hierarchical' in nature.There are nine modules viz. (i) BiogeographicZonation; (ii) Protected Area Resources; (iii)Human Resource Development; (iv) Research and
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Monitoring; (v) Tourism and Nature Education; (vi)Finance and Budget; (vii) Supporting Institutions;(viii) Legislative Assembly questions; and (ix)Bibliography. Each module is further divided intoseveral 'sub-modules'. Each sub-module containsinformation on various 'attributes'. The organizationof information follows a 'nested architecture'. Thesystem has a flexibility to increase the number ofmodules/sub-modules/attributes as per specificneeds arising in future.
The IPAN system has been designed to operate atfour functional/operational levels of managementdecision making. The IPAN system software hasbeen developed using Visual Basic 4.0programming language and is designed to handleboth the spatial and aspatial data. The IPAN systemprovides outputs in a variety of formats viz. (i)tabular statements (ii) graphics, and (iii) maps. Mostof these outputs conform to the existing proceduresof providing information within the departmentalhierarchy and wherever necessary modification havebeen made to optimize the reporting requirements.
The IPAN system facilitates: (i) storage, retrievaland query of large data sets; (ii) compilation oftabular, periodic statements/returns on staff position,offences, management activities routinely requiredfor regional planning and management; (iii)providing of updated information on Protected Area(PA) resources required for preparation/revision ofPA management plans; (iv) monitoring of trendspertaining meteorological variables, vegetation,animal populations, tourism, animal damagecompensation, etc; and (v) resource map generationfor better visualization, planning and decisionmaking.
The integration of various modules in the IPANsystem allows the users to query and generateinformation e.g. determining the visitor carryingcapacity and ecotourism potential of a national park;calculation of biotic pressure indices; monitoring oftrends in socio-economic dependence of ruralcommunities living adjacent to the protected areas;identification of information gaps by searching thebibliographic database. The paper also summarizesthe lessons learned in addressing complex datamanagement issues viz. data custodianship, datavalidity, value addition and data updation, whichwould be very useful for handling similar tasks in adeveloping country situation.
Resource Sharing and Networkingamongst Forestry Libraries in India
M. S PathaniaDr. Y.S. Parmar University of Horticulture and Social
Sciences, Library, 173 230 Solan (HP), IndiaFAX: 91-01792-52242, Email: [email protected]
Keywords: library networks; forestry databases,information infrastructure
For undertaking forestry research, carrying outliterature searches and information consolidation,the resource sharing and networking is the mostappropriate. in a country like India where theresources of most forestry libraries are inadequateand unbalanced, it is extremely important to poolthe resources of various libraries together. As suchthe libraries of various institutes in the country setup by Indian Council of Forestry Research andEducation (ICFRE) / Ministry of Environment andForests and Agricultural Universities impartingforestry education were surveyed.
With the expansion of knowledge, a lot of literatureis published and it is not possible for any of theaforesaid libraries to cater to the need of all its users.Several Commissions in India had recommended6.25 to 10% of the educational budget alloted forexpenditure on libraries. But it is disappointing tonote that only 1.5% or less is spent on most of thelibraries. To-day the effective library co-operation isstill on idea plane in India. Only few libraries aredeveloping ways and means to make efforts towardslibrary co-operation. The areas where resourcesharing has achieved partial success in India are:- Inter Library Loan Services- Co-operative Training- Book exchange- Co-operative Library Services (SDI, CAS)
Whereas in areas like Co-operative Acquisition, Co-operative Cataloguing, Co-operative Storage andTechnical Processing the initiative is yet to be takenas far as forestry libraries are concerned.
The effectiveness of the system can be had onlywith the enactment of Library Legislation. It shouldalso provide for finances and the way for conductinglibrary services. in India there is still no agreementon Acquisition Policies, Bibliographical andStandardization procedures of various forestry. inthe fact of the problems facing the forestry libraries,resource sharing seems to be the only solution. It ishoped that the use of computers, the modernnetworking systems, union catalogue and co-operative library services will provide effectiveresource sharing facilities in the near future. For asuccessful implementation of resource sharing
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activities, there is a need of creation of databases bymeans of computers at various levels. This in turn,may be combined into bigger data-bases of allmaterials available in participating libraries.
This paper discusses as to how the modern forestryresearcher in India is confronted with the literatureexplosion and the importance of resource sharingand the need for developing an effective network offorestry libraries in India.
Plant resources of South-East Asia(PROSEA)
Elisabeth Philip, M.K.M. Rizal, M.S. Khadijah andM.A.A. Razak
Forest Research Institute Malaysia, 52109 Kuala Lumpur,Malaysia
Email: [email protected]
Keywords: plant species; tropical plants,publications, PROSEA databank; handbook
South-East Asia houses one of the biggestremaining complexes of tropical plant diversity.Between 5000 and 10,000 plant species have beendescribed in the course of time as being used bymankind. The information on these plants both oldand new is scattered world wide that only scientistscould consult a handful. Similarly, the vast amountof vernacular reports by emerging class of localscientists within the region hardly reaches aninternational audience and often - even colleagues inneighbouring countries.
Hence, an international programme was initiatedwith the objectives to document and make availablethe existing wealth of information on plantresources of South-East Asia; to make operational acomputerised data bank on plant resources of South-East Asia and to publish the results in an illustratedmulti-volume handbook. It is an interdisciplinaryproject covering the fields of agriculture,horticulture and forestry. A network of offices in sixSouth-East Asian countries has been established toachieve these objectives. see also:http://www.bib.wau.nl/prosea/
The information gathered has been grouped into 20commodity groups based on their primary uses. Thedata bank on plant resources has a total of 52,967records as of 1998. Bibliographies of less accessible(often gray) form the records of this data bank. ofthese records, edible fruits and nuts and timber treesare the commodity groups with the highest recordsof more than 8000. More than 8000 species of plantsboth lower and higher have been covered in the databank. Plants are also classified based on theirconservation status and distribution. Retrieval of
information has been made easier with the advent incomputer software and CD-ROMs.
Between 1989 and February 1999, twelvecommodity groups have been finished and publishedin 14 volumes; Pulses, Edible fruits and nut, Dyeand tannin-producing plants, Forages, Timber trees,Major, Minor and Lesser known timbers, Rattans,Bamboos, Vegetables, non-seed carbohydrate-producing plants, cereals, Auxiliary plants andEssential-oil plants. in total 4602 species have beendescribed, 3592 as major and 1023 as minor. Theremaining volumes; medicinal and poisonous plants,spices, vegetable oils and fats, cryptogams,stimulants, fibre plants, plants yielding exudates andornamental plants will be published between 1999and 2001.
6.03.02 Forest Terminology: How to getsociety understand forest terminology
Forest Terminology in relation toSocietal Change and Decision Making
John A. HelmsUniversity of California Berkeley, Dept. Environmental
Science, Policy, and Management, 145 Mulford Hall, CA94720-3114 Berkeley, USA
FAX: (510) 643-5438, Email:[email protected]
Keywords: Forest terminology, societal change,definitions, on-line dictionary
The last decade has seen dramatic, world-widechanges in the diversity of societal perceptions ofthe uses, needs, and values of forests. Many societalgroups, particularly in the conservation area, arestrongly influencing the management andconservation of forests on both publicly- andprivately-owned forests.
Forest management is also becoming increasinglydiverse. in the United States it encompasses avariety of objectives represented by owners thatinclude private (industrial and non-industrial),public (federal and state), native tribes, andorganizations interested in forests as long-termfinancial investments. One could argue that thisdiverse set of ownerships represents a broader cross-section of societal needs and values than do theconservation groups.
Given this diversity in needs, uses, and ownership offorests, it is not surprising to find that forestterminology is used inconsistently. Sometimes, as inthe case of such terms as sustainability, foresthealth, and clearcutting, this is probably deliberateto further the objectives of the user. Until recently,existing terminologies were commonly dominatedby traditional focus on timber management. To fill
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the need generated by more diverse objectives andvalues, current documents are typicallyaccompanied by independently-developedglossaries. Consequently, in the development ofpublic policy and regulation it is common to findthat terms are defined differently.
A standard, accepted, on-line dictionary is neededthat is used as a basis for all documents, debate,general communication, and policy development.Such a dictionary should probably be developed andmaintained by a group of forest terminologyspecialists representing diverse elements of thebroad field of forestry. These experts whouldmanage the peer review of definitions beforeincorporation. IUFRO should expand its leadershiprole in developing a standardized terminology,probably with regional variation of definitions, bothnationally and internationally. The great advantageof an electronic dictionary is that it would be readilyavailable and could be constantly updated andrevised as terms are introduced or modified. Currentissues needing to be resolved include the use ofcopyrighted definitions that are currently limited touse in the print medium, defining the extent of thefield of forestry, and determining the extent ofcoverage of terms in each of the forest sciencedisciplines.
Proposal of A Multilingual ForestTerminology Database Designed for
Western and Non-Western Languages.Mitsuo Matsumoto
Forest management division, Forestry and ForestProducts Research Institute, Post Box # 16 Tsukuba-
Norin, 305-8687 Ibaraki, JapanTel: +81-298-73-3211, FAX: +81-298-73-3799, Email:
Keywords: Forest terminology, multilingualterminology database, non-western languages, two-byte code, SilvaVoc-J
SilvaVoc, IUFRO's clearing house for multilingualforest terminology, is working to establish a forestterminology database to be published on theInternet. Non-Western languages such as Japanese,however, have some problems in multilingualdatabases, and current web browsers have a limitedcapacity to manage multilingual functions. Forexample, western computers cannot displayJapanese characters correctly on the monitors,because they cannot manage two-byte code andhave no Japanese font data.
SilvaVoc-J, which is a partner of SilvaVoc in Japan,developed an experimental system of a multilingualforest terminology database. This system was based
on one of the solutions proposed by the author at theIUFRO international workshop "Multilingualismand Expert Cooperation in Forest Terminology"(MEXFT'98). It consists of three functions. The firstfunction is a World Wide Web server, the second adatabase server, and the third one is a function toconvert Japanese characters' fonts to raster imagesautomatically.
The system works as follows. First, a user queriesabout a term to the Web server from a clientcomputer. Then, the Web server requests to searchthe term to the database server via CommonGateway Interface (CGI). The database servercarries out the search and sends the result to theWeb server via CGI. If the result term containsJapanese two-byte characters, it is converted to araster image on the way to the Web server from thedatabase server. Finally, the Japanese term isdisplayed as an image in a Web browser on theclient computer.
The system does not require Japanese font data andspecial browsers on client computers. in otherwords, Japanese characters can be displayed inpopular Web browsers such as Netscape Navigatorand Microsoft Internet Explorer on any countries'computers. Furthermore, the method is available notonly for Japanese characters, but also for charactersof other non-Western languages.
Therefore, the system also makes it possible to addother non-western languages to the multilingualforest terminology database.
The experimental system of a multilingual forestterminology database will be demonstrated in thepresentation.
Terminology as a way to communicatevalues. Sustainable forest development:
vision of the world in the 21st centuryNerida Puentes Alvarez
Universidad de Pinar del Rio, Pinar del Rio, CubaTel: +082-5032, Email: [email protected]
Keywords: Forest terminology, Spanish language,English language, teaching programmes,terminology work, sustainable forest development
Language is a working instrument common to allsubject specialists, a working tool and a means forcommunicating scientific findings.
The objective of the Programme of ForeignLanguage of the Technical Center of HigherEducation is to elaborate versions and summaries ofexpert materials in Spanish with an adequate usageof the Spanish mother tongue. The educative projectas main working document in the three dimensions,
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the instructive, sociopolitical and extension aspects,serves as a basis for integrating English as a foreignlanguage programme with the other expertprogrammes.
Facing the challenge of the globalization, the correctusage of the language as a distinctive feature of thenational identity and the valorization of linguisticvariants are of major concern to the project leaders.The strategy was set to use Terminology as a way tointegrate English into other teaching programmes inthe University of Pinar del Rio. This strategyconsists of several phases, resulting in theintegration of the students in research work,sistematic terminology work and in the organizationand elaboration of concept systems of the contentsof the several subjects. With this strategy thetransdisciplinary approach of the English technicallanguage course leads, via sistematic terminologywork, to the formation and strenghening of generaland professional values which the students need tohave as members of a society that has to face thechallenges of a new century.
Sustainable forest development as a paradigm toreach sustainability is the perfect conceptual world.Terminology work takes into account the scientificperception of the world through knowledge-generating processes in the construction andpermanent reconstruction of the student's "vision ofthe world". It aims at providing an education whichallows to perceive semantic and conceptual featuresof sustainable forest development. These combinedlanguage and subject field teaching programmes areintended to prepare the students to the challengesthat they will have to face as future subjectspecialists.
Sustainable forest development as a paradigm toreach sustainability is the perfect conceptual world.The scientific conception of the world throughknowledge generating processes in the constructionand permanent reconstruction of the students'"vision of the world" is taken into account in theterminology work to obtain an education whichallows to perceive semantic and conceptual featuresof sustainable forest development and thereforeprovides a way of action in view of the challengesthat the students have to face as future subjectspecialists.
Coming to Terms with Politicians andDefinitionsH. Gyde Lund
Forest Information Services, 8221 Thornwood Ct., VA20110-4617 Manassas, USA
Tel: +1-703-368-7219, FAX: +1-703-257-1419, Email:[email protected]
Keywords: Forest terminology, internationalprocesses, definitions
Recently there has been a large number ofinternational agreements, conventions and protocolsdealing with forest and forestry - especially sincethe United Nations Conference on Environment andDevelopment (UNCED) in 1992. Politicians andhigh-level government officials, eager to do theright thing regarding the environment endorseddocuments such as the Forestry Principles, theUnited Nations Framework Convention on ClimateChange (UNFCCC), the Convention on Biodiversity(COB), and the recent Kyoto Protocol. Successfulaccomplishment of these agreements on a globalbasis requires common understanding andimplementation at the national level. However, theseagreements often contain terms that are not clearlydefined or accepted on a national level. It could bethat the endorsers either believed that they werecommonly understood or they purposefully left thedefinitions and interpretations up to theimplementing bodies.
To understand the magnitude of definitions in use atthe national and international levels, IUFRO6.03.02, in 1998, undertook studies of some termsassociated with the Forestry Principles, ClimateChange and Biodiversity Conventions, and theKyoto Protocol. The studies included a world-wideliterature review and internet survey for definitionsof such terms as tree, forest, land cover land use,deforestation, afforestation, reforestation, oldgrowth and ancient forest, protected areas, and lowforest cover, that appeared to be ambiguous in manyof the agreements. For example, the term "forest",key for the implementation of the Kyoto Protocol,may be defined as an administrative unit by onecountry, a type of land cover by another or a type ofland use by yet another. With such diversity indefinitions at the national level, it would be verydifficult to develop any meaningful statistics at theglobal level.
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How to do Terminology Work inForestry. Services Offered by IUFRO
Renate Prüller, Michèle Kaennel DobbertinIUFRO, Secretariat, Seckendorff-Gudent-Weg 8, 1131
Vienna, AustriaTel: +43-1-877 0151 ext. 21, FAX: -43-1-877 9355,
Email: [email protected]
Keywords: Forest terminology, co-operation,terminology services
Efficient communication among scientists and withdecision makers needs a precise and clear technicallanguage. The network of IUFRO experts in forestscience is an immense pool of living expertknowledge. Experts create the terms we use tocommunicate and thus constitute an ideal partner forIUFRO's services in their attempt to define andmake accessible the forest technical language to awider public.
At a time when English has become the linguafranca of science, it is crucial that other languages -and IUFRO has four official languages - keepplaying an active role. This broadens the horizon ofscientific thinking and knowledge, but also makesunequivocal communication more difficult toachieve.
Vocabularies, glossaries and terminologicaldatabases present the technical vocabularies and, ifrelevant, interpret them for the interested public.The role of forestry experts is to help and assist inthis process of explication and definition of theirown specialised language, in order to guarantee thehigh quality and liability of these communicationtools.
IUFRO offers services with regard to terminologicalproblems through its Working Party 6.03.02 "Trendsin Forest Terminology" and its terminology projectSilvaVoc based in the IUFRO Secretariat, which areinterrelated and pro-active. Additionally we willshow how 6.03.02 and SilvaVoc incorporate IUFROofficeholders in terminology work and illustrate themost important services that are provided by6.03.02:- electronic discussion groups- terminological hotline for telematic-basedterminological assistance;and by SilvaVoc:- on-line Bibliography of terminologicalpublications in forestry- terminological database SilvaTerm.
Traditionally IUFRO's role in terminology has beento make people aware of terminological differences.Our approach is therefore based more on descriptive
than prescriptive principles, e.g. instead of aimingprimarily at recommending definitions, it is ourconcern to point out differences in the use of theterms. Guidelines for quality forestry terminologyprojects will be distributed at the IUFRO WorldCongress.
As globally co-ordinated forest research becomes apriority in the context of sustainable managementand global change, the need for concerted action interminology will increase. Partners from variousgeographical and institutional backgrounds willhave to base their collaboration on commondefinitions. They will also need to avoid duplicatingterminological efforts. Together, WP 6.03.02 andSilvaVoc can significantly contribute to thiscollective effort by consolidating the network,resources and expertise they have built since 1995.
6.06.00 Research driven by scientists ' wishor society's demand?
Scientists and Forest Policy: Roles,Opportunities and Responsibilities
Denver BurnsUSDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station,
97303 Ft Collins, CO, USA
Within the United States Forest Service, the role andresponsibilities of research scientists is widelydiscussed in terms of decision making for policy andmanagement. The issue is widespread within thenational scientific community as scientists comeface-to-face with the conflicting demands ofunbiased research and moral and ethicalconsiderations to make public their views and valuejudgments about trends and issues that their workhas uncovered. The Forest Service has attempted todraw a clear line between science and valuejudgments in the policy and management of theNation's public forested lands.
A successful example of an interactionbetween universities and forest
companies to promote research anddevelopment in Brazil: SIF
Laercio Couto, Amaury P de Souza, Antonio J deOliveira, Antonio S Alipio, Antonio B do Vale, Jos‚ C
Dias CasaliFederal University of Vicosa, Dept of Forestry, Societyfor Forest Research, 36571-000 Minas Gerais, Brazil
FAX: 55 31 891-2166, Email: [email protected]
In 1974, the Department of Forestry - DEF of theFederal University of Vicosa - UFV in MinasGerais, Brazil, along with five private forest
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companies founded the Society for Forest Research- SIF a non-profit organization with the objective ofpromoting research and development in theBrazilian forestry sector. At the same year, theDepartment of Forestry of that University was alsostarting its graduate program in Forestry. Thisfortunate coincidence led to one of the bestexamples in Brazil of an interaction between thescientific and private sector in the country. Most ofthe research thesis at Master and Doctorate level inthe graduate program of Forestry of UFV werefunded and developed at those associatedcompanies. Since its foundation in 1974 SIF haspromoted a series of short courses, workshops andinternational meetings and publishes today Revistaµrvore which is considered the best scientificjournal in the forestry area in the country. Theobjective of this paper is to show how an agreementbetween private forest companies and a federaluniversity can lead to one of the best examples ofinteraction for forestry research and 6.06.00Research driven by scientists' wish or society'sdemand?
Optimizing Societal and CorporateNeeds While Delivering Quality Scienceto Support Forest Policy and Practices
David De YoeMinistry of Natural Resources, Ontario Forest Research
Institute, Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario, Canada
Aligning science activities to best address ecologicalsustainability, private sector business objectives,and/or societal demands is a major challenge inresearch and development (R&D). Forest resourcepolicy makers must account for all three whendeveloping legislation, standards and guidelines toreflect the wide array of multi-sector values. Policyis being increasingly scrutinized to ensure itsintegrity and relevance. Delivery of quality scienceto meet sector needs requires 4 major steps: a)identify sector needs (including the scientificcommunity), b) translate those needs into researchproposals, c) select of priority R&D projects, and d)ensure the service or product fits the need and isdelivered on target.
Ontario is exploring the use of a process toeffectively, efficiently and equitably address each ofthese steps. The procedure includes the use of avalues and objectives driven survey of keystakeholders, a protocol for aligning scienceactivities with stakeholder values and objectives, adelivery tracking system to help ensure a goodproduct - need fit, and a performance-based systemthat guides and supports scientists and specialists tohelp them meet corporate priorities.
The process uses sophisticated informationmanagement and technology to involve seniormanagement at key decision points, optimize the useof human and financial resources, minimizesubjectivity and bias in decision-making, andreward scientists and for delivery of qualityproducts and services.
Forestry and Forest Research in BrazilVitor Afonso Hoeflich, Arnaldo José de Conto, Erich
SchaitzaUniversidade Federal do Paran, Embrapa Florestas,
BrazilTel: 041-3425332, FAX: 041-244-1545, Email:
Brazil has an area of 8.5 million km2 and apopulation of over 160 million inhabitants. BrazilianGNP was about 750 billion dollars in 1997. Naturalforests still cover a large area of Brazil. Althoughone may list several different forest ecosystems, sixof them deserve special mention: the Amazonforest; the Atlantic forest; the "Cerrados"; the"Pantanal"; the "Caatinga"; the "Paran Pine" forest.Brazil has about 6 million hectares of man-madeforests, mainly with Eucalypts (many differentspecies, the most common one being E. grandis)and pines (slash and loblolly pine). These forestswere planted mainly from 1966 to 1987 by largecompanies with tax incentives from BrazilianGovernment. Today, nearly all wood used for pulpand paper, particleboard and fiberboard comes fromthese man-made forests. Besides, more than onethird of all veneer and plywood comes from pines.
In the last decade, Brazilian government haschanged legislation to diminish deforestation andcreated a large number of conservation units. Noneof these measures was fully effective as there are noeffective law enforcement structures andconservation units need further investments onfinancial and human resources to work properly.Forest research had an important role in forestrydevelopment in the last century, but researchinstitutes are facing problems due to a rather longeconomic crisis. The early and current story offorestry research in Brazil is presented, and currenttrends in organizational and tematic aspects arediscussed. The weakness of information systemsand the need for the strenghtening of networks arekey factors to the success of forest research in thecountry, which is hindered by a steady diminutionof funding and to the current process of privatizationof public research institutes.
The perspectives of development of forest sector inBrazil are good provided some structural changesoccur in the country, increasing competitivity offorest products.
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Current Research at the Institute forWorld Forestry
Jochen HeuveldopInstitute for World Forestry, Federal Research Centre for
Forestry and Forest ProductsLeuschnerstr. 91, 21027 Hamburg, Germany
Tel: +49-40-739 62 100, FAX: +49-40-739 62 480,Email: [email protected]
The mandate of the Institute for WorldForestry/Chair of World Forestry is to conductresearch on the structure and composition of forests,on their conservation, management, and potentialfor utilisation. The research is concentrated on thedevelopment of strategies to preserve forests andimprove their multiple functions, on recultivation ofdegraded forest lands and on integration of forestryinto overall regional development.
According to the research agenda, scientificactivities and research projects focus on five keyaspects covering tropical and boreal forest types:
Forest Ecosystem Dynamics
Regeneration and growth of trees essentially dependon their genetically programmed capability to adaptto changing site conditions. The knowledge ofadaptability, of autecology and site preferences ofimportant tree species is a significant preconditionfor the planning of environmentally compatibledevelopment of forests, and for the rehabilitation ofdegraded forests. Various projects investigate theautecology of tree species to gain knowledge abouttheir suitability for integration in rehabilitationprogrammes. Furthermore, plant species diversity isstudied to assess the effects of forest management instands with different harvesting intensities andcompared with pristine forest conditions.
Influence of Land Use on Biodiversity
Forests have a key function in determining thedistribution and the abundance of many other plantand animal species. Biological diversity is becominga central criterion for forest management andinterdependencies are to be fully understood.Fundamental research topics deal with dispersal ofplant diaspores, with browsing and predation andtheir consequences, with floral ecology andpollination success, as well as with competition.Sustainable management of forests mainly in aninternational framework also includes the carefulutilisation of biological resources, other than timber,for the proper use and treatment of forests as aresource.
Forest Development and Monitoring
As part of the co-ordination and evaluation of theEuropean Assessment on Forest Condition by
UN/ECE and EU, a data bank is established. Dataon site parameters, soil chemistry, elementarycompounds in needles and leaves and thedevelopment of the canopy are included. Allinformation is recorded in a time range of 15 to 20years and is based on several thousands ofmonitoring points in Europe. The assessmentmethods of the different monitoring programmes ofall participating countries need to be harmonised forinterdisciplinary and synoptical analysis.
Silviculture as a Tool for SustainableManagement of Forests and Non-TimberForest Products
Emphasis is put on research of structure anddynamics of tropical and boreal forest ecosystems asa fundamental prerequisite for the development ofsilvicultural systems. Concepts for silviculturaloperations need to be elaborated and verified. Theyhave to be oriented towards an economic feasibility,to ecological stability and socio-culturalcompatibility.
Non-timber forest products play an important role inthe sustainable management of tropical forests.Corresponding research concentrates on theproduction and utilisation of non-wood forestproducts.
Sustainable Forest Development
At the Conference on Environment andDevelopment in Rio, the Federal Republic ofGermany has agreed to implementing the Agenda21, the environmental action programme for the 21stcentury. Chapter 11 of this Agenda ('CombatingDeforestation') specifies research priorities offorestry research in the tropics. Moreover, Germanysigned the Framework Convention on ClimateChange in Rio. It obliges Germany to implementingthe targets of the convention and to report to theSecretariat of the Conference of the Parties. Thisconvention has meanwhile become national law.Considering Germanys international commitments,the Institute for World Forestry elaborates proposalsin the context of harmonisation of diverging viewsfor political decisions to be taken by the FederalGovernment.
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6.06.02 How are innovations appl ied insustainable forestry
The practice and prospect ofparticipatory forestry in China
Jinlong LiuChinese Academy of Forestry, The Sustainable Forestry
Research Centre, 100091 Beijing, ChinaTel: 86-10-62889632, FAX: 86-010-62872015, Email:
liujl @ rif.forestry.ac.cn
Keywords: Participatory forestry, communityforestry, implementation, impacts
In historical review of the philosophy of humandevelopment regarding interaction between forestsand humans, a transition is occurring from theperception of forests as a resource to recognition offorests as an associate. Humans have stepped intothis new stage with difficulty, and participatoryforestry can be a brick for paving the way into thisnew stage of human development. Participatoryforestry was introduced to China in the mid-1980sand then fostered by international aid projects. in thepast decade, issues raised for study have includedpolicy, indigenous knowledge, gender analysis,conflict resolution, technical improvement andinnovation, and training with international technicalaid. But studies were limited in the area that hasbeen tested with focus on southwest China. Sincethe mid-1990s, community forestry projects havebeen implemented in areas of poverty in the middleand west part of China with international financialaid. The impacts of these projects were analyzed forbehavior and attitude changes of variousstakeholders related to forests, institutional supportfor developing participatory forestry, the orientationof objectives, technical improvement andinnovation, and extension. The constraints in thedevelopment of participatory forestry were analyzedwith regard to behaviors and attitudes of outsideindividuals and institutions, policy and regulation,role of existing institutions, promotion costs,financial agencies, participatory process, andtechniques.The decision-making processes,processes for implementation, and impact of theparticipatory forestry projects were analyzed incomparison to those of the prevailing top-downforestry projects. in regards to the participatoryforestry as an emerging philosophy and strategy,many issues related to forestry management wereanalyzed including land tenure reform, policy andregulation, and decentralization of decision-making.Because of the great variation in natural, economic,social, and cultural conditions and the imbalance ofpolicy reform in different regions, many cases withgreat variation were provided. This resulted in the
important conclusion that cultural, natural,economic, and social conditions should beconsidered and different nations and regions shouldfind their own way in promoting participatoryforestry. Recommendations for forestry policyreform and strategies for project implementationwere put forward.
Survey, Assessment, and Analysis ofExisting Extension Strategies andTransferred Technologies in the
Cordillera Region of the PhilippinesHelen A. Maddumba, Jocelyn S. Mapanao
Ecosystems Research and Development Service,Department of Environment and Natural Resources,
Cordillera Administration Region, Loakan Road, 2600Baguio City, Philippines
FAX: 0063-442-4531, Email: erds-car@mozcom. Com
Keywords: extension; technology transfer;information dissemination; technology adoption
The study identified technologies and informationthat were disseminated through a loan project by theEcosystems Research and Development Service.Dissemination methods and extension strategieswere also identified as basis for formulating anappropriate and effective extension strategy for end-users and the government. Respondents identifiedone to four types of information and technologieswith soil and water conservation measures mostwidely known in three provinces and tree plantingtechnologies better known in two provinces.Methods used for disseminating informationinclude: lecture, lecture with brochure, training,training and actual demonstration, cross-farm visits,film showing, broadcast, brochure distribution,house-to-house interviews, and meetings. Cross-farm visits occur when a group of farmers in thesame area will visit a group of farmers with modelfarms in another area to learn technologies beingadopted in that farm and in turn share theirexperiences and technologies to this group offarmers.
The most common and preferred method wastraining with actual demonstration followed bycross-farm visits. These strategies showed highimpact and are recommended for introducingtechnologies and information to this type of client(upland farmers, a majority of which belong to 30-39 age group and have either reached or graduatedhigh school education). Farmer factors thatinfluenced adoption in several provinces includedage, sex, civil/marital status, education, householdsize, experience, farm size, tenure, and membershipin organizations. Technology features (profitability,simplicity, practicality, compatibility with tradition,
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and low cost inputs), characteristics of extensionists(interest, positive attitude toward their work, andcommunication skills) and credit facilities wereperceived by respondents to have influenced theadoption of the technology and information.
Influencing the Adoption of ForestryInnovations: A Case Example from the
United StatesCynthia L. Miner, George H. Stankey
USDA, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest ResearchStation, P.O. Box 3890, Portland, OR, USA
Tel: 503-808-2135, FAX: 503-808-2130, Email:Stankey_George/r6pnw_seattle@sv2
Keywords: Forestry innovations; informationdissemination; technology adoption; researchorganizations
People come to adopt innovations (new information,concepts, or technologies) through a process ofbecoming aware of the innovations, deciding to tryit, and evaluating as to whether they will continue touse it. Forestry research organizations are in thebusiness of producing innovations, but areincreasingly challenged as how to best organize topromote the cycle of innovation adoption,implementation, and evaluation. This paperexamines three ways that the Pacific NorthwestResearch Station, United States Department ofAgriculture, Forest Service, promotes adoption ofinnovations that it has produced: (a) information andtechnology retrieval, (b) in-person interaction withscientists, and (c) organizational arrangements thatemphasize learning. Traditional reliance onhardcopy scientific and technical publications isgiving way to an increasing use of electronicinformation retrieval, including publication,software, and databases. Electronic access hasbroadened both the types and number of peopleaware of the station's research. Experiences withscientists include field trips, workshops, training,and some direct participation in research. Althoughsuch experiences can be effective in influencingpeople to try innovations, they are also time-consuming for scientists and involve an opportunitycost in time and resources that could be otherwisedirected at research. Finally, the research station hasexperimented with several organizationalarrangements that bring scientists, forest managers,and often citizens together. Such arrangements areinnovative and complex, often requiringcommitment from two or more organizations.Results have been mixed. Two examples of thesearrangements are learning centers and adaptivemanagement areas.
Rehabilitating Cold Deserts throughApropriate Transfer of a Technology
PackageOm. Prakas Sharma, K K Raina
Dr. Y.S. Parmar University of Horticulture and SocialSciences, 173 230 (HP) Nauni (Solan), India
Tel: +91-1792-52288, FAX: +91-1792-52242, Email:[email protected]
Keywords: technology transfer; extension;participatory processes; cold deserts, sustainabledevelopment
The "cold deserts" in India, covering and area of74,809 km2, pose a challenge to developmentbecause of rugged terrains, isolation, inhospitableclimate, and a lack of communication facilities. Thedevelopment in the region has witnessed a sequenceof changes of edaphic, abiotic, and social-economicenvironment over time and is unfortunatelycontributing to environmental degradation.
The traditional farming practices are being overshadowed by modern culture without a fresh look atthese technological interferences and capitalappraisal of their influences on economic prosperityand sustainable development of these hostile regionsin perpetuity and commensurate with the culturalheritage. The cold deserts need to be conserved byadopting environment friendly and appropriatedevelopment packages. The suggested technologyshould depend least on internal inputs and aim atintensive farm research to maximize landproductivity, resource conservation, andenvironmental protection, and catalysis of naturalecological development processes.
The transfer of technology package suggested in thispaper caters to the needs of the poor and marginalfarmers with recognition of innovation for andaccountability to these users. It is based onparticipatory principles which are socially pro-people, that is, economically viable and culturallyacceptable. This transfer of technology module willhelp solve complex problems by blending modernscientific innovation and the traditional expertisedeveloped by the inhabitants for centuries. Thesuggested appropriate transfer of technologypackage intervenes into the physical, socio-cultural,agroclimatic, geographic, environmental anddifferent components of soil, water, crops, livestockand resource endowments of the community.Appropriate technology needs to be considered forvegetables, fruits, peas, potato, kuth, saffron, hops,and traditional crops like minor millets, seedproduction of flowers, grasses, forest plantations,medicinal and aromatic plants, sheep and goathusbandry, fisheries, and management of nomadic
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grazing. These technologies need to be transferredthrough the participatory processes and extensioneducation techniques for sustainable development ofsocio-economic conditions and ecologicalsustenance of cold deserts.
Adaptation and evaluation of innovativetechnologies by society: a step towardsoptimum utilization of forest resourcesfor sustainability and socio-economic
developmentDiwakar Sinha
Watershed Management Directorate, Indranagar ForestColony, 248006 Dehradun, Uttar Pradesh, India
Tel: +91-135-724229, FAX: +91-135-620334(attn:Diwakar Sinha), Email: [email protected]
Keywords: watershed management, technology,adaptation; evaluation; sustainable forestmanagement
Sustainability in forest management is accepted asessential. Optimum utilization of available resourcesand adaptation of the latest management andinnovative technologies are key factors in planningprograms for forest management. India is striving toadjust and reorient teaching, training, and projectimplementation to address the changing focus offorest management. A technology policy statementwas formulated to develop indigenous technologyand ensure efficient diffusion and adaptation ofimported technologies appropriate to nationalpriorities and indigenous resources. The policystatement aims at attaining technical competenceand self-reliance with maximum use of indigenousresources. It also aims at using traditional skills andcapabilities toward commercial competitiveness.
Several other measures are envisaged to optimizedemand on energy and ensure harmony within theenvironment. in view of the progressive pressure onthe environment and natural resources, it was agreedon to give a new thrust toward conservation andsustainable development. To weave environmentalconsiderations into the fabric of national life and thedevelopment process, the Government of Indiaadopted the National Conservation Strategy in June1992. This identified population control andconservation of natural resources including land,water, atmosphere, biodiversity, and biomass as thepriority areas needing specific concerted action.These actions would integrate environmentalconsideration into policies and programs ofdevelopment in various sectors.
The strategy also highlighted the role ofInternational Cooperation and Systems forstrengthening institutional mechanisms, research,and development, mobilization of financial
resources, creation of public awareness, and trainingof professionals.
One of the significant steps in implementing thestrategy was launching the National WatershedDevelopment Project for restoration of theecological balance in rain-fed areas and sustainablebiomass production. It focuses on conservingrainwater and topsoil by (1) conservation,upgradation and optimum use of naturalendowments in an integrated manner with low costinnovative technology and (2) generatingemployment for the poor rural communities, directlywith farmers and watershed beneficiaries inplanning and implementing all projects in thewatershed by developing self-help groups.
The Doon Valley Integrated WatershedManagement Project has implemented the NationalWatershed Development Project in Uttar Pradesh,India, with the help of the European EconomicCommission since 1993. It includes agriculture,minor irrigation, horticulture, animal husbandry,community participation, soil conservation andforestry. The project now is being implemented in255 villages covering an area of about 1,854 squarekilometers. This paper discusses, reviews, andhighlights issues of adaptation and evaluation oftechnologies, old and new, of the multidisciplinaryproject, with emphasis on environmental restoration,socio-economic development, and sustainable forestmanagement.
6.06.03 Target ing the real forest managers
Impact of Societal Change On ExtensionWork in Bavaria
Roland L. Beck, Stefan SchaffnerUniversity of Munich, Faculty of Forest Science, Am
Hochanger 13, D-85354 Freising, GermanyTel: +49-8161-71-4621, FAX: +49-8161-71-4623, Email:
Keywords: Societal change; Extension; Bavaria
So far the focus of state support and forestryextension activities for small scale forest owners inBavaria has been put on farm forests. The wholesystem of education, further education andextension for private forestry was and still isadjusted to that type of forest owner. The structuralchanges in the agricultural sector causes an ongoingabandonment of farm enterprises which lowered thenumber of managed farms from 472.805 in 1960 to252.972 in 1997 and extended the number of pureforest enterprises from 46.148 in 1980 to 73.275 in1997. Therewith the number of forest owners nolonger covered by the traditional forest educationand further education system increased and will
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increase further on. Coincidentally the managementobjectives of these "new" non farm forest ownertype changes, at least partially no longer focusing onwood production.
The traditional forestry extension approach inBavaria to link extension with the financial supportof private forestry within the framework of financialfunding programs does not seem to be appropriate inthe future: The catalog of supported activitiesgenerally aims at traditional forest managementmeasures. in addition, due to budget restrictions, theavailable amount of funds for management activitiesdecreased remarkably since 1990. Therewith theattractiveness to seek extension services will shortentoo.
The classic extension clientele (farmers, woodproduction oriented forest owners) is alsoconfronted with changes on the customers side: Theongoing concentration process in the wood industrysector in Germany creates new challenges to smallscale private forest owners in terms of deliveryconditions (just in time production, sufficientvolume per harvest etc.) and grading of timber.
Simultaneously forest owners available time forindividual forest management is decreasing due tothe growing size of the agricultural part of theenterprise in the case of farm forests. Thereforeprivate forest owner organizations or serviceenterprises will increasingly take over forestmanagement competencies in small scale forests.These "new" forest managers are therewith ofgrowing interest for extension professionals.
The described processes demand the modification ofthe existing extension praxis in Bavaria in terms ofapproaches and contents, from a reactive generaloutline to an extended active extension. Aprecondition is knowledge on the motivations andattitudes, as well as objectives of the "new" forestowners and managers. Most recent research shows,that the new clientele not necessarily spends lesstime in their forest but less time with forest work.Absentee owners dedicate up to 70%, farmers atleast 90% of their time in the forest to active work.Lack of equipment and less skills also characterizesthese new absentee forest owners. 2/3rd hireentrepreneurs for specific forest managementactivities, 1/5th exclusively. Income generationplays only a minor role, main management strategybecomes to "keep the forest", using concepts from"traditional" to more "close to nature" but also "donothing".
Forestry Extension in Environment ofPolitical Transition - example of
SloveniaJurij Begus, Zivan Veselic
Slovenia Forest Service, Vecna pot 2, p.p.71, 1001Ljubljana, Slovenia
Tel: +386-61-123-54-32, FAX: +386-61-123-53-61,Email: [email protected]
Keywords: transition, forestry, Slovenia
The article deals with the conditions raised from thepolitical changes in Central and Eastern Europe. Wefocused on forestry which in many places wentthrough radical transformation. We are dealing withSlovenia as an example.
The political changes which occurred in Eastern andCentral Europe in the last years, seized strongly intoevery pore of social life. One of the essential mattersthat went through a radical change, is property. innature, as well as in social relations, the system ofpendulum is present. If in a system we hold onething on one, extreme side for a long time, thereaction, in the moment of release, will be adverseand more impetuous than it is good for a system. Ifthe rights, arising from private ownership wereoppressed for decades, it is logical that the demandsof the new, or better "renewed" owners would notalways be profitable for the forest. Therefore it isurgent that the interests of singular components ofthe system (owners, profession, politics, public) arecoordinated, because only such coordinated systemwill work successfully.
Even though the conditions in Slovenia were, andstill are, different from the rest of the countries intransition, the basic relation and problems in asociety are in its nature similar, if not the same,everywhere. That's why the description of thecondition in Slovenia is enough to make an observerget a rough picture of the circumstances, governingin other countries in Central and Eastern Europe.
The main changes, performed in the field of forestryin Slovenia are:- with the denationalisation process the share ofprivate-owned forests has increased- the rights and duties of forest owners towards theirforests have been strengthened- a united public forestry service has been set up forall the forests, regardless of ownership- financing of forestry has been completely changed;because of public meaning of forests, the statefinances the public forestry service and the majorpart of protection works in private forests and it alsoparticipates in financing of tending works andmaintenance of forest communications.
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The united public forestry service assures a moreefficient professional guidance of forestdevelopment.
The system of forest-management planning has beencompletely renovated and supported by moderntechnology of space treating (ortophoto plans, geo-coding of all data about forest and forest space). Weare paying a special attention to incorporation offorestry planning into general regional planning inthe country, even bigger stress than so far is given toprotection of nature and to the highest possibleextent the wishes of forest owners, who alsoparticipate in forestry planning, are beingconsidered. The public forestry service makes wild-life management plans, too. One of the mostimportant tasks is education of forest owners and thepublic.
The Forest Bank: An InnovativeProgram To Manage Forests and ProtectBiological Resources On Private Lands
James E. JohnsonVirginia Tech, College of Natural Resources, 324
Cheatham Hall, Mail Code 0324, VA 24061 Blacksburg,USA
Tel: 540-231-7676, FAX: 540-231-7664, Email:[email protected]
Conflicts between the need to harvest and extracttimber products and to protect rare, threatened, andendangered biological resources are commonthroughout the world. in the US such issues havecentered around a small number of high profilespecies such as the spotted owl in the PacificNorthwest and the Louisiana black bear in theSouth. Often, the critical habitat and species inquestion reside on large tracts of public land, andthe controversy becomes one of public policy.However, across the US, about three fourths of theforest land is owned by private, nonindustrial landowners, and conflicts often become more personalbetween environmental organizations and privatecitizens. Recently an environmental organization,The Nature Conservancy, developed a programknown as the Forest Bank, and is implementing it inSouthwest Virginia as the first test site. The ForestBank allows for a forest landowner to voluntarilyplace the value associated with his/her timber rightsinto the Bank, then withdraw an annuity equal to 3to 5% of the value of the timber into perpetuity. Forexample, if a landowner has $100,000 worth oftimber, he/she would receive from $3,000 to $5,000each year. The Nature Conservancy would then takeover management of the forest land, and harvest thetimber in an environmentally responsible manner. infact, the harvest of timber by The NatureConservancy would be essential in order to provide
a stream of income to keep the Bank funded at alevel high enough to pay the annuities. Thispresentation focuses on a series of related researchprojects now being conducted by Virginia Tech incooperation with The Nature Conservancy. Studiesare underway to evaluate the willingness of forestlandowners to participate in the program, todetermine the impact on individual and communityeconomics, and develop spatial data analysistechniques to relate demographic and economic datawith land use patterns and critical habitats on theground.
Household Livelihood and Labour-TimeUse Patterns as Frameworks for
Devising Community-basedAgroforestry Extension Strategies
Alice A. KaudiaKenya Forestry Research Institute, Post Box # 20412,
Nairobi, KenyaTel: +254-154-32891-3, FAX: +252-154:32844, Email:
[email protected] or [email protected]
Since the introduction of the concept of agroforestryand associated practices in the early 1980s,agroforestry projects have adopted conventionalextension methods and approaches such as farmvisits, group training, and the modified Training andVisit method. Typically, the planning ofagroforestry extension activities by extensionagencies has not taken into account the localconditions. Consequently, it has been observed thatsome categories of potential beneficiaries ofagroforestry extension services have been sidelined.in addition, adoption of agroforestry technologies,especially in marginal subsistence agricultural areas,has been limited.
Participatory approaches have also been tried sincethe early 1990's. However, often these approachescontinue to be based on operational frameworks ofthe intervening agencies.
Against the background of the need to deviseextension methods that fit into the livelihoodstrategies of a target community, research wasconducted for a period of 7 months in a semi-ariddistrict of Lake Victoria basin in Western Kenyaduring 1996-97.
One of the objectives of the research was todetermine patterns of labor-time use by peasantfarmers in this semi-arid area in the context oflivelihood strategies. The research identified thetypes of agroforestry practices that have been mostpopular with farmers and hence have diffusedextensively.
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A formal sample survey was conducted in fivedivisions of the Homa Bay District in Kenya. Threehundred households were interviewed during themonths of August to October 1996. Through theinterviews, data on the socio-economic backgroundand agroforestry practicing households, and thetypes of practices that have been adopted werecollected. Labor-time use data was collected usingthe personal recording method. Data sheets wereprovided to members of the households who residein the farms for more than six months in a year.Respondents were requested to record all activitiesdone in a day from the time of waking up to the timeof retiring to bed. One hundred and ninety-sevenmembers of the sampled households participated inthe labor-time - activity component of the research.Records were kept for a 3-5 month time equivalentspread across 7 months. Over 100 different activitieswere recorded, then grouped into nine broad activitycategories. The period of the day when the activitieswere undertaken and the duration were alsosummarized. Data was statistically analyzed todetermine the proportioning of time betweendifferent non-farm and farming activities bymembers of the surveyed households. The analysiswas done to identify differences according to genderand age, as well as the season.
The research has identified the complexity oflivelihood strategies of rural peasants and how thesecomplexities have defined households’ decisions onallocation of the one scarce resource that is commonto households: Labor-time. The diversity ofactivities and rural households’ time constraintsrequire that agroforestry extension agencies deviseextension strategies that involve active participationof community members. Research to determinewhich agroforestry extension methods, which arealready being used, can be adapted to circumstancesof rural subsistence farmers to enhancedissemination of agroforestry technologies isnecessary.
Socio-Economic Implications AffectingFarmers' Participation in Agroforestry
Extension Activities in GarhwalHimalaya
M. C. Kukreti, Vinay KumarIndian Council of Forestry Research and Education,
Kaula Garh Road, 248195 Dehradun, IndiaFAX: 91-0135-759203, Email:[email protected]
AA study was conducted during 1996 to analysesome of the socio-economic implications affectingfarmers' participation in agroforestry extensionactivities in the villages of Chopariyal Gaon macro
watershed of Garhwal Himalaya. Statistical testsrevealed that farm size, household size and totalnumber of animals in the household weresignificantly related to agroforestry participation atthe 5% level. Distance travelled for fuelwoodcollection was negatively significant. Number ofdays used for fodder collection were not statisticallysignificant. The study recommends that the wellbeing of the poor and powerless can be improved byecosystem rehabilitation through economicallyviable and ecologically sound methods, using a ?doit yourself? approach. It has been postulated thatapplication of technologies based on isolatedbiological, physical and social science researchcannot resolve this issue and that a properunderstanding of the socio-economic conditionsaffecting the population is essential. in the modeldeveloped using this approach, the villageorganisations assume responsibility to meet theneeds of the community. in addition to policies ofconsolidating the land use, land tenure and relatedissues are also addressed to ensure sustainability ofboth the technology and people's participation Theuse of conventional methods of policy andmanagement practices, which result in the alienationof local populations from the forest andconsequential forest degradation, is abandoned inthis approach. The study also recommends thatdetailed analysis of clientele should be theprerequisite in any agroforestry activity to beundertaken.
The Forestry and AgroforestryTechnology Transfer Through
Agricultural Technical Assistance Units- A New Approach To Rural Extension
Fernando Ortiz RamirezForestry Research and Promotion National Corp.,
CONIF, Avda. Circunvalar Nro. 16-20 (detras del Inst.Roosevelt), A.A. 091676 Santaf‚ de Bogot, Colombia
Tel: 57-1-3417000, FAX: 57-1-3376970, Email:[email protected]
In the context of community forestry projectsparticipation, planning can be clearly defined as theunion between activities realized by the local peopleand the project staff. The objective is to formulateplans and to choose the best alternative available forimplementation. in Colombia, the Forestry Researchand Promotion National Corporation (CONIF) andthe Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development(MAG) have implemented an alternative extensionmethodology entitled "Forestry and AgroforestryTechnology Transfer Through AgriculturalTechnical Assistance Units (TAU's)." With the drugproblems in Colombia, the project has also beenimplemented as an alternative to substitute or
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replace illegal crops in some Colombian regions.The aim of this project is to achieve high extensionagent performance influence in rural households.The main function of the TAU is to give assistanceto small farmers. TAU's have the widest cover of thecountry, because they are associated with thenational extension service. This is the firstcontinuous and systematic effort in Colombia to usesuch units. Through this training proposal, CONIFseeks to provide conceptual information andpractical experience on forestry and agroforestry,methodologies to identify and to validateagroforestry practices, and information for theextension agents to design, advise, and supportfarmers to adopt technology. To ensure that theprocess is successful and practical, the trainingproposal has the following characteristicscontinuous with three phases: 1) theoretical/practicaltraining; 2) learning application; and 3) advising,monitoring, and evaluation systematic with respectto the contents of the training materials, thelecturers, and field trips.
- Responsive to local needs. The project aims toresolve the ecological, economic and socialproblems related to watersheds, deforestation,erosion, and environmental education.
- Based on human development, the project requiresthat extension agents be qualified to make decisions,respond to the rural development issues, and toprovide alternatives for resolving issues.
- Community participation: Extension agents andfarmers work together to identify and prioritizeproblems, and devise solutions. This allowsmaximum use of farmer indigenous knowledge.
- Based on research and established technology: Theproject is supported by the latest research resultsfrom ICRAF, CATIE, as well as CONIF inColombia. Additionally, extension agents can drawinformation from the Monitoring and EvaluationSystem and the Forestry and Agroforestry TechnicalInformation System, which operates nationwide.
6.07.00 Tropical Forest History
Searching for a New Paradigm inSustainable Forest Management:
Participatory Forest Management as aStrategy for Forest Conservation and
Development in the TropicsMiyan Rukunuddin Ahmed
University of Chittagong, Institute of Forestry andEnvironmental Sciences, 4331 Chittagong, Bangladesh
Tel: 880-31-714914, FAX: 880-31-714914, Email:[email protected] (Attention: Dr. Rukun)
Participatory forest management (PFM) is a newfield in the arena of forest resources management. Itevolves as an innovative approach for forestmanagement and conservation with activeinvolvement of the people for the development offorest and raising socio-economic condition of thecommunity. PFM can be considered as adevelopment program for the poor in the tropicaldeveloping countries with mitigating forest resourceconservation problems. It has been realized thatforest protection is difficult without activeinvolvement and cooperation of local community.PFM can replenish the degraded forests in thetropics and protect existing forest resources fromfurther deterioration through partnership with publicagency and community groups. Promotion ofpeople's participation in tropical forest managementneeds much stimulation and encouragement amongthe public, trust on forestry administration, and arigorous overhauling of forestry policy andlegislation. It needs community resourcesmobilization and organization into a successfulPFM. PFM can enhance the involvement of localcommunity in forestry activities through which localpeople change their attitude from destructors tokeepers of the forests.
This article will deal with a development of a modelfor PFM of the tropical forests. Modeling of PFMwill include reformulating the policy and legislation;strategy for effective community participation(resources mobilization, community organizing,care and share (stewardship), partnership amongpublic forestry agency, community people/neighborhood groups, and PVOs/NGOs; incentivesand rewards; appropriate technology developmentand adoption (ATDA); multiple-product forestrypractices (honey, wax, deer farming, woodlot,orchard, silvipasture, cash cropping, protected areadevelopment, ecotourism, etc.); implementation andevaluation, and research and extension. This articleis about how to mobilize resources, organize andinvolve community people into a body of strongsupport and action for PFM. Upland people and
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people around the forests realize the importance offorest in their lives from subsistence to life savingdrugs, and they are careful about not to destroyingthe forest resources base.
Government forest policy should welcome andmake provisions for popular participation in forestryplanning and management. Reformulating ofpolicies and laws that are necessary for people'sactive participation, support and recognition ofcommunity-based tenurial systems, andstrengthening local institutions. The tenurial rightsover the land and usufructory rights over theproduce should be clearly spelled out in the form ofan agreement. This is important to gain confidenceof the participants by the government forestryagency in the PFM. Administrative restructuring,foresters' orientation toward community interaction,democratic participation of local community indecision making and implementation in forestmanagement, are some of the important steps thatshould be taken into consideration. Some of thestrategies for PFM in tropical forest managementcan be (i) establishment of community forest/forestvillage development, and agroforestry model, (ii)development of protected area, nature reserve, etc.through active participation of the communitynegotiated on limited access/uses by the community,(iii) ensure use rights of non-timber forest products(NTFP), and marketing development, (iv)tribal/shifting cultivators' rehabilitation/settlement,(v) formation of forest farmers groups/Forest usergroup, and (vi) encourage equal genderparticipation, (vii) conflict management, and (viii)community empowerment and control. in thisconnection, we can cite the examples from Indiawhere joint forest management (JFM) was practicedthat benefited both the community and the forests;and Nepal where forest user groups (FUG) wereorganized and involved in participatory forestmanagement and rehabilitation/reforestation ofdegraded lands.
Conflict Cultures: A Comparative Viewof Environmental Forest Conflicts in
Selected European Countries andRegions of the USA
Eeva HellströmFinnish Forest Association, Salomonkatu 17 B, FIN-
00100 Helsinki, FinlandTel: +358-9-685 088 12, FAX: +358-9-68508820, Email:
Keywords: Environmental conflict, culture, conflictmanagement, Europe, USA.
Cultural clash is often perceived as an importantbackground to environmental forestry conflicts.Indeed, conflicts usually involve a struggle betweensub-cultures of society (e.g. those related to ruralcommunities, industrialism, environmentalism).However, cultural aspects of conflicts are in thispaper viewed from a significantly broader angle.
Environmental forest conflicts can be viewed ascultural products of the societies in which theyoccur. Owing to its unique social, political,economic and resource structure, each society hasits own cultural way of producing certain types ofconflicts and managing them in a certain way. Eachcountry has its own "conflict culture". Only byunderstanding the conflict culture of a society, maywe consciously aim at realising the positivepotential of conflicts for social development.
This paper presents the findings of a comparativestudy of environmental forest conflicts during 1984-95 in seven cases: Finland, France, Germany,Minnesota, Norway, the Pacific Northwest region ofUSA, and Sweden. The data comprises a total of210 focused interviews, which are analysed by usingQualitative Comparative Analysis. The analysisprovides an understanding of conflict patterns ineach of the seven cases, focusing particularly onpatterns related to the types of conflict and conflictmanagement, and to the value, policy, market andresource aspects of the conflicts. in comparingwhole societies and in examining long time spans,this research fills in a gap in research on forestryconflicts, which has typically focused on theexamination of case-specific or country-specificconflicts.
As a result of the analysis, models of conflictcultures and conflict management strategies arepresented, and the cases are understood in the lightof these models. The model of conflict cultures isbased on three dimensional setting where mild vs.intense conflicts, social stability vs. rapid change,and co-operative vs. separative relations areexamined in relation to each other.
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The models help understand that conflict culture is adynamic phenomenon. The appearance of conflictsand responses to them change in time within anysociety. Within this frame, conflict managementmay be regarded as a conscious effort toconstructively influence conflict culture. This viewbecomes apparent when using the cases to constructa model of conflict management strategies.
Forestry and Stewardship in South-EastAsia, with Special Reference to
Peninsular MalaysiaJeyanacar Kathirithamby-Wells
Clare Hall Cambridge, Herschel Road, CB3 9ALCambridge, Malaysia
FAX: 1953-498121, Email: [email protected]
Key-words: deforestation, biodiversity, tropicalforest history
Climate and geography have rendered the task offorestry difficult and complex in the tropics. Earlyrealization of the impact of deforestation on climateand environment made colonial foresters aware thatforests afforded services other than the provision ofwood and fuel. The rapid expansion of population inSoutheast Asia as of the nineteenth century obligedforesters to put in place appropriate legislation tocurb indigenous practices of shifting cultivation.The forestry service was much less successful inarresting the loss of forests to plantation agriculture.
After World War II, the challenge to forestry wasintensified by Southeast Asia's emergence as amajor timber export region. Where previouslynatural regeneration, long cutting cycles and manualextraction allowed the return of biodiversity, post-War extensification and intensification of logginghas threatened the fundamentals of foreststewardship in the tropics. Ironically, it is where theenvironmental and biological value of forests arehighest, such as in the moist tropics of SoutheastAsia, that the forester's role has been mostchallenged by politics and economics. The paperwill argue that it is within the context of theseprocesses that global discourse on the ethics offorest conservation and stewardship has evolved.
Human impacts of South Americanforests. Historical development
Rudi Arno SeitzUniversidade Federal do Parana, Rua Bom Jesus 650,
80.035-010 Curitiba, BrazilTel: +55-41-232-9084, FAX: +55-41-253-2332, Email:
Before the discovery by european navigators, SouthAmerica had a native population well integrated inits environment, using the forests as a naturalresource without depletion. The spanish andportuguese colonization during the 300 years afterdiscovery changed little in this situation, as the mainhuman impact was concentrated on the coastalregions, were of course the forests were cleared toprovide space for some agricultural activities.
After 1800, as consequence of political changes inEurope, more attention was given to South America.The establishment of local governments broughtmore economical activities. Also the improvementof colonization of new lands by european settlerscaused in the first moment heavy forest destruction.The forest was the enemy, plenty of dangers, wildanimals and diseases. and the region had no opengrasslands for agriculture. But yet at this time therole of forests as watershed protection wasrecognized. in the surroundings of the city of Rio deJaneiro the first reforestation action started on coffeeplantations, nowadays called "Floresta da Tijuca".Later in this century, the development of steamengines increased the use of wood for energy as wellas material for the construction of railroads. But stillin most of South America, the forest was a sourcefor special products, like rubber or some specialwoods. Fortunatelly this extractivism didn't causedmuch damage to the ecosystem.
At the beginning of the XXth century it was clearfor many people that forests should be replanted.The first attempts to plant Eucalypts and pines weremade in Argentina, Brazil, Chile and othercountries. Later, even plantations for rubbertappering (by Henry Ford) were tryed, withoutsuccess.
Real impact on forests started after World War II.Due to the development of international markets,evolution of better equipment for logging operationsand industrial investments (paper mills, ironindustry), the pressure on natural forests raised, aswell as reforestation for industrial purposesincreased. in the 60ties, land clearing for agriculturalactivities, like soybean plantations or cattle raisingpromoted a new wave of deforestation, afterextraction of the best logs of the forest.
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Actually, plantation forestry has high technical andscientific standards in South America. But themanagement of natural forests remains more or lessextractivistic. and after all valuable woods or otherproducts are depleted, land occupation foragricultural purposes is the consequence.International pressure and local interest achievesome results in preserving special tree species (likeAraucaria araucana in Chile) or even landscapes,like the forests in the coastal mountain range insoutheastern Brazil.
6.07.00 Social changes and forests
A Historical Chronology and Impact ofUrban Forestry: A Case Study of Kuala
Lumpur, MalaysiaNik Ismail Azlan
MARA Institute of Technology, Department ofLandscape Architecture, Malaysia
Email: [email protected]
Beginning with its founding at the confluence oftwo rivers, the city of Kuala Lumpur has seen theintroduction of several exotic and local forestspecies planted within the built up areas. Initiallysome of the existing forest species were left intact asdevelopment was very minimal during the earlyyears. When Kuala Lumpur was placed under theBritish administration several exotic forest specieswere introduced for their shade and beauty amidstthe humidity of the tropical climate. These treeswere often planted side by side with the localspecies especially within the town centre, residentialareas, government buildings, club house, parks andgreenbelts. Combined with the introduction offlowering shrubs Kuala Lumpur was slowlydeveloped into a conceptual garden city. The wetand humid tropical climate quickened the growth ofthese urban trees. As Kuala Lumpur developed intoa modern city the policy of tree plantings of thecolonial era was slowly revised. Unlike architecturalbuildings of old, these trees could not and did notlast long due to neglect and changes in the land use.As more buildings were built some of these treeswere cut down, pruned or replaced with tree speciesthat are occupy less growing spaces. This is moreapparent after Kuala Lumpur was declared aterritory of the Federal Government in 1974.Fortunately Kuala Lumpur City Hall or DewanBandaraya Kuala Lumpur (DBKL) undertook amajestic task of transforming the city into a tropicalgarden city by preserving some of the trees and atthe same time introducing new species of trees tosuit the needs of the urban environment. Rows androw of trees were planted alongside low andmedium sized shrubs for functional and aesthetic
purposes. Millions of dollars were allocated for thispurpose. Such immense effort has transformed KualLumpur into a city of a balanced and healthyenvironmet for its population. A lot of the citypopulation has benefited from the presence of thesetrees in so many ways. The economic, social,political, and environmental benefits are discussed.However, such transformation is not withoutproblems but nevertheless Kuala Lumpur hasmanaged to provide a pleasant image to visitors andcitizens alike. These problems and solutions are inso many ways similar to other cities throughout theworld. The lessons learnt in Kuala Lumpur may beapplied to other cities throughout the world.
Learning from Self-Initiated CommunityForest Management in Orissa, India
Czech Conroy, Abha Mishra and Ajay RaiUniversity of Greenwich, Natural Resources Institute,Chatham Maritime, ME4 4TB Chatham Kent, United
KingdomFAX: 00 44 1634 880066/77, Email:
There is growing recognition in tropical countriesthat safeguarding forests requires the activeinvolvement of local communities, but knowledgeof how best to do this is limited. Orissa's extensiveexperience of community forest management(CFM) provides some valuable lessons and insightsregarding: (a) how and why communities managetheir forests; and (b) the sustainability of CFMinitiatives. The paper discusses the followingaspects of CFM in Orissa: (a) the conditions thatgive rise to the initiation of CFM; (b) the size andnature of the benefits, and how they are distributedamong the various sub-groups of a community; (c)the factors affecting its sustainability, includingconflicts and their management; and (d)communities' support needs. The principal researchactivity was a survey, primarily socio-economic, of43 forest-dependent communities. CFM wasexamined in the context of people's livelihoodsystems as a whole, since these can affect the sizeand nature of any benefits they derive from forestprotection, and also their main reasons for decidingto protect. The authors conclude that CFM has madean important contribution to the regeneration andsustainable management of Orissa's forests, andargue that the formal balance of control of forests beshifted further towards communities. They highlightthe plurality of institutional and managementarrangements that communities have developed, andcaution against forest departments imposing astandardised, blueprint approach, as has tended tohappen in government Joint Forest Management(JFM) programmes. Several weaknesses are
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identified in India's JFM programmes and reformsrecommended.
Keywords Community, management, indigenous,sustainability, conflict
The relationship between forest andcommunity in Turkey (after the firstgeneral assembly of forest villages)M. Kurtulus Gürses, Dr. Ali Ozkurt, Suade Arancli
Eastern Mediterranean Forestry Research Institute, PostBox # 18, 33401 Tarsus, Turkey
Tel: 90 (312) 417 91 60, FAX: 90 (312) 417 91 60,Email: [email protected]
The year of 1998 was the seventy-fifth anniversaryof the Republic of Turkey. in this connection, a lotof institutions evaluated their own past activitieswith the aim of producing more successful policiesand conducting more successful activities in thefuture. So the Ministry of Forestry held "The FirstGeneral Assembly of Forest Villages". There werethose considerations behind the organisation:
Almost all of the forests belong to the governmentin Turkey. There are 19000 villages in or near forestland and they are called as "forest villages". Almostnine million people live in the forest villages andthey are called as "forest villagers". Forest villagershave a hard life and they are also in the lowestincome group of the country. As a result of this theyfrequently commit a crime such as illegal cutting orclearance of forest land. Furthermore, they feel thatthey are stranger in their own land because of theforests belong to the government and for this reasonthey do not hesitate to damage forests. It is the proofthat there are 130000 forest lawsuit in the courtsnow. So the Ministry of Forestry is in dispute withforest villagers because of all of these negativeconditions. So the first general assembly of forestvillagers was held with the aim of improving thedialogue between the Ministry of Forestry and forestvillagers and discussing all problems with a greatparticipation. Before the general assembly eachregional forestry directorate held meetings withforest villagers. Problems were discussed on theregional basic and delegates that would participatein the assembly were elected in these meetings. Twohundred fifty-five delegates were determined in thismanner among forest villagers. Later electeddelegates, members of universities, NGO's, expertsand high level bureaucrats of the Ministry ofForestry, representatives of the political partiesconstituted the general assembly. All of themembers of the general assembly discussed theproblems and general forestry issues during twodays in the capital Ankara. in the light of these
discussions a declaration was written and declaredto people.
More detailed knowledge on the general assemblywill be given and its success will be discussed in thepaper. Also the paper will have discussion onthought in the declaration.
Lessons learnt from internationalassistance to forestry?
Reidar PerssonCIFOR, P.O.Box 6506 JKPWB, 100 65 Jakarta,
IndonesiaFAX: 62-251-62100, Email: [email protected]
1.6 billion US$ is now reported to be used for "aid(assistance) to forestry". in international fora there isalways a request for more assistance. But theassistance given to forestry development so far hasnot always been successful (instead a lot offailures). How can the resources available for"forestry aid" be used in a more efficient way? If wedon't find ways of improving the use of funds wemay soon see that the "aid-money" going to forestrywill decrease. Recent studies from e.g. the WorldBank show that there is little relation betweenassistance and growth. The reason is that assistancehas often been given on political grounds. It is alsoshown that it is difficult to direct funds to a specialarea (fungibility). If an area is popular amongdonors the countries can reduce their own fundingof this area. If the Government is committed to e.g.forestry many economists argue that one can as wellgive budgetary support. Is it possible andmeaningful to try to direct support to forestry?When is it meaningful? What can be done at thesector-level? Problems in the developing countriesare often discussed in connection with assistance.The report will take up some of the most importantpoints. There are, however, a lot of problems withinthe aid-administration itself. What can be done torectify this? What can be done to change donorbehaviour? What can be done to improve deliverymechanisms? One point to analyse is "prerequsitesfor failure" and "prerequisites for success". Old-timers know a number of things that e.g. do notwork. But the lessons learnt are not used. Why dowe not learn from experience? Decisions takenabout "aid" is as said very political. What can bedone to better use the knowledge we after all have?Influence politicians? Other points to discuss areobjectives of forestry and assistance to forestry. Is itit conservation, alleviation of poverty,"development" or what? It is also necessary todiscuss where there are disagreements betweendifferent donor-groups. The report will also analysesituations where assistance to forestry seems toodifficult to succeed.
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One conclusion is most likely that assistance mustgo from quantity to quality. What can be done toimprove quality? Is more support needed to buildcapacity? Should more resources be invested inplanning (e.g.National Forestry Programmes)? Isresearch one field where more assistance ought to begiven? The report aims to summarize the lessonslearnt so far and if possible identify measures toimprove the present situation in different types ofcountries. PS. During the last 15 years I havewritten a number of articles in Swedish where Ihave summarized the experiences I (and Sida) havegained of assistance to forestry during the last 30years. in 1998 Sida published an English summary ("From forestry to land husbandry"). This report hasarouse a lot of interest. There is evidently a need todiscuss these issues at a greater depth than done sofar. CIFOR has therefore initiated a research projectto learn more about these questions. in late 1999CIFOR will arrange a meeting to discussexperiences of aid to forestry and ways to improveit. As a background to the meeting a report will bewritten discussing some of the main issues.
The report proposed to be written for the WorldCongress 2000 will give a state of the art of theknowledge gained at the time of final writing.
The interaction of change inenvironment and society: analyzed
through some cases in Central AmericaKees Prins
CATIE, Costa RicaEmail: [email protected]
The approach of this proposed presentation will beone of environmental sociology: the interactionbetween (the changes in) society and its bio-physical environment. The first part of thepresentation will contain some basic ideas about thesocietal and environmental changes which haveoccurred, in the last decades. Some issues arepresented which need to be addressed. in the secondpart these ideas and issues will be illustrated withcase studies in Central America. Some guidelinesfor environmental and social policy will be distilledfrom the social process and practices analyzed.
General ideas and developments:
Environmental issues are rather new in society andscience. 'Environment' and 'Conservation' becameglobal issues, when awareness grew that the naturalenvironment puts its limits to the treadmill ofaccelerated economic development, and that thefuture of mankind depends on the proper treatmentand maintenance of the natural environment and itsresources.
Public awareness rises when a latent problembecomes manifest and its negative effects visible.When material and social problems becomemanifest and widespread, there, usually, occurs agradual change of societal values and norms. Ideasof what is worthwhile to aspire at, and what issocially good and bad behavior, are being reshaped.
With changing conceptions, the means and ends ofpolicies also change: What was, initially, stimulatedby incentives, at the present is discouraged by fines.Two examples illustrate this rather radical change ofends and means:
Until recently, fiscal and legal incentives in CostaRica stimulated the conversion of primary forestsinto pastures and crop land, as forests were seen as ahindrance to development. Currently, the end andtrend are opposite: maintaining the woods andreconverting part of the pastures and agricultureland into secondary forests by abolishing formersubsidies to live stock production and subsidizingthe use of land for forestry.
In the Netherlands the strong promotion ofagricultural and livestock intensification, after thesecond World War, gave way to a policy ofenhancing a more ecological way of production, asthe negative ecological side effects of the formerpolicy became more manifest: pollution of soil,groundwater, air, acid rain and so on. Now farmersare obliged to take preventive measures(internalizing the externalities) and are sanctioned ifthey don't comply. On the other hand farmersreceive a subsidy if they allow part of their landbecome fallow.
However, this is not at all a linear process. It impliestensions and insecurity, inherent to a situation ofconceptual and social transition. It leads to differenttypes of social reactions and the pace ofreadjustment to the new situation, is alsodifferential.
In general terms it is crucial to build a strong socialbase for policies geared at sustainable paths ofdevelopment, and to find ways and means toreconcile different interests and points of view insociety. This has several dimensions:
One crucial aspect is how to bring the interests andbehavior of individuals or individual groups in linewith the interests of the society at large. This ispartly, a matter of internalizing new ideas andvalues in the conscience through environmentaleducation by parents, school. and others.Nevertheless, the effects of this approach are limitedif they are not accompanied by measures directed ateconomic interests such as internalizing externalities
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by sanctioning bad environmental behavior andremunerating good one by paying for environmentalservices.
Another central dimension is how to combine thestruggle against poverty with the struggle forconservation and gain the poor as allies for purposesof conservation. The poor will be indifferent, if nothostile, to conservation, if their actual and vitalneeds are not attended. On the contrary, when theirwelfare needs are met and they get a stake inconservation for their subsistence and progress, theirattitudes and conduct change, and they may becomestrong supporters of environmental policy, as can beinferred from different concrete cases.
This all has to do with a third basic question:Equity. For measures to be widely accepted, theircosts and benefits must be equitatively shared:between groups in society, countries, andgenerations. It is not equitative and ethical to burdenthe next generations with the costs of irresponsible,unsustainable economic behavior. But it is not justeither to neglect actual social needs of poor groupsfor the sake of conservation and needs of futuregenerations. It is not effective either. On the otherhand, groups and countries which contribute most tonational and global environmental problems, shouldcontribute more to their solution and prevention,especially if they are in a better economic positionto do so. This is a very weak spot in environmentalpolicy. Their is a general awareness, thatenvironmental problems are global issues whichrequire measures of a global coverage, but their ismuch less unity about how to share the bill, asillustrated by the problems to put into practiceAgenda 21. Some cases to work out and validateaforementioned ideas:
A first case will be the analysis of environmentaland social process in the Biosfera Maya in Peten,Guatemala. The original situation can be typified asfollows:
Peten has a reputation of a land of nobody. Forestsused to be converted into pasture and agriculturalland by large and small colonists. (Although Petenwas the heart of the Maya civilization, at the presentnative communities hardly exist in the region anymore). Through the so-called agarradas colonistsgrasp parcels of forests and convert them intoagricultural land and pasture. To stop this ongoingprocess of deforestation, ten years ago the northernpart of Peten, still abundant in forests, was declaredBiosfera Maya and Area of Conservation. Part ofthis was for absolute protection, another part wasdesignated for multiple and sustainable use.
The heart of the question is: how to put into practicea policy of conservation in a context characterizedby the pressure for land, the illegal exploitation ofwood, an individualistic, short term economicbehavior and weak social and public institutions;how to build a social basis for the new policy tomake it effective; and how to bring about a newrelationship between people and environment, inthis particular context.
CONAP, the agency in charge of the administrationof the Biosfera Maya, initially applied aconservationist biased and control based policy.Families and communities of colonists, inhabitingthe same area. try to get a living out of a socio-fisical environment. new to them. Coming from thehighland or coastal lowlands, theyïve got anagricultural background and outlook, althoughadopting some gathering practices of the originalinhabitants, as to forest products like chicle,pimiento, xate. Their vision of future.is usuallyrather short and their knowledge of their newenvironment limited. The new environmental policywas seen as repressive in state of supporting. Thegoals of two central actors were divergent. Therewas originally no common ground to (inter)act uponin a fruitful way. CONAP had a long termperspective, but lacked a social basis and a clearstrategy to realize its objectives, while thepopulation had no stake in measures ofconservation. So the policy was not effective andeven counterproductive.
Nevertheless situations are not static nor are socialprocess linear. New actors and views enter into thesocial scene. Through its projects in I&D: OLAFOand CATIE-CONAP CATIE started to promotesecurity of tenancy and usufruct of forestryresources as a necessary means to get communitiesinterested in their proper use and management. Thelegal and institutional framework was readjusted. Anew legal institution was created: ConcessionForestal Comunitaria. It was adopted and promotedby CONAP, as the most effective way to protectforests, giving the people who live in them, a directstake in its conservation. The growing interest bythe local population reflects itself in the growingquantity of concessions recognized and requested(over 10 in 1998). On the other hand developmentagencies give orientation and assistance in legal,technical, organizational and economic aspects. It isan incipient process and not yet sufficient in scopeand mass to overcome the phenomena (outlined inthe foregoing) which traditionally, characterize theregion. Nevertheless some first promising effectscan already be noticed:
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Poverty alleviation provides to be an excellentincentive to get poor people to become conservationminded. People can become excellent guardians ofthe forests, when they protect their own present andfuture well being with the maintenance of theforests. Their livelihood becomes more varied andsecure. Outlook and behavior change, when given astake in the conservation of the forests, byentitlement of their use. Their vision broadens andenlarges. People start exploiting their resourceshaving in mind present and future needs. Protectingthe forests against fire, illegal cutting and 'agarradas'becomes an intrinsic part of the value orientationand social organization of the communities. Newhuman and social capital is built as well as localinstitutions for regulating the use and managementof resources, with incentives and sanctions, sociallyaccepted, internalized and controlled. A criticalmass and social basis is being formed, slowly butsurely, essential for implementing policy goals.
In a second case the attention will be focussed onthe changes which have occurred in a community ofcolonists in a land reform program, and within abuffer zone of the Tortuguero National Park in thenorth east of Costa Rica. in order to earn areasonable living from their new land, the peasantshad to adjust themselves to the limitations andopportunities of their new biophysical environment.in the process a serie of cognitive and organizationalchanges have occurred as to the way people valorizeand manage their resources. Throughexperimentation and with assistance of Neotropico,a local NGO, peasant families encountered anoptimal way of combining their resources andagronomic practices. Forest resources have beenintegrated in the peasant economy. The people havebecome environmental minded because it suits theireconomic and social interests. The case illustratesand analyses how a social group may start interactin a new and fruitful way with its environment and,in the process, changes its vision of space and time.
Some guidelines for policy and action will beabstracted from those process of change and thecases of good practice. Those are highlighted, asthere is a need to show ways and means to reach arenewed, fruitful and sustainable relation betweensociety and environment. People being the cause ofmost environmental problems, must find also waysand means to tackle them in an effective way.Conscience of the scope and complexity of theproblems and process of natural degradation, mustbe accompanied by efforts to find proper answers.
Knowing forest, knowing people,knowing change
Lye Tuck-PoKyoto University, Center for Southeast Asian Studies, 46Shimoadachi-cho, Yoshida, Kyoto 606-8501 Sakyo-ku,
JapanFAX: 81-75-7537350, Email: [email protected]
u.ac.jp
Historically, one of the challenges in forestry is toholistically integrate the disciplinary expectations,methodologies, and conclusions of the social andnatural sciences. Where forestry sciences aredirected towards policy-making, there is the addedproblem of satisfying the needs of the "consumers":governing bodies, conservation authorities,multilateral institutions, and the like. While we cansay that genuine progress has been made, especiallysince UNCED '92, it is also true that the divide hasbeen growing. This is evident in studies of localknowledge. in the drive to meet the demands of bothacademia and policy, research directions havebecome increasingly fragmented. On one end of thespectrum is a vast array of highly technical reports(many not even released for public scrutiny) that aregrounded in empirical findings of locally specificconditions and problems, but impossible to drawcomparative conclusions from. On the other areabstract critiques and analyses that may beilluminating and programmatic but lack practicalrecommendations for on-the-ground action. in myown research among Malaysian hunter-gatherers,the Batek, another problem comes up: theideological divide between people who have to livewith environmental destruction and those whocontrol it. in the Malaysian popular imagination,there is a great deal of mystification about the"environmental wisdom" and mysticalunderstanding that forest peoples supposedly have:the sort of environmental perception thatanthropologists would classify as knowledge of ahighly practical and scientific cast. For the broaderworld, however, this knowledge is merely primitiveexotica that apparently can cure everything frommarital discord and impotence to cancer and musclefatigue. Given the power of such mystifications,policy recommendations that might seem logicaland natural from the point of view of the forestpeoples might be viewed as utopian and idealistic bythose in charge. Further, local knowledge, in thisinstance, is not the objective, isolable body oftechnical practices that we can "learn from" andtransport easily elsewhere. This last is, I suggest,premised strongly on the equally entrenched beliefthat local peoples and local knowledges do notchange without outside intervention; after all, only
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static ideas can be placed in storage liquid andimplanted into other static situations. If we take thecontrasting view, that local ideas and localenvironments have been changing more rapidly thanresearch and policy directions, then the question is:at what level do we find a basis for comparison anddeveloping a multidisciplinary science of resourcemanagement? Drawing from the Malaysian context,this paper will review and examine some of theseideological and practical problems and suggestresearch directions.
6.11.01 Forest Resources and HumanWelfare in Developing Countries
An investigation on the forest worker'shealth in Turkey
Halis Hulusi Acar, Habip ErogluBlacksea Technical University, Faculty of Forestry,Department of Forest Engineering, 61080 Trabzon,
TurkeyTel: +90-462-325-3223, FAX: 00 90 462 3257499,
Email: [email protected]
Forest areas in Turkey are generally located on themountainously region. Therefore, forest labour isaffected by the shape and conditions of the field.Forest workers in Turkey generally work during thespring, summer and autumn. Most of the forestworkers are tentative and seasonal forest workersand rest of them are permanent workers.Approximately, there are 30 thousand forestworkers in Turkey. These workers have task onlogging, cutting, skidding and transport the logs.
The demand to the forest labour has been gettingdecrease because of forest workers' health problem,unsatisfied payment, high risks of getting injuredand their hard working conditions. These unwantedconditions are affected negatively forest workersproductivity. The % 99 of the forest areas in Turkeyare managed by government and the most of theworkers are male. in this study, the general forestworkmanship in Turkey, especially the productionand fire workmen's positions are exhibited.Furthermore the health problems investigated thatare seen in these works. This study have done overworkers who work at Directorate of Yusufeli, Serikand Iskenderun Forest Enterprise.
The workers are chose randomly and thequestionnaire forms which are prepared before filledby the conversation one to one with workers. Firstof all, the workers are classified into groupsaccording to their ages; 15-30, 30-45 and older than45. So that to obtain the integrity of questionnaireand asking the questions belong to same topic, thegeneral topics are determined. This general topicsare worker's social economic position, health
position and the effects causing health problems.The result of questionnaire evaluated by statisticalmethods. For this the simple statistical methods areused. For evaluated at least 30 worker arereferenced. When the findings evaluated generallythe production and fire workers are consisted ofmales. When this two kind of group compared theblood pressure of fire workers are more normal thenthe production workers. The diseases having ache-pain can be seen at production workers more thenfire workers but these diseases changes according toclimate properties. Generally the productionworkers have more backaches according to fireworkers but fire workers have more arm and legaches than the production workers. When theworker's habits observed, it is seen that two grouphave a high percent of habit of smoke and alcohol.According to evaluation, the forestry workmanshipthat is done in Turkey is doing as a obligation ofeconomic results, it is not an optimal branches. Thework conditions have very negative conditionsaccording to be uneconomic and sociologic way.From the standpoint of health evaluation results, inthe forestry workmanship, the diseases having ache-pain diseases such as nervousness, fatigue andinsomnia, the other diseases; bronchitis-flue,eczema, itching can be counted. in this point, heavywork, lack of feedings and clothing and othernegative work conditions performs. According tothis, the rules below must be applicated to improvethe forest workmanship in Turkey; to organizeperiodically health services for workers and mobilehealth crew, work organization, work placediscipline, worker psychology, and education ofworkers, these topics must be improved.
Keywords: Forest Workers, Health, Steep Terrain,Eastern Blacksea Region, Turkey
Land allocation programs in Vietnam:from a view point of the H'mong peoples
in northwestern mountainous regionMakoto Inoue, Miho Omatsu
The University of Tokyo, Graduate School ofAgricultural and Life Sciences, 1-1-1, Yayoi, Bunkyou-
ku, 113-8657 Tokyo, JapanFAX: +81-3-5689-7252, Email: [email protected]
1. Background
Under the "DoiMoi" policy or economicalrenovation policy, the Vietnamese government hasbeen driving forward the land allocation programssince 1993. The rights to use the national land aregranted to individuals, cooperatives, armies,national enterprises and private companies, etc. Theforestland is further divided into three categories:"special use forests" such as national parks,
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"conservation forests" where watershedmanagement, etc. are applied, and "productionforests" for the purpose of produce timber and non-timber forest products (NTFPs).
2. Objectives
1) to clarify the gaps and conflicts between the landcategory of the governmental program andtraditional land category perceived by the people.
2) to consider the impact of the program to thelivelihood of the people
3. Method of field survey
Four hamlets were selected as research sites inSonLa province where the ratio of forest coverage isthe lowest (9%) in Vietnam. Main ethnic Group inthe hamlets is the H'mong. We interviewed someleaders of each hamlet and thirteen households.Furthermore we listed NTFPs which were utilizedby the people.
4. Customary land and forest utilization by theH'mong
The people have been making their livelihood bypracticing swidden agriculture with ox plows ofwhich main crops were upland rice and maize. Theyclassify the fallow land into three based on asuccession stage: "Pa Lau" or the grass land 1-2years after harvest, "Pa HayCau" or Bush 3-4 yearsafter harvest, and "Pa Dong" or secondary forestmore than 5years after harvest.
The forests were prohibited from cutting treecustomary. The forests were categorized into three:"Rung Ma" or cemetery forest, "Rung Tuoi" or oldforest, "Rung SuoiNuoc" or water catchment forest.
Our survey showed that they collected around 60species of NFTPs not only on the natural forest butalso on the fallow, etc.
5. Gaps between the governmental programsand actual condition of land/forest utilization
Under the governmental programs, the land forswidden agriculture is divided into agricultural landand unused land that is prohibited from cultivating.The problem is that most of the fallow lands areclassified as unused land and the people areforbidden to cultivate the fallow land. The gap isgenerated from the difference in the perception ofagricultural land between the government and theH'mong The H'mong regard the fallow land coveredwith grass, bush, and forest as swidden land or farmland: the government does not regard them asfarmland.
6. Conclusion
It is obvious that the area of the arable land for thepeople is reduced, fallow period is shortened, foodproduction decreases, and the welfare of the peopleis lowered. Even though the program will have aneffect on increasing the forest coverage area, itseems to be necessary to revise it in terms of thelivelihood of the local people.
Forest resources and human welfare inHimalaya: the contribution ofcommercial medicinal plants
Carsten Smith Olsen and Nirmal K. BhattaraiRoyal Veterinary and Agricultural University,
Department of Economics and Natural Resources,Rolighedsvej 23, 1958 Frederiksberg C, DenmarkTel: +45 35282292, Fax: +45 35282671, Email:
Keywords: Rural livelihoods; income generation;non-timber forest products; trade; Nepal
Recent studies indicate that the annual trade inmedicinal plants from the Himalaya amounts tothousands of tonnes of roots, rhizomes, tubers,fruits, leaves, etc. The annual value of the trade isworth millions of USD. The medicinal plants arecollected by rural households in forests and othervegetation types throughout the Himalaya; hundredsof species are harvested and sold to traders in orderto increase household incomes. The paper brieflyintroduces forest resources in Nepal Himalaya andhow they contribute to improved human welfare inrural communities. The main aim of the paper is todocument the economic importance of commercialmedicinal plants to rural households in Nepal. Ineach of Nepal’s five development regions, threedistricts were chosen for data collection; in eachregion one district was chosen in each of the threemain physiographic zones (Terai, Middle Hills, andHigh Mountains). Thus, field work was conductedin 15 districts; a total of 636 collectors wereinterviewed in 92 groups. Results detail the numberof households involved in commercial collection;estimate contribution of collection to householdeconomies; and analyses collector net marginscompared to wholesale prices in the main markets inIndia. Discussion focuses on identification ofrealistic interventions that may increase ruralcollectors’ income from medicinal plant collection.
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Russian and Chinese Forest Economiesin Transition: A Comparative AnalysisMatti Palo, Dr. Maxim Lobovikov, M.Sc.Yaoqi Zhang
Finnish Forest Research Institute (METLA), Unioninkatu40 A, FIN-00170 Helsinki, Finland
Tel: +358 9 857051, FAX: +358 9 85705 717, Email:[email protected]
Keywords: economic reforms, privatization,forestry, economic development, China, Russia
Transition of a great number of countries fromcentral planning of economic development to a morereasonable combination of planning and marketeconomy is no doubt the most prominentphenomena in the world economy at the edge of thethird millennium. The success or fault of thismovement will likely be crucial factor for the futureperformance and development of the worldeconomy society and environment.
Russia and China are the most prominent instancesof the countries in transition. They count altogetherfor 21% of the total land area, 24% of thepopulation, 26% of the forest land and 25% of theforest inventory. Meanwhile the share of bothcountries in the world gross product does not exceed4%.
Forest sector issues are not to be treated separatelyfrom the rest of the economy. During the 1950s withthe technical help from the former Soviet Uniontook on the Soviet model of economic organizationin the forest sector, which is proved to be inefficientsince the 1970s. China started economic reforms inforest sector earlier and advanced further thanRussia. Several reasons cause China chose gradualtransition rather than a radical changes. Russia usedthe "shock therapy" despite the desperate attemptsof the former authorities to take smother economiccurse.
The average annual production growth of 10% inChina during the recent decade made up a steadygrowth of roundwood output and forestation.Forestry development also has greatly helped theeconomic growth, particularly the rural areas wherethe economy greatly depends in forests. Non-timberproduction and ecotourism have become importantparts of forestry sector. For the same time Russialost 2/3 of the pre-reform level of roundwood yield.China started successful decentralization andprivatization of the collective-owned and state-owned forests. Russia by so far has no experience inthis respect. in general economic reforms in Chinawere more successful, advanced and less painfulthan that in Russia. But major political change inChina seem still to be ahead. Environmental
regulations are as well lag behind the economicgrowth. That became evident in 1998 during thedisastrous floods of Changjiang river causedsuffering to 200 million population.
The experience of China and Russia cannot beentirely compatible due to the discrepancies in thesocioeconomic and resource conditions of the twocountries. One third of the Chinese forest area isrepresented by plantations, whereas natural forestabsolutely dominate in Russian landscape.Nevertheless the comparison of the two countriesclusters transformation yields few majorconclusions.
1) It is argued that there is no sustainable forestrywithout adequate privatization. Fair competitionbetween contractors is the crucial condition of fairpricing the forest resources. When private parcelsare intermixed with public forest tracts as inScandinavia the price references could be easilytaken from the private sector.
2) Analysis of Russia and Chinese experiences maybe not sufficient to tell whether the gradualtransformation in more preferable than shocktherapy. Straight parallels are barely reliable due tothe difference in historic development andcontemporary situation. But the experience learnedis very deductive for the other countries intransition.
3) Political stabilization seems to be a crucial factorfor the economic growth.
Russia and China are both facing similar problemsof poor economic performance especially in thepublic sector, unfair revenue distribution,environmental pollution, poverty and widespreadcorruption. Impartial analysis of the reforms in theRussian and Chinese forest clusters is to help tocope with the problems which are still far behind thefinal resolution.
The Contribution of Cassiavera(Cinnamomum burmanii) in Improvingthe Environment Quality and Society
Welfare in IndonesiaEulis Retnowati
Forest and Nature Conservation Research andDevelopment Center, FORDA
Jl. Gunung Batu, PO BOX 165, Bogor, IndonesiaTel: +62-251-325111, FAX: +62-251-325111, Email:
Indonesia is the greatest country in contributingCassiavera (Cinnamomum burmanii) in the world.The export of this commodity is about 40,000ton/year.
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In a district in West Sumatera, Cassiaveracontributing 41.66 % of the total income, anddecreasing the soil erosion from 26.46 ton/has/yearin an open area to be 14.25 ton/ha/year underCassiavera stands. Cultivation is mostly ascommunity forest.
Alternated Rows Harvesting can improve the role ofCassiavera as a conservation plant in a critical land.
6.11.01 Poverty and management of forestresources
Pauvreté et gestion des ressourcesrenouvelables dans les pays en
developpement: les liaisonsdangereuses?
Alain Bertrand, Didier Babin, Jacques WeberCIRAD-Forêt, Campus international de Baillarguet, BP
5035 Montpellier, FranceFAX: 334 67 59 37 33, Email: [email protected]
La pauvreté est un phénomène social total, à la foiséconomique social et culturel. Pour un individu, ouun groupe social il se traduit par la dépossession deson présent, de son futur, de son identité, voire desoi-même, c’est à dire par une exclusion. Lapauvreté frappe sous des formes diverses le plusgrand nombre des pays en développement et estconsidérée comme la cause majeure de dégradationde l’ensemble des ressources renouvelables de laplanète au premier rang desquelles figurent lesressources forestières.
La pauvreté qui se combine généralement à diversesformes d’insécurité, conduit à une mobilité deshommes et à l’accès libre de fait aux ressourcesrenouvelables. Dans les pays en développement lesressources renouvelables et en particulier les forêtssont un des principaux moyens de survie despauvres. Ceux-ci sont contraints à une pluriactivitécontinue: tout ce qui peut se vendre se collecte. Lelien entre pauvreté, insécurité alimentaire etexploitation des ressources renouvelables apparaîttellement fort que les organisations internationalesconsidèrent la commercialisation des produits decueillette comme un indicateur fiable des situationsde disette alimentaire voire de famine.L’exploitation des ressources renouvelables échoitle plus souvent aux femmes et aux enfants etconstituent pour ces catégories de la population unetâche harassante et très mal rémunérée.
La mondialisation de l’économie et ledéveloppement rapide des droits de propriété sur ladiversité biologique, seront-ils des facteurssupplémentaires d’extension et d’approfondissementde la pauvreté, ou au contraire, seront-ils mis en
place au niveau international de façon à constituerun moyen efficace d’éradiquer la pauvreté ruraledans les pays en développement? La même questionse pose à propos des droits d’émission et destockage du carbone définis après la conférence deKyoto.
La transformation des modes de gestion desressources naturelles et en particulier des forêtspeut-elle être un moyen efficace d’aider les pauvresdes pays en développement à sortir de leur misère ?Par le passé les politiques forestières d’exclusiondes populations rurales de la gestion locale de leursressources forestières a constitué indéniablement unfacteur d’extension de la pauvreté. Divers exemplesmontrent que la gestion locale contractuelle desressources renouvelables constitue à la fois :• une porte d’entrée efficace vers le développementlocal,• un moyen de limiter, voire d’inverser, lesdégradations des ressources renouvelables résultantde la pauvreté,• un moyen de sécurisation et de sortie del’exclusion pour les pauvres des pays endéveloppement.
Fuelwood dependencyAnanda Bhandari, Robert C. Albricht
ITC, Forest Science Division, c/o Min Raj Panday 15/252Pakanajol, Kathmandu, Nepal
Tel: 00977 - (0)1 - 429235, Email: [email protected]
In rural areas of Nepal most of the rural populationhave traditionally depended on forest resources tofulfil their basic energy needs for domesticpurposes. As a case study the Shivapuri Watershedand Wildlife Reserve (SWWR) was selected toexamine the nature of dependence on protectedforest resources. People living in and around theSWWR were legally excluded from their traditionalaccess to the forest after the area was declared areserve in 1984. in spite of a two meter high stoneboundary wall and active forest guards patrollingthe reserve boundary the people living in the bufferzone surrounding SWWR continue to risk fines andimprisonment to enter the reserve to collect forestproducts to meet their basic needs.
This study was undertaken to determine the degreeof dependency on forest resources inside theSWWR for fuelwood collection and consumption bythe surrounding villagers and assess the factorsaffecting the dependency. The research wasconfined to two sample villages of the Baluwa andNayapati Village Development Committees of theKathmandu district in the southern buffer zone areaof the SWWR (Fig. 1&2).
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Systematic sampling was applied to select thesample households within the villages. Topographicmaps, aerial photographs and knowledge of localpeople were used to pinpoint the selectedhouseholds. An open questionnaire method followedby informal discussion was used to determine thenumber of energy consuming activities for domesticpurposes. The amount of fuelwood consumed foreach cooking activity was determined by userestimation and validated by direct measurement.Pieces of fuelwood from each household's woodpilewere randomly selected to determine the origin ofthe fuelwood which was subsequently validatedduring field visits with local people and forestrystaff.
The results show that about 40% of the fuelwoodcollected in the study area for domestic energyrequirements comes from the SWWR with the restcoming from private woodlots (58%) andgovernment forests (2%) (Fig. 3). There was nosignificant relationship between daily per capitafuelwood consumption and distance of householdsfrom the forest (Fig. 4). The socio-economiccondition of the people and their ethnicity however,were found to be important factors determining thelevel of dependency on the reserve forest.
In the study area two main social classes wereidentified: the elite and the poor, divided along castelines. The Brahmin and Chhetri castes comprise theelite group while the latter is comprised of Magar,Tamang and Newar castes. The more well off grouphas in general a higher social and economic status,more private land holdings, higher education andsmaller family size. These socio-economic factorsare reflected in the dependency level on the reserveforest with the elite collecting less than 30% of theirfuelwood from the SWWR and the poor collectingover 70% of their fuelwood from the SWWR (Fig.5). A further analysis of the proportion of fuelwoodcollected from the reserve forest for each socialgroup revealed a distinct difference in the nature ofthe dependence between the two groups with thepoor having a markedly higher level of dependenceon the reserve forest than the elite group (Fig. 6).Although Figure 5 shows a decreasing trend independence for both groups as distance to thereserve increases neither trend was statisticallysignificant. The most important factor determiningdependency of households on reserve forest in theSWWR buffer zone is the socio-economic conditionof the people, not horizontal distance to the forest.
The socio-economic values ofsustainable mangrove forest
management: the Matang Mangroves inMalaysia
Lim Hin Fui, Mohd. Parid MamatFRIM, Kepong, 52109 Kuala Lumpur, MalaysiaFAX: 603-6365687, Email: [email protected]
The socio-economic value generated from a forest isan important factor deciding its sustainablemanagement. This is precisely the case of theMatang Mangrove Forest Reserve (MMFR),covering 40,151 ha in Malaysia. For about ahundred years, the commercial socio-economicactivities (i.e. forestry and fishery) taking placewithin the MMFR ecosystem have sustained theutilisation of mangroves in its natural environment.The utilisation of the MMFR resources includesdevelopment of human settlements, timberharvesting, fishery activities, development ofaquaculture and eco-tourism.
The sustainable management of Mangrove resourceshas resulted in the development of about 27permanent coastal settlements. The MMFRecosystem provides the resources, which meet theneeds of local communities within the mangrovearea as well as settlements on the landward side ofthe mainland. Mangrove ecosystem sustains twotypes of settlements, varying in size from a fewhundred to a few thousand residents near MMFR.The sustainable management of the MMFR since1902 has brought about local development, whichsupports local livelihood. Villagers in its vicinity areinvolved in fishing, forestry and other relatedactivities. Local communities depend on themangrove resources in meeting their dailysubsistence needs. The mangrove resources alsomeet subsistence needs (food and medicine) andgenerate cash income for local population. It hasbeen estimated that the MMFR meets thesubsistence needs of 8,000 individuals comprisingmangrove workers, their spouses and children.
The mangrove forest produces timber sustainablyand is recognised as important spawning, nurseryand habitat areas for many economically importantspecies of finfish and prawns. The mangrove waterways and mud banks are suitable for aquaculturedevelopment. in monetary terms, the timberproducts (charcoal, poles, firewood) are expected togenerate an annual income of about RM22 millionfor the 1990-1999 period. The values of non-timberproducts were RM84 million (marine fish, prawnand shellfish in 1994), RM17 million (cockle culturein 1995) and RM1.3 million (finfish cage culture in1992). in terms of employment, the timber
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harvesting/processing industry creates employmentfor between 1,008 and 1,680 local people. Therewere about 2,039 fishermen living near mangroveareas in 1994. Mangrove harvesting/processinggenerated an average monthly income of betweenRM776 and RM964 per worker in 1997. On theother hand, a fisherman earned between RM934 andRM2,700 a month in 1997.
The role of research and development (R & D) hascontributed much to the successful sustainablemanagement of the MMFR. The R & D activitiesbegan in Matang since its preservation as early as1906 and it plays an important role in the drawingup of working plans, which are revised until thepresent day. These working plans lay the strongfoundation in outlining the various managementaspects of sustainable management: managementobjectives, classification of forest type by function,best management option, the rotation, allocation ofcoupes, silviculture system, silviculture operations,silviculture improvement, reforestation efforts,control of operations, monitoring and supervision.To further enhance R & D activities, research andsample plots were set up to test and develop bestpractices in the management and silviculture of theMMFR.
The implication from the successful sustainableutilisation of the MMFR is that it is essential tohighlight the socio-economic benefits of a mangroveecosystem. Enhancing R & D efforts in theseaspects would contribute much to the sustainabledevelopment of the mangroves. It is seeing beyondthe timber value that the overall mangroveecosystem could be sustainably utilised andmanaged.
Sustainable Management of CommunityBased Forests through Credit in India
M. S. HaqueNABARD A-5/24, NABARD Nagar, Thakur Complex,
400101 Mumbai, IndiaTel: +91-22-8879838, FAX: +91-22-4938699, Email:
Collaboration between villagers and Government incommunity based resource management speciallyforests, started in India in the beginning of twentiethcentury, but the present type of Joint ForestManagement (JFM) grew out of experiences atArabari in West Bengal and Sukhomajri in Haryanain the 1970s. The National Forest Policy of 1988,the Government of India guidelines of June 1990and the State Government's orders on JFM are allpositive steps to benefit the forest communities inparticular and rural people in general. It has beenestimated by Forest Survey of India, that there are
34 million ha degraded forest lands. At present,there are 35,000 Forest Protection Committees(FPCs) in India who are protecting and managingseven million ha. forests under JFM. If we assumethat only one million ha land is protected under JFMthe annual fund requirement would be Rs.15,000million based on a cost estimate of Rs.15,000/- perha (1 US $ = Rs.43/- - February, 1999). Budgetaryallocation for Forestry Sector is less than 1% andthere is no likelihood of increase in future. It is,therefore, necessary to involve institutional credit tosustain JFM movement for sustainable managementof India's forests. It may be mentioned thatNABARD/Banks are funding forestry projectsimplemented by Forest Development Corporations.However, so far, no JFM project has been funded byany financial institution in India.
A study undertaken by NABARD in andhra Pradeshindicated that it might not be difficult to channelisebank credit to FPCs. Certain institutionalarrangements are necessary including Governmentguarantee and legislation. Studies further indicatedthat there are three types of JFM activities that maybe bankable, viz. Sal (Shorea robusta), Teak(Tectona grandis) and Bamboo species. It has beenestimated that with an investment of Rs.15,000/- perha, a return of Rs. 1,20,000/- is possible by sale ofpoles and other Non Timber Forest Products(NTFPs) in 8-10 years. The major expenditure forprotection and management of forests under JFM isfor payment of wages to the watchers. Bank loanwith interest can be repaid within 8-10 years leavinga surplus that can be reinvested and or shared byFPCs. The intermediate yield of grass within 6months of protection will also be available forsharing among FPC members.
JFM is a complex system involving ecological,economic, social institutional and political aspects.Hence, financial package for JFM projects isdifferent than traditional Forestry projects. Thus, theworking out of modalities of financing JFM projectsis essential. For this, research on the incentives, costand benefits for local communities, collecting datafrom several sites under a variety of ecological andsocial conditions and the biological relationshipsand production function of timber, NTFPs and otherproducts are necessary. The economic sustainabilityand institutional implication of JFM approach needalso to be studied. The effort by NABARD might beable to formulate few models for financing JFMprojects in near future. The aspirations of the ruralpeople have been raised too high by adopting JFMin all the states. Failure to channelise fund to thesystem would not only degrade the forests furtherbut would also create social unrest, hence, require
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serious attention both from Government and thefinancing institutions. We are sure that in nearfuture, banks would be in a position to fund JFMprojects for their Sustainable Management throughCredit.
Dependence of Local People onProtected Forests
M. I. L. Katigula, Michael K. McCall, Robert AlbrichtCatchment Forestry Office Tanga Region, P.O. Box
1449, Tanga, TanzaniaEmail: [email protected]
The Government of Tanzania is intensifying effortsto conserve the biodiversity-rich and ecologically-sensitive East Usambara forests in Muheza Districtin Tanga Region. The government's current strategyis to apply regulatory forest policy instruments thatdo not recognise the dependence of the adjacentlocal communities on the protected forests as theirmajor source of non-timber forest products(NTFPs).
This research assessed the use of NTFPs by localpeople living in four villages - Bamba, Churwa,Mhinduro and Segoma - that surround a block ofthree protected forests in the East Usambaras - theBamba, Segoma and Kwamgumi Forest Reserves.
A participatory data collection approach usingmainly rapid rural appraisal techniques, such assemi-structured interviews, was applied to elicitinformation on NTFP utilisation and other socio-economic factors. A global positioning system wasused to locate NTFP collection sites in the protectedforests. Subsequently these spatial data wereprocessed using a GIS to produce maps showing theNTFP collection sites.
The results of this study indicate that, despitegovernment efforts to protect and conserve naturalforests in East Usambara through regulatoryinstruments, local people still enter the forestillegally and extract forest products; the primaryreason being to extract NTFPs for their livelihoodneeds and for cultural services. Evidence of localpeople's use of NTFPs and their dependence on theprotected forests as sources, is clear from the factthat they can identify a total of 378 species or typesof NTFPs classifiable into seven purposes -: asmedicines, foods, construction materials, fuelwood,water, seasonal agricultural indicators, andworshipping sites. More than 54% of the identifiedspecies are obtained only from the protected forests,which implies a high level of people's dependenceon them. The relationships between villagers and theprotected forests are found to be dependent onwhether there are alternative sources of NTFPs,
and/or whether there are substitute products whichare accessible to and affordable by the villagers.
Local people respond to the current restrictivemanagement approach by opting for secretive accessand NTFP collection measures, and one result is anover-utilised 'ring' on the periphery of the protectedforests.
The attitudes of local people towards the protectedforests as sources of NTFPs are generally positive,indicating the importance of the forests to them.However, their attitudes towards the forest guards asmanagers of the protected forests are generallystrongly negative, and accompanied by conflictindicators, such as 24 court cases (1993-1997)concerning NTFP use.
The findings lead this study to recommend to thegovernment to revise the Forest Ordinance,especially Part V Section 15, that gives directives onthe protection of forests and forest produce. For thegovernment's forest management approach to beeffective at an operational level, a collaborativemanagement approach is recommended that wouldinvolve local people in planning implementation,control and monitoring activities in forests adjacentto them, which would bring benefits to both localstakeholders and the government. It is thedependence by forest-adjacent communities onprotected forests as sources of NTFPs which givesthe opportunities for collaborative managementstrategies that should lead towards more successfulconservation.
Further studies are recommended on the assessmentof forest capacity to supply various NTFPs at asustained level and on the need to determine and setNTFP extraction levels. Future studies shouldmonitor the sustainability of any utilisation levelsset for the villages and forests.
The Impact of Industrial PlantationForest Establishment on Socio-
Economic Condition of Local PeopleSri Suharti
Forest and Natural Conservation Research andDevelopment Centre, Jl.Gunung Batu 5, Po.Box 165,
Bogor, IndonesiaFAX: 62-251-325111; 62-251-315222, Email:
The demand for industrial wood in Indonesia in theyear 2000 is projected to be 80 million m3 per year.As the current annual increment of production forestis estimated to be only 30 million m3, Governmentof Indonesia is trying to develop a major expansionof industrial plantation forest. The target is toestablish 6.2 million Ha of plantation forest.
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The establishment of plantation forest in a particulararea would directly or indirectly involve andinfluence local people living in and around it. It isexpected that positive impacts would be accepted bythose people, hence some benefits from theestablishment of the plantations would be gainnedby the people. The reality however is not always so,since benefits received by the people depend on howfar they are allowed to involve in plantations forestestablishment. Whereas the degree of involvementof those people in the plantation depends on theawareness of the company of the importance ofinvolving local people in the activities and howmuch the company is willing to devote some of theirbenefits and transfer it to local people surroundingit.
In Indonesia, there are two different forms ofindustrial plantation forest which is expected wouldpossibly increase the opportunity of the people toparticipate in forest plantation forest activities i.einter cropping-Industrial Plantation Forest modeland Transmigration-Industrial Plantation Forestmodel. By participating in the plantation, localpeople get a chance not only working as labour butalso an opportunity to grow food crops in betweentrees. A study in two forest concession (HPH PT.Yayang and HPH PT. Hutan Kintap) in SouthKalimantan province found that the establishment ofplantation forest increased people's income by 17,5% and 19 % respectively. Those activities also givea chance to the people to get some other incentivessuch as extension, provision of infrastructure andsocial facilities in their village. Subsequently in PT.Inhutani V (State Forest Enterprise) allowingfarmers to grow rice, corn and other food coopsunder rubber plantation for three years couldincrease their income by almost double. Theproduction of rice in the area is even relatively high,on the average could reach 3.5 tones of unhulled dryrice.
The objective of this paper is to give an overviewabout the impacts of plantation forest establishmenton socio-economic condition of local peoplesurrounding it in some areas of Indonesia. Theinformation presented here has been gathered fromseveral research studies and literature.
Extraction of Non-timber ForestProducts and the Tribal Economy - A
study in south IndiaS. Suryaprakash, M.R. Girish
University of Agricultural Sciences, Department ofAgricultural Economics, 560 065 Bangalore, India
Email: [email protected]
Man and forest have been having a closerelationship from time immemorial. With thegrowth of civilization and with the develop0ment ofagriculture and industry, man's dependence on foresthas decreased. Yet, there are certain societies whohave been living in forests for ages and whoinvariably continue to depend on forests. The non-timber forest products (NTFP) have been the mainstay of forest tribals, sustaining their livelihood. inthe recent past, medicinal and industrial demand forNTFP have created the value-in-exchange forNTFP, which were hitherto had only value-in use tothe tribals. With increasing restrictions on timberharvest, NTFP constitute a large share of the valueof forest products extracted. Lately, the NTFP havebeen contributing a great deal to the productiveemployment and household income of tribals. Thisis more so the case in respect of tribals residing inthe interior forests. The special feature of NTFPcollection by the tribals is that it facilitates theparticipation of all the members of the householdirrespective of sex and age unlike other economicavocations available to them. in fact, NTFPcollection is the only source of employment to theaged and children. This paper is based on a studyconducted in the bio-diversity rich western ghatforest area of southern India. Apart from being amajor contributor to the non-cash income of tribalhouseholds, the NTFP collection accounts for nearlyhalf the cash income of the household. While somenon-timber forest products are collected exclusivelyfor home consumption, some other products as forthe market only. The rest of the products are,however, collected both domestic use and for themarket. This gives a clear indication that inspite ofcommercialisation of NTFP, they continue todominate the household consumption basket of thetribal households. The men members of the tribalhousehold collect a large share of a majority ofNTFP than women. However, the employmentcontribution of women to the NTFP collection andprocessing is more than that of the men in ahousehold. Being the forest dwellers for ages, thetribals are supposed to have property rights (thoughnot explicit) over the NTFP. However, the Stateassigns the monopoly rights of NTFP extraction formajor NTFP to registered forest contractors ontender basis. Thus, in reality, the tribals extract
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NTFP for which the contractor offers a price, in lieuof wage. The NTFP collectors are to `sell' thenotified NTFP to the authorized contractor alone.The monopoly rights assigned to the forestcontractor thus come ion the way of the tribalsgetting a reasonable price for the NTFP extracted bythem. Many a times, the daily earnings from NTFPextraction would be far lower than the wages thetribal receives from hiring out his labour to theForest department.
6.11.04 Bridging the gap between monetaryand non-monetary valuation of
environmental amenit ies
Spatial analysis in economic evaluationof landscape management
Esa Arola, Penttinen, MarkkuForest Development Center Tapio, Soidinkuja 4, FIN-
00700 Helsinki, FinlandTel: +358 9 156 21, FAX: +358 9 156 2232, Email:
Keywords: GIS; forest management planning;spatial analysis; economic evaluation; multiple use
The roundwood sales decisions of non-industrialprivate forest (NIPF) owners produce more than80% of the roundwood supply, as well as creatingpotential landscape and biodiversity losses inFinland. Sustainable forestry has been essential, andregeneration has been required by the forest law fornearly 100 years. However, the new legislationprotecting biodiversity, and the quality andcertification requirements have restricted theowner's freedom to manage his/her property. Thishas raised concerns among forest owners that theirincome will suffer through greater regulatoryintervention under the new laws, silviculturalrecommendations, and other restrictions.
Traditionally, Finnish forest management planning(FMP) and practices have sought to attain (i)sustainable wood production that would assure theavailability of raw wood for industry. Wherepossible, (ii) increasing the volume of growing stockwas a secondary goal. Nowadays, the emphasis inFMP is being placed not only on timber productionbut also on landscape, recreation, and biodiversity.The institutional framework includes the new forestand nature conservation laws, silviculturalrecommendations, quality requirements andcertification according to PEFC (Pan-EuropeanForest Certification) or the FSC (Forest StewardshipCouncil). However, from the individual forestowner's point of view, maintaining biologicaldiversity poses a dilemma. While it may addrecreational value to the area, it may also mean aloss of income to the owner.
The purpose of this research is to describe anapproach which incorporates the economic impacton the NIPF owner caused by these requirements ofthe FMP system, and to create a method and aprogram supported by a geographical informationsystem (GIS) to implement this. The method isbased on the combination of a GIS and an FMPsystem that generates several treatment schedulesfor compartments and selects optimal schedulecombinations using linear programming.
The GIS is used to impose silvicultural treatmentrestrictions on the compartments and to createmanagement zones (MZ) (= a group ofcompartments). The MZ is based on the productionpotential of the area, the preferences of the forestowner, the preferences of the local people and therequirements set by society. The GIS is also used tocollect and formulate preferences so that theplanning problem can be solved in the FMP system.Finally, the GIS program is used in the analysis ofthe alternative forest management plans.
Trade-Offs between Recreation Benefitsin the Preferences for Managing
Recreation AreasPaula Horne
Finnish Forest Research Institute, Unioninkatu 40 A, SF-00170 Helsinki, Finland
Tel: 358-9-857-05-717, FAX: +358-9-857 05 717, Email:[email protected]
Keywords: recreation, biodiversity, publicpreferences, choice experiment method
Preferences of a group of visitors for recreationenvironment may be incompatible. Some visitorsfavor natural state of forests with low level ofmanagement intensity, while some prefer easilypassable forest environment for recreation. Also asingle visitor may have contradictory preferences,on one hand wishing for easily passable even-agedstands, on the other hand asking for conservation ofbiodiversity. The heterogeneity of the public'spreferences for forest environment, and theirconfusion about the concepts and relations ofdifferent benefits complicate management planning.in order to evaluate public preferences for forestmanagement of recreation areas, the benefits ofrecreation experience can be divided into attributesthat reflect the public notion of what constitutes therecreation environment. The study area of Nuuksiolake plain with five municipal recreation areas and anational park can be viewed as a system of spatialunits whose manager faces an option of choosingvarying levels of intensity in their management.
This study examines the preferences of the generalpublic for management of recreation areas. It
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approaches the problem by focusing on theinterrelations and trade-offs between forest benefits,namely biodiversity, the cost of management andscenery, as stated by the preferences of visitors inmunicipal recreation forests. in this method,monetary values are given by the trade-offs betweenthe cost of management and other attributes. Forexample, changes in scenery are being valued by theelasticity of foregone biodiversity richness.
The study applied the choice experiment methodthat is consistent with random utility theory as wellas offers a wide range of information on benefittrade-offs. The multinomial logit model is used toanalyse multi-attribute choices. A Hicksian welfaremeasure is estimated from discrete choice datafollowing a theory developed for discrete choicemodels. Observing the choices made and connectingthe different attribute levels to monetary changesenables derivation of welfare measures.
The survey is administered in a questionnaire formaton-site at the study areas. The questionnairecontains the choice experiment, attitude andbackground questions. A special focus is onrevealing the respondent's attitudes towardsbiodiversity conservation and forest management.Respondents are grouped according to their attitudesusing factor analysis and those groups will be usedas explanatory variables. Respondents are instructedto choose the best management regime from eachchoice set of three alternatives. Each alternative ispresented using a map of the five recreation areasand the Nuuksio National Park. The alternativespresent different combinations of managementoptions in the five areas. The different sceneries areillustrated using pictures of forest featuring two agegroups. Each alternative regime is also given abiodiversity level and the associated cost ofmanagement.
Methods and Defects of ValueAssessment of Forest Environmental
Resources in ChinaZhiyong Li
Chinese Academy of Forestry, Forestry Policy ResearchDivision, 100091 Beijing, China
Tel: 86-10-62889019, FAX: 86-10-62884229, Email:[email protected]
Keywords: sustainable forestry, forest valuation
The common goal of society is to implementsustainable development so that both a sustainableeconomy and environment is achieved. Sustainableforestry is an important part of achieving this goal.This research points out that sustainable forestrywill be the dominant theme in forestry development
around the world. Research on the value of forestenvironmental resources is both necessary andimportant for forest environmental management inChina. Forest ecology projects have importantimplications for public welfare, especially to theextent that such projects insure the sustainability offorest benefits.
There are evident theoretic defects or limitations inthe existing methods of environmental economics,which are based on traditional economics. Weapplied these approaches in valuing forest resourcesin China. The paper describes the main methods offorest environmental resource valuation, includingforest value classification and the main assessmentmethods. It then analyzes three conceptual andtheoretic defects of those methods and two mis-usesin the application of those methods, including themis-use of static and dynamic measures, and themis-use of substitution of benefit measures forfunction measures. Finally, the paper discusses threequestions: (1) what kind of research and and policydevelopment would be useful in integrating forestenvironmental resources, which are neverconsidered as scarce resources, into modern socialand economic systems? (2) Should environmentalresources accounting be complementary to SNA andMPS, or a principal part? (3) Have the thelimitations of environmental economics researchmethod retarded the development of environmentaleconomics itself, as well as limited the applicationand extension of research achievements in socialand economic development?
Based on the discussion of the questions mentionedabove, the paper points out that research on themethods and defects of forest environmentaleconomy will be helpful for developing animproved theoretical framework for valuation offorest environmental resources in China, and alsoprovide useful information for developing policiesto insure the sustainable management of theseresources The purpose of research in this field is isto provide theory and methods that can be used todevelop a modern Chinese forestry for the 21stcentury.
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Non-Monetary Valuation of Non-MarketEnvironmental Goods and Services
George PetersonUSDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station,3825 East Mulberry, 80524 Fort Collins, Colorado, USA
Tel: 970-295-5963, FAX: 970-295-5959, Email:gpeterson/[email protected]
Keywords: non-monetary valuation, environmentalpsychology, market research
The nature of many environmental goods andservices is such that market prices fail to measuretheir value. The results of economic analyses ofpolicy decisions that involve such goods willtherefore be incomplete and biased withoutmonetary valuation of the non-market components.The state-of-the-art of monetary valuation isimperfect and controversial, however, and effectiveapplication of available methods is often tooexpensive or infeasible. and, even if valid andcomplete, monetary economic analysis does notrepresent the full spectrum of human valuesassociated with environmental goods and services.Complementary non-monetary valuation methodscan contribute important and useful information topolicy decision analyses, both to correct biases ineconomic analysis caused by incomplete monetaryvaluation and to represent those values that lieoutside the domain of monetary economics. in thispaper we identify the alternative methods available,discuss and compare their relative merits andapplications, and explore the research frontiers ofnon-monetary valuation. The alternative approachesinclude (1) environmental psychology andpsychometric measurement, (2) social surveyresearch, (3) market research methods, (4)structured small-group decision procedures, (5)derived valuation based on scientific analysis ofhuman dependence on things removed from directhuman consumption, and (6) techniques for directpublic involvement in the policy decision process.The paper integrates these various approaches into acomprehensive framework for non-monetary non-market valuation.
Measurement of attitudes and beliefs incontingent valuation as a preferenceconstruction tool in the case of forest
qualityEija Pouta, Mika Rekola
University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Economics,Post Box # 2400014, Helsinki, Finland
Tel: +358 (9)0 191 7728, FAX: +358 (9)0 191 7729,Email: [email protected]
Keywords: contingent valuation, forest regenerationcuttings, beliefs
In a contingent valuation (CV) study a sample ofpeople is asked about their willingness-to-pay(WTP) for non-market goods or services in order tomeasure environmental benefits or costs inmonetary terms. in a CV study respondents areexpected to state their preferences concerning thegood to be valued. The assumptions concerning thecompleteness of preferences and the rationality ofdecision makers have been criticized in thevaluation literature. Several reasons forinconsistency and incompleteness of preferenceshave been discussed, such as respondents havingconflicting values, uncertainty about his or her ownvalues, or the complexity of the choice situation. Forexample, it has been suggested that protestresponses and "don't know"-responses reflectrespondents' frustration with a situation where ademanding choice must be made, but no tools areprovided to help make the choice. in this study,attitude and belief measurement is offered to thesurvey respondent as a tool to form preferencesabout forest quality.
The attitude-behavior framework can be seen as aseries of hypotheses, linking behavior to behavioralintentions, and secondly, linking behavioralintention to attitude, which is a function of salientbeliefs about the attitude-object. Each salient belieflinks the object to an attribute or to an outcome ofthe behavior in question. The attitude is determinedby the strength of these beliefs and evaluationsassociated with the attributes concerning behavior.in a WTP question, the behavior under considerationis whether to support a proposed policy thatprovides an environmental good, given a specifiedexpense. in contingent valuation studies, theattitude-behavior framework has been used as amodel that explains behavior. However, the multi-attribute structure of the model is very close tomulti-attribute utility theoretical aids of decisionmaking. By expressing their beliefs and attitudesconcerning the attitude object, respondents alsoconstruct their preferences about the choice setting.
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The valuation of non-market benefits of forestsprovides an excellent case to test the effect ofattitude and belief measurement. The data comefrom a contingent valuation survey in a case offorest regeneration cuttings in Finland. A mailsurvey sample of about one thousand respondentschose between two forest regeneration practicealternatives: a) status quo management or b)environmentally oriented forest regeneration.Alternative (b) included an expense for therespondent's household. Half of the respondentswent through belief and attitude questions regardingboth alternatives, while the other half did notparticipate in the belief or attitude measurement. inthis paper we test the effect of this preferenceconstruction tool on the item response rate of theWTP question and on the WTP itself. The WTP wasestimated using a logit model of dichotomouschoice. in addition, two different treatments ofdecision complexity were formed by varying thenumber of attributes in the alternatives. Theperceived decision confidence of respondents wasalso measured and compared between thetreatments.
Preference construction treatment decreased thenumber of responses. This was the case especiallywhen the alternatives in choice setting had onlysome attributes. The treatment had some effect ondichotomous choice. When the choice setting wassimple, the treatment increased the number ofsupporters of the environmentally oriented cutting.Also, in the logit model of dichotomous choice,belief questions increased the probability ofchoosing an environmental alternative. Includingpreference construction treatment in the modelimproved the performance of the model somewhatsignificantly. Belief and attitude questions decreasedthe perceived decision confidence, especially whenthe education level of the respondent was low. Itseems evident that responding to belief questionsabout the good reminds respondents of thedimensions of the choice which they otherwisewould not have considered. in this way the choicebecomes more complicated and the respondentperceives uncertainty. On the other hand, this raisesthe question of the response quality in dichotomuschoice in general. Should the CV-questionnaireguarantee that respondents deliberate all dimensionsof the choice equally? Furthermore, how should wedeal with the group of respondents who are moreconfused after screening dimensions?
Evaluating the Impact of FarmWoodlands on the Landscape: a Case of
Blending PerspectivesColin Price
School of Agricultural and Forest Sciences, University ofWales, Bangor, Gwynedd LL57 2UW, United KingdomTel.: 44-1248-382454 / 382281 / 351098 Fax: 44-1248-
354997Email: [email protected]
Several disciplines bring their own perspectives onvaluation to aesthetics. Landscape architectsenunciate descriptive principles for design andarrangement of landscape elements. Plannersquantify the relative merit of landscapes seenholistically. Perceptual psychologists analyseindividuals’ responses to landscapes. Economists donot consider landscape as fundamentally differentfrom other public goods, so incline to value it bytheir willingness to pay criterion. Using this, theymay seek to displace the contributions of otherdisciplines: hedonic pricing attempts directly toplace a cash value on landscape elements;contingent valuation of a given landscape changecondenses citizen preferences with consumerpurchasing decisions; but both methods sufferdisabling weaknesses. It is more constructive tointegrate the insights of other disciplines than tocompete with them. By such a combined process afarm woodlands programme in Wales has beenevaluated. Hypothetical planting schemes weredesigned for representative landscapes, usingreceived design principles. A single assessorevaluated, subjectively, impact on landscape quality,judgements being calibrated by reference to a largerassessor group. Landscape change was given amonetary scale via recorded differential willingnessto pay for travel to Welsh landscapes of differentquality. The resulting value of aesthetic gain wassimilar to the expected cost of the programme.
6.11.07 Social Dimensions of ForestProtect ion (Africa, Europe, North America)
Collaborative Forest Fire ManagementStrategies in Ghana
Viktor Agyeman, Asare, A.B., Orgle, T.K. and Gronow,J.
Forestry Research Institute of Ghana, University Box 63,Kumasi, Ghana
FAX: 233-51-60121, Email: [email protected]
Fire is currently the most important cause ofdeforestation and forest degradation in Ghana. Thesevere drought and fires which occurred in 1983 and1987 exacerbated by indiscriminate logging in someof the affected reserves have resulted in the
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conversion of forests from generally aggradingecosystems to systems of progressive degradation.During the past 15 years, wildfires in Ghana haveresulted in an annual loss of approximately 3% ofGross Domestic Product (GDP) during the past 15years through destruction of forests, agriculturallands and property. in 1993, the total area of forestreserves in the high forest zone affected by fire wasestimated at 0.917 million hectares, more than halfthe total area of reserved forest.
Wildfires in Ghana are mainly anthropogenic inorigin. The major human activities that can lead touncontrolled fires include, charcoal burning, palm-wine tapping, slash and burn system of farmlandpreparation and hunting. in order to prevent furtherenvironmental degradation resulting from wildfires,the Government of Ghana initiated a collaborativeforest fire management (CFFM) programme aimedat mobilising local community support for wildfireprevention, detection communication and control.
The CFFM approach recognises that successfulwildlife prevention and control programmes need tobe developed and implemented in partnership withlocal communities. The CFFM system aims toimprove management of natural resources andincrease the flow of benefits from forest lands to thelocal land-owning community as an incentive forincreased participation in forest and wildfiremanagement.
The paper describes the key elements of theevolving CFFM strategy including the use of alearning process approach to guide the overalldevelopment of the programme and various fieldactivities including consultation, needs assessment,investigation and consensus building. The progressmade up to date in the implementation of CFFMstrategies including the establishment of green firebreaks are outlined. The paper concludes with acomparative assessment of the classical wildfiremanagement approach, involving the Forest andFire Service Organisations, and the collaborativeapproach involving forest users including localcommunities.
An Economic Analysis of ResidentialNonconsumptive Wildlife Recreation
Expenditures in the United StatesYeong-Nain Chi, Ferdinand F. Wirth, Jack Coburn
Isaacs, E. Jane LuzarNational I-Lan Institute of Technology, Department of
Forestry, I-Lan, China-TaipehEmail: [email protected]
This study utilized cross-sectional data obtainedfrom the 1991 National Survey of Fishing, Hunting,and Wildlife-Associated Recreation to analyze
individual's annual expenditures of nonconsumptivewildlife recreation in the United States. Residentialnonconsumptive wildlife recreation is defined as aperson who participates in a recreation activity lessthan one mile from home with the specific intent ofobserving, photographing, and feeding wildlife.
In the process of selecting an appropriate modelmost consistent with consumer behavior associatedwith nonconsumptive wildlife recreation, the tobitmodel and the double hurdle model for theresidential expenditure model were evaluated. Basedon the likelihood ratio test result, the double hurdlemodel fit the data much better than the tobit model.
The empirical results from the residentialexpenditure model indicated that income, age,gender, education, wildlife category (such as birds,mammals, and insects), visiting public parks ornatural areas, maintaining natural areas for fish orwildlife, and planting around home for fish orwildlife had a significant effect on residentialnonconsumptive wildlife recreation expenditures.
An individual's annual expenditures were predictedto increase $0.00006938 for every $1.00 of incomegrowth, increase $0.3029 when participants aremiddle-age individuals, increase $2.6054 whenparticipants are male, increase $2.6649 withincreases in educational status, increase $11.3563when observing birds, increase $4.6485 whenobserving mammals, increase $4.0757 whenobserving insects, increase $7.8431 whenparticipants visit public parks or natural areas,increase $5.8571 when participants maintain naturalareas for fish or wildlife, and increase $6.6430 whenparticipants plant around home for fish or wildlife.
The results in this study provide insight intodeterminants of residential nonconsumptive wildliferecreation expenditures which can be used forplanning and decision making purposes fornonconsumptive wildlife management. This studyalso provides guidance in the choice of empiricalmodel for use in this type of expenditure analysis.Together, these results provide a rigorous analysis
Improving Forest Management Practicesin Quebec (Canada) Through a Social
Learning ProcessMarc André Cote, Luc Bouthillier
University‚ Laval, G1K 7P4 Quebec City, Quebec,Canada
FAX: +1 418 656 3177, Email: [email protected]
To develop a truly sustainable approach to decisionmaking in forest management, a model is needed tofacilitate collaborative decision-making betweendifferent parties with widely varying objectives. The
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task is to transform the dialogue betweenstakeholders into a collective learning process thatwill permit the forest manager to find new solutionsto current problems; solutions to which forest usershold the key. The goal of this research project wasto create a social learning process 1) betweenstakeholders and forest managers in which thestakeholders informed the forest decision makersabout ways to improve forest management and 2)between stakeholders and researchers in which thestakeholders expressed their needs to theresearchers.
A mechanism of social learning was developed forthe management of 400 000 hectares area held bythe corporation Cartons Saint-Laurent, in Quebec,Canada. An initial round table involvedrepresentatives of the following organizations:Native people, regional counties, town council,wildlife management associations, hunting andfishing associations, Ministries of Natural ResourcesWildlife, and Environment ministries, forestcontractors, local business associations, countrycottage owners, and snowmobile association. Asecond round table involved researchers from threeuniversities conducting research projects in forestry,sociology, economics, geography, and biology. Twoproject managers serves as the link between thesetwo round tables. The stakeholders and their areasof expertise were identified and these are being usedto determine the issues for the Cartons Saint-Laurent forest management area. All stakeholdersshared their knowledge in order to develop newalternatives that may improve forest management.
To date, this social learning experience has showedthat new interactions between the stakeholdersresulted in the development of new informationnetworks. Moreover, the identification of areas ofexpertise and skills of stakeholders helped todevelop a practical partnership where everyone hadsomething to contribute to improve forestmanagement practices. For example, involving theresearchers helped to direct their projects towardsstakeholders' needs and concerns, and involving thewildlife stakeholders helped to increase the forestmanager's knowledge on this issue.
However, the success of our experience dependedprimarily on a preliminary stage in which theprocess was carefully planned and designed with theinvolvement of all stakeholders. This preliminarystage helped us to develop several mechanisms ofsocial learning to suit the different parties involved.For example, Native people and snowmobilers didnot have the same concerns and thus did not wish tobe involved the same way.
The imputability of interested parties involved in theprocess, the proliferation of public participationinitiatives in a same region, and property rights wereissues raised during the process that still have to beaddressed. Nevertheless, this approach of publicparticipation could be used by forest managerswishing to initiate a certification process for a giventerritory.
Institutional Impediments toConservation and Management of
Forested Dispersal Zones AdjoiningProtected Areas: Some East Africa
ExamplesJames Legilisho-Kiyiapi
The Centre for Wildlife Management Studies, Post Box #47272, Nairobi, Kenya
Tel: 254-150-22278, FAX: 254-150-22106, Email:[email protected]
The multiple uses of forests means that forestmanagement is often constrained by a variety offactors. The traditional timber-oriented forestmanagement was relatively simple in that the goalwas to maximize timber production by manipulatingthe forest system in favour of selected commerciallyimportant species. Recent shifts in forest resourceconservation and management paradigms embracingparticipatory and whole-system approaches presentrather complex and difficult forest managementscenarios. Nowhere is this complexity more realthan in Sub-Saharan Africa where a broad spectrumof colonial and post-colonial land and resourcetenure regimes exist and where rapid social changethreatens to destroy communal forest resourceownership systems.
Participatory natural resource management presentchallenges within the scientific and social domain:scientific in that technical solutions are needed todeal with the forest ecosystem based management,and social in that we need to define relevantmanagement entities and formulate supportingpolicy and legislation. in East Africa as in otherparts of the world, forest management problemsseem to revolve around the increasing human-resource interactions in or close to protected areasystems. Whilst the delimiting of protected areas(e.g., National Forest Reserves and Parks) in mostAfrican countries in 1940-50s, following Europeanand North American models achieved somereasonable natural resource conservation goals,continual conservation of these resources is nolonger possible without the support of surroundinglocal populations. This derives from an historicalalienation of local populations from resources andperpetual inequitable distribution of benefits from
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these areas. Equally central, are weak institutionalmechanisms in place to address management issues.The sectoral nature of regulatory governmentagencies (e.g., one agency responsible for forest andanother for wildlife resources) means that differentpolicies and laws often apply even when ecologicalrequirements would demand otherwise.
Given the socio-economic conditions ofcommunities adjacent to forest-protected areas,conservation solutions must seek to maximize themix of economic benefits derived these sites. Thiswill involve a landscape-level ecologicalcharacterization and site specific analyses of rurallivelihoods towards land/resource-use zoning.Effective involvement of local communities entailsa clear understanding of what constitutes 'acommunity' and existing local structures within thebroader context of resource conservation and ruraldevelopment partners. A pragmatic approach tocreation of local community institutions isdemonstrated using examples drawn from theMaasai Mara National Game Reserves and theTsavo-Amboseli ecosystems in southwesternKenya.
Keywords: Protected areas, dispersal zones,resource continuum, adjoining communities
Community based bioprospecting ofMondia whytei indigenous plant as
income generating activity in Westernregion of Kenya
Kefri Muguga and Mukonyi WataiKenya Forestry Research Institute, Post Box # 20412,
Nairobi, KenyaTel: 0154 - 32891/2/3, FAX: 0154 32844, Email:
Bioprospecting for non-timber-forest-products(NTFP) by involving the rural communities hasbeen seen as alternative in salvaging deterioratingenvironment, alleviating poverty and enhancingeconomies of most countries (1) NTFPs are a sourceof phytomedicines, social and spiritual fulfilment tomost rural communities and urban dwellers in theworld (2) A study carried on ethnobotanical surveyof medicinal plants and trade potentials of NTFPsestablished that they play an important role inKenya's economy generating about US$ 40 millionannually (3) About 70% NTFPs in Kenya's are fromnatural ecosystems and not on farms. Most of themare of plant origin, few derived from animals. TheseNTFPs are used as constituent of main products.The constrains of NTFPs bioprospecting in Kenyaare: no date on status of NTFPs scarcity of scientificinformation like bioactive ingredients, forestclearing and unsuitable exploitation has reduced
biodiversity, production and marketing not clearlyestablished, no direct link to rural income. Acommunity based research carried out by Kenyaforestry research institute to alleviate poverty andconserve the environment through bioprospe3ctingof a locally valued plant species Mondia whytei hasbeen a success. (4). The communities aredomesticating this species through agro-forestrysystems and their income base has broadened.Bioprospecting of this plant species is a goodexample of how benefit can be return tocommunities, custodians of biodiversity and how itcan be an incentive to environment conservation.
6.11.07 Social Dimensions of ForestProtect ion (Asia)
Indigenous Technologies forSustainable Resource Management in
Indian Cold DesertsPrem Kumar Khosla, K.K. Raina
Himachal Pradesh Agricultural University, 176 062Palampur, Himachal Pradesh, India
Tel: 91-1894-30522, FAX: 0091-1894-30511, Email:[email protected]; [email protected]
The Indian Cold Deserts located in North WesternHimalayan Region, covering 74,809 m2 area, pose agreater development challenge due to ruggedterrains, isolation, inhospitable climate and lack ofcommunication facilities. These areas areecologically varied and biologically diverse, uniquesystems. These are further characterised by subzerowinter temperature (-40°C to 20 °C) annualprecipitation less than 30 cm. Shrubs and perennialherbs form the dominant vegetation. A variety ofbiotic, abiotic, ecophysiologic and socio-polticalfactors restrict the economic growth of the region.There are inadequate sources of livelihood withagro-pastoralisum forming the main source of theincome. Farming is traditionally practised withoutany marketing facilities.
Institutions related to economic development areeither missing ore are too weak. Nomadic grazing ispractised for meeting the requirement of wool andmilk. Poor communication network is furtherleading to isolation. Collection of medicinal herbs isalso practised for meeting the cash requirements.There is over exploitation of certain herbaceousflora by the pharmaceutical agencies. Naturalvegetation is mostly herbaceous Thymus, Medicago,Trifolium, Anemone, Potentila, Epilobium, Verbena,Alluim, Aconitum, Delphenium, Aquilegia, Primula,Geranium, Polygonum and Cannabis are thedominant herbal species. Common shrub species areHippophae, Myricaria, Ephedra, Artemesia, Rosa,Astragalus, Caraga and Salix. in addition manmade
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forests are found along the river banks rivulets, andnallahas comprising mostly of poplars, willows,Hippolhae spp. and Myricaria spp. Excessiveharvesting of natural and plantation trees for energyrequirements during freezing winters is a commonscenario. Inspite of harsh living conditions,inhabitants of Cold Deserts have sustained themover a period of time. They have rich knowledgeconcerning their environment and natural resources,including crops and livestock. This traditionalknowledge is acquired through generationalexperience and is flexible to the needs of thenatives. The sustainability of village ecosystems isensured through indigenous resource management.The identification of these traditional technologiesare packaged through intervention into physical,socio-cultural, environmental and differentcomponents of soil, water, crop, livestock and otherresource endowments of the community. Thedocumentation of indigenous techologies will helpin conservation of rich traditional knowledge,hitherto practised, but now the most threatened dueto cultural mixing and opening up ofcommunication systems. It will also give an insightto know more critically the scientific bases forsuperstitions which are being followed by people forsustainable management of resources and improvingcrop and animal productivity. It also opens thescope for scientific explanations are not available tilldate. The paper includes the detailed account ofindigenous technologies with particular reference tothe age old knowledge on the use of herbs for thetreatment of human and cattle ailments. The judicialuse of local flora for pharmaceutical purposes canalso form the basis for commercial enterprenurship.
The Development of Community Forestin Improving the Environmental Qualitay
and Society Welfare in IndonesiaEulis Retnowati
Forest and Nature Conservation Research andDevelopment Center, FORDA
Jl. Gunung Batu, PO BOX 165, Bogor, IndonesiaTel: +62-251-325111, FAX: +62-251-325111, Email:
In Indonesia, Community Forest Policy is describedin the Basic Forestry Act No.5 of l967. in order todevelop Community Forest, the government hascarried out various ways.
In the Year 1995, the Community Forest in a districtin Central Jawa contributed 29,76 % of the totalincome, and decreased soil erosion.
Some important aspects needed to encourage morefarmers to involve in Community Forest activity arethe establishment of forest farmer groups,
Cooperation of forest farmer groups for woodmarketing, and partnership between farmers and theowner of the wood industry.
Sociocultural and political aspects ofbiodiversity conservation: Implicationsfor Sustainable Forest Management in aTropical Timber Production Forests in
the PhilippinesLucrecio L. Rebugio
UPLB College of Forestry and Natural ResourcesCollege, P.O. Box # 132, Laguna, Philippines
Tel: 63-49-536-3996, FAX: 63-49-536-3206, Email:[email protected]
The study was conducted to provide relevant socialdata for the formulation of a socially relevant,equitable and acceptable Sustainable ForestManagement and Biodiversity Conservation Plan ofthe Surigao Development Corporation (SUDECOR)area in Surigao del Sur, Philippines and to addressthe concerns with respect to the rights of indigenouspeoples and tenured migrants in the area. Thesociocultural part was specifically aimed atidentifying the actors/stakeholders in forestresources management, and at determining howpeople and communities regarded and used forestresources, how they viewed forest biodiversity andbiodiversity conservation and how they perceivedSUDECOR. The political analysis on the other handsought to assess the political environment of forestproduction and biodiversity conservation in theProject area. Specifically it was aimed at analyzingthe effectiveness, influence and importance ofvarious organizations from the communitiesviewpoint; gender division of labor and decision-making; the ethnic and class relations and therelation between SUDECOR and indigenouscommunities in the concession area. Data weregathered mainly through focus group discussions(FGD) and interviews with selected groups and keyindividual informants (KI) conducted in theSUDECOR timber concession area and surroundingcommunities. Based on the results of the study nine(9) socio-economic and political strategies forsustaininable forest management were proposed,namely: 1) mutual respect for their rights andrecognition of corresponding responsibilities byboth the SUDECOR and the affected indigenouscultural communities; 2) creation and establishmentof a field level consultative body as a mechanismfor participation among affected stakeholders; 3)provision of stable livelihood communities; 4)protection and conservation of floral and faunalspecies which are endangered and useful for thecommunities depending on the resource; 5)
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assessment of indigenous resource conservationpractices and integration of relevant ones in thesustainable management plan; 6) institutionalizationof benefit sharing scheme for communityparticipation in sustainable forest management; 7)formulation and implementation of an information,education and communication (IEC) programsupportive of the project; 8) provision of otherextension services; and 9) creation of an IEC and/orcommunity relations office within SUDECOR.
The Increase of CommunityParticipation in Forest Management
through Development of Social ForestryProgram in Indonesia
Sri SuhartiForest and Natural Conservation Research and
Development Centre, Jl.Gunung Batu 5, Po.Box 165,Bogor, Indonesia
FAX: 62-251-325111; 62-251-315222, Email:[email protected]
In the last few years there is a tendency of a changetowards new forest management system in whichpeople's participation becomes the focus ofattention. This concept has several different namessuch as community forest based management,collaborative forest management, joint ForestManagement and Social Forestry. Three mainprinciples are applied in this new forestmanagement system i.e 1) Local people need to beinvolved in forest management activities; 2) Localpeople have legal rights and obligations toparticipate in forest management activities; 3) Thereis a need to actively involve local people in decidingactivities developed to guarantee forest managementsystem which is economically feasible, sociallyadaptable and ecologically sound.
To anticipate those tendency, Government ofIndonesia (GOI) c.q Ministry of Forestry and Estate(MOFE) has developed several programs with themain purpose to rationalize and empower the life oflocal people living near and around the forest areaand to increase active participation of the people inforest management activities. There are variousforms of Social Forestry program in Indonesia i.e.PMDH forest (Village Development Program),Community Forestry, Mixed Farming TimberEstate, Transmigration Timber Estate, Small scalePrivate Forest, etc.
The research on community participation in forestmanagement through social forestry programestablishment was conducted to learn how could theprogram increase and facilitate communityparticipation and describe how far and in whatactivities local people could participate in forest
management activities in some area of Indonesia.Some case studies presented in the paper focus onwhat the local people receive and how they reactoffer establishment of those programs. Theinformation presented here has been gathered fromseveral research studies and literature.
The results showed that from time to time there aredynamics in Social Forestry program development.Begin from the first time when the program wasintroduced, it showed there is a change of intentionwhere professional foresters who mostly in the pastthink they know more and have the right more overforest resources start to change their mind. Nowthey realize that local people have also the right tobe involved in forest management activities.Furthermore, active participation of the people inforest management activities has also an importantrole in determining the success of sustainable forestmanagement. Top-down approach as the onlymethod applied in program establishment now isgradually left. The new introduced method, PRA(Participatory Rural Appraisal) start to be usedwidely in designing alternative activities in SocialForestry program. The degree of communityparticipation depend on the concessionaires (asexecutor); the GOI c.q MOFE (as supervisor andevaluator) and the local community themselves.
6.12.03 Sustainable land use as precondit ionfor sustainable forestry
Sustainable Land Use and SustainableForestry
Hans Essmann, Stefanie LinserUniversity of Freiburg, Institute of Forest Policy,
Bertoldstr. 17, D-79085 Freiburg, GermanyTel: +49-761-203-3724, FAX: +49-761-203-3705, Email:
The Rio Conference 1992 declared "sustainabledevelopment" as one of its central concepts anddeemed it as a guideline for all future activities. Themodel of sustainable development represents aconcept which seeks to reconcile people's social andeconomic needs with the long-term conservation ofnatural living conditions. This does not mean thatprotection of the environment should be subordinateto economic and social factors; instead, it should bean integral component of development. in fact, inchapter 9 of AGENDA 21, the signatory statespledged to manage natural and environmentalcommodities in a sustainable manner so that theycould be utilized now and in the future. Acomprehensive form of sustainable trade should alsomean that, among other things, any types ofecologically damaging and resource-wasting landuse are to be avoided. in order to reach the objective
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of sustainable land use, the "implementation ofpolicies and programs that will discourageinappropriate and polluting land-use practices andpromote sustainable utilization of terrestrial andmarine resources" (AGENDA 21, section 9.21 b)should be initiated. From our point of view thereseemed to be no doubt that at a long run sustainableforestry is feasable only in the frame of thesustainability of the overall land use. From theauthors point of view there seemed to be no doubtthat in the long run sustainable foresty is onlyfeasable in the frame of sustainability of the overallland use. Orientated on the Driving Forces-State-Response Model of the OECD (Organization ofEconomic Co-Operation and Development) criteriaand indicators for the assessment of sustainability ofland use have been developed and are presented inthe paper. Additionally, orientating on some of thecriteria discussed and agreed to at the ThirdMinisterial Conference on the Protection of Forestsin Europe in Lisbon (1998) indicators for theassessment of sustainablity of land use in forestry asa small step of the realisation of sustainable forestmanagement has been developed. For verification ofthe selected criteria and indicators, the "NaturparkSüdlicher Schwarzwald" (Nature Park SouthernBlack Forest), established in February 1999, hasbeen chosen. The parc area of around 300.000hectares represents all existing conflicts between thedifferent land users as there are agriculture, forestry,tourism & recreation, trade, industrial & privatehousing settlements as well as nature conservation.C&I are supposed to enable and rationalise politicaldecisions concerning land use in general andforestry in particular with regard to sustainability.
New Challenges for the Forest Sector toContribute to Rural Development in
EuropePentti Hyttinen, Anssi Niskanen and Andreas Ottitsch
European Forest Institute (EFI), Torikatu 34, FIN - 80100Joensuu, Finland
Tel: +358-13-2520235, FAX: +358-13-124393, Email:[email protected]
Rural areas across Europe are facing more rapidemigration than ever before. Due to the diminishingprospects for financially feasible agriculture, and thelack of supplementing sources of income, rural areasare characterised by high unemployment, narrowoccupational base and poor job creation. The viciouscircle of rural underdevelopment is feeding itself -low work opportunities result in increasingemigration, decreased tax revenues, which in turn,decrease investments to infrastructure. The result isa loss of attractiveness of rural regions for humanresources.
The main challenge for the forest sector insupporting rural development is to find counter-measures to break the vicious circle. Rural areas ofEurope are becoming more and more just sources oftimber with no processing industries. Higher andespecially more innovative utilisation of existingwood and non-wood forest resources wouldcontribute to rural development by increasingemployment opportunities, and raise the economicbenefits obtained from the forests.
The challenges of the forest sector in contributing tothe vitality of rural areas in Europe have beenextensively examined by the authors. This paperpresents the major findings of the potentials andpractices in utilising local forest resources for highvalue added production, and discusses how forest-based income and employment could be increased.
Among the main findings regarding the prevailingsituation is that the correlation between forestresources and employment is very weak.Employment per unit of processed wood is highestin those countries, which feature a higherconcentration of population and closeness tomarkets, which attracts more refined stages ofprocessing industries. The main consumers of forestproducts are situated in the large urbanagglomerations, whereas the main producers andexporters are in regions and countries with anoverall rural structure. It is therefore obvious, thatstrategies aimed at increasing the potential for theforest sector cannot concentrate on regionalconsumption alone, but that the main task lies inconnecting rural producers and urban consumers.Today's development of communicationinfrastructure and transportation logistics provideuseful tools also for the forest sector for linking uprural and urban areas. One such example is the on-line marketing of forest products and services.
Ownership fragmentation and absentee ownershipare an increasing problem in mobilising forestresource for income and employment, since in manyrural areas average forest plot areas are well belowany economic significance for the owner. To tacklethis problem, various forms of co-operative forestmanagement activities have been developed, whichprovide labour for those who remain in the regions,as well as income for the forest owners who do notlive at or near their land anymore.
At the processing side, much of the hope is putespecially on small and medium-scale (SM)mechanical wood industries. The reasons for theoptimism are obvious. The required investments areoften rather modest, and the restrictions of economyof scale are not that substantial than in mass-scale
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pulp and paper industries. Businesses in SMindustries may start up on mainly local and regionalmarkets, which makes their business easy tomanage. Exploration of export-opportunities hasalso been a successful factor for the development ofmany SM industries. in this respect, investments instaff qualifications have proven essential.
The development of services is also seen among theopportunities to create forest related income andemployment. Tourism is usually named among thechief potentials, but other options exist as well.Examples are visible, where employment also hasbeen created through conservation activities such asthe carrying out of traditional management methodsin the interest of landscape aesthetic. One of thechief problems here is the development ofappropriate transactions mechanisms to directincome from these activities to rural regions ratherthan extra-regional actors.
Today, the forest sector employs 3.2 million peoplein Europe, and undoubtedly has increasingimportance in rural development issues in the 3rdmillennium.
Change of forest region seen from theland use
Tetsuro Sakai, XiaoMeng SunKyoto University, Graduate School of Infomatics, 606-
8501 Kyoto, JapanTel: +86-753-3134, FAX: +86-753-3138, Email:
In the last century, the total amount of forest area inJapan has remained fixed at a ratio of about 70%.However, there have been large changes in land. Itis important to understand the characteristics of theforest area to have sustainable use of forest. It isalso important to understand whether changes inforest areas have been caused by societal andeconomic developments. We attempt to explaingeographical features of the forest area and changesin land use in Japan.
We obtained the data for land use and geographicalinformation from the 2km mesh land use dataprovided by UNEP/GRID-Tsukuba and the 50mmesh altitude data provided by GSI (GeographicalSurvey Institute). The former are made from thetopographical maps of three periods: circa 1900,circa 1950 and circa 1985. Land use types areclassified into 31 categories, including urbanagricultural, and forest uses. The 50m mesh altitudedata consists of the altitude in spots of equal lengthand width based on 1/25000 topographical maps ofGSI. First, inclination and slope azimuth werecalculated at each grid location using the altitudedata of the four neighboring grid locations. Thus, a
database of landform information containinginclination, slope azimuth, and altitude value wasconstructed. Next, the average and dispersionstatistics, the maximum, and the minimum altitudesand inclinations and the average and dispersionstatistic of the slope azimuth of the 2-km mesheswere calculated using the landform information ofthe 50 m meshes.
Forest area comprises 2/3 of all land in Japan in1990, 1950, and 1985. The next largest category ofland use is agriculture at about 17% of total landarea. The key points of land use change between1900 and 1985 are as follows. The total amount offorest area did not change. Land devoted toagricultural use hardly increased. Land devoted tourban use increased rapidly after World War II,whereas land devoted to other uses declined rapidly.Land use in 75% of the total area saw no change,whereas 13% was changed by 1950 and 16% by1985. Most land use changes consist of 1) changesfrom forest use to other use, 2) changes from forestuse to agricultural use, 3) changes from agriculturaluse to urban use, and 4) changes from agriculturaluse to forest use.
As altitude increases and inclination becomessteeper, land use tends not to change. For altitudesless than 200 m, much area is diverted from forestarea, whereas from 200-400 m, much land isdiverted to forest area. For inclinations less than10%, much area is diverted from forest area,whereas for inclinations of 20-50%, much area isdiverted to forest areas. The forest area hasincreased on land of higher altitudes andinclinations. The largest such increase is at altitudesof 300-699 m and inclinations of 30-49%. Landdevoted to other use has diminished. The largestsuch drop is at altitudes of 100-499 m andinclinations of 20-49%. We conclude that changesof land use depend on characteristics of geography.
In forest areas, the broadleaf tree woods havedecreased whereas the mixed woods have increased.in area devoted to broadleaf tree and conifer woods,the average altitude increased and the averageinclination became steeper. However, for mixedwoods, the average altitude decreased and theaverage inclination became gentler. The cause isartificial wood development since 1950. Theartificial woods area became 10 millions ha.
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Some Notes About Shifting Cultivation,Problem and its Alternative Solution in
Indonesia. A case study in HPH PT.Hutan Kintap, South Kalimantan.
Sri SuhartiForest and Natural Conservation Research and
Development Centre, Jl.Gunung Batu 5, Po.Box 165,Bogor, Indonesia
FAX: 62-251-325111; 62-251-315222, Email:[email protected]
Shifting cultivation is an example of a traditionalland-use system, which is often in conflict with themanagement of the forest. in Indonesia, shiftingcultivation has been practised in almost all of theisland. in the areas where the native fertility of thesoil has been high, or man/land ratio has becomehigh due to population growth, this system haschanged to more intensive land use ones.
Numerous interrelated factors like the increase ofpopulation growth, rising demand for land forcommercial exploitation and immigration oflandless poor and refuges from other regions aregenerating the deteriorated and migratory shiftingcultivation spread in many regions. This oftencauses the degradation of natural vegetation and soilresources and other environmental problems.
These processes induce an extension of shiftingcultivation to new areas and a gradualimpoverishment of resources. This spiral process ofland degradation and rural poverty does not onlycreate much human suffering, but also results in theloss of natural resource, which otherwise would beused for generating development activities.
In the early 1970's, there were various attempts hadbeen tried in Indonesia to diminish the expansion ofshifting cultivation through the development ofseveral resettlement and not resettlement programs.Two example of resettlement programs are HPHBina Desa, now called PMDH program (ForestVillage Community Development Program) andTumpangsari program (inter cropping program).The target was 500,000 shifting cultivationhourseholds should be rationalized in every fiveyears. in fact however, at the end of 1988, therewere only 123,470 families that could be resettled,disregarding that a substantial amount of them hasleft.
The research on shifting cultivation and its controlin South Kalimantan with a case study in HPH PT.Hutan Kintap was carried out to investigate whatfactors motivate the people to practise shiftingcultivation and how far the programs developed inthe area could improve the living condition of
shifting cultivator household in terms of bettersocio-economic condition and the increase of selfreliance of the people. The results show that thereare several factors underlying the people to practiseshifting cultivation, some of them are need of landfor crop cultivation, limited job opportunities, lackof skill and knowledge, low wage, tradition, etc. Thetwo programs established in the area have notsatisfied its participants. As a result manyparticipants still practise shifting cultivation andeven leave the program. in order to overcome theproblem some adaptation and modifications of theprogram should be done or otherwise a newprogram should be established to replace the lessappropriate program developed before.
Crossing traditional boundaries: Therole of social and psychologicalparameters in interdisciplinary
landscape analysis projectsChristine H. Jakobsen
University of Idaho, Department of Resource Recreationand Tourism, ID 83844 Moscow, USA
FAX: 208 885 6226, Email:[email protected]
The issues we face in contemporary natural resourceplanning and management are complex. Thecontinued development and use of the resourcesstresses biological and social systems and raisesproblems that transcend traditional boundariesbetween disciplines. No single institution ordiscipline is equipped to manage or indeed isexpected to have the full competence to solve thecomplex problems. Collaboration throughintegration of perspectives between the differentdisciplines may be the only way to successfullycomplete this task. It is crucial to our ability to copewith this challenge that we improve ourunderstanding of the elements and processesinvolved in integration of perspectives across thoseboundaries. The results presented here come fromtwo research project with similar objectives, todevelop ways to integrate findings acrossdisciplinary and organizational boundaries: Theassessment phase of the North American InteriorColumbia River Basin Ecosystem ManagementProject (primary data) and the Danish Boundaries inthe Landscape (secondary data). Researchers havetheorized about interdisciplinary collaborationprocesses but few studies look at concrete projects,such as the ones compared in this paper. Threelevels of boundaries emerged from the data:Individual-based boundaries that precipitate barriersand appear to be bridged by facilitators betweenindividuals; Group-based boundaries with relatedbarriers and facilitators of collaboration between
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groups in the projects; and Organization-basedboundaries that induce barriers and facilitators tocollaboration between participating organizations.Comparison of the two research projects revealed aset of similar barriers to collaboration acrossdifferent boundaries in the two western cultures.
6.13.00 The response of law to changingsocial demands on forests and the
environment
Forest Legislation in DevelopingCountries: Emerging Trends and
Persisting DilemmasLawrence C. Christy, Ali Mekouar and Jon Lindsay
FAO, FAO Legal Office, via delle Terme di Caracalla,00100 Rome, Italy
Tel: 39-06-5705-3216, FAX: 39-06-5705-4408, Email:[email protected]
Recent years have witnessed a significantacceleration in the revision of forest-related laws indeveloping countries. Not surprisingly, the results ofthese law reform efforts have been extremely varied.They have taken place within the context of vastlydifferent legal and political traditions, reflecting awide range of economic, ecological and socialvariables. It is possible, nevertheless, to identifyseveral trends that have achieved prominence inforestry laws over the last decade. Drawing upon theexperience of FAO's Development Law Service, thispaper will report on several inter-related clusters ofissues in which a reorientation of national forestlaws is evident:
- Local forest management. Increasing attention hasbeen devoted to enhancing the legal capacity oflocal people to manage forests on which theydepend, through the introduction of community-based management arrangements, decentralisationof forestry institutions and innovative tenurialinstruments. - Private sector involvement. Efforts tostimulate private sector investment in sustainableforestry has resulted in a variety of legislativeefforts to reduce the most common constraints, suchas overly restrictive or cumbersome regulatoryregimes and unsuitable land tenure arrangements.New approaches to contracting services andmonitoring performance are finding their way intolegislation.
- Environment and sustainable management. Lawsincreasingly focus explicitly on the environmentalfunctions of forests, imposing new planning andinventory provisions closely tied to biodiversity andother environmental considerations, EIA andmanagement planning.
- Accountability and law compliance. Newlegislative approaches have emerged to attempt todeal with several factors which have traditionallyundermined the enforceability of forest laws,including corruption. Increasingly laws include agreater emphasis on transparency in governmentforest policy and management, better public accessto information and public input into decision-making and improved penalty provisions.
- Institutional restructuring. There have been newexperiments with the redesign of governmentforestry institutions, with the splitting of regulatoryand management functions into separate bodies, andnew approaches to the financing of operations.
In each of these areas, there have been importantconceptual advances, and a variety of interestinglegislative techniques have been crafted. At thesame time, many of the recent laws show evidenceof a profound ambivalence within governmentsabout the appropriate direction and velocity ofreform in the forestry sector. and indeed, efforts tocreate legal frameworks that reflect a balancedappreciation of the multiple dimensions of forestryhave brought to the forefront legal and policydilemmas that have vastly complicated the jobs oflawmakers.
Impacts of Environmental Legislation onForest Management Practices in Chile
E. Gallardo GallardoCorporacion Nacional Forestal, Avd Bulnes No 285 of
601, Santiago, ChileTel: +56 2 6966677, FAX: +56 2 6954788, Email:
Este país ubicado en el extremo sur de américa,reconoce durante el siglo XX que recién termina dosesfuerzos legislativos tendientes a conservar y adesarrollar nuestros recursos forestales: en 1925 conla ley de bosques, aún vigente y en 1974 con la leyde Fomento Forestal, ambas con diversasmodificaciones.
La primera con un marcado carácter proteccionista yde preservación, entre otras medidas, reguló la cortade bosques nativos en áreas de protección y el usodel fuego en terrenos de aptitud preferentementeforestal y la segunda impulsó fuertemente el procesode forestación y reguló la corta o aprovechamientoobligando a reforestar una superficie igual, a lomenos, a la cortada o explotada conforme a un plande manejo previamente aprobado por laadministración forestal.
A estos dos textos de jerarquía legal debe sumarsealgunos instrumentos internacionales ratificadoscomo "ley de la República" referidos a la protección
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y comercio de la flora y la fauna y sobreconservación de la diversidad biológica y unaprofusa regulación reglamentaria de protección deespecies y áreas silvestres protegidas, legislacióntoda fuertemente patrimonialista, sectorial y sin unavisión ecosistémica o ambiental propiamente tal.
Sólo en 1994, después de más de 20 años de laConferencia de las Naciones Unidas sobre el MedioAmbiente Humano de 1972 y la Conferencia sobreAmbiente y Desarrollo de 1992, y la fuerte presióndel comercio internacional, en Chile con el carácterde "ley marco", se aprobó la Ley sobre BasesGenerales del Medio Ambiente que vino a legislarcon sentido global y sistémico, incorporando ladimensión ambiental en todas las actividades delquehacer nacional, entre ellas, la actividad forestal.Esta ley recoge y desarrolla los principios deprevención, realismo y gradualidad con que elgobierno impulsó su política ambiental a partir de1990, destinada a proteger el medio ambiente,preservar la naturaleza y a conservar el patrimonioambiental.
La creación legal de diversos instrumentos degestión ambiental, entre ellos, la obligación, para losproyectos de desarrollo o explotación forestales degran magnitud, de someterse, antes de su ejecución,al Sistema de Evaluación de Impacto Ambiental, yaha producido y producirá en el futuro comoconsecuencia la posibilidad de prever, predecir,identificar e interpretar anticipadamente el o losimpactos ambientales que dichos proyectos oactividades forestales provocarán a los recursosambientales asociados como comunidades humanas,suelos, aguas, aire, fauna y paisaje, permitiendo queen su etapa de diseño se identifique y se describa lao las acciones que el titular ejecutará para impedir ominimizar sus efectos significativamente adversos.
En consecuencia, el país entra al siglo XXI con laesperanza que aún es tiempo para revertir la etapa dedestrucción y deterioro de nuestros recursosforestales, y ,a través de su manejo sostenible ysustentable, poder satisfacer las necesidades actualespero asegurando al mismo tiempo la satisafacciónde las necesidades de las generaciones del porvenir.
The Effect of the Federal Estate Tax onNon-industrial Forest Ecosystems in the
United States.J. Greene, Bullard, St; Cushing, T.; Beauvais, T
USDA Forest Service, Southern Research Station,Lousiana New Orleans, USA
Anecdotal evidence indicates that the federal estatetax has a disproportionately large, adverse effect ontransfers of forest land estates and contributes to the
fragmentation and conversion of forest ecosystems.The Mississippi State University, College of ForestResources, and the USDA Forest Service, SouthernResearch Station, are cooperating in a study tomeasure the magnitude of the effect of the federalestate tax on non industrial forestlands and otherrural land holdings. Data for the study werecollected using mailed questionnaires. Members ofthe American Tree Farm System, the NationalWoodland Owners Association, and a nationwidesample of rural landowners were surveyed. Studyfindings include: 1) Over one-half of nonindustrialforestland owners (53%) held assets valued abovethe threshold amount for the federal estate tax; 2)Over one-third of forestland estates (36%) incurredthe federal estate tax (this is roughly 20 times therate for the U.S. population in general); 3)Forestland and timber typically accounted for nearlyone-half (45%) of the owner's estate; 4) Only aboutone in three forestland estates (32%) qualified forthe "special use" valuation provisions, and only onein four (25%) elected to use them; and 5) Abouttwo-thirds of forestland owners (65%) sought thehelp of a financial or forestry professional to plantheir estate. of the estates that owed a federal estatetax, about one-third (35%) needed to sell timber orland to pay part or all of the tax. in nearly every casewhere timber was sold, the sale was without regardfor local market conditions or the forestmanagement plan. in a large fraction of the caseswhere land was sold, the land was converted toanother, more developed use. These last findings arebased on small sample sizes and need to beconfirmed by additional research. Nonetheless, theirimplications for forested ecosystems and for taxpolicy are clear.
Forest and Environmental LawDevelopments in European Countries
with Economies in TransitionPeter Herbst
Wulfenstrasse 15, A-9500 Villach, AustriaTel: +43 4242 52471, FAX: +43 4242 264048, Email:
Keywords: Forest Law, Environmental Law, CentralEurope, Eastern Europe, European Countries withEconomies in Transition
In 1998 and 1999, two International Meetings on"Experiences with new forest and environmentallaws in European countries with economies intransition" were held in Ossiach, Austria, bothorganised by IUFRO 6.13.00, the forest law andenvironmental legislation subject group, andsupported by the Austrian Ministry of Agriculture
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and Forestry. Eighteen different nations wererepresented in at least one of both meetings.
The most extensive part of both meetings comprisedof sessions on the legal situation in Europeancountries with economies in transition; the wholerange of possible stages of development of forestlaw and environmental legislation as well asproblems concerning implementation andadministration were covered by oral presentationsand discussions.
By means of the moderation method, impendingproblems and topics were collected, selectedaccording to their relevance to the participants, anddiscussed.
Highest priority was given by the participants to- Harmonisation of Forest and EnvironmentalLegislation; ranging from basic conflicts betweenforestry and environment to necessaryharmonisation processes and needs due tointernational commitments.- Private Forests; rights and obligations of privateowners, training and participatory management, theowners/authority relationship were discussed, inorder to find suitable legal arrangements.- Financing; comprising sources, problems andincentives.- Protected Areas; national parks, management andfinancing.
Other topics of relevance were Governance andParticipation (Forest Policy), Public ForestAdministration and Management, Forests Functionsas well as Privatization of Forests.
Papers presented during both meetings have beenpublished as follows:
Schmithüsen, Franz; Herbst, Peter; Le Master,Dennis, Eds., 1999: Experiences with New Forestand Environmental Laws in European Countrieswith Economies in Transition. Proceedings of theInternational Symposium Jointly Organized by theIUFRO Research Group 61300 and the AustrianFederal Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry,Ossiach, June 1998. Forstwissenschaftliche Beiträgeder Professur Forstpolitik und Forstökonomie derETH Zürich, Vol. 21, 1999. 142 pp.
Schmithüsen, Franz; Iselin, Georg; Herbst, Peter,Eds, 2000: Challenges in Implementing Forest andEnvironmental Legislation in European Countrieswith Economies in Transition. Proceedings of theSecond International Symposium Jointly Organizedby the IUFRO Research Group 61300 and theAustrian Federal Ministry of Agriculture andForestry, Ossiach, September 1999.Forstwissenschaftliche Beiträge der Professur
Forstpolitik und Forstökonomie der ETH Zürich,Vol. 23, 2000. 111 pp.
Certification and nature conservationregulationUllrich Klins
Universität München, Faculty of Forest Science, AmHochanger 13, D-85354 Freising, Germany
Tel: +49 8161 -71-4627, FAX: +49 8161 -71-4623,Email: [email protected]
Pluralism, neocorporalism, participation andintegration are terms, which have significantlygained in popularity since the early Seventies. Theforest industry is increasingly faced with societiesdemands for protection and recreation areas,demands which conflict with forest owners(commercial) interests respectivly forest ownersproperty rights, their competence and legitimacy.
Thus the question arises, in what way is influenceexerted on forestry. This will be presented using thesituation in Germany as an example. Whenconsidering the legal situation, it can be observedthat the legal framework regarding forestry can beconsidered to be quite well established. in the(immediate) future there will be no changes or nosignificant changes in this respect. This is also truefor other parliamentary decisions in the field offorestry, since a sufficiently strong lobby ofagriculture and forest interest groups is active inparliament itself as well as in parliamentaryspecialized committees. Thus, influence is exertedon forestry by structures outside parliament.Therefore, the following dynamic structures arebeing studied:- developments regarding forests on an internationallevel (e.g. conferences in Rio, Helsinki, regulationswithin the framework of the European Union, etc.)- changes in the field of nature conservation law,particularly in the area of regulations- processes on the private economic level e.g. withregard to certification
While most of the developments on an internationallevel - at least in the forestry sector - do not involveany important changes for German forestry,interesting trends can be observed in the field ofnature conservation regulations and on the privateeconomic level. Nature Conservation Regulations
The example of protected areas shows that there areslow but significant shifts in competence, whicheffect forestry. The following reasons can be stated:
1) Legal frames are solidified by regulations whichare not decided on by parliaments but rather by aforum of specialists such as ministries or other stateoffices, in other words they get directly submitted to
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the state governments. For example in the case of aproposal made by a nature preservation authority, anintervention by agriculture or forest lobbies is lesspossible.
2) Specific regulations are required for eachprotected area. This means that only a few forestowners' rights are affected. Up to now foresters haveoften failed to act against these regulationscollectively, resulting in there having been no realresistance against the individual regulations.
3) Forest management has a rather negative imageamong the population compared to people'sassociations with forest and wood. Accordingly, alarge portion of the population is of the opinion thatmore forest areas should be protected.Environmental groups are considered morecompetent in this respect than foresters.
In this way nature preservation authorities are ableto make regulations in accordance with theirinterests on the basis of laws decided by parliament.For example a higher degree of restrictions hasalready been achieved in landscape protection areas,i.e. forest management becomes more difficult inthese areas.
"External determination" - a case study ofcertification
Environmental groups, trade unions and distributorsdemand a certification of forests according to theprinciples and criteria of Forest StewardshipCouncil (FSC). The impact of these groups onforestry as seen in Germany seems to be strongerthan foresters have expected. The forestry,especially private forest owners fear "externaldetermination", which would result in a publicinterference in their autonomy of forestmanagement. Consequently the debate aboutcertification was dominated by emotionally andideologically plagued arguments and "false"information. Dated perceptions and pictures ofantagonism, known from the discussion"environmental conservation versus forestmanagement", re-emerged. in this study theinterests, ideologies and opinions of key players, thediffering contribution of their power, givenregulations and in addition to this communicationstrategies of the players and their strategic behaviourwithin networks will be presented.
Strategies
Thus it poses the question, what possibilities exist,with which the forestry can steer or exert aninfluence on the momentary discussion processes -and to what extent. The interests and demands ofsocial groups and the resulting consequences are not
or only partially recognized by many representativesof the forest industry. The lack of recognition is dueto foresters having been able to manage their forestswith relative autonomy within the framework of thepolitical administrative system. There has also beenno recognition at which level and with whichmethods environmental groups are acting during apolitical process. Therefore in the last part of thestudy the question as to which strategies enable theforest industry to reach a consensus with socialinterest groups and the support of the public will bediscussed.
Selection of Policy Tools in the Contextof Multilevel Policy Networks
Dennis C. Le MasterPurdue University, Department of Forestry and Natural
Forestry1159 Forestry Building, Indiana 47907-1159 West
Lafayette, USATel: +1 317 4943591, FAX: +1 317 4940409, Email:
Merlo and Paveri argued in a paper given during theXI World Forestry Congress that a "substantial lackof attention to, or ignorance of, forest policy tools,not to mention the policy tools mix.. ." is apparent.For example, many policy analysts seem unawarethat constitutional, democratic, mixed-capitaliststates are actually quite limited in what policy toolsor mechanisms they can apply, even whengovernment intervention in markets for forest goodsand services is viewed as desirable. Forest policytools can be divided into two general kinds: marketfacilitation tools, those that facilitate the functioningof markets, and market intervention tools, those thatmodify the functioning of markets. Marketfacilitation tools include (1) information gatheringand dissemination, (2) public education, (3)technical information, and (4) research. Marketintervention tools are (1) insurance programs, (2)resource protection programs (from diseaseepidemics, insect infestations, and fire), (3) landmanagement planning, (4) regulation andprohibition, (5) taxation or subsidization programs,(6) land trusts for amenity, recreation, conservation,or other values, and (7) public ownership orproduction of goods and services. They differsubstantially in their relative effectiveness, cost,social and ideological acceptance, and difficulty inadministration. No single tool or combination oftools is uniquely effective in addressing publicpolicy problems in forestry. Schmithuesen observesthat "A substantial expansion of international law onthe environment and (economic) development hastaken place during the last twenty years," and todayforest and environmental policy must "be seen
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within the context of multilevel policy networks."International treaties, conventions, and agreementsare comparable to domestic laws regulating humanbehavior and activities. The agent forimplementation-the nation state-is the same and willcontinue to be in the foreseeable future, for nosupranational organization has any correspondingpower. Similarly, forest policy tools are the same forimplementation of international policies as fordomestic policies. Hence, international treaties,conventions, and agreements will be as effective asthe policy tool (or policy tools mix) selected by thesignatory nation states, including its subsequentadministration.
Legal Implications of ForestCertification Programs: An Overview
E. MeidingerState University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY,
United StatesEmail: [email protected]
Forest certification programs typically define theenvironmental standards that forest enterprises mustmeet and also establish organizational mechanismsfor achieving and certifying compliance. They thusbear a striking resemblance to governmentregulatory programs. Yet, because of theirapparently voluntary and autonomous nature,certification programs are often conceptualized asseparate and distinct from law. in fact, however, thatcertification systems are deeply intertwined withlaw. First, they use legal mechanisms to organizethemselves, and often cite the possibility ofintensified legal regulation to attract participants.Second, they can have a significant influence ongovernmental policies, and on the content andimplementation of legal rules.
This paper reviews the primary ways in whichcertification systems are likely to influence legalsystems and vice versa, using North American legalsystems as the primary basis of analysis. It finds,among other things, that:
1. Certification standards and implementationmechanisms have not been formally adopted bymost North American legal systems.
2. Legal systems seem likely to incorporatecertification standards in many informal ways, suchas adoption of best management practicesdefinitions in environmental regulatory law, tortlaw, and even information regulation and financialregulation.
3. Regulatory officials are likely to treat certificationas an indicator of good practice in many cases, andmay reduce scrutiny on certified firms. A few states
have enacted statutes giving certified firms specialtreatment, and some judges have mandatedcertification as a remedy for regulatorynoncompliance.
4. A number of state and local government agencieshave subjected the forested lands they manage tonon-governmental certification.
5. If certification programs continue to grow inimportance they are likely to be subjected toregulation by national and international legalsystems. Such regulation may include the substanceand procedures of certification, as well thequalifications of certifiers.
6. International trade law will also haveconsiderable influence on the development andeffectiveness of certification systems.
7. Over time, certification systems may bringsignificant changes to the institutional mechanismsthrough which societies deliberate about and adoptgoverning policies. The debate about the legitimacyof such developments is only beginning.
Forest Related International LegalInstruments
Franz SchmithüsenETH, Department of Forest and Wood Sciences, 8092
Zürich, SwitzerlandTel: +41 1 6323217, FAX: +41 1 6321110, Email:
Keywords: International Legal Instruments;Environmental Protection; Sustainable ForestManagement; Rural Development; Nature andLandscape Conservation.
The commitments of international forest-relatedlegal instruments are initiated by nationalgovernments, which negotiate the framework of co-operation. An increasing range of world-wide,continental and regional processes involvingmultilateral and supranational entities form atpresent the international system. in part, theydevelop their own political and institutionaldynamic; in part, they emanate from the work of UNagencies. International and supra-national treaties,conventions and agreements reflect primarily globalor continental concerns. They have, however,immediate consequences for the development ofrural areas, from which the problems originate andwhere the solutions and developments chances areto be looked for.
Empirical research on the evaluation of the impactsof existing multi-level legislative networks and onthe successes and failures, which result from them,are of considerable interest. Major issues are the
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relevance, the implementation possibilities and theeffective contributions of their various regulations tosustainable resource utilisation in a given area.Since international and supranational legalinstruments rely to a large extent on implementationby national and sub-national public services, non-governmental organisations and a large number ofland-users, the distribution of competencies,financial and administrative arrangements, anddecision making procedures need particularattention. Acceptance and commitment of landowners, local entities, and public opinion areimportant research issues. The same refers to shiftsof responsibilities to the private sector, to bargainingprocesses and to contractual arrangements.
Implications of the Federal Income Taxfor Private Forest Ecosystems in the
United StatesWilliam C. Siegel
USDA Forest Service, Forest Resource Law andEconomics
9110 Hermitage Place, Lousiana 70113 River Ridge,USA
Tel: +1 504 737 0583, FAX: +1 504 737 1074, Email:[email protected]
Keywords: Income Tax, Sustainable Forestry,Ecosystem Management.
Changing social demands in the United States inrecent years have resulted in greater emphasis beingplaced on ecosystem management, environmentalprotection and enhanced stewardship with respect toprivate forest lands. These concerns are implicitlyincluded in the move to sustainable forestmanagement on private ownerships. The federalincome tax is an important component of thischanging scene. Set out in the Internal RevenueCode, this tax has been in place in the United Statessince 1913. Forest landowners are subject to thefederal income tax as are all other citizens.Numerous sections of the Code apply specifically toforests and timber; other provisions apply in generalterms. The major components of the federal incometax applicable to private forests were examined interms of their potential and actual contributions toenhancement of sustainable management on privateforest ecosystems. It was concluded that someprovisions lend little to and actually discourageenhanced stewardship, but that others are makingsignificant contributions. Recent failed attempts atlegislative change are discussed. The paperconcludes with further recommendations for changewhich would enable the federal income tax tobecome a more forceful policy instrument for
encouraging sustainable forestry on privatetimberlands.
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The Role of Forest Land TaxProgrammes in Promoting Ecosystem
Management in the United StatesJeffrey C. Stier, Clendenning, J. G.
University of Wisconsin-Madison, Department of ForestEcology & Management
1630 Linden Drive, 53706 Madison, USATel: 608-262-3976, FAX: 608-262-9922, Email:
In the paper we examine if and how existing U.S.preferential property tax programs for forestland areused as policy instruments to promote ecosystemmanagement on private lands. A comprehensivesummary of the objectives, structure, and effects ofexisting tax programs has been compiled with anexamination of the manner in which these programsimpede or facilitate ecosystem management. Noexisting program incorporates objectives ofecosystem management explicitly into their programstatement, but numerous programs haveincorporated, either explicitly and implicitly,program goals and management objectives that havecommonly been identified as characteristics ofecosystem management. We conclude thatpreferential property tax programs can play a limitedbut important role in incorporating principles ofecosystem management on private forestlands.However, because of the inherent complexities offorestland ownerships, forest management andecosystem management, no one policy instrumentcan be expected to address all of the relevant issues,objectives and conflicts. Rather, the solution is morelikely to lie in an array of policy instruments thatcomplement and interact with each other.
Research Issues Related toEnvironmental Restrictions and
Financial Compensation Measures inForestry
Stefan WagnerBeethovenstr. 3, D-86150 Augsburg, Germany
Tel: +49 821 155679, FAX: +49 821 159570, Email:[email protected]
Keywords: Environmental Legislation; FinancialCompensation Measures; Comparative Laws
Forestry worldwide is confronted with a constantlyrising number of laws and regulations, especially inthe field or nature, land and water protection. Asopposed to former times, these provisions no longeraim just for the preservation of a few particularareas, but also for comprehensive and large-scaleenvironment protection as well as for thecompensation of impacts. Consequently thepossibilities to restrict the management and
utilization of forests have increased as well. Thisdevelopment almost inevitably leads to conflictswith forestry interests, making financialcompensation measures a bare necessity.
Within the framework of a research project, thequestions and issues related to recent environmentprotection legislation and its impact on forestry inGermany will be subject to legal scrutiny and acomparative analysis of the legal situations inFrance, Poland and the U.S. Both, Germany andFrance, are subject to the jurisdiction and legislationof the European Union, yet the conditions for theconversion of European to national law differgreatly for instance with regard to the form ofgovernment and the stuctures of forest ownership.Environmental laws in the U.S. have been passed onthe grounds of the Common Law System, findingtrailblazing solutions for conflicts with agriculturaland forest management, such as the purchase ofland, the separation of priority cultivation concepts,and the strict territorial jurisdiction of state andfederal authorities. Poland, as most East-Europeancountries, is currently in a state of political,econonmic, and social transition on its way tointegration into the EU. in the early 1990ies, thesecountries mostly adopted environmental lawsmodeled after the West-European fashion.Meanwhile, these laws are being revised andamended on the bases of the previous experiences.
The empirical part of the project will cover anexamination of the range and performance of thelaws by an analysis of precedences, literature and byexpert interviews. of particular interest will be thequestion, whether the legal provisions on financialcompensation measures serve their purpose ascontrol mechanisms in the conflict betweenenvironment protection and forestry. For the mainobjective of the laws is to regulate conflicts andbalance diverging social interests. Keeping this inmind, the following issues shall be discussed:
- Do the legal facts deviate from the framework ofenvironment protection laws and why-
- Are deficits the consequence of indistinctlegislation or of the wrong (or non-existent)application of the laws?
- in how far have solutions been found in generalpractice to reconcile environment protection andforestry that have not been provided by the law;especially financial compensation measures, such asfinancial incentives, compensation payments,contractual agreements?
The results of these two research phases will thenlead to suggestions for the future execution of thoseenvironment protection laws which are of particular
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importance for forestry. They will constitute thebasis of the discussion about the necessity andadequacy of the utilization of forests for nationaland international legal environment protectionmeasures.
The International Discourses onSustainable Development and
Sustainable Forest Management - TheirRelevance for Modernising Forest Laws
Gerhard WeissUniversity of Agricultural Sciences, Institute of Forest
Sector Policy and EconomicsGregor Mendel-Strasse 33, A-1180 Vienna, Austria
Tel: +43-1-47654-4405, FAX: +43-1-47654-4407, Email:[email protected]
Since the 1980's, forest management is discussedpolitically on a world-wide level and under thepremises of "sustainability". This discourse onsustainable forest management is related to theinternational discourse on "sustainabledevelopment". Sustainable development is thedominating discourse on environmental politicssince the report of the World Commission onEnvironment and Development, Our CommonFuture, was published in 1987. It incorporates thegoals of ecological protection, economic growth,social justice, and intergenerational equity - locallyand globally, immediately and in perpetuity.
One declared - but failed - aim of the UNConference for Environment and Development inRio de Janeiro in the year 1992 (UNCED) was toagree on a World Forest Convention. Thenegotiations resulted only in a vaguely formulatedand non-binding Statement of Forest Principles. Theprinciples of sustainable management, conservationand sustainable development of all types of forestswas furthermore included in Chapter 11 "CombatingDeforestation" of Agenda 21. Any interpretations ofthe overall goals and principles of sustainabledevelopment inevitably incorporates valuedecisions. The results of ongoing political processesare driven by the values, interests, knowledge andrelative negotiation power of political actors. As noobjective definition of "sustainability" can exist thetask is rather to define the procedures howsustainable development is to be interpreted.
Various initiatives for elaborating criteria andindicators for sustainable forest management havebeen started after Rio, among others the Pan-European Process for the Protection of Forests inEurope. These criteria and indicators are biasedtowards quantitative economic and ecologicalaspects. Social and cultural aspects are mostlyneglected. The same bias even can be observed in
the criteria-and-indicators-list elaborated by theAmazon Co-operation Treaty. This bias of criteria-and-indicators-lists towards interests of establishedadministrations and powerful lobbies of industriescan be explained by the fact that the generatingprocess takes place in established policy-makingsystems favouring already powerful groups. Theinstrument of criteria and indicators in itself is atechnocratic tool. Besides of the production ofcriteria and indicators no efforts are made to changeprocedures or to address underlying causes of forestloss.
Traditional forest policy-making systems are usuallydominated by industry-related interest groups. Thechallenge of ecological modernisation – which isvalid for forest management just like for our societyas a whole – is a restructuring of procedures andinstitutions. Within the discourse of sustainableforest management, for instance, participatoryprocesses in policy-making are demanded. Themodernisation of forest laws can only be calledsuccessful, if an institutional change is achieved,which balances the power of interest groups. Socialand ecological goals will only be considered besidesof economic goals if respective interest groups areincluded in the policy-making process.
Endangered Species Regulations andTimber Harvesting: The Case of Red
Cockaded WoodpeckersDaowei Zhang
Auburn University, School of Forestry, Alabama 36849-5418 Auburn, USA
Tel: 334-844-1067, FAX: 334-844-1084, Email:[email protected]
This paper presents a theoretical framework andempirical evidence on the relationship betweenregulatory uncertainty induced by the possibleinvasion of an endangered species-the Red-Cockaded Woodpecker (RCW)-and timberharvesting. Timber harvesting probability andmethods in a large number of mature private forestsare assessed using a forest production model basedon the conventional theory of capital. The empiricalresults indicate that landowners whose forests areclose to a known RCW habitat have a highpropensity to cut timber and use a clear-cut method.All these behaviors may be to achieve one apparentobjective: destruction or foreclosure of potentialRCW habitat quickly and before the EndangeredSpecies Act (ESA) comes into force. This meansthat ESA and other regulations have givenlandowners perverse economic incentives andinduced actions that they would otherwise not haveand that are detrimental to the full recovery of
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endangered species. The results have implicationsfor future reforms in environmental regulations.
6.14.00 Urban forestry
State of the art of research andknowledge on urban forestry in the USA
John Dwyer, Gary Watson, David NowakUSDA Forest Service, 845 Chicago Avenue, Suite 225,
IL 600202-2357 Evanston, USATel: 847-866-9311, FAX: 847-866-9506, Email:
jdwyer/[email protected]
Urban forestry research promises to continue to bean integral part of the growth and development offorestry in urban and urbanizing areas of the UnitedStates. The future is expected to bring increasedemphasis on research in support of the care of treesand other plants, ecological restoration, andcomprehensive and adaptive management across thelandscape. Particular emphasis will be needed onresearch to guide new developments in thecomprehensive health of urban vegetation;ecological restoration techniques; resourceinventory and monitoring; dialogue among forestresource owners, managers, and uses; collaborationamong agencies and groups; understanding of howforest configurations influence forest use andbenefits; knowledge about urban forest health; anddissemination of information about urban forestsand their management. It is the integration of thelandscape, ecological, and tree/plant-care researchthat will provide for the comprehensive andadaptive management needed to sustain urban foreststructure, health, and benefits over the long term.
Keywords: urban, forest, arboriculture, landscape,collaboration.
Effects of fragmentation and tramplingon the vegetation of Forests in Finland
Irja Löfström, Minna Malmivaara and Ilkka Vanha-Majamaa
Finnish Forest Research Institute, Post Box # 18, FIN-01301 Vantaa, Finland
FAX: +358 9 8570 5569, Email: [email protected]
In Finland, about 80% of urban green areas areforests with natural forest vegetation. Participationin outdoor recreation is active and urban forests arethe main environment for these activities. Accordingto the Finnish law, citizens can use forests freely forrecreation.
The growth of the urban population has resulted inthe fragmentation and increased recreationalpressure, e.g. trampling in these urban forests. Thesmall size and isolation of remaining forest patchesresult in decreased biodiversity. When trampling is
intense and persistent, the most wear-sensitivespecies will die leading to the disappearance of thehumus layer and risk of soil erosion.
Preliminary results about the effects offragmentation and trampling on the understoreyvegetation of urban forests are presented.
Urban forest stands of varying size (1-1600 ha) werechosen for the study in the greater Helsinki area.Within these areas, mesic spruce (Picea abies)dominated forest stands of the Vaccinium myrtillustype, and drier pine (Pinus sylvestris) dominatedVaccinium vitis-idaea type stands over 80-years-oldwere examined, and biotope mapped wasundertaken regardless of the size or level of wear in1999. The total number of inventoried biotopes was52. Biotope mapping was based on the understoreyvegetation. For measuring environmental variablesand monitoring the effects of fragmentation andtrampling, one or two circular sample plots (radius5.64 m), were located in the biotopes, depending onthe size of the biotope (0.01-3.14 ha). Sample plotswere located so that the minimum distance to theedge of forest was 30 meters. Dominant height, stemvolume and basal area of trees and number of stemsper hectare were calculated. The percentage cover offield and ground layer vegetation was inventoried infour 1 m2 sub-plots located in each sample plot. inaddition path area per biotope area was measuredand the number of residents within a 1 km and 2 kmradius of each biotope were used as measures ofrecreation pressure.
Both site types were affected by trampling in asimilar manner. With an increasing number ofresidents, the cover of ground vegetation decreasedand the amount of unofficial paths increased. Thecover of ground vegetation and dwarf shrubs wasthe highest when recreation pressure was the lowest.The mean total cover of ground vegetation in theareas studied was 65%. When the number ofresidents within 2 km radius is > 20 000, groundvegetation cover falls below the mean of 65%(R2=0.25). Cover decreases about one percentageper 1000 persons. The size of the forest patch inrelation to the number of recreationists is one of themain factors affecting species cover andcomposition.
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Soil moisture variations and availabilityin tree-pits in urban Hong Kong
C.Y. JimThe University of Hong Kong, Department of Geography
and Geology, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong, ChinaTel: +852-2859-7020, FAX: +852-2559-8994, Email:
Urban areas of Hong Kong are characterized bypervasively high-density and high-rise developmentwith meagre niches left for amenity vegetation.Suitable sites for ground planting is particularlylimited at roadsides where the narrow pavement andproliferation of underground utilities often precludetrees. The use of tree planters or containers providespossibilities to insert greenery in locations whereabove-ground space is adequate but soil volume isrestricted. They can also be installed on buildingpodiums, rooftops and indoor habitats such asbuilding foyers and shopping malls. Hitherto fewstudies have been conducted on planter soils, andnone has been attempted in the humid tropical cities.This research attempts to evaluate systematically thequality of planter soils in Hong Kong with specialreference to their moisture status in relation to treegrowth. A stratified random sampling procedurewas adopted to select 12 planters in a dense built-updistrict, three each from four categories defined byplanter geometry, for detailed assessment. With 300cm width and 60 cm depth as division lines, they areclassified as narrow shallow (NS), narrow deep(ND), wide shallow (WS) and wide deep (WD).Vertical holes were opened in each sampled planterwith an auger and lined with a PVC pipe of 5.18 cminternal diameter with sealed bottom and anopenable top lid. A Time Domain Reflectometry(TDR) miniature moisture probe was lowered intothe access tube to monitor gravimetric soil moistureat depth intervals of 5 cm once every two weeks forone year (June 1998 to May 1999). Soil sampleswere collected in topsoil and subsoil layers toanalyze selected physical and chemical properties.The soil mix is mainly composed of localdecomposed granite amended with organic matterwhich is usually peat moss. Most soils have highstone contents of 30-40 per cent, high proportion ofsand from 77-87 per cent, with all samples fallinginto the extremely coarse loamy sand textural class.Bulk density, which is closely related to porosity,has an average value of 1.72 Mg/m3 which indicatespoor structure and compaction down to an averageof 33 per cent total porosity. Topsoil, despite thepresence of more organic matter, tends to be morecompacted and less porous than subsoil. The lack oforganic matter and high sand content areunfavourable to soil structure formation and
maintenance. The sand, however, could maintain arelatively high proportion of air capacity (AC) poresover 60 µm diameter which serve adequatelyinfiltration, drainage and aeration. There isnevertheless a shortage of medium available water(AW) pore in the 0.2-60 µm diameter range.
Moisture content follows closely the rainfall regimewith marked seasonal variations between the dryand the wet periods. Moisture content increases withdepth in most planters. The occurrence of layering(lithologic discontinuity) in some planters retardsthe downward movement of moisture, resulting inwater perched in the topsoil and hence less availablein the subsoil. The less compacted subsoil of someplanters manages to store more moisture, and thisphenomenon is conspicuous in deep planters.Waterlogging sometimes occurs in the subsoil whenrainfall supply is abundant in the wet season. Drainholes where present are often blocked and areineffective in shedding excess water. The lowerportion of the planters is beset by excessive wateraccumulation in the wet season. Shaded plantershave more water and subdue temporal fluctuations,indicating the importance of moisture extractionthrough evapotranspiration. The implications on soilwater management and planter design for urban treeplanting are explored.
State-of-the-art of Research andKnowledge on Urban Forests and Trees
in EuropeKjell Nilsson, Cecil C. Konijnendijk and Thomas B.
RandrupDanish Forest and Landscape Research Institute,
Hoersholm Kongevej 11, DK-2970 Hoersholm, DenmarkTel: +45-45 76 32 00, FAX: +45-45 76 32 33, Email:
More than two thirds of the total Europeanpopulation live in urban areas, and the number andshare of urban dwellers is still growing. Thus thequality of the urban environment is becoming ofincreasing importance for larger groups of people.Trees and woodlands as main elements of the urbanlandscape play a major role in providing good urbanliving, working and leisure environments. As aresult, the planning, design, establishment andmanagement of urban trees and woodlands hasasked for more attention. However, sustainablemanagement and development of urban tree andforest resources have to be supported by specificresearch, sound expertise and education. Until now,European research and education related to urbantrees and forests have been limited and fragmented,and a wide range of researchers and professionalsfrom various disciplines have been involved,
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including forestry, landscape architecture,horticulture, biology, sociology, urban planning andother. This means that a better overview and morecoordination of research and education at theEuropean level may prove to be highly beneficial.
This paper is based upon a review of research andknowledge on urban forests and trees in Europe.The review has been carried out during 1999 and2000 at the Danish Forest and Landscape ResearchInstitute with the support of the EuropeanCooperation in the field of Scientific and TechnicalResearch (COST). The aim of the comparative studyhas been to make a general review of ongoingresearch and higher education on urban forests andtrees in Europe. The concept of urban forestry,defined as the planning, design, establishment andmanagement of trees and forest stands with amenityvalues, situated in or near urban areas, has served asa theoretical basis for the study.
For the purpose of the review, scientific and highereducational institutes in Europe dealing with urbanforests and trees were identified. By means ofcountry studies largely carried out by national urbanforestry experts, the state-of-the-art of Europeanurban forestry research has been described in acomparative way. Emphasis has been on identifyinginstitutes and main research themes. in addition,insight in attention given to urban forests and treeswithin higher education was analysed via case-studyreports and a survey. For this purpose, focus hasbeen on higher education within the fields offorestry, horticulture and landscape architecture.
By comparatively analysing both urban forestryresearch and education at the European level,similarities and differences, as well as majordevelopments and needs in European urban forestryhave been identified. The results of the study, whichwill be widely distributed, may provide a usefulbase for the development and coordination of urbanforestry related research and education in Europe.This paper focuses on more strategic-level aspects(in terms of urban forest and tree functions, policies,forms) that have emerged from the study.
An Analysis of Green SpaceManagement Strategies in Metro Manila
Armando Manito PalijonCollege of Forestry and Natural Resources
UPLB College, Institute of Renewable NaturalResources, 403 Laguna, Philippines
Tel:. (063) 049-536-5305, FAX: 63-049-536-3206,Email: [email protected]
Management strategies focused on the street andpark green spaces in cities and municipalities ofMetro Manila, namely: Manila, Makati,Mandaluyong, Pasig and Quezon City wereanalysed.
Information on the biophysical, social and politicalconditions, management capabilities and practicesfor street and park green spaces on each site weregathered through survey and interview. Theinfluence of these variables on the performance orsuccess of the green space management as reflectedin the conditions or status of trees in either street orpark green spaces was determined.
Street and park green spaces of the cities andmunicipalities studied have varying biophysicalconditions that are influencing growth anddevelopment of urban plants.
The public is higher aware of the importance ofgreening, activities and of the usefulness anddisadvantages of having urban trees. Only few haveactually participated in the greening activities butmajority are willing to participate if given theopportunity.
Political atmosphere is only fairly supportive f thegreening activities and other environmental issueand concerns, though some municipalities havealready initiated greening activities. Legislation ofgreening ordinances is not given much attention.
Greening offices in the cities and municipalities arealready installed. Some are permanent while othersare still quasi in nature. Some are well equipped interms of manpower, financial and technologicalresources while others still need to build up theircapabilities. Each of the cities and municipalitieshas its own greening goal and objectives and hasdeveloped its own cultural management strategies.However, their practices need some improvements.
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Monetary Valuation of Urban ForestAmenities: Possibilities and Constraints
Liisa TyrväinenUniversity of Joensuu, Faculty of Forestry, c/o Metla,
P.O. Box 18, FIN-01301 Vantaa, FinlandTel: +358-9-85705 830, FAX: +358-9-85705 569, Email:
Most of the values attached to urban forests are non-priced environmental benefits. Urban developmentprojects often decrease the amenity values of greenspaces, which should be taken into consideration inplanning. Today land-use planning procedures donot include systematic assessment of urban forestbenefits and therefore, quantitative information onresidents’ valuations is needed.
This paper discusses the possibilities to value urbanforest benefits in monetary terms and the applicationpossibilities of such information in land-useplanning. The paper sums up European researchexperience from two economic valuation methods,hedonic pricing and contingent valuation in the fieldof urban forestry. Furthermore, recent researchresults of empirical studies conducted in Finland inare presented.
The hedonic pricing method examines externalbenefits and costs associated with housing. Researchresults show that people pay for urban forestbenefits through house prices. However, measuringand selecting proper variables to describe amenitybenefits in house price models is problematic. inrecent empirical applications a view to andproximity of urban forest are shown to increaseapartment prices in hedonic models.
in contingent valuation method people are askeddirectly what they are willing to pay for provision ofgreen spaces. Although the economic estimates arebased on hypothetical valuations, the methodenables valuation of larger range of urban forestbenefits than the hedonic method. Recent surveyresults show that majority of the residents’ arewilling to pay for the use of urban recreation areas,but also for other amenity benefits of green areas.
The main use of valuation methods is economicevaluation of the impact of urban land-use plans andthe evaluation of profitability of urban greeningprojects. The value of an urban forest capitalized inproperty prices can for example be calculated byusing hedonic price models. The results of casestudies show that management of urban forests foramenity benefits is profitable in economic terms.Furthermore, the results suggest that a limit can befound where condensing town structure, i.e.building on green areas, is not worth from the point
of view of the society if the losses of green spacebenefits are taken into account.
6.15.00 Reconsidering study object ives andteaching methods
Information Technology in ForestryEducation and its Role in Enhancing
Flexible and Distance EducationCris Brack
Australian National University, School of ResourceManagement and Environmental Studies - Dept Forestry
ACT 0200 Canberra, AustraliaTel: +61 6 2492579, FAX: +61 6 2490746, Email:
Computers and other Instructional or InformationTechnologies (IT) have been gaining importance inforestry education since the 1970's. The role of thisIT has progressed from improving the efficiency ofoperations (eg automating common administrativeprocedures) through to changing the way things aretaught and learnt and even what is taught and learnt.
Early examples of IT include word processorpackages and databases that make it easier to updateteaching materials and student records. IT thatsupports the reliable transfer of digital documentsand other files - including file-servers and earlyexamples of the Internet - allowed increased andmore flexible access to traditional teachingresources during the 1980's. The 1990's saw theincreasing use of presentation technology thatallows academics and teachers to explore new waysof recording and showing information. Thispresentation IT includes digital slide shows,animations, digitised sound and movies, etc. In the1990's another major emphasis was IT designed toenhance communication between individuals andwithin groups. This technology includes e-mail,bulletin boards and chat rooms and is beingincorporated into many examples of flexibleteaching to enhance the communication betweenstudents, teachers and other stakeholders. Theworld-wide-web (www) networks now allows theintegration of many of these technologies byimposing a consistent protocol and standard ofcommunication and digital information transfer.Currently there is an increasing interest inorganisations who are integrating the administrativeand teaching functions of these ITs into holisticpackages.
The IT is being used to support teaching in differentways. These different ways may allow students tolearn more effectively and in more flexible styles.This flexibility may also allow forest education andfurther learning to be available to stakeholders who
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are not able to attend traditional teaching campuses,ie distance education and open learning students.The IT is also used to increase the efficiency inteaching, where efficiency may be measured asincreased output (more graduates) for less input(less time spent by academics, etc.)
This State of Knowledge Report will review someof the reasons that IT has been introduced intoforestry education. The review will includeexamples of IT that have been introduced and howthe curriculum and student learning changed as aconsequence. Some examples of quantitativefeedback from students to IT and its role in teachingand learning is included from case studies at theAustralian National University. The Report will alsocover examples and the reported strengths andweaknesses of flexible teaching and learning,including distance education, that utilises this IT.
Groping along in designing a newsubject: participatory resource
managementMarlene Buchy
ANU, Forestry Department, ACT 0200 Canberra,Australia
Tel: 62 49 35 34., FAX: 62 49 07 46, Email:[email protected]
Keywords: Participatory resource management,Forestry curriculum, Rural sociology, Conflictresolution
The introduction of this new subject, Participatoryresource management (PRM), in the forestrycurriculum is due to a greater emphasis onmanagement in the forestry profession as well asincreasing recognition of the value ofinterdisciplinarity. The recognition of PRM as aworthwhile academic subject also stems from itsgrowing popularity amongst overseas Aid fundingbodies as well as students and hence its capacity toattract viable student numbers at undergraduate andpostgraduate levels.
Although there is a considerable body of literatureconcerned with theory and application ofparticipatory concepts and principles in naturalresource management (especially within the contextof development and sustainable agriculture), thesubject has only recently been taught as an academicsubject as part of an university degree. The designof the course draws heavily on the practice andimplementation of participatory processes within theprofessional practice rather than on a theory fromwhich a professional practice is derived.
The subject itself borrows heavily from other fields:social sciences - including rural sociology, history,
development and gender studies - and management -including conflict resolution, communication andgroup dynamics and education.
The challenges of the course are the effectiveintroduction and integration of a social science typeapproach into a biophysical science curriculum, aswell as to promote and foster an attitudinal changeand a paradigm shift within the professionalpractice.
In this paper, based on personal experience in 2academic institutions, student's feed back and theappropriate body of literature, I propose to relateand reflect on this experience.
Forests in Geographic InformationSystems at the Graduate School,
University of Helsinki, Department ofForest Resource ManagementMarkus Holopainen, Jouko Laasasenaho
University of Helsinki, Department of Forest ResourceManagement, Post Box # 24, FIN-00014 Helsinki,
FinlandTel: 358-9-191 7675, Email:
Keywords: Educational program, Modularcurriculum, GIS, Forest mapping
Geographic information systems (GIS) and remotesensing technology have revolutionized forestmapping in 1990's. Mapping has been changed fromindividual measurements to the combination ofmultisource GIS information. These newtechnologies, however, bring along severaldrawbacks and problems which should be solved orimproved in the near future, e.g. effectivecombination of multiscale and multisourcenumerical data, effective acquisition of accurate GISdata, co-operation between various organizations,and a lack of GIS specialists in both forest researchand practice.
In order to develop the use of GIS in Finnishforestry, the Forests in Geographic InformationSystems Graduate School was established in theUniversity of Helsinki, Department of ForestResource Management in May 1998. in the firstyear, 15 researchers were chosen for admission tothe school, which is financed by the FinnishForesters Foundation, the Finnish Ministry ofAgriculture and Forestry, and the Academy ofFinland. Postgraduate studies can be pursued in theUniversity of Helsinki, University of Joensuu, or inthe Helsinki University of Technology.
The Graduate School will improve facilities formanaging forests with the aid of rapidly developingcomputer technology and geographic information
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systems (GIS), developing methods for and trainingspecialists in research, education and practice. Themain objectives of the school are:
- To initiate an educational program in the fields offorestry, photogrammetry, remote sensing, andgeoinformatics.
- To increase cooperation among those interested inGIS research and the use of GIS both in Finland andabroad.
- To develop GIS applications for use in forestryand the environmental sciences.
The Graduate School is linked with other GIS andremote-sensing research in Finland. in addition tothe universities, numerous other organizations areparticipating in the program, e.g. the Finnish ForestResearch Institute, the National Land Survey ofFinland, Kehitt„miskeskus Tapio, the Finnish Forestand Park Service, VTT Automation, and MetsätehoOy.
Professor Jeremy Fried from the University ofMichigan was employed in 1998 for a year by theUniversity of Helsinki as a GIS specialist andteacher. The establishment of a Graduate School andprofessor Fried's appointment provided anopportunity to create a new GIS curriculum within adepartment of Forest Resource Management. Adefining objective of this curriculum was a flexiblestructure whereby students with different GISbackgrounds, disciplinary interests both related andunrelated to forestry, and varying amounts ofavailable study time and learning objectives couldall be accommodated. Towards this end, a highlymodular curriculum was developed consisting ofseven courses. Courses were presented using avariety of instructional approaches. Theoreticalcontent was presented primarily via lectures andreadings, with questions and discussion encouraged.Software expertise was developed through morethan 80 hours of intensive, hands-on, instructorguided and self-guided laboratory exercises usingvarious ESRI and other GIS related products. Allcourses shared a common web site for distributionof assignments and data, posting of links to GISresources, and posting of lecture notes and seminarschedules. Although there have been previousefforts to provide GIS training in Finland before,this curriculum appears to have been one of themost comprehensive undertaking to date, and shouldform an excellent starting point for future efforts ofthis kind.
Reconsidering objectives and methodsfor education in forestry: the case of
KenyaJane Kiragu
Moi University, Chepkoilel Campus, P.O. Box 1125,Eldoret, Kenya
Tel: +254 321-63101, Email: [email protected]
Keywords: Forestry curriculum, Forest policy,Communication, Teaching methods, Fieldorientation
People in the developing countries wholly dependon the forests for almost all their daily needs. Thismainly includes shelter, food, medicine, fuelwood,fodder for livestock among other uses.
As the populations increase, the natural forestsdecrease, thus making it impossible for the people tomeet their daily needs from the forests. Thereforenew survival mechanisms have to be found in orderto minimize the human pressure on existing forests.To halt the present demise of the forests andimprove the society's well-being, a lot is required.This should mainly be through change of forestpolicy objectives and forestry curricula in theirhigher institutions of learning Sustainableconservation of forest has for a long time been themajor objective of Kenyan forest policy. However,persistent outcry from the citizens, has forced thegovernment to adopt new forest policies objectivespublished in 1994 in the Kenya Forestry Master plan(KFMP), 1995-2020, where not only the naturalforests but also the individual farms are included inthe aim of increasing the forest and tree cover of thecountry. Also arid and semi-arid afforestation istaken into consideration. This will ensure anincreasing supply of forest products and services formeeting the basic needs of present and futuregenerations and for enhancing the role of forestry insocio-economic development.
With the recent change in policy objectives, it alsoentails changes in the forest curriculum both at thetechnical and professional institutions, so as to havewell trained staff to implement the said objectives.The forestry curriculum should change fromproduction forestry to participatory forestry at alllevels. Courses which are more land-user orientedshould be given more weight, for example,agroforestry, social forestry, soil & waterconservation, arid land afforestation. Other coursessuch as communication techniques should becontinued into the 2nd, 3rd and 4th years at BSc.level.
The teaching methods used should change fromclass-room oriented to field oriented. The teaching
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institutions should set up demonstration plots in allecological zones so as to convince the farmers thatwhatever they know is practical and can be done inthe areas in question.
This paper will try to look into the present forestpolicy objective and the changes required in theforestry curriculum and the methods used inteaching forestry in the Kenyan institutions. It willalso try to propose changes required in the teachingmethods.
Scenario for Higher Forest WorkEfficiency and Safety in Countries With
Economies in TransitionIvan Martinic
University of Zagreb, Faculty of Forestry, Svetosimunska25, HR -10 000 Zagreb, Croatia
Tel: +385 1 230 22 88, FAX: +385 1 218 616, Email:[email protected]
Forest work in countries with economies intransition is characterised by severe economicconditions, increasing gap between such countriesand developed ones, low work efficiency andcontinuous fluctuation of workers. Low forest workefficiency is also affected by low training level offorest workers and numerous accidents at work. Theanalyses of the quality of work as well as a surveyof causes of injuries showed serious deficiency ofthe traditional system of training. More then half ofall injuries proved to have been caused byinsufficient mastering of work techniques and due tonot observing work safety regulations. At the sametime it was also noticed that the mentors of practicaltraining had been negligent.
This paper shows the scenario for the possibledevelopment of work techniques of forest workersin Croatia, one of middle-European countries witheconomies in transition. The new concept schedulesperiodical assessment (at six-month intervals) offorest workers by a FWT (Forest Work Techniques)questionnaire. The assessment would be carried outduring regular work and it would consist of 20elements including work preparation, performingwork operations, handling and maintenance ofequipment and tools and working dynamics.
In felling and wood working operations, thefollowing elements would be assessed:
a) during felling: preparation for felling,establishment and checking of felling direction,supporting felling direction, preparing undercuts,determination of final cut height, the look of fellingcrest
b) during limbing and transverse cutting: bodyposture, chain saw movement, limbing quality,
transverse cutting technique, use of measuring band,bucking accuracy
c) in handling tools: adjustment of chain sawengine, chain sharpening, use of other tools
d) time-table and duration of breaks, usage ofpersonal protection kit.
In accordance with the results of the assessment, theworkers would get the adequate QG (QualityGroup) index and they would consequently beclassified in the appropriate payment classes, whichwould apply until the next assessment. Thedifference between payment classes would rangefrom 10 to 15 %.
For each quality group adequate training programswould continually be going on aimed at correctingand developing their work techniques starting withthe analyses of most common irregularities andimproprieties, including written and videoinformation, field demonstrations and several-daytraining with a mentor. After passing their exam andbeing granted the certificate, training mentors aresupposed to go through licence certification at two-year intervals.
Such approach would by all means improve thequality of work and lower the number of injuries aswell as the frequency of professional diseases. Itwould also increase the efficiency and proficiencyof forest work. On the other hand, the possibility ofhigher payment for better work quality would makeworkers more satisfied and this would bring to amore positive selection among forest workers.
It is expected that during the period of 2 to 3 years,more then 80% of workers could be classified intotwo high-quality groups.
Looking for Articulation inProfessionals' Training: The case of the
forestry occupational familyJaime Millan, Barbara Hinton, Marilú Rioseco G.Universidad de Concepcion, Facultad de Ciencias
Forestales, Casilla 154-C, Correo 3, Concepcion, ChileTel: 41-204936, FAX: +56-41-26004, Email:
Keywords: Occupational hierarchy, Educationaldevelopment, Forestry curriculum, Competency,Chile
Economic development in many countries has beenquite accelerated in recent decades. However,educational development sometimes does not runparallel to economic development, as has been thecase in Chile. This presents a problem because theproduction sector does not have a readily availablelabor force required to support the economic
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growth, mainly because the skills, competencies andbehaviors required by our advanced, technological,information-based society have outpaced our abilityto provide training within our existing structures andsystems. There are many production sectors, like theforestry one, whose development requiresprofessionals from different levels working inteams. Because of their work characteristics, theycan be thought of as an occupational family. in thesecases, it is necessary that articulated training beplanned, to allow these teams to work in an efficientand structured manner. in this paper, we propose amodel that describes how to arrive to anoccupational hierarchy based upon articulation ofdifferent professional levels in the forestryoccupational family, which includes engineers,technologists and qualified forestry workers.
The model is a competency-based model, which isbased upon the determination of the skills,knowledge, and attitudes that students should beable to demonstrate after completion of a programof study. Training of each individual group ofprofessionals, who are located at different levels ofan occupational hierarchy, should facilitate thedevelopment of required competencies, so that theycan act with efficiency and effectiveness in theirown field. Seen in such a perspective, the trainingprocess of a professional cannot be planned withoutconsidering globally all other professionals whobelong to a same occupational family. Besides this,the process as a whole cannot overlook therelationships with other related occupationalfamilies. This means that articulation, bothvertically and horizontally, is essential toprofessional training in an occupational family.
The model seeks to find an occupational hierarchybased on competencies required in the work place.A first phase of the model is the characterization ofemployers and the characterization of professionals.in our case, employers are forestry industries andforestry companies or organizations; professionalsare forestry engineers and forestry technicians whohave been trained at different educational levels.After this, an occupational inventory is developed.The model includes also a phase where forestryoccupational positions are clustered according toresponsibilities and tasks identified through apreliminary on site survey and a questionnaire.
Characterization of professionals considers theprofessional position or job and the tasks they fulfil.Through this it is possible to assign eachprofessional to a certain level given by theresponsibilities that are inherent to the position orjob, and to a certain responsibility level, given bythe complexity of the tasks he has to carry out due
to his position. Once this characterization is done,tasks are grouped so as to conduct a preliminarytasks inventory, that is complemented through onsite interviews Through content analysis of actionsinherent to each position or job and of tasks fulfilledby the professionals, and through consideration ofdifferent types of companies together with thediversity level of their activities, it was possible tostructure different groups of professionals, whichlater on could give rise to hierarchical levels of theoccupation.
Ethnoforestry re-examined: Globalstatus of indigenous knowledge on
forestry managementDeep Narayan Pandey
Indian Institute of Forest Management, Indian ForestService, Post Box # 357, 462 003 Nehru Nagar, Bhopal,
IndiaTel: 91-755-775716, FAX: +91 755 772878, Email:
Keywords: Equity of Knowledge, Ethnoforestry,Indigenous knowledge on Forests, TropicalForestry.
Ethnoforestry is defined as a continued practice ofcreation, conservation, management and use offorest resources, through customary ways, by localcommunities. This paper examines the world-widestatus of ethnoforestry research based on a literaturereview. It also discusses examples from the fieldwork carried out in India.
Ethnoforestry is classified into ProtectionEthnoforestry, Plantation Ethnoforestry andEthnoagroforestry. Protection provided by localcommunities to habitats are classified as protectionethnoforestry. Traditional methods of regenerationof livelihood species by people are classified asplantation ethnoforestry. These include directsowing, bamboo rhizome planting, cutting, nursingof wildlings and closures. Traditional methods ofgrowing trees and crops in farmlands are describedhere as Ethnoagroforestry.
Availability of vast research on ethnobotanynotwithstanding, unfortunately, ethnoforestry hasbeen, mostly, a missing knowledge in globalforestry research, documentation and planning.Non-availability of written material in the subject isdefinitely the result of monumental neglect of localknowledge on forests by foresters in general and so-called scientific forestry scholarship in particular.Drawing on the primary research material fromIndia, the related global research reviewed in thispaper throws some light on the operational part oflocal knowledge on forests. Studies from India,
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Brazil, Nepal, Ecuador, China, Vietnam and Africancontinent are examined.
Indigenous knowledge on forest management iscrucial because of various reasons. Erosion andextinction of cultural diversity and indigenousknowledge is threatening the society. Inadequacyand unsuitability of classical forest managementstrategies require the help of indigenous knowledgeto overcome the crisis of deforestation.
Philosophy of sustainability is ingrained in thetraditional ecological knowledge. Internationalethics and legal obligations of the nations, andvoices of the indigenous peoples themselvesrequires that foresters must take help of indigenousknowledge. The discipline is bound to deliver vitaland incomparably significant results for the futureof World Forestry. Ethnoforestry alone can ensurethe equity of knowledge between villagecommunities and the scientific forestry community.It will stop exploitation supported by the scientificcommunity. Equity of knowledge alone can,ultimately, make the forestry sustainable.Community forestry requires local low cost optionsto regenerate degraded forests. Sharing of costs ofhigh input regeneration could hamper people'sinitiative. Only ethnoforestry can provide location-specific solutions. Local knowledge is easilytransmitted, used by a large section of the society,does not require costly consultancy, and thus,minimises possibility of corruption.
Data from the plantations carried out in Rajasthan,India, have demonstrated that indigenous knowledgeon forests can reduce the cost of tropicalafforestation up to 25 percent of the totalexpenditure. Economizing world's tropical forestplantations through Ethnoforestry is a distinctpossibility.
Exploring alternatives for distanceeducation in forestry
Mark ReedOregon State University, Forestry Media Center, 248
Peavy Hall, 97331 Corvallis, OR, USATel: +1-541-737-1345, FAX: +1-541-737-3759, Email:
Keywords: Lifelong learning, Internet, Forestrycourse, Continuing education, Extension
The boundary between formal higher education, andlifelong learning through a variety of alternativechannels, is rapidly blurring. Learners demandinstruction in a place and at a time convenient forthem. Universities' response to this demand initiallyfocused on live transmission of lectures and audiofeedback from groups of students at remote sites.
Opportunities for distant students to participateindividually and asynchronously are rapidlyincreasing. Many courses can now be taken entirelyover the Internet, while others can be viewed athome on videotape.
The College of Forestry at Oregon State University(OSU) has a reputation for high-quality forestryeducation. Notable characteristics include smallclass size, hands-on learning, extensive use ofconvenient field laboratories, and close personalinteraction with instructors and peers. The Collegeis actively exploring several initiatives in distanceeducation (DE).
Administrators and instructors are presented withseveral challenges in developing DE. Technologicalhurdles must be overcome. Standards forcommunication networks are quickly evolving.Computer software for designing and implementingDE is still in its infancy, and most successfulapplications are purpose-built. in addition to contentmastery, DE requires specialized expertise fromcomputer programmers, network engineers, graphicartists, and audiovisual producers. Another concernis the cost of designing new instruction andproviding new infrastructure. Some experiencedpractitioners estimate that developing a DE courserequires five to ten times as much labor as atraditional course. A DE classroom can costhundreds of thousands of US dollars, and studentsmust be equipped with PCs, VCRs and otherdevices. Budgets are stretched, and because manynew students are needed to justify these additionalcosts, competition between universities is rapidlyintensifying.
Perhaps most importantly, educators are questioninghow to maintain high-quality personalizedinstruction. Distant students expect to be providedwith convenient access to learning resources,meaningful hands-on experience, peer interaction,and timely feedback on their efforts. They alsoexpect to be able to guide and shape their ownlearning experience to a greater degree than dotraditional students.
One direction for DE at OSU involves adaptation ofexisting curricula. For example, a forestry coursewhich has been taught on campus for ten years wasrecently incorporated into a new DE degree programin natural resources. in order to make it accessible tostudents enrolled at remote locations, lectures werevideotaped and the majority of course content wasposted on the World Wide Web. Studentscommunicated with one another, turned inassignments to the instructor, and went on "virtualfield trips," using the Internet. Initial responses from
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students using the new technologies are mostlyfavorable.
Another direction at OSU involves creation of newinfrastructure and curriculum to meet the needs ofnontraditional students. For decades, workingprofessionals have come to campus for continuing(further) education, but the focus is now shifting tobringing instruction to the workplace. in oneexample, a professor of silviculture on campus andan extension agent working 300km awaycollaborated on a course in uneven-agemanagement. Students on campus, all forestrygraduate students, attended lectures in a classroomtelevision studio, and went on local fieldlaboratories led by the professor. Students at theremote site, all professional foresters, watchedlectures on videotape, questioned the professor viaperiodic teleconferences, and were led by theextension agent on field laboratories in their ownregion. A majority of the distant students indicatedthat they were satisfied with the experience andwould be willing to take another DE class in thefuture.
Role of Forestry Education in India forSustainable Management of Tropical
ForestsR. N. Sehgal, PK Khoala
Dr. Y.S. Parmar University of Horticulture and SocialSciences, Dept. Tree Improvement, 173 230 Solan, HP,
IndiaFAX: 91-1792-52242, Email: [email protected]
Keywords: Forestry curriculum, Social sciences,National forests management, Extension
Forestry education in India, ever since its inceptionremained as a package deal to train forestrypractitioners required for the management ofnational forests. The aim has been to provide forestadministrators to govern and manage the stateowned forests which form 93 per cent of the totalforested area. Forestry education, research andextension in India had been a preserve of the Federaland State Forest Services till 1985 when the IndianCouncil of Agricultural Research (ICAR) stepped into introduce graduation programmes in forestry insix Agricultural Universities. The starting offorestry degree programmes in the universities wasmore or less a consequence of the general awarenessto environment and forestry related problems. Themedia played a very active role in highlighting theproblems of deforestation, wasteland formation,development activities to the detriment of forests,environment etc. During 1985, a high levelcommittee in the Ministry of Environment andForests, GOI, discussed the lack of trained
manpower for executing various programmes inforestry and the projections clearly showed that thislack of manpower would continue well beyond theEighth Five Year Plan.
To generate the desired manpower in forestry thetraining set-up in Indian Forest Colleges was foundto be inadequate and hence the state AgriculturalUniversities were requested to start Bachelorprogramme in Forestry. To improve facultyresources about 80 senior teachers from thediscipline of plant breeding, agronomy, horticultureetc. were trained in US Land Grant Universities forone year through a USAID funded program. Theirmain aim was to study a few related courses inforestry at BSc., MSc. and PhD. level and to see thefunctioning and integration of department offorestry in the College of Agriculture. This was avery useful programme and within a span of 2-3years each new department of forestry had 2 to 4trained teachers to teach basic courses in forestry. Atthis stage it would be worthwhile if the individualuniversities decided on building up faculty andresearch capabilities in all disciplines of forestry e.g.silviculture, management, agroforestry, treebreeding, social forestry, forest products andutilisation, forest protection.
In general, all the universities which started BSc.(Forestry) programmes in 1985 formulated theircurricula on the basis of guidelines provided by theICAR with only minor modifications. Some of thecourses which lacked in the training package ofState and Indian Forest Services trainees arebiotechnology, microbiology, computer science,biochemistry, forest tribology and anthropology,meteorology and climatology, forestry extension,ergonomics, forest ecology and biodiversity, treeimprovement and seed technology, etc. The forestrycomponent slightly varies from university touniversity but social sciences find a prominent placein the curriculum, mainly because social forestryand agroforestry oriented personnel are in demand.It is very important that the universities specialisetheir teaching and research programmes in differentareas related with afforestation, land use andwastelands managements, social and agroforestry ,forest based industries, forest management, non-conventional energy resources, natural resourcesand biodiversity so that we have enough suitablemanpower in the coming years for achievingsustainable management of the tropical and sub-tropical forest wealth of our country.
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Improving forestry education throughparticipatory curriculum development. A
case study from VietnamPeter Taylor
Social Forestry Support Programme, Helvetas, GPO Box81, Hanoi, Vietnam
Tel: +844 8329833, FAX: +844 8329834, Email:[email protected]
Keywords: Forestry curriculum, Participation,Social forestry, Extension
In many countries throughout the world, forestrypractices are undergoing a major reorientation. Anew and different type of forestry is emerging,creating a requirement for a different set of skills,knowledge and attitudes in those persons who mustdeal effectively with the demands from farmers andrural people, as well as from other interest groupssuch as environmentalists. Whereas much forestrytraining has until recently been strongly technologybased, there is now a need to build aninterdisciplinary capacity in many foresters andextensionists, encouraging an understanding ofsocial principles and processes. The focus will nolonger be on uniformity and technology; forestrytraining programmes need to become more relevantand flexible; diverse and yet well integrated. A widerange of stakeholders will emerge with differentinterests in what forestry education can achieve. Thebeliefs and values of some stakeholders mayaccelerate the change process, whilst others maydeter innovations and new developments. Thepossibility for successful outcomes in thedevelopment of forestry education is enhanced,however, through approaches which increaseparticipation of different stakeholders in meaningfulways. It is recognised that there are a number ofconstraints to stakeholder participation. Even so, aparticipatory approach to curriculum developmentshould lead to increased opportunities fornetworking, negotiations and reflection by groupsand individuals, including those who are normallymarginalised, and a greater chance of successful,sustainable outcomes from the curriculumdevelopment process.
Participatory curriculum development (PCD) hasbeen used in a number of contexts and regions of theworld, particularly in the areas of agricultural andforestry education. This approach is not new, in thatthere are many instances of attempts to increaseparticipation in the curriculum development process.During the 1990's however, greater effort has beenmade to articulate and advocate the basic principlesand methods which can support PCD, and to shareand disseminate experiences and outcomes more
widely. PCD seems, on existing evidence, to havethe potential to bring about improvements in boththe quality and the effectiveness of universityforestry education and training programmes in acontext of dynamic change.
The paper explains the PCD approach, which beginswith a detailed stakeholder analysis, followed by theidentification of meaningful roles andresponsibilities for different stakeholders. A seriesof interlinked steps for curriculum planning,implementation and evaluation is then outlined. Theprecise organisation and operationalisation of thesesteps is determined by the context and by theintervention of different stakeholders. This creates acontinuous, dynamic, flexible process, with learningas the guiding principle for development.
A case study of the Social Forestry SupportProgramme with five university forestry faculties inVietnam is then presented. The paper describes thePCD approach, the focus of which is primarily thedevelopment of social forestry education andtraining programmes, but also the review andrevision of Vietnamese forestry degree programmesin general. It explains the process by whichcurriculum development is based upon systematiclearning from the experiences and views of farmersat grassroots level, as well as from teachers,students, extensionists, project staff and otherstakeholders at local and national level, and evenfrom regional networks and organisations.
Some constraints affecting the PCD process arediscussed, as well as a number of opportunitieswhich have emerged during the programme inVietnam. The current status of curriculumdevelopment activities in the programme arepresented, along with plans for future collaborationand involvement of stakeholders. in conclusion thepaper advocates the further dissemination ofexperiences with the PCD approach in order toachieve a wider support for its application inforestry education at local, national and regionallevel. Ultimately, this should contribute to animprovement of the quality, ownership and impactof forestry education and training for a wide rangeof target groups and institutions.
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6.16.00 Model l ing forest managersenvironmental decis ions
Using forest sector models forenvironmental decision making in the
United StatesRalph J. Alig
USDA Forest Science, Pacific North West ResearchStation, 3200 SW Jefferson Way, OR 97331 Corvallis,
USAFAX: (541) 750-7329, Email: [email protected]
Supplies of goods and services in the forestry andagricultural sectors are affected by land usechanges, investment in land management, andpolicies. We examine environmental and socio-economic impacts in the United States of threedifferent types of policies using model results fromthe Timber Assessment Market Model (TAMM) andthe Forest and Agriculture Sector Model (FASOM).We look at policy scenarios pertaining to: 1) land-use pressures; 2) increased protection for wildlifehabitat on public lands; and 3) climate change. Withrespect to analyzing policy scenarios, use of theTAMM and FASOM models can becomplementary. As described in another paper atthis Congress (Alig et al., Session 4.02.07), theTAMM system of models links product andstumpage markets and provides projections that arebased largely on behaviorial tendencies as reflectedby historical observations. The intertemporaloptimization framework of FASOM allows readyexamination of adjustments or responses to policiesthat may fall outside the historical range ofobservations. Investigating the sensitivity ofFASOM projections to a range of differentassumptions, as under additional scenarios, can be auseful form of policy analysis. This allowsexamination of different assumptions about supplyconditions for land and capital, including theflexibility of the simulated market system to adaptto changes over time and across scenarios. Bothmodels have been used to examine a number ofdifferent scenarios, including private responses toreduced public timber harvest, recycling ofwastepaper, tree planting for carbon sequestration,and impacts from global climate change.
With regard to land-use pressures, model resultsindicate that access to additional land as potentialafforestation investments provides additional privateinvestment flexibility in market simulations. Thismay include non-traditional activities on agriculturalland such as biomass and short rotation woody cropproduction and tree planting as part of adaptationactivities in response to global change. Next,
reductions in timber harvests on public lands foradditional wildlife habitat protection may result inhaving some of the largest environmental andeconomic impacts occur in regions outside of whichthe public timberlands are concentrated. However,shifts in intertemporal patterns of private forestinvestment may act to reduce the price and harvestimpacts of public harvest changes over time. Modelresults for mitigation strategies to address climatechange concerns indicate the potential for leakage.Leakage may take place when policy-drivenafforestation by the forest sector leads to somemarket-driven compensating conversion offorestland elsewhere to agricultural use. Anothermanifestation would be crowding out of investmentwithin the forest sector. Forests created to sequestercarbon would enhance future timber supply anddecrease anticipated future timber prices. Thelower prices may crowd out some forests that wouldhave otherwise have been established in the absenceof the policy. With an intertemporal model, lowertimber prices may also cause some owners toharvest sooner and invest back in lower intensitymanagement forests or convert to alternative landuses. The ownership tenure system in the UnitedStates makes private land use change a potentialimportant determinant of the forest carbon budget,and projections of forest carbon sequestration aresensitive to assumptions about factor supply (e.g.,inelastic supply of land within a sector). Costs ofthe mix of and land transfers and managementinputs can vary notably with the type of forestcarbon target, including timing and level.
A System of Short Term Forecasting forthe Finnish Forest Sector (MESU)
Lauri Hetemäki, Riitta Hänninen and Anne ToppinenFinnish Forest Research Institute, Unioninkatu 40 A,
FIN-00170 Helsinki, FinlandFAX: +358 9 8570 5717, Email:
This paper presents a synthesis of the System ofShort Term Forecasting for the Finnish ForestSector (MESU). As its name indicates, the purposeof MESU is to make forecasts for and analysis ofthe Finnish forest sector. It has become increasinglyimportant to be able to analyse changes in forestsector business cycles. This is, for example, due tothe liberalization and globalisation of forestproducts markets. in addition, the forming of EMUand the launching of euro-currency will affectFinnish forest industry's main export markets. Partof the MESU-system has already been utilized inpractice for helping the Finnish Forest ResearchInstitute to make forecasts for the Finnish ForestSector Economic Outlook (an annual publication).
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The use of the MESU-system allows to makeassessments in which the development of Finnishforest products export markets and the adjustmentsof Finnish roundwood markets are analyzedconsistently. It is a hierarchical, demand-led systemconsisting of three parts (models). First, the demandfor forest products in the major export countries isforecasted using a consumption function model. inthe second stage, these forecasts are inserted asexogenous information in the next stage, the exportmarket model, which determines the Finnish forestproducts exports. in the third stage, the forecastsfrom the export market model are, in turn, insertedin to the roundwood market model, whichdetermines the forecasts for roundwood demand andprices. This paper will demonstrate the MESU-system by an example. Particularly, we analyse howthe changes in the demand for sawnwood inGermany affect the demand for Finnish sawnwoodexports and, in turn, the demand and prices forsawlogs in Finland. The theoretical framework ofthe system is based on economic theory and theempirical model is based on quarterly time seriesdata from 1980-1997. As far as we are aware,MESU is a first attempt to build a short-termforecasting system, which links the demand forforest products to roundwood markets usingeconometric models and modern time-seriesmethods. However, the theoretical andmethodological framework of the MESU-system isgeneral, and similar modelling approach could beapplied to other countries as well.
The role of forest sector models tosupport environmental and forest sectordecision making in the Nordic countries
Birger Solberg, Risto SeppäläAgricultural University of Norway, Department of Forest
Sciences, Aas, NorwayTel: +358 9 8570 5330, FAX: +358 9 8570 5717, Email:
Keywords: forest sector analysis, modelling,experiences, Finland, Norway
The paper gives an overview of forest sectormodelling in Finland and Norway and how it hasbeen used in environmental and forest sectordecision making. Strong and weak points with theapplication of these kind of models are discussed,and improvements of the present situation areanalyzed. Till now rather few analyses have beenperformed related to environmental problems, asmost of the modelling efforts have dealt primarilywith supply and demand of roundwood and forestindustry products. One major obstacle in bothcountries has been that decision makers have anuncomplete understanding of the basic mechanisms
of the models, and thus have been sceptic in usingthem. However, there have also been positiveexperiences about collaboration with decisionmakers, in particular in Finland where variousstakeholders have been involved, but also inNorway where the central government has been themain user.
6.16.00 Example of forest sector issues
Forest Sector Analysis for MacroEconomic Development of Osun and
Ayo States, NigeriaBusuyi Olasina Agbeja
University of Ibadan, Dept. Forestry ResourcesManagement, Ibadan, Nigeria
The study was carried out for a period of 24 monthsbetween July, 1996 and June, 1998. The exercisecentred on an evaluation of critical elements ofgrowth and economic development of teakplantation establishments e.g. volume productionexploitation and regeneration ratios, optimum labourrequirements and socio-economic impacts ofactivities dependent on the forests.The cumulativedata were analysed using various tools,such asSmalian`s formula, Gross Margin Analyses,Discounted Cash Flow Analysis Net Present Value(NPV), Benefit -Cost Ratio (B/S) and EconomicRate of Return (ERR), Sensitivity Analysis,Production Efficiency Model, Optimum LabourDemand Model, Bar Charts and Simple percentages.Current forestry contributions of Osun and OyoStates were evaluated and feasible developmentstrategies which would enhance sustained forestrysector of the two states to the gross domesticproduct (GDP) of the country were outlined. Theresults showed that the volumes per hectare of teakstand were insignificant (P>0.05) with 782.8 m3 perhectare in a 21-year -old teak plantation in Ago-Owu forest reserve and 215.8 m3 per hectare in an18-year-old teak plantation in Gambari forestreserve. The NPV of N236,128.5, B/C of 12.9 andERR of 33 percent (where NPV = 0) weresignification higher (P<0.05) per hectare of taungyateak plantation in Ago-Owu forest reserve using adiscount factor of 10 percent than the NPV ofN233,214.0,B/C of 12.7 and Err of 31 percent(where NPV = 0) per hectare of direct teakplantation in Ago-Owu forest reserve.The NPV ofN113,206.3, B/C of 6.2 and ERR of 30 percent(where NPV = 0) were significantly higher (P<0.05)per hectare of taungua teak stand at Gambari forestreserve than the NPV of N110,355.5, B/C of 6.0 andERR of 28 percent (where NPV = 0) per hectare ofdirect teak plantation in Gambari forest reserve. TheNPV and B/C were significantly sensitive (P<0.05)
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to increase in discount factor of 20, 25 and 30percent in the two reserves.The productionefficiency model per km3 from 1992 tto 1997showed that Marginal Products (MPs) of 1.6 forlabour in exploitation activity were positive (P0.05)at Ago Owu and Shasha while MPs of -0.1 and -0.1were negative (P>0.05) at Ago-Owu and Shashaforest reserve. in Gambari forest reserve, the MPs of0.1 and 0.02 in exploitation and regeneration wereboth positive at decreasing rate (P<0,005) while theMPs of -0.04 and -0.1 were negative (P>0.05) inexploitation and regeneration at Ijaiye forest reserve.The optimum labour demand models indicated thatAgo-Owu, Shasha, Gambari and Ijaiye forestreserves required 25 forestry staff, 17 forestry staff,6forestry staff and 7 forestry staff respectively from1992 to 1997. In Osun State, from 1992 to 1997, theforestry department generated N107,574,642.5 outof the total revenue of N271,348,554.8 realized bythe Ministry of Agriculture. The percentagecontribution of forestry department in six years was39.6 percent. On the other hand, in Oyo State, from1992 to 1997, forestry department generatedN39,830,073,3 out of the total revenue ofN112,320,149,8 realized by the Ministry ofAgriculture. The forestry contribution in six yearswas 35.5 percent. in all these study locations, therespondents complained bitterly about the poorinvestment on rural infrastructural facilities.Forinstance, 90, 87.5, 80 and 75 percent respectively ofthe respondents in Ago-Owu, Shasha, Gambari andIjaiye forest reserves affirmed that infrastructuralfacilities were grossly inadequate. The studytherefore revealed economic efficiency of land usepractices, positive labour efficiency in exploitationand negative labour efficiency in regeneration,under-employment of government employees in allforest stations, substantial and increasing annualrevenue generation by forestry services and poorsocio-economic impacts of forest operations on ruralwellbeing. Forestry development strategies weredeveloped. in particular, commmunal participationsin plannning and management processes wereidentified as a critical strategy for significantimprovement of forest sectoral contributions to thenational economy.
Mandatory Biodiversity Conservation:Competitiveness versus Green Image
EffectsErkki Koskela, Markku Ollikainen
University of Helsinki, Department of Economics, PostBox # 54, FIN-00014 Helsinki, Finland
FAX: +358-9-191887, Email: [email protected]
Mandatory biodiversity conservation in forestry isusually thought to decrease harvesting possibilities,raise timber price and weaken competitiveness ofthe domestic forest industry. If however biodiversityconservation leads consumers to view products asbeing higher quality, the resulting "green image"increases demand for domestic woods products.This paper studies the effects of mandatorybiodiversity conservation by modeling the behaviorof the domestic economy as a two-stage game. inthe first stage the forest industry and the forestowners' association bargain about timber price,while in the second stage the domestic industrydetermines output in a Cournot rivalry with theforeign forest industry. in the absence of greenimage a binding biodiversity conservationrequirement will increase the reservation price oftimber for forest owners' association and therebytimber price. International competitiveness of thedomestic forest industry weakens and its marketshare falls. If the green image is strong enoughcompetitiveness effect may be more thancompensated by increased demand in which case theprofits of domestic forest industry may go up.Assuming the competitive timber market, wheretimber price is determined by equality of demandand supply, does not change these conclusions. Awelfare analysis is carried out by assuming that thegovernment maximizes the sum of producers' andconsumers' surplus and accounts for the valuation ofbiodiversity.
Ways to sustainable forest managementin the Mari El Republic of Russia
Eldar Kurbanov, Anna TikinaRussia
Much has been said on sustainable development andsustainability lately. Governments in many countriestry to introduce this concept into national policiesand combine the economic growth withenvironmental issues. However, this is notperformed in all regions equally, e.g. at the level ofthe Mari El Republic this idea has not found itsrealisation. This article is aimed at analysing thepossibility of introduction of sustainability conceptand sustainable forest management into the policyof the republic.
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Describing the forest fund of Mari El republic ingeneral terms, statistic states that the total area ofthe forest sector of the republic is equal to 1210thousand hectare and the area covered with forests is1095 thousand hectare. The total wood stockreaches 170 mill m3, among them 40 mill. m3 beingfor the stock of mature and decline forestecosystems. The vegetation composition of therepublic is determined by the natural conditions ofthe territory. The main resource of the republic isforest that covers about 52% of the territory.
In order to highlight the main sides and maindrawbacks of the Mari El forestry it is possible tofulfil a comparison of the forestry policy analysis aswell as the analysis of the current situation in theforest sector of Finland and the Mari El republic. Itis possible to compare the two institutions becauseof their almost similar nature conditions andenvironment. However, Finland can be taken as anexample of a country with significant experience ofsustainable forest management. This is why a non-favourable comparison will be able to demonstratethe lack of sustainability in Mari El forestry. To findthe way out of the current situation in the Mari Elforest sector it is necessary to investigate how forestpolicy of the republic differs from the policy of thecountries with the positive experience of sustainableforest management (e.g. Finland). This is why ashort comparison of the main directions of forestrypolicies is presented here in the form of Table 2.Table2. Comparison of Finnish and Mari El forestry policies.
Features Finland The MariEl republic
1. Aim at sustainability Y Y2. Multi-functional approach to the useof forest resources
Y N
3.Bias to economic forest function N Y4.Forest protection: a) against fires Y Y b) against pest and disease Y Y c) against air pollution Y N5. Afforestation Y Y/N-1
6.Biodiversity conservation Y N7.Main forest ownership pattern private State8.Existence of a forest informationsystem
Y N
9.Exceeding felling (more thanincrement)
N N2
10.Consideration of local peculiarities Y Y11.Protection of landscape beauty Y Y/N³12.Forest certification Y N13.Different types of protected areas Y Y14.Mono-culture plantations N4 Y15.Public participation in forestryactivities and policymaking
Y N
16.Best available methods andtechnologies
Y N
17.Violations of forest legislation N Y
The differences between the policies can beexplained by the contrast in economic situations inboth Finland and Mari El, as well as by the
difference in the source of funding (in case of theMari El republic funding is influenced by federaldonations). Though biologically the countries aremostly alike (the same plant species can be found inboth) and forests consistute main natural resourcesin both regions, the difference in the economicdevelopment, as well as the former bias to militaryand heavy industry in the Mari El republic canexplain the difference and negative sides of forestrypolicy and management.
Possible amendments to improve the situation in theMari El republic can include the followingmeasures:- Introduction of multi-functional forest use andreceiving benefits from different forest resources- financing of activities by taking part in theinternational grant projects and valuation of allpossible forest products- further introduction of reforestation andafforestation- investigation and introduction of the methods offorest sustainable use, criteria and indicators ofsustainable forest management- forestry education and professional training- regulation on control and punitive measuresagainst the violation of norms- improvement in access to information, creation ofpolicy information systems- raising of local community awareness andstimulation of their participation in decision-making
To conclude, it is possible to point out thatsustainable forest management has not beenimplemented into the forest sector of the Mari Elrepublic and the current situation in forestry is farfrom being satisfactory. However, there is a way outof these conditions by introducing changes in theforest policy, and the changes should meet the latestinternational requirements and be sufficient forsustainable forest management.
Geographical price systems in thetimber market
Erik Tromborg, Solberg, BirgerStatskog Ressursdata as P.O. BOX 2, 3601 Kongsberg,
NorwayTel: (+47) 32 77 14 38, FAX: (+47) 32 77 14 02, Email:
Concentration of the forest industry and the spatialdistribution of forests imply that transportation costsare important in the timber market. A spatial forestsector model based on partial equilibrium isdeveloped in order to analyse regional implicationsof a change from uniform roadside prices to uniformnon-discriminatory millgate prices for pulpwood inNorway. Uniform millgate prices implied regional
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differences in roadside pulpwood prices up to 25%compared to the uniform roadside prices. Factorsinfluencing the geographical price system in thetimber market are outlined. It is concluded thatspatial price discrimination is likely in a pulpwoodmarket with a limited number of buyers.
Ecological Economic Problems ofAchieving Sustainable Forestry in
Transitional CountriesYuriy Y. Tunytsya, Taras Y. Tunytsya
Ukrainian State University of Forestry and WoodTechnology, 103 Gen. Chuprinki str., 290057 Lviv,
UkraineTel: +380-322-35-24-11, FAX: +380-322-97-17-65,
Email: [email protected]
The main condition for achieving sustainableforestry is to overcome contradictions betweenecological and economical systems. Suchcontradictions occur as the economical andecological interests seem to be not compatible atfirst sight. But if one studies the issue morethoroughly, it will turn out that the co-ordination ofcurrent economic interests with long-term ecologicalimperatives is quite possible.
The achievement of long term summary ecological-economical effect should become the principalcriteria for traditional economic criteria. Theachievement of sustainable forestry is not possibleboth on the regional and global scales without sucha principal and methodological change.
The achievement of sustainable forestry goals ismuch more complicated process in transitionalcountries in comparison with development andmarket oriented countries. This happens because thedeveloped countries are facing one set of changes-the transition from the market to ecologicallyoriented market. Transitional countries have twosets of changes to accomplish-first one is thetransition from centralised socialist economy to themarket economy and second one the transition to theecological market. This process requires more time.and if we want achieve global sustainable forestrythe transitional countries would need assistance inspeeding up this process. One should not forget thatlarge proportions of the planet's forests are locatedwithin the territories of former USSR countries.These forests have significant global ecologicalfunctions, as do tropical forests.
In the paper on Economic Problems of ForestManagement Development presented by YuriyTunytsya in 1986 at XVIII IUFRO WORLDCONGRESS we presented the methodologicalconcept of transition to sustainable forestry in
socialism. Since 1986 the former socialist countrieshave undergone radical changes in their political andeconomic systems. in the paper we propose for theXXI IUFRO WORLD CONGRESS these changeswill be analysed by using the results of new researchin the forest sector of Ukraine Russia andBelarussia. in particular, we will analyse the resultsof a joint project, sponsored by INTAS, on thestrategy for achieving sustainable forestry inUkraine, Russia and Belarussia. This project wasimplemented under the leadership of Prof.Max Krottand the young Ukrainian researcher Taras Tunytsyawas one of its participants.
Ecological-economic conception of sustainableforestry includes a number of problems. Theseproblems could be solved under the followingconditions: The system of ecological-economicaleducation in post-socialist countries needs to beimproved. The transition from centralised economyto sustainable forestry in the conditions of a market-oriented economy is not possible without trainedspecialists. We consider it important for IUFRO, asan influential international organisation, toundertake the forestry education as an important partof its activity. Then, IUFRO can be renamed asInternational Union of Forestry Research andEducation Organisations (IUFREO). We think thatthen the role of IUFREO can become even moreinfluential in the society.
-Eastern European countries need more jointresearch projects with western partners.
IUFRO should be involving more young people intheir activity on forming sustainable forestry.
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Division 7Forest Health
CoordinatorDavid F. KARNOSKY
Michigan Technological University
School of Forestry and Wood Products
1400 Townsend Drive, Houghton Michigan 49931-1295
United States of America
fax: +1-906-4872897
tel: +1-906-4872898
e-mail: [email protected]
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7.01.02 Mechanisms of tree resistance tophytophageous insects
Host tree - bark beetle interactions:effects of restoration of secondary
Norway spruce (Picea abies [L.] Karst.)forests on food quality for Ipstypographus L. (Scolytidae).
Peter Baier, Erwin Führer, Jutta Mattanovich, ChristaSchafellner
University of Agriculture, Institute of ForestEntomology, Forest Pathology and Forest Protection
A - 1180 Vienna, AustriaEmail: Jutta Mattanovich [[email protected]]
The effects of thinning of pure spruce stands andconverting pure spruce stands into mixed speciesstands (spruce, beech, fir) on the nutritionalquality of the bark were studied. Chemicalcompounds in the phloem (e.g. nitrogen,carbohydrates, phenolic compounds) areundoubtedly relevant for nutrition and forbreeding success of the phloem feeder anddefence mechanisms of the tree. Changes of siteand growth conditions resulting from restorationare expected to modify the chemistry of the hosttree. Mass outbreaks of bark beetles like the eightspined spruce bark beetle, Ips typographus,frequently occur in secondary spruce stands(usually at altitudes below 1000m) after stormdamages or snow breaks followed by warm anddry periods. The sites selected for thisinvestigation repeatedly suffered from severe barkbeetle epidemics. It is assumed that restoration ofsecondary spruce forests will reduce the risk ofbark beetle attack.
We regard the following parameters as essentialtree parameters determining the food quality forphloem feeders: the amount of nitrogen, protein,protein-bound and free amino acids, starch,soluble carbohydrates, organic acids, crude fatand fatty acids, mineral nutrients, polyphenoliccompounds and tannins.
The results of our investigations on three differentstands on seasonal changes in spruce barkchemistry during the breeding period arediscussed with respect to breeding success of Ipstypographus.
Characteristics of Douglas-fir treesresistant to damage from the westernspruce budworm: Patterns from three
populationsKaren M. Clancy
USDA Forest Service Research, Rocky Mountain ResearchStation, Southwest Forest Science Complex
2500 S. Pine Knoll Drive, AZ 86001-6381 Flagstaff, USAFAX: 520-556-2131, Email:
kclancy/[email protected]
Differences in biochemical or phenologicalcharacteristics between Douglas-fir trees that haveexperienced light versus heavy defoliation by thewestern spruce budworm may provide clues regardingmechanisms of resistance to budworm attack. Ipreviously compared levels of foliar nutrients(nitrogen, sugars, minerals) and allelochemicals(mono- and sesquiterpenes) between "resistant" and"susceptible" Douglas-fir trees from two populationssampled in 1989 and 1990. I found a third populationof Douglas-fir with individual trees that arephenotypically resistant to budworm defoliation in1994. Here, I present data on budbreak phenology andradial growth rates for 16 pairs of resistant versussusceptible trees at this site for 1995, and data onfoliar nutrients and terpenes for 1995 and 1996. I alsocompare and contrast the patterns seen across all threepopulations sampled regarding characteristics ofindividual trees associated with resistance to damagefrom the budworm.
Influence of mineral and water nutrition ofScots pine on resistance to the bark-beetle Ips acuminatus Gill and their
associated blue-stain-fungus Ophiostomabrunneo-ciliatum L.
N. Guerard, E. Dreyer and F. LieutierINRA d'Orleans, Zoologie Forestiee, Avenue de la Pomme
de Pin B.P. 20619, 45166 Ardon, FranceFAX: (33) 2 38 41 78 79, Email: [email protected]
Relations between modifications in C/N ratio in tree,tree resistance parameters and pest and diseaseperformances are investigated. Because the C/N ratiocan be influenced by modifications of C assimilationand N availability, 3 levels of nutrient conditions wereapplied, combined with 2 levels of water availabilityon young potted Scots pine. The impacts of thesetreatments on trees were followed with physiologicalparameters (photosynthesis and water status), chemicalparameters (nitrogen, carbon, minerals and chlorophyllfoliar contents, monoterpenes and phenols), anddendrological parameters (height and radial growth,budburst, phenology and biomass). Tree resistance andpest performances were studied after artificialintroduction of Ips acuminatus and high-density
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inoculation (above the threshold of inoculationdensity) with Ophiostoma brunneo-ciliatum (anIps acuminatus associated blue-stain-fungus).Effects of this artificial attacks and inoculationswere appreciated through observations ofpathogen performances (length of egg galleries,percentage of attacks succes) and tree resistance(resin soaked sapwood, reaction zone lengthmonoterpene and phenol concentrations in thewounded and unwounded phloem, stem waterconductivity). The results are presented anddiscussed with regards to the effects of water andnutrients on tree physiology in association withtree resistance to bark-beetles and withconsequences for pest.
Defoliated Scots pines display highresistance to subsequent attack by
Tomicus piniperda.Bo Langström, Annila, E., Varama, M.& Niemelä, P.Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Dept.Entomology, Post Box # 7044, S-750 07 Uppsala,
SwedenEmail: [email protected]
In 1990-1991, Diprion pini caused extensivedefoliation in Lauhanvuori national park andsurrounding areas in south-westen Finland. Mosttrees lost all their foliage in 1990. in 1991, theoutbreak area was sprayed with diflubenzuron(Dimilin), except in the national the park wherethe sawfly larvae consumed, most of theremaining needles. No further defoliationoccurred in 1992.
In spring 1992, pine trees with 0, 10, 30 and 100% foliage left (10 small and 10 large trees in eachcategory) were baited with pine bolts in order toinduce stem attacks by pine shoot beetles. Allbaited trees were attacked by Tomicus piniperdaand some also by T. minor, but the attacks failedin all trees except in the totally defoliated ones(and some of the small trees with little foliageleft). Most unbaited trees escaped attack entirely,but a few totally defoliated were successfullycolonized. Attack densities of T. piniperda wereoptimal on the lower stem (ca 100 egg galleries xm-2), but the corresponding brood production wasmodest (ca 500 exit holes x m-2). None of themeasures (resin flow, cambial electricalresistance, size of induced defense reactionphloem starch and sugars) used to describe treevigour gave better information than the estimatedremaining foliage. Thus, the risk for beetle-induced mortality following defoliation is afunction of remaining needle biomass and beetlepressure.
Tree mortality, foliage recovery and stem- and shoot-attacks by Tomicus piniperda were further recorded inspring 1993, 1994, 1995 and 1997 on sample plotsalong 3 survey lines (10 plots per line) situated in atotally (line 1) and severely defoliated (line 2) part ofthe national part, and in the Dimilin-treated areaoutside the park.
Two years of total defoliation resulted in ca 75 and 50% mortality in small and large trees, respectively,whereas only occasional Dimilin-sprayed trees(suffering one year of defoliation) died. Most mortalityoccurred in 1992 and 1993, and in spring 1997, thesprayed trees had recovered full foliage, whereas treeson line 1 and 2 held ca 50 and 60% of full foliage,respectively.
Altogether, more than half of the dead trees werecolonized by T. piniperda, and the rate of attackedtrees peaked in 1993. in all year, successfully attackedtrees carried less than 10 % foliage, while attacksfailed on trees having more than 20 % foliage.Unattacked trees had ca 50 % foliage. As the meanneedle biomass for all groups of surviving trees wasabove 25% in 1992, we conclude that depletion ofsuitable hosts terminated the beetle outbreak in thearea. The high resistance of severely defoliated trees,indicates that carbon availability may be lessimportant for resistance than expected so far.(Although growth losses are no treated in this context,we also conclude that preventing a second year ofdefoliation was highly justified from a silviculturalpoint of view.)
This abstract is a based on the following two papers:
Annila, E., Langström, B., Varama, M., Huikka, R. &Niemelä, P. 1999. Susceptibility of defoliated Scotspine to spontaneous and induced attack by Tomicuspiniperda and T. minor. (ms accepted for publicationin Silva Fennica).
Langström, B., Annila, E., Varama, M. & Niemelä, P.1999. Tree mortality, needle biomass recovery andgrowth losses in Scots pine following defoliation byDiprion pini and subsequent attack by Tomicuspiniperda. (Ms intended for submission to Scand. J.For. Res.).
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Pinus spp. Chemical Composition andHost Selection by the Winter Pine
Processionary MothMaria Rosa Paiva, E. Mateus, C. Pimentel, M.H.
FarrallUniversidade Nova de Lisboa, FCT / DCEA, Q. daTorre, P - 2825-114 Monte de Caparica, Portugal
Tel: 00 351 21 2948300, FAX: 00 351 21 2948554,Email: [email protected]
Pine stands cover 1.3 million hectares in Portugaland are grown over extensive areas in theMediterranean region. Thaumetopoea pityocampa(Den. and Schiff.) (Lepidoptera,Thaumetopoeidae), the winter pine processionarymoth is a major defoliator causing economicdamage, particularly to young plantations. Severalauthors have ranked Pinus species according totheir relative susceptibility to T. pityocampaattack, but differences occur among geographicalregions and altitudes. in the present studychemical analysis were made for 8 Pinus spp.,some of which are native to Portugal and someintroduced. Variations were detected amongspecies, mainly in the terpene composition, whichwere related to the different levels ofprocessionary moth attack recorded. Significantrelationships were found between the relativepercentages of b-pinene and limonene, present inthe bouquets of the needles, and the percentage ofpines having larval nests. in a separateexperiment, the chemical composition of theneedles of individual trees from a stand of P.pinaster originated by natural regeneration, wereanalysed. The variations detected, particularly inthe relative amounts of some monoterpenesemitted by individual trees, were statisticallyrelated to the number of larval nests of T.pityocampa counted. in parallel, biotests wereperformed in an olfactometer, using extracts ofneedles of different pine species, to test hostselection preferences by the adults. Resultsindicated a preference of the females for pinespecies which, under field conditions consistentlysuffer higher levels of attack in Portugal. Hostselection and colonization by T. pityocampa thusappear to be influenced by monoterpeneemissions of the pine trees.
7.02.07 Impacts od diseases on thesustainabi l i ty of tropical forests
VA mycorrhizal fungi and their role inplant disease control
Joseph D. BagyarajUniversity of Agricultural Sciences, Department of
Agricultural Microbiology, GKVK campus, 560 065Bangalore, India
FAX: 091 - 080 - 3330422, Email:[email protected]
Mycorrhizal association constitutes the most strikingexample of symbiosis in the plant kingdom. There aredifferent types of mycorrhizae. The most common areectomycorrhizae and vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizae(VAM). Increased plant growth because of VAMcolonization is well documented (Bagyaraj andVarma, 1995). The increased plant growth is attributedto enhanced uptake of diffusion limited nutrients,hormone production biological nitrogen fixation,drought resistance and suppression of root pathogens.Most reports in the literature indicate that VAM fungidecrease severity of diseases caused by root -pathogens. VAM fungi associated with different cropplants suppressing the fungal root pathogens likeThielaviopsis basicola, Phytopthora parasiticaFusarium oxysporum, Gaeumannomyces graminis var.tritici, Sclerotium rolfsii, Pyrenochaeta terrestris andPythium spp. have been reported. Similarly, VAMfungi also alleviate the severity of diseases caused byplant pathogenic bacteria like Pseudomonas syringaeand P. solanacearum. Reports on several hostsindicate that VAM fungi decrease the severity ofpathogenic nematodes like Meloidogyne avenaria, M.incognita, M. hapla, M. javanica, Tylenchulussemipenetrans, Pratylenchus brachyurus andRadophilus similis (Sampangi and Bagyaraj, 1989).Mechanisms of suppression of root pathogens byVAM fungi: Studies conducted so far suggest that themechanism of suppression may be due tomorphological, physiological or biological alterationsin the host. i. Morphological alterations: Thickening ofthe cell walls through lignification and production ofother polysaccharides in mycorrhizal plants preventingthe penetration and growth of pathogens have beendemonstrated. A stronger vascular system observed inVAM plants increase the flow of nutrients, impartgreater mechanical strength and diminish the effect ofvascular pathogens. Smaller syncytia with fewer cellshave been reported to impart resistance in the hostagainst root - knot nematodes.
ii. Physiological and biochemical changes: Higherphosphorus concentration found in mycorrhizal plantscan offset the severity of a disease caused bypathogens. Decreased root exudation in mycorrhizal
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plants possibly help in reducing the infection ofroots by pathogens. High chitinase activity of themycorrhizal tissue also may confine the growth ofthe pathogen in the host. Higher levels of certainchemicals like arginine, phenyl alanine, serine,orthodihydroxy phenols and sulphur containingamino acids reported in mycorrhizal roots werefound to be inhibitory to root pathogens.
iii. Biological alterations: Mycorrhizal plantsharbour higher population of microorganisms inthe rhizosphere thus making it difficult for thepathogen to compete and gain access to the hostroot. It was also reported that roots colonised byVAM fungi harbour more actinomycetesantagonistic to root pathogens. Recentlymicroorganisms producing siderophores, whichare low molecular weight chelating agents thathave high affinity for ferric iron and thusfungistatic to many pathogens, were observed inhigher numbers in the rhizosphere of mycorrhizalplants. The biocontrol potential of VAM fungican be exploited in field by further understandingthe defence mechanisms and conditions favouringthe experience of their protective ability. There isa need to strike an appropriate balance ofpesticide - mycorrhiza - other biocontrol agent usein designing integrated plant disease management.The recent advances made in the biologicalcontrol of rot pathogens of tree species will bediscussed.
References:
Bagyaraj, D.J. and Varma, A. (1995). Interactionbetween arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and plants:Their importance in sustainable agriculture in aridand semiarid tropics. in Advances in MicrobialEcology (Jones J.G. Ed.), pp 119 - 142. PlenumPress, New York and London, 400 pp.
Sampangi, R.K. and Bagyaraj, D.J. (1989). Rootdiseases and mycorrhizae. J. Phytol. Res.2:1 - 6
Nursery Diseases of Tropical ForestPlantationsM. Balasundaran
Kerala Forest Research Institute Peechi, Division ofPathology, Thrissur-680653 Kerala, India
FAX: 91 487 782249, Email: [email protected]
Serious damage to forest nursery caused byseedling diseases often upsets plantingprogrammes. Though seedlings of both exoticsand indigenous tree species are affected bydisease outbreak, exotics are more vulnerable topathogen attack, especially after one or tworotations of growth in the host country. in thetropics, as more and more native species cross
national boundaries and become accepted-exoticsabroad, unknown pathogens also spring up suddenly inhost countries causing disease outbreak in epidemicproportions. The warm humid climate prevailing in thetropics is most conducive for pathogen multiplicationand host invasion.
Eucalypts, one of the most widely grown exoticspecies in the tropical countries are severely affectedby leaf blight and stem infection caused byCylindrocladium spp. in India, Vietnam, South Africaand South American countries. Wilt disease caused byBurkholderia solanacearum is the most damagingbacterial infection on Eucalypts seedlings in China andAustralia, Brazil and quite recently in India. Amongrust fungi, Puccinia psidii is the serious problem inBrazil, Taiwan and South Africa. Cryptosporiopsiseucalyptii, a recently described fungal pathogen causesleaf spot disease on several species of Eucalypts inAustralia, Brazil, India, Japan, Thailand, Vietnam andHawaii causing blight symptoms. Kirramycesepicoccoides affects growth and vigour of seedlings bycausing leaf spot and subsequent defoliation in Africa,Australia, Brazil, India, Japan, Thailand and Vietnam.
In Acacia, though leaf spot diseases are reported fromIndia, serious seedling diseases are rare exceptphyllode rust caused by Atelocauda digitata inIndonesia and powdery mildew in India and Vietnam.Pine needle blight caused by Cercosporapinidensiflorae is reported from Vietnam. Diseaseslike damping off caused by Pythium and Verticilliumspp., collar rot caused by Rhizoctonia solani andseedling blight caused by Sclerotium rolfsii are thecommon seedling diseases occurring on indigenous aswell as exotic tree species in several tropical countries.in teak, bacterial wilt caused by Burkholderiasolanacearum and leaf spot caused by the fungusPhomopsis and Colletotrichum spp. are economicallyimportant diseases.
International movement of pathogens occur especiallythrough exchange of infected seeds, and chaff anddebris carried along with the seeds. Hence, effectivedisiffection and strict quarantine laws only can preventinternational spread of diseases. Suitable silviculturalmethods are adopted to prevent the occurrence ofnursery diseases in all the countries. Judicious use offungicides and bactericides are often recommended tocontrol the economically serious diseases.
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Ectomycorrhizas as a deterrent toseedling diseases of trees in the
nurseryK. Natarajan
University of Madras, Cas in Botany Guindy Campus,600 025 Chennai, India
Tel: 91-44-235 0401, FAX: 91-44-235 2494, Email:[email protected]
Numerous investigators in the last several yearshave shown that ectomycorrhizas are essential tothe establishment and growth of many treespecies. Their beneficial effects are physiologicalin nature such as increased root absorptionsurface, selective in absorption and accumulation,ability to render unavailable substances in soilavailable to the plant host etc. A possiblebeneficial role of ectomycorrhizae in the treegrowth and development is that the mycorrhizalfungus protects unsuberized roots from attack byparasitic fungi. It has been postulated thatmycorrhizal fungi may conceivably affordprotection to the root by i) utilizing rootcarbohydrates and other chemicals which wouldbe attractive to pathogens, ii) providing a physicalbarrier to pathogens in the form of fungus mantle,iii) secreting antibiotics which inhibit or kill thepathogens and iv) supporting a protectiverhizosphere population of the other micro-organisms. in common with many soil fungi,some mycorrhizal symbionts are capable ofantibiotic action. The antibacterial and antifungalcompounds produced by mycorrhizal fungiagainst root rot and damping off of nurseryseedlings of tree species have been studied byseveral workers. They suggest that antibioticproduction by the mycorrhizal fungi may be thefactor in the survival of seedlings in nature bywarding off attack by root pathogens. Theproduction of antibacterial compounds bymycorrhizal fungi in pure culture has also beeninvestigated.
Keywords: Mycorrhiza, Biocontrol, Rootpathogens, Diseases of nursery seedlings.
Rust diseases of Indian ConifersA. N. Shukla
Forest Research Institute, Forest Pathology Division,248006 Dehra Dun, India
FAX: 91 0135 756865, Email: [email protected]
Indian conifers include pines, deodar, fir andspruce. Pines constitute one of the most divergentand economically important group of speciesfound in the Himalayas. The pine speciesoccurring in India number four and are Pinus
roxburghii, P. wallichiana, P. girardiana and P.kesiya. of these P. roxburghii and P. wallichiana aredistributed widely extending over a long strip of 3200km from the west to east occupying an area of 6728sq. km. and 2270 sq.km. respectively. The occurrenceof P. gerardiana and P. kesiya is restricted, the formerdistributed in the dry zone of inner western Himalayaand the later to eastern Himalayas and Khasi hillsoccupying an area over 400 sq.km. and 2000 sq.kmrespectively. The conifers help in restoring the fragileecosystem of Himalayas. Apart from this they providevaluable natural resources like resin which contributessignificantly to the local employment and nationaleconomy. Deodar (Cedrus deodara) fir (Abiespindrow) and spruce (Picea smithiana) occur atdifferent altitudes in Himalayaa and provide timber forbuildings and packing boxes. in P. roxburghii or Chirpine, stem rust caused by Cronartium himalayense is amajor problem in the younger plantations, causingmortality to the tune of 5-40% in different localities.The rust completes its life history on a local weedSwertia spp. of all the eight districts surveyed theincidence was found in six districts in Garhwal andKumaun regions. The pathogen produces pycnia andaecia on Chir pine, causes girdling and kills theaffected portions. P. wallichiana or Kail is reported tobe attacked by Cronartium ribicola a macrocyclic andheterocious rust. The incidence is observed in Bushahrand Kullu in Himachal Pradesh and Hazara, Kashmirand Kangan in Jammu and Kashmir. From UttarPradesh it is reported from Chakrata. The rust attacksyoung plants on stem and branches which becomeswollen, blistered and girdled. It develops pycnia andaecia on blue pine and urredenia and telia on Ribesrubrum and R. orientale. Cronartium quarcuumattacks P. kesiya in mature trees around Shillong(Meghalaya). The branches become swollen and aeciadevelop profusely. The damage is not very significant.The needles of Chir and Kail pines are attacked byColeosporium campanulae and C. barclayenserespectively. Small orange to yellow sacs of aecia areproduced on the needles numbering 2-15. It gives anugly appearance to the plantations. Mostly the youngerplants are affected. No apparent damage is caused asthe affected needles are shed at about the same time ashealthy needles. in Cedrus deodara (deodar) needlerust is caused by Peridermium cedri. It is an autoceousrust and attacks the young needles of current year'sshoot. The infected needles bearing pycnia and aeciaremain shorter and curve backwords. Infected needlesare shed earlier and therefore, the folaige becomessparse. Witches broom is produced on the affectedbranches and in extreme cases it may cause mortalityto the branch and young trees.
Other needle rusts reported are Ploioderma cedri ondeodar, Caeoma himalayensis on fir and Peridermium
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thomsoni on spruce. But all of them are endemicto small areas in Jammu & Kashmir, HimachalPradesh and hills of Uttar Pradesh.
Epidemic Diseases - potenial threat toplantation forestry in India
Choran MohananKerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi, 680 653
Kerala, IndiaFAX: 0487 782249, Email: [email protected]
In India, plantation forestry commenced with thesmall-scale planting of teak, Tectona grandis inNilambur valley, Kerala, the southernmost state in1840s. Since then, teak has been growing on alarge-scale in plantations as monoculture ormixed with broad-leaved softwood speciesthrough out the countries. Casuarinas were alsointroduced in the coastal belt of Peninsular Indiaduring the British colonial period for meeting therequirement of fuel wood for steam engines. Atpresent casuarinas, especially CasuarinaEquisetifolia have been growing on a large-scaleunder different afforestation programmesincluding agro-forestry in inland as well as coastalareas in Peninsular states of India. During 1960slarge-scale planting of Eucalypts initiated inKerala State by clear-felling the degraded semi-evergreen and moist deciduous forests in low andmedium altitude areas and in grass lands in highaltitude areas to meet the requirement ofpulpwood industries. During the past 150 years ofplantation history different timber andmultipurpose tree species have been growing indifferent parts of the country. Though, theplantation forestry has experienced set-backs dueto biotic factors like human interference and cattlegrazing and abiotic factors like fire and erraticrainfall, epidemic outbreak of diseases posedthreat recently. During 1970s epidemic outbreakof diseases occurred in Eucalyptus tereticornisplantations raised in humid areas in Kerala andKarnataka State devastating the crops entirely.Pink disease caused by Corticium salmonicoloraffected the plants of >6 year-old and foliageblight caused by different species ofCylindrocladium affected the plants of <3 year-old severely. A second outbreak of pink disease inE. tereticornis plantations occurred in 1980sdevastating the plantations in low and mediumelevated areas through out the state. Recently, E.grandis raised in high altitude areas (950-1000 mabove msl) which showed remarkable resistanceto pink disease earlier, also become succumbed tosevere attack by the disease. Pink disease andCylindrocladium blight epidemics occurred in1995 and 1996 and wiped out hectares of
plantations to an extent alternative species like Acaciaauriculiformis was sought for in Eucalypts failedareas. Teak, the hardy species with more than 150years in plantation forestry in India, has also becomeseverely damaged by the pink disease, recently,mainly due to the altered high input silviculturalpractices. Casuarina equisetifolia plantations raised ininland and coastal areas in Peninsular states are foundseverely affected by stem wilt disease, caused byTrichosporum vesiculosum. Though the disease wasnoticed in 1905 in coastal plantations in Orissa State,epidemic outbreak of disease occurred recently,especially in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and andhraPradesh. The pathogen is indigenous and cause diseaseonly in casuarinas. Whereas, Corticium salmonicolorhas a wide host range of more than 420 tree speciesbelonging to 104 genera both indigenous and exotic.Though biology of the fungus and etiology are wellunderstood, disease management strategy heavilydepends mostly on cultural measures due to economicconstraints. At present, plantation forestry in thecountry is at the cross road and set backs from theepidemic outbreak of diseases have adversely affectedthe pulp, paper and rayon industries as well as thefarmers. The paper highlights the possible influencingfactors for the disease outbreak, and short-term as wellas long-term disease management strategies to beadopted.
Status of forest Diseases in India andFuture Research Needs
Jyoti K. SharmaKerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi 680 653 Kerala,
IndiaTel: +91-487-782062, FAX: +91-487-782249, Email:
With the increasing demand for wood in India,forestry has gained importance in recent years. Tomeet this challenge the productivity of forestplantations is being increased by intensivemanagement. However, as the management intensifieswith high inputs more and more disease problems aresurfacing. Since, India's climate ranges from temperatein the northern region to tropical in the southernpeninsula, types of diseases and incidence and severityshow considerable variation chiefly due to theprevailing climatic conditions, edaphic factors andhost species. This makes the management of forestdiseases quite complex. The most widely plantedspecies in India are Acacia auriculifornis, Albiziafalcataria, (Paraserianthes falcata), Azadiractaindica, Bambusa arundinacea, Bombax cieba,Cosuarina equisetifolia, Dalbergia, sissoo, Eucalyptustereticornis, E. camaldulensis, Gmelina, arborea,Pinus, spp., Populus sp., Grevellia robusta, Tectonagrandis, etc.
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Seedlings for raising plantations are grown eitherin conventional way in bareroot nurseries or morerecently in root trainers with little management tohigh in-put management. This variation in nurserypractices is reflected in the type and severity ofdiseases encountered. Generally, damping-offwhich occurs throughout India, is the most seriousdisease of young seedlings in forest nurseries. intemperate and drier regions, Pythium, Fusariumand Macrophomina are the dominant pathogens,whereas in tropical humid regions ubiquitousfacultative parasites, Rhizoctonia, Sclerotium andCylindrocladium are the major pathogens causinga wide variety of serious diseases. With theadvent of root trainer nurseries problem ofnematodes, otherwise unnoticed in conventionalnurseries, has caused serious loss of teakseedlings in root trainers.
In plantations, various diseases affect theoutplanted seedlings right from the beginning, tillthe time the crop is ready for harvest, the rotationperiod being from seven years in Eucalyptus to 60years in teak. Since, some of the tree species areplanted throughout the country under differentagro climatic conditions in contrast to otherslimited to a particular climatic zone, twocategories of diseases are identifiable: diseases ofwide occurrence and diseases of restrictedoccurrence.
Among the serious diseases of wider occurrence,the prominent once are Cylindrocladium leafblight (CLB) of Eucalypts, blister blight (BB) ofCasuarina (Trichosporium vesiculosum) andphanerogamic parasite (mistletoe) of teak(Dendroephthoe falcata) which have been givensome attention during the past two decades.However, bilster blight and teak mistletoe needmore attention to work out strategies to controlthem. Since, CLB and BB are of internationalimportance concerted efforts and networking oforganizations in tackling them are warranted.
On the other hand there are certain diseases ofrestricted occurrence in a particular geographicalarea causing serious loss. Among them theimportant diseases are spike disease of Santalumalbum caused by phytoplasma, shoot blight ofbamboos, heart rot of Dalbergia sissoo,Cryphonectria canker of Eucalypts, Hendersonuladie-back of Acacia mangium, Phomopsis andMacrophomina die-back and Melampsora rust ofPopulus, and rust of native pines in Himalayas.Some of these diseases of restricted occurrencefor example Hendersonula die-back are possiblymanifested due to stress conditions under whichthe host is grown. Another category of diseases of
rather recent origin is that appearing in high in-putplantations. The best example is that of pink disease ofteak (Corticium salmonicolor) which came inprominence by causing more than 50 per centincidence in high in-put plantations being grown byprivate companies as compared to 1-2 per cent inplantations raised by the State Forest Department. inthe light of the above the paper evaluates the currentstatus of some of the significant forest diseases inIndia and identifies priority areas of research forbridging the gaps in information for bettermanagement of diseases and increasing the muchneeded forest productivity.
Strategies linked to reduce the impact ofCryphonectria canker in South Africa
Schalk W. van Heerden, Michael J. WingfieldUniversity of Pretoria, Faculty of Biological andAgricultural Sciences, Forestry and Agricultural
Biotechnology Institute (FABI, 0002 Pretoria, South AfricaFAX: +27124203938, Email:
Keywords: Cryphonectria canker; Populationdiversity; Double-stranded RNA
Cryphonectria canker caused by Cryphonectriacubensis is responsible for considerable damage toEucalyptus plantations in tropical and sub-tropicalareas of the world. It is, therefore, essential to haveeffective management strategies to limit the impact ofthis pathogen. Planting of disease tolerant clones isone approach, but the potential to reduce the virulenceof the pathogen through double stranded (ds) RNAmediated-hypovirulence is also an attractive option. Itis, however, necessary to possess knowledge regardingthe population diversity of the fungus beforebiological control can be applied. in this study, asurvey of diseased trees was undertaken to evaluatethe occurrence of sexual reproductive structures, andthus to consider whether sexual reproduction isoccurring in C. cubensis in South Africa. Anexperimental approach was undertaken to confirmthese findings. The diversity of the South African C.cubensis population was assessed based on vegetativecompatibility tests, and various measures of diversitywere used to assess the data. A field inoculation wasconducted to consider whether there was anycorrelation between VC groups and their virulence.Further the South African C. cubensis population wasscreened for the presence of dsRNA. Slow growingisolates were identified using growth studies and thesewere screened for dsRNA using columnchromatography. Two dsRNA-containing isolateswere obtained from a sample of 100 isolates. Agreenhouse inoculation trial was conducted todetermine whether the isolates containing dsRNAdisplay hypovirulence. Results of this study showed
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that only asexual reproduction occurs in C.cubensis in South Africa. Twenty-three VCgroups were detected from a sample of 100isolates each collected from single diseased treesin plantations in KwaZulu-Natal. Analysisshowed that this represents a low degree ofgenetic diversity. Inoculation studies revealed thatisolates belonging to different VC groups differsignificantly in their ability to cause disease.Results of the inoculation to test forhypovirulence indicated that only one of the twoisolates had a reduced capacity to cause disease.Studies are now being undertaken that will furtherpromote the use of dsRNA for biological controlof C. cubensis in the future.
7.02.10 Global spreading of pine wil t
Pine Wilt Disease: A Potential Threatto Coniferous Forests Around the
WorldDale R. Bergdahl, S. Halik
University of Vermont, Department of Forestry,School of Natural Resources
Forest Pathology Laboratory, 05405 Burlington, USAEmail: [email protected]
Throughout time, the distribution of the world'sbiota has not been static but has been graduallychanging. This rate of change is much more rapidtoday because of biological invasions resultingfrom increased human activity, includinginternational trade and travel and the disturbanceof ecosystems. These invasions by exotic speciesinclude many unwanted forest pests, such as thepinewood nematode (PWN), Bursaphelenchusxylophilus, which has recently created havoc andconcern around the world. This nematode isnative to North America and is the causal agent ofpine wilt disease (PWD) of Pinus spp., but otherconifers may also serve as hosts. The PWN isvectored by cerambycid beetles (Monochamusspp.) which are normal inhabitants of coniferousforests worldwide. Different abiotic and bioticstress factors are reported to predispose trees toinfection, however, variation in host specificityand pathogenicity has been noted for differentPWN isolates. This nematode can also persist inliving trees without inciting PWD.
As an exotic pest, the PWN is responsible forcausing significant PWD in both native and exoticpines in Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, and ThePeople's Republic of China. However, in NorthAmerica, the PWN is not considered an importantpathogen of native pines although it has causedPWD in some areas where exotic pines have been
planted. The PWN is believed to have been introducedto Japan in logs from North America about 100 yearsago, and today it is considered the most serious pest ofpines by the Japanese. It is now also considered a veryserious pathogen of pines in The People's Republic ofChina. The impact of this nematode and its vectors hasresulted in enormous ecological, cultural, aesthetic,and economic impacts that will continue to createproblems for generations to come. The PWN has ahistory of being transported in raw wood and woodproducts, and infested wood is believed responsiblefor spreading this nematode and its vectors both withinand between Asian countries. Because of the perceivedthreat of PWD, some countries have establishedrestrictions on importation or movement of coniferouswood from countries or regions of countries known tohave the PWN. in Europe, a recent pest riskassessment concluded the PWN posed a potentialthreat to the continent's forests, so the nematode isnow an A1 quarantine pest as described by theEuropean Plant Protection Organization. As an exoticpest, the PWN should be considered a high-risk,disease-inciting agent for pine-growing regionsworldwide. The threat of the PWN to coniferousforests is real and the only known way to reduce thisthreat is to be most restrictive in the importation andmovement of potentially PWN-infested wood of allkinds.
Keywords: Bursaphelenchus xylophilus, pinewoodnematode, Pinus, exotic pest, threat.
Unsuccessful experience in controllingthe Pine Wilt in Japan
Kazuyoshi FutaiUniversity of Kyoto, Japan
Email: [email protected]
After the discovery of the pinewood nematode,Bursaphelechus xylophilus as a causal agent of thedreadful wilting disease of pine trees in 1970,enormous efforts have been made to control this forestepidemic disease.
Aerial application of insecticide has been carried outto obstruct maturation feeding of vector beetles on thehealthy pine trees, thereby to prevent the transmissionof nematodes into pine tissues. This measure seemedto be effective to reduce the pine wilt death, but has tobeen performed with many limitations because ofenvironmental concerns. The procedure of fellingdown dead pine trees, and de-barking and then burningthem should be effective, if carried out thoroughly, butthis control measure has become impossible becauseof the shortage of forest workers. Trunk-injection ofnematicides was developed to protect such preciouspine trees as planted in gardens, golf courses, parks,shrines and temples. But this effective method has
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been able to apply neither to pine forests nor tomountain pine stands due to its high cost.
Without any limitations such as financial cost,labor shortage, environmental problems, could webe successful to control pine wilt disease?Perhaps, not. Because humankind itself has madean important role in long-distance transportationof pine wilt. The transportation of the pine logsinfested with pine wood nematodes and/or withvector beetles has been legally regulated, but suchdead pine trees have been transported from placeto place, and thus pine wilt has spread over widearea. Further factors such as air pollutants, acidprecipitation, difference in host resistancebetween local varieties of pines, difference innematode virulence between isolates, and so onhad to be taken into consideration to facilitate thecontrol measures.
Another important point is that there may remainsome potential carriers of pathogenic nematodeseven after thorough sanitation of pine stands.When the carrier trees become stressed due tohigh temperature and/or drought, the hostresistance could be impaired and nematodes buildup their population to kill host trees. Thus, a fewyears after thorough control procedures, however,pine wilt epidemic could revive in the same pinestands.
Possible adaptation and pathogenicityof pinewood nematode,
Bursaphelenchus mucronatus, incentral European Russia
Oleg A. Kulinich, Vasyutin, A.S, Tjurin A.A.All-Russian Research Institute of Plant Quarantine,Pogranichnaj 32, 140150 Moscow region, Russia
FAX: +7 096 46 22628, Email: [email protected]
The pinewood nematode, Bursaphelecnhusxylophilus, causes a serious wilt disease of nativepines in Japan and China and is a quarantine pestfor Russia. Based on a pest risk analysis forB.xylophilus it was concluded that this nematodeposes a threat to conifer forests in several areasand territories of Russia (Kulinich, & Kolossova1995). A closely related nematode,Bursaphelenchus mucronatus is widespread inAsia and Europe and may mate with B.xylophilus.Various experiments have shown that B.mucronatus is weakly pathogenic or non-pathogenic to pines. A field experiment todetermine the pathogenicity of the differentisolates of Bursaphelenchus mucronatus wasconducted in the Moscow region (Russia) in1996-1997. Two-year old, Scots pine, Pinussylvestris, seedlings were inoculated in July,
1996, with each of three B.mucronatus isolates: BmCh(from China), BmKOMY (from Komy Republic,Russia) and BmRFE (from the Russian Far East,Primorski Krai). Control seedlings were inoculatedwith a solution of the fungi Botrytis cinerea andFusarium gramminearum in distilled water. Initialinoculation was 1500 nematodes per seedling. Thenematodes were extracted 2 months after seedlinginoculation and again 1 year post-inoculation inSeptember, 1997. Seedling stems, roots and soil wereassayed for presence of B. mucronatus nematodes. Nonematodes were found in seedling roots or soil. Noseedlings had died 14 months after inoculation andonly BmRFE isolate nematodes were extracted fromseedling stem samples (1 inividual./g of stem tissue ).All other nematode isolates failed to survival inseedlings. According to the recent studies ofEroshenko and Kruglik (1996), B.mucronatus isolatesfrom Russian Far East were strongly pathogenic todifferent pine species under field conditions inPrimorski Krai. Kulinich, O.A. and Kolossova, N.V.(1995) The potential of the pinewood nematodeBursaphelenchus xylophilus to become established incountries of the former USSR. Russian Journal ofNematology 3, 35-48.
Eroshenko, A.S. and Kruglik, I.A. (1996) [Koreanpine pathogenic nematodes in the Russia Far EastSouth.]. in "The cedar and deciduous forest of the FarEast", Khabarovsk, 196-197 (In Russian).
Keywords: pinewood nematode, Bursaphelenchusmucronatus, pathogenicity, Russia
Strategy of protection of European forestsfrom pinewood nematodes
Christer MagnussenThe Norwegian Crop Research Institute, Plant Protection
Centre, Department of Entomology and Nematology,Fellesbygget NO- 1432 Aas, [email protected]
The widespread damage caused by the pinewoodnematode (PWN) Bursaphelenchus xylophilus inJapan was well recognised by European scientists.There has been much controversy regarding thetransmission biology of PWN, the danger of pine wiltdisease and the risk management strategies. A pest riskassessment for the European Union (EU) hasconfirmed the quarantine status of PWN, justifying thephytosanitary measures taken to exclude this nematodefrom Europe. Furthermore, recent results frominoculation experiments indicate that PWN could posea threat to pine forests of continental Europe. The totalforested area of EU and Norway amounts to 146million ha. The Nordic forests occupy almost 63million ha, corresponding to 43% of this area. in theNordic countries pine forests alone cover about 30million ha. The annual softwood felling is in the order
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of 40 million m3, which could represent amonetary value of about 3 000 million US$. TheNordic forests are of fundamental importance notonly to the Nordic economies, but also as a majorsource of wood products for the entire EU.European coniferous forest ecosystems, regardlessof locality, offer good opportunities for theestablishment and spread of the PWN. Theintroduction of PWN into Europe could reduceforest productivity and enforce the erection ofinternal regulations of trade. There is also a riskof transfer of patogenicity from PWN to residentB.mucronatus by interbreeding. The mostefficient strategy of protection is to prevent theintroduction of the PWN. Preventive measureslike forest selection and quality checks inprocessing would fail to detect latent PWNinfections in asymptomatic trees. Thus, harvestinghealthy-appearing trees for processing may not beadequate to prevent nematode infestation of woodproducts imported from areas infested by PWN.Heat treatments still remain the safest means oferadicating the PWN in wood. Methods should bedeveloped to eradicate PWN also from forestproducts not suitable for kiln drying andpasteurisation. Treatments to eradicate PWN needalso to apply for packaging and dunnage. inEurope efforts should be made to survey domesticwood products, and the forest areas for thepresence of PWN and B. mucronatus, and todevelop protocols suitable for monitoringnematode patogenicity on European conifers.
Nematode: characteristics andhazards of its global impact
John M. WebsterSimon Fraser University, Department of BiologicalSciences, V5A 1S6 Burnaby, Vancouver, Canada
FAX: 604 291 3496, Email: [email protected]
Pine forests, one of the great natural resources ofour planet, are threatened worldwide by the pinewilt disease caused by the pinewood nematode,Bursaphelenchus xylophilus, and its Monochamusspp. vector. The direct negative impact of thebiological interaction between the B. xylophilusand susceptible pine trees has been exacerbatedindirectly by wood product trading practices andby some misunderstanding of the biologicalrelationship. Consequently, the potentialseriousness of pine wilt disease to the world's pineforests is not always fully recognized, andappropriate action is not taken in the geographicareas where it is necessary in order to preventand/or slow spread of the disease.
Bursaphelenchus xylophilus belongs to the familyAphelenchoididae, which includes many othernematode species that feed on fungi for some or all oftheir life cycle and which are closely associated withinsects. Many bark beetles pests of forest trees carryaphelenchids in their intestine and vector them fromone fungal-feeding site to the next in the crypticgalleries of the forest trees. There are about fiftyBursaphelenchus species many of which areassociated with forest trees and insects but none ofthese are lethal like B. xylophilus. Bursaphelenchusxylophilus is most commonly vectored byMonochamus alternatus in east and southeast Asia,but many other Monochamus species worldwide, somewith overlapping distributions, vector this nematode.Aphelenchiodes ritzemabosi interacts withRhodococcus fasciens to cause cauliflower disease ofstrawberries, but no other aphelenchid species exceptB. cocophilus, the cause of red ring disease of coconut,causes host death. Both B. xylophilus and B.cocophilus cause death of the host tree within a fewmonths of infection and both these nematodes requirea mobile, plant-feeding coleopteran as the vector.
Many other tree species are parasitized by nematodesbut none of them die so fast and the disease does notspread so rapidly. Orchard trees, are significantlyaffected by plant parasitic nematodes such as the citrusnematode, Tylenchulus semipenetrans (causingspreading decline of citrus) and the lesion nematode,Pratylenchus spp. (several species of which attack arange of fruit and nut tree species). However, thepathological impact of these nematodes tends to bemodest and relatively gradual through wilting duringdrought and through nutrient depletion. Thesenematodes often do not significantly affect the hosttree except during periods of severe plant stress. Bycontrast, B. xylophilus infected pine treescharacteristically die within a few months of infection,though the physiological processes leading to treedeath also can be exacerbated by stress factors such asfire and mistletoe. A few nematode species, e.g.Aphelenchus avenae and Aphelenchoides composticoladebilitate forest trees by feeding on the mycorrhiza butthis limits tree growth rather than causing death.
It is not only the susceptible pine species of ourindigenous forests that are vulnerable to pine wiltdisease but also the extensive monoculture plantingsof susceptible, exotic, pine species especially in thesouthern hemisphere. These large areas of pineplantations are vulnerable if the temperature is highenough (about 25?C) for long enough (continuouslyfor 8 weeks) and providing that an insect vector ispresent. Concurrently, there is extensive internationaltrade of pine wood chips and bark-covered pine logsthat potentially carry Monochamus spp. and B.
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xylophilus from countries that have naturalpopulations of B. xylophilus and its vector tocountries that have susceptible pine species andappropriate climates for the disease. The hightemperatures not only increase the rate ofnematode reproduction but increase also thenumber of generations per year of the insectvector thereby quickly raising their populationthreshold for the disease to epidemic proportions.As well, the higher temperature stresses the treesphysiologically in that within a few hours ofnematode infection they lose water faster from theleaves and the tracheids became blocked.
Control of this nematode disease is difficultbecause it affects very large area of trees, often inless accessible areas, and the nematode populationmaintains itself on fungus infected dead trees aswell as on living trees. As well, the vector is avigorous flyer and survives on dead or dyingtrees. The development and propagation ofgenetically resistant trees is a viable though verylong term option. Modification of tradingpractices could provide faster results.
Distribution of pine wilt disease andits spreading manner in China
Baojun YangThe Chinese Academy of Forestry, Post Box # 12,
100091 Beijing, ChinaFAX: 0086-010-62884972, Email:
[email protected]>ac.cn
Since the first discovery of PWN in Nanjing city,Jiangsu province in 1982,the nematode hasdistributed in 6 provinces Jiangsu, Anhui,Zhejiang, Shandong, Guangdong and Taiwan, aswell as Hong Kong. There are 14 counties inJiangsu, 16 counties in Anhui, 10 counties inZhejiang, 3 counties in Guangdong, 1 county inShandong. The total diseased area is about 70000ha. The diseased pine species are Pinus thunbergiiand P. massoniana mainly, as well asP.densiflora, P.luchensis, P.elliottii and P.pinaster. The vector of PWN is Monochamusalternatus. The phenomenon of the diseaseoccurrence showes that the invasion of PWN intovirgin areas is mainly caused by artificialtransport of diseased lumber and packing box.The new diseased points are usually around newhotels,television transmission stations, factories,military units,public places and so on. Besides, itis supposed that wind, especially hurticane andtyphoon, can bring the beetles (Monochamusalternatus), carrying PWN to virgin area far formthe diseased area. Because the pines in smallisland can be attacked by PWN, the small island
is above 7 miles from the diseased area and no bodycan go aboard the small island.
7.02.10 Epidemic factors of pine wil t
Ectomycorrhiza in pine forests infestedwith pine wilt disease
Kenji Fukuda, Shin Ugawa, Yu Ichihara, Kazuo SuzukiThe University of Tokyo, Department of Environmental
Studies, 113-8657 Tokyo, JapanFAX: +81-3-5802-2958, Email: [email protected]
In order to clarify the relationships between the pinewilt incidence and ectomycorrhizas which may affector be affected by vigor of host pine trees, fruit bodyoccurrence and species composition of mycorrhizalfungi were surveyed in Japanese red pine standsexhibiting varying degrees of disease incidence aroundMt. Tsukuba, Ibaraki Prefecture, Eastern Japan. inhealthy stands many species of mycorrhizal fungioccurred, in contrast to the infested stands wheremycorrhizal fungi were rare. From two healthy andone infested stands, soil cores were taken aroundliving pine trees and mycorrhizal root tips wereclassified into morphological "types". Composition ofmycorrhizal types among the stands were differentfrom each other. However, in every stand mycorrhizaswere formed on more than 95% of the observed roottips. From this fact, decline in fruit body number ininfested stands was not caused by decrease ofmycorrhiza on pine roots, but the decline of fruitingactivity of the mycorrhizal fungi. Mycorrhizal growthin 5-year-old pine seedlings inoculated with pinewoodnematodes were markedly inhibited in both killed andsurvived seedlings. This indicates that infection ofnematode reduce the allocation of carbohydrates to themycorrhiza. From these results, fruiting activity ofectomycorrhizal fungi seemed to be greatly influencedby the pine wilt damage not only by the death of thehost tree, but also by the latent infection.
Keywords: Bursaphelenchus xylophilus,ectomycorrhiza, forest floor, fungal flora, pine wilt
Wilt diseases- induced xylem embolism intrees
Takefumi IkedaKansai Research Center, Forestry and Forest ProductsResearch Institute, 621-0855 Kyoto, Fushimi, Japan
FAX: +81-75-611-1207, Email: [email protected]
Recently in the research field of tree water relations,the mechanisms and ecological meanings of thecavitation and the embolism in the tree xylem occurredduring water stress and by freeze-thaw event havefairly been made clear. Three major wilt diseases arethe Dutch elm diseases, oak wilt and pine wilt disease.Although it has been known that wilt disease inducedwater stress in their host by reducing the hydraulic
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conductivity of the cylem, embolism as a causefor this has received very little attention. in thecase of Dutch Elm disease, embolism precedesany occlusion of vessel by other means. The exactcauses of cavitation and embolism remainunclear. Pine wilt disease is characterized byrapid wilting during a short period of summer.The occurrence of cavitation and embolismduring the disease development has beenconfirmed. This paper shows the generalmechanism of cavitation and embolism occurredin trees suffered from three major wilt diseases.
Insect vector-nematode relationshipand virulence of nematode against
host plants.Katsumi Togashi
Faculty of Integrated Arts and SciencesHiroshima University, Kagamiyama 1, Higashi-
Hiroshima, 739-8521 Hiroshima, JapanTel: +81-824-24-6513, FAX: +81-824-24-0758, Email:
Infestation level of parasite and disease-causingorganisms is associated closely with a relationshipbetween their virulence and transmission ability.Rapid change in virulence sometimes occurs bythe introduction of the parasite into newecosystems. How much does the enhancedvirulence change transmission ability and itscomponents? Pine wilt caused by the pinewoodnematode gives an interesting case to study thevirulence-transmission relationship. Thepinewood nematodes (Bursaphelenchusxylophilus and B. mucronatus) are transmitted tohealthy trees by pine sawyer beetles (the genusMonochamus) and the beetles oviposit on treeskilled recently by virulent nematodes.Interestingly, the nematodes are also transmittedto dying trees via the oviposition wounds made bythe beetles. So, different nematode virulenceagainst host trees must affect the vector-nematoderelationship. I used 3 systems for analysis; theJapanese B. xylophilus-M. alternatus systemincluding virulent nematode against host trees, theJapanese B. mucronatus-M. saltuarius systemincluding avirulent nematode, and the AmericanB. xylophilus-M. carolinensis system includingavirulent nematode.
Field study shows that avirulent nematode hasmuch higher transmission rate per tree per year(0.13-0.17) than virulent nematode (0.0050-0.0064) in Japan. Thus, a negative relation isfound between virulence and transmission ability.A wide variation is observed in the initialnematode load on insect vector. Extremely heavy
nematode load makes beetle longevity shorter. As thenematode load increases, such effect is much larger forvirulent nematode than for avirulent nematode. Thisseems to have influence on the frequency distributionof initial nematode load. Actually, its peak is biasedtoward lower load for virulent nematode while towardhigher load for avirulent nematodes. Longevity-shortening effect of nematode load causes beetle'sreproductive capacity to decrease. Such deleteriouseffect on beetle's reproductive capacity is estimated tobe highest for the American B. xylophilus-M.carolinensis system and lowest for the Japanese B.mucronatus-M. saltuarius system. Short life of beetlesis also related with the probability of nematode'ssurviving till successful invasion of pine trees. Thedeleterious effect on survival rate of nematodes isestimated to be much larger for virulent nematode.
The study of the pinewood nematode showed that anegative relation between virulence and transmissionrate. Some components of nematode transmissionability is considered to be associated closely withnematode virulence and other with a short length oftime during which species interactions have beencontinuing in Japan. I will compare the virulence-transmission relation among biological systemsincluding nematode, insect vector and host plants.
Recent advances in studies on chemicalecology and behavior of the Japanese
pine sawyer adultAkiomi Yamane, Ryutaru Iwata
Nihon University Kameino, College of BioresourceSciences, 252-8510 Fujisawa, Kanagawa, Japan
Tel: 81-466-84-3663/3664, FAX: 0466 80 11 35, Email:[email protected]
Keywords: pine sawyer, chemical ecology, attractant,oviposition, feeding
Factors affecting oviposition, feeding, etc. ofMonochamus alternatus (JPS) were reviewed. Matureadults of both sexes are attracted to the suitableoviposition site, freshly felled pine bold, diseased pinetree caused by Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (PWN),etc. Female shows a series of actions; ovipositionbehavior sensu lato and sensu stricto. The orientationto the site is mediated by odor, of which the majorcomponents are monoterpenes and ethanol. Besidesthe attractant, some new substances were found tostimulate or mask attractiveness of oviposition site.Differences in attraction behavior between sexes werealso reported.
For control and monitor the pine bark and wood-boring beetles which had been considered to be causalagents being responsible to deteriorate and kill pines"Hodoron", an attractant formulation for those beetles
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including JPS, of which the main components areeugenol (9.0%), benzoic acid (23.0%), iso-propanol and other organic solvents, had beendeveloped. Since the findings of PWN and JPS,another attractant "Madara-call" had beendeveloped for JPS attraction, of which maincomponents are pinene and ethanol.
Both volatile and contact sex pheromonesconcerning mating were reported, but most oftheir nature remains unknown. Presence of jelly-like oviposition marker on oviposition acar andinhibition of another additional oviposition nearbythe laid egg were reported.
For oviposition adequate moisture on the hostsurface was essential. Some sugars, sterols, etc.stimulated feeding and/or biting. Some newchemicals stimulating oviposition were reportedrecently.
So many behaviors of JPS are known to beclosely associated with certain chemicals. Someof their stimulus-response relation have beendescribed and elucidated, but most of themremains unknown yet. Toward the integrated pestmanagement of pine wilt disease, especially thatof JPS, behavior-controlling method couldcontribute greatly to the system, and we anticipatedevelopment of researches in the science andtechnology along this line in the near future.
7.03.00 Review of recent developments inthe management of major tropical forest
insect pests . Theory and practice
Management of the Sal HeartwoodBorer, Hoplocerambyx spinicornis in
IndiaR. K. Dey
State Forest Research Institute, Polipathar, Jabalpur,(482 008) Madhya Pradesh, India
Tel: 91-761-25540(off), FAX: 0097-761-411304,Email: [email protected]
Keywords: Hoplocerambyx, sal, borer outbreak,Shorea robusta, trap-tree operation)
The sal heartwood borer, Hoplocerambyxspinicornis Newman (Coleoptera, Cerambycidae)is considered the most destructive forest pest inIndia and is well known for its periodic outbreaksin high risk sites. An epidemic which began in1994 in Madhya Pradesh provided an opportunityto study the behaviour of the pest and theresponse of the host, on the face of the existingoutbreak management system, which relies on (1)removal of infested trees and (2) trapping beetlesusing trap trees and killing them. Observationsover a two-year period from March 1998 to
February 2000, revealed several interesting features ofthe rise and fall of infestations, which are reportedhere. There was a definite preference of the pest fortrees of higher girth class, throughout the epidemic.Some of the infested trees recovered in course of time.Removal of sparsely infested trees may also meanremoval of potential new infestation sites, therebyincreasing the risk of infestation of un-infested trees.Tests showed that beetles were attracted to light traps.Incidence of the elaterid predator, Alaus sp. wasrecorded.
The findings of this study suggest rethinking andrefinement of the existing recommendation for salborer outbreak management, particularly, limiting theremoval of trees to the more severely infestedcategories. Future research should focus on (1)isolation of the chemical attractant present in the treesap and developing suitable mechanical trappingdevices using the attractant chemical(s) to replace thetraditional tree-trap, (2) standardizing the use of lighttrap for trapping beetles, and (3) exploring the scopeof using the elaterid predator for biological control.International cooperation will be useful for isolationand synthesis of the attractant sap chemical(s).
Teak Beehole Borer, Xyleutes ceramica:Ecology and Management
Chaweewan HutacharernForest Research Office, Royal Forest Department, 61
Paholyotin Road, 10900 Bangkok, ThailandTel: +66-2-5798775, FAX: +66 2 5789775, Email:
Keywords: Teak beehole borer, Xyleutes ceramica,control
The teak beehole borer, Xyleutes ceramica Walker(Lepidoptera, Cossidae) is the most important pest ofteak in Thailand, in terms of its effect on reducingwood quality. It is also a serious pest in Myanmar,Thailand and Malaysia. This moth caterpillar bores inthe wood of standing teak trees, making a big tunnel inthe sapwood and heartwood, thereby causing seriousdepreciation of wood quality. Infestation takes placethroughout the life of the tree and a 40-year old treemay have up to 165 tunnels. Infestation is localized; insome plantations, particularly in northern Thailand, upto 100 per cent of the trees may be infested.
Current control practices include removal of younglarvae by scraping the infested bark using a knife,injection of insecticide into larval holes and trappingof newly eclosed moths. There is also indication ofpresence of beehole borer resistant provenances.
In Thailand, research has concentrated on life historyand study of the sex pheromone. in collaboration withJapan International Cooperation Agency, the sexpheromone has been identified, purified and
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bioassayed and its use for monitoring andmanagement of the beehole borer is beingstandardised.
Management of the Teak Defoliator,Hyblaea Puera - Current Status
K. S. S. NairKerala Forest Research Institute, T.C. 9/1171 (3),
Mangalam Lane, Sasthamangalam, 695 010Trivandrum, Kerala, India
Tel: 91-471-310 470, FAX: 91-471-325 674 (attn: KSSNair), Email: [email protected]
Keywords: teak defoliator, Hyblaea puera,baculovirus, population dynamics)
Currently, there is an unprecedented expansion ofteak plantations across the tropics. They aremanaged intensively to get maximum yield in ashort rotation period. in this context, this paperexamines the current status and prospects formanagement of the major teak pest, Hyblaeapuera Cramer (Lepidoptera, Hyblaeidae).Commonly known as the teak defoliator, H. puerahas been recognized as a serious pest of teakplantations for over a century. Originallydistributed in the natural teak belt of the Asiantropics, it has now spread, along with teakplantations, to other tropical countries,particularly in the Asia pacific and some centralAmerican and African regions. Severe outbreakhas recently been reported from Costa Rica. inmost teak growing countries in the Asia Pacific,extensive and repeated outbreak of this defoliatoris a spectacular, annual feature during the earlypart of the growth season. It was estimated tocause an annual loss of up to 3 cm3 of potentialvolume increment per hectare of plantation.
Past recommendations for management, whichrelied on augmentation of native insect parasitoidsthrough promotion of the alternative hosts of theparasitoids by manipulation of the vegetationcover, proved inadequate because of the uniquepopulation dynamics of the pest. Aerialapplication of chemical insecticides, althoughtried in the past, cannot be practiced widelybecause of environmental considerations. Searchfor genetic resistance to the pest did not yielduseful results. The present situation on teakdefoliator management is as follows. (1) in theextensive teak plantations maintained byGovernment Forest Departments or Governmentsponsored agencies in India, Myanmar, Thailandand Indonesia, generally no control measures arepracticed and the plantations continue to sufferloss of increment. (2) in high-value plantationsover small areas in Thailand, as well as on an
experimental scale in India, the microbial insecticide,Bacillus thuringiensis is applied aerially. (3) inplantations raised by individuals and privatecommercial companies in several countries, includingIndia, Thailand, Malaysia, and Costa Rica, chemicalinsecticides are applied aerially, in some situations.This practice is now on the increase due to the rapidexpansion of commercial teak cultivation across thetropics and poses a threat to environmental quality.
Current research on teak defoliator management,particularly in India, focuses on the one hand, on thepotential of total population management bypreventing large-scale outbreaks by controlling thepopulation build-up in the early outbreak epicentresand, on the other hand, use of a baculovirus isolatedfrom H. puera. Scientific understanding of thecausation of the sudden outbreak of this pest thatfollows the early monsoon rains and spreadssubsequently over extensive areas, is essential fordeveloping appropriate management strategies. Recentresearch in India has suggested two hypotheses foroutbreak initiation- (1) wind-aided concentration ofdispersed local populations, (2) Long-distancedisplacement of pre-existing high-density populationsbetween countries.
Status and Management of SmallColeopterous Borers in Living Timbers in
Tropical AfricaHans G. Schabel, Seif Madoffe
University of Wisconsin, College of Natural Resources, WI54481 Stevens Point, USA
FAX: (715) 346-3624, Email: [email protected]
Keywords: Africa, Natural forests, Plantations,Bostrychidae, Platypodidae, Scolytidae
As natural forests in the tropics continue to shrink andplantation area increases, there is growing concern forthe health of both. Managed forests and plantations inAfrica often face difficult physical environments incombination with serious interference from pests,including insects. Among these, several borers arenotorious for diminishing the quality of preciouswoods, either while a tree is still living or after itsharvest. This paper synthesizes existing knowledgeconcerning three families of small, coleopterous borers(Bostrychidae, Platypodidae, Scolytidae), which are ormay become, pests in living timbers in tropical Africa.
With a few exceptions, small coleopterous borers inAfrica are polyphagous. They rarely attack healthytrees or seedlings, and direct mortality of hosts, otherthan heavily attacked seedlings, is exceptional. Theiractivity seems largely restricted to nurseries andplantations and their impact is mostly felt inconjunction with dry seasons, fire or other injuries.
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Given global warming trends, increasinginternational commerce and future expansion ofplantation culture, this group of insects couldbecome a more serious factor in timberproduction and trade. Potential methods ofdealing with them are discussed. It is suggestedthat in addition to cooperative quarantine effortsand innovative pest control methods, whereverfeasible, the emphasis should be cultural i.e., ashift from plantations to more natural forestmanagement, emphasizing more complex standcomposition and structure.
7.03.03 Insect Pest Problems in ReplantedForests
Screening spruce for geneticresistance to white pine weevil in
British Columbia, CanadaRene Alfaro, John N. King, Cheng Ying, George
Brown, Kornelia G. LewisNatural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service,
Pacific Forestry Centre, 506 West Burnside Road, V8Z1M5 Victoria B.C., Canada
Tel: 1-250-363-0660, FAX: 1-250-363-0775, Email:[email protected]
The white pine weevil, Pissodes strobi Peck(Coleoptera: Curculionidae) is the most seriousnative pest of spruce regeneration in BritishColumbia, attacking primarily Sitka (Piceasitchensis (Bong.) Carr), white (P. glauca(Moench) Voss), and Engelmann spruce (P.engelmanni Parry). The weevil has one generationa year. The eggs are laid from late April to June inpunctures made by the female in the bark belowthe buds of the terminal (year-old) shoot. Thelarvae burrow downward in the bark, feeding onthe phloem, which eventually kills the terminal.Destruction of the apical shoot reduces growthand causes deformities.
With respect to white spruce, a large family trialnear Clearwater, British Columbia, has beensurveyed annually for weevil resistance between1993 and 1998. The latest results confirm apreliminary resistance raking of each familydeveloped in 1994 using an index whichmeasured intensity of attack (number of attacksper tree), severity of each attack (how manyinternodes were destroyed) and tree tolerance toattack ( i.e., if tree develops good form after anattack). The study demonstrated significantgenetic variation in the attack resistance.Variation in resistance was related to ecoclimaticconditions of the parental tree source. Analysisshowed that those parents from locations withhigh weevil hazard yielded higher proportion of
resistant trees. These sites are primarily low elevation,low latitude sites, especially on Moist-Warm habitatsof the Sub-Boreal-Spruce (SBS) biogeoclimatic zone.
On Vancouver Island Sitka spruce, screening has beenconducted in seven test sites. Recent results obtainedfrom measurements of weevil attack in new trialsestablished by the BC Ministry of Forests, confirm theBig Qualicum area of Vancouver Island as a goodsource of resistant genotypes. To accelerate thescreening process, and create a uniform weevilpressure, insect populations have been augmented atseveral trials. Spruce families with resistance havebeen able to withstand very high weevil populations.At Port Renfrew, BC, weevil attack was increasedfrom less than 1%/year to 51% in one year, yieldingnew selections.
We hope that these new selections, along with earlierresults, will form the basis for successfulestablishment of Sitka spruce plantations in B.C.These trials are also yielding important information onthe population dynamics of the white pine weevil, theimportance of its parasitoids in population control, therole of fungi in the weevil/host system as well asinformation on possible resistance mechanisms. Weexpect to integrate resistance as a component of anIntegrated Pest Management System. An importantconsideration when utilizing resistant genotypes inreforestation programs is its deployment in mixtureswith susceptible stock. Deployment of these genotypesshould, at all times, take into consideration the needfor avoiding the risk of insect selection
Insect pest problems in plantations in thehigh forests of Africa
Joe R. CobbinahForestry Research Institute of Kumasi, Kumasi Ghana
Tel: +233 51 60122, FAX: +233 51 60121, Email:[email protected]
Plantation forestry is a relatively recent phenomenonin the humid Tropical Africa probably because of therich natural forests. However the high rate ofdeforestation (1.2%) coupled with the ever increasingpopulation have necessitated the establishment offorest plantations to meet growing demand and varietyof needs. Whilst pest problems are largely unknown inthe natural forests serious problems have beenreported in the replanted forests. Pests such asPhytolyma lata Hypsipyla robusta, Lamprosimalateritialis, Apate monachus, Angophe venuta, Godasasidae and many others have hampered theestablishment of native species plantations. TheCypress aphid Cinara cupress and Leucenia psyllid.Heteropsylla cubana have also had devastating effecton introduced plantation species.
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The ecological implications to the broader issuesof why pests are more devastating in plantedforests and not natural forests and why exoticspecies are more prone to attack than native treespecies are discussed.
The effect of biocontrol agents onpopulations of the large pine weevil
(Hylobius abietis) in Ireland.Keith Day, Cliff Henry
Environmental Research, University of Ulster, BT521RW Coleraine, United Kingdom
FAX: +44 1265 32 49 11, Email: [email protected]
The large pine weevil (Hylobius abietis)continues to be a significant economic pest inIrish plantation forests where it inhibits re-establishment of transplanted conifers on clear-felled sites. Two broad approaches are consideredwhen attempting to reduce the level of thedamage caused by weevils. The first is to preventor at least reduce the access of adult weevils totransplants while they are still small enough tosustain lethal damage. This is currently achievedusing topical pesticides applied prior totransplantation, but in future this practice may bereplaced by reliance on a combination of greaterplant resistance and other silvicultural measures.The second approach is to reduce the productivityof weevils on the mosaic of clear-felled patcheswithin forests where the problem is most acute.
Weevils breed in stumps of conifers left in theground after felling. Stumps can be made lessproductive for larval development, or the adults,pupae and larvae could become more likely tosuffer disease, predation or parasitism. A well-orchestrated and forest-wide strategy to suppressthe weevil challenge to transplants, could addsignificantly to the first approach and lead tosustainable pest management (Leather et al.1999). Ideally this would involve zero pesticideuse, be at minimal cost and not affect forestbiodiversity.
The parasitoid Bracon hylobii Ratz. selectivelyattacks the larvae of Hylobius abietis while theyare below bark in the subterranean parts of treestumps. The parasitoid is widespread on forestsites in the UK and in Ireland. On plantationclearfell sites studied over several years, it wasfound that a mean of 47% of larvae were killed byparasitism and a maximum rate of parasitism of67% was observed. Only a small proportion ofweevil larvae seem to occupy habitatsinaccessible to parasitoids, and the hosts areavailable for parasitism for a long period duringdevelopment. Research is being carried out to
ascertain which forest conditions most clearly favourhigh levels of parasitism, and what relationshipparasitism has to other biological controls such as theuse of entomopathogenic nematodes.
Reference: Leather, S.R., Day, K.R. and Salisbury,A.N. (1999) The biology and ecology of the large pineweevil, Hylobius abietis L.: a problem of dispersal?Bulletin of Entomological Research, 89: 3-16.
Approach for an efficient control ofdefoliating insect damage: case of
Godasa sidae (Lep. Noctuidae) attacks onMansonia altissima
Bernard FoahomIRAD/Tropenbos Cameroon Programme, Post Box # 219,
Kribi, CameroonFAX: (237) 46 14 19, Email:
It is a well-known fact, the impact of insect defoliationof forest tree species. Godasa sidae is a major pest ofMansonia altissima, one of the most important timbertree species in West and Central Africa regions. It hasa high reproductive potential and a short life cycle,leading to many overlapping generations per year.However 2 outbreaks occur in the course of the yearleading to a complete defoliation (100%) of the treesin plantations. Fourth and fifth instar larvae are thoseinvolved in the high intensity defoliation of the trees(more than 50% of defoliation is observed at thesestages).
It was observed that the outbreaks are closely linked tothe tree phenology for they occur when the leaves aresuitable for eggs lying and young larvaefeeding/survival.
The present paper addresses the what and how of theapplication of any control measure, with specialattention to potential biological control.
Possible ways for an effective control of pest damageare discussed here. It is concluded that any efforts toundertake the control damage on trees as a result ofdefoliation must take place before the outbreak occurs,that is at an early stage of the pest life cycle.
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Impact studies for a non-lethal pest(aphids, Elatobium abietinum) on
spruce seedlings and matureplantations
Nigel A. Straw, NJ Fielding and G GreenForest Research, Alice Holt Lodge, Wrecclesham,
Farnham, GU10 4LH Surrey, United KingdomTel: 01420 22255, FAX: 01420 23 653, Email:
Sitka spruce is the most important commercialtree species in the west and north of Britain. Over530 000 ha of Sitka spruce have been plantedsince the 1920s and about 5000-6000 ha of newplantings and restocking of Sitka spruce currentlytakes place annually. However, spruce plantationsthroughout the UK are susceptible to attack bygreen spruce aphid, Elatobium abietinum(Walker) (Aphidadae), which can cause severedefoliation of older needles. Young spruce treesin plantations are also often infested with rootaphids (Pachypappa and Pachypappella spp.,Pemphigidae), especially up to and during thethicket stage. The impact of these aphids on thegrowth of young Sitka spruce has beeninvestigated by means of a long-term,manipulative field experiment in Hafren Forest,Wales, involving insecticide exclusion of aphidsand artificial infestation of trees, and a series ofnursery trials on pot-grown plants carried out atForestry Commission research stations. Resultsfrom these studies indicate that whereas rootaphids at typical field densities have no detectableeffect on the increment of established plants, E.abietinum has an immediate and lasting effect ontree height growth and a delayed effect on stemdiameter and volume.
Height increment is typically reduced by 20-30%by the end of the season following moderate-severe infestation in the spring, and is furtherreduced in the following two years, although by asmaller amount. Stem diameter and volumeincrements are not reduced in the year ofinfestation, but show typical reductions of 10-15% and 20-25% respectively, in the second year.Diameter and volume increments generally returnto normal in the third year. The almostexponential growth of young spruce trees afterestablishment and rapid replacement of lostfoliage means that effects on increment fromsingle defoliation events are short-lived, but thecorresponding losses in total height and total stemvolume persist and are still evident up to 5 yearslater.
7.03.07 Biological Invasion of Forest InsectPests - Agents of global change
Butternut Canker: An Exotic Threat toJuglans cinerea
Dale R. Bergdahl, S. HalikUniversity of Vermont, Department of Forestry, School ofNatural Resources, Forest Pathology Laboratory, 05405
Burlington, USAEmail: [email protected]
Butternut (Juglans cinerea L.) is considered a minorcomponent of the hardwood forests of eastern NorthAmerica, yet it is highly valued as a commercial woodwith a diversity of uses. This species also providesmast for wildlife and adds significantly to thebiodiversity of our forests. However, the butternutcanker fungus (Sirococcus clavigignenti-juglandacearum Nair Kostichka, and Kuntz) hasdecimated butternut throughout its range in easternNorth America during the past 30 years. This funguskills trees of all ages and also has been found to infestnuts. The fungus kills trees by causing multiple branchand stem cankers that will eventually girdle the tree,but multiple infections may also predispose the tree toattack by other opportunistic organisms which tend tohasten tree mortality. However, small branches andyoung trees are usually killed by a single canker.
Recent forest inventory data indicate that butternutcanker has had a major impact on butternut survivalduring the last several decades. For example, in NorthCarolina and Virginia, 77% of the butternut trees werelost between 1966 and 1986, and Michigan hasreported an 84% reduction in the species during thesame period of time. A 1993 survey in Wisconsinfound that 91% of live butternut trees were diseasedand 27% of the total population surveyed were dead.in 1995-96, butternut canker was found on 94% oftrees in the Lake Champlain Basin of Vermont andapproximately 25% of the trees surveyed at that timewere dead. Due to crown dieback, nut productionappears limited and regeneration in the Vermontsurveyed stands is lacking. Because of concern forbutternut, several states have placed a moratorium oncutting healthy trees growing on state lands, and theUSDA Forest Service has introduced butternutharvesting guidelines for National Forest lands. Also,the Forest Service, in cooperation with several stateand academic institutions, has initiated a tree selectionprogram based on phenotypic disease resistance. Someselections have been made and they are now beingpropagated by grafting.
The origin of S. clavigignenti-juglandacearumremains unknown, but it is believed to be a recentlyintroduced exotic pathogen because of the rapid waythe fungus has spread throughout the range of
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butternut, the aggressive nature of the fungus, thescarcity of disease resistance in the host, and theapparent lack of genetic diversity in the funguspopulation. Because of the serious impact of thiscanker disease, butternut is currently listed as acategory 2 species and it soon may be placed onthe federal government's threatened andendangered species list. Butternut already hasbeen eliminated from the standpoint ofsustainable wood production, and the future ofbutternut as a viable species now remains inserious question throughout the hardwood forestof eastern North America.
Occurrence of Bursaphelenchusspecies (Nematoda,
Aphelenchoididae) worldwide andtheir international spread by
coniferous timber tradeHelen Braasch
Federal Biological Research Centre for Agriculture andForestry, Department for National and International
Plant Health, D-14532 Kleinmachnow, GermanyEmail: [email protected]
Keywords: Bursaphelenchus spp., distribution,conifers, wood, timber trade, spread
About 50 Bursaphelenchus species are known tooccure worldwide. Due to new descriptionsduring recent years, their known number isincreasing. These nematodes are, preferably,inhabitants of wood. Approximately two thirds ofthem live in conifer trees. They are distributedthroughout the forests of the northern hemisphereand spread by insect vectors. Most of them areassociated with Scolytidae, several species withCerambycidae, Curculionidae or even Nitidulidae.Human activity is known to be the pricipal routefor dispersal of Bursaphelenchus species overgreater distances. Bursaphelenchus species havebeen intercepted on a number of occasions duringinternational trade in wood and wood products.They easily survive adverse conditions. Thelikelihood of Bursaphelenchus species to betransferred to susceptible trees in new regionsincreases with the simultaneous presence ofvector insects in the commodities.
South Africa is the only place in the southernhemisphere, where a determined Bursaphelenchusspecies (B. leoni) is known to occur. It has mostprobably been imported from the Mediterraneanregion. The most important species of the generais B. xylophilus, the pinewood nematode, whichhas been imported with wood from NorthAmerica to Japan. This nematode has been
spreading by way of timber trade in East Asia andcauses huge damage to pine forests in Japan, Chinaand Korea. in 1999, the pinewood nematode wasintroduced into Europe and is now established in arestricted area in Portugal. Its introduction pathway isunknown. Some other Bursaphelenchus species,chiefly B. mucronatus and B. sexdentati have beenfound to exhibit a phytopathogenic potential ininoculation experiments. B. mucronatus is the mostabundant species in timber imports from Russia.
The distribution of Bursaphelenchus species dependson geographic regions as well as on the availability ofbreeding places and vectors. Bursaphelenchus faunadiffers from region to region and is basically dividedinto American and Eurasian species. Within Europe,preferences of species can be seen for southern andnorthern Europe. Some species and their vectors occurin Europe, Siberia and East Asia, others seem to berestricted to Asian far eastern regions. Several newrecords are presented. Temperature is important for theincidence of damage caused by relevant species onsuitable hosts. Increasing international timber tradeoffers the possibility of their world-wide spread. Risksand limits of this process are discussed.
Studies on insect invasions in California'surban forests
D.L. Dahlsten, N. Brownfield, K. Stidt, D.L. Rowney, W.A.Cooper
University of California, 201 Wellman Hall,ESPM, Centerfor Biological Control, 94720-3112 Berkeley, California,
USATel: 510-643-5325, FAX: 510-642-7428, Email:
California has a long history of invasions of exoticinsects dating back to cottony cushion scale onoranges in the late 1800's. Since then there have been anumber of successful invaders facilitated by majorports of entry and international airports. Urban forestinvaders such as the elm leaf beetle have becomemajor pests not only in California but in the UnitedStates. There are two major tactics that are used indealing with these pests - eradication and biologicalcontrol. Eradication programs have been verycontroversial due to their reliance on chemicalpesticides. More recently biological control programshave come under scrutiny due to potential threats tonative species and biodiversity. We have chosen topursue what we believe to be the least disruptiveapproach - biological control.
We have studied three invading urban forest species inour laboratory - the elm leaf beetle, Xanthogalerucaluteola, the blue gum psyllid, Ctenarytaina eucalypti,and the eugenia psyllid, Trioza eugeniae. Our studieshave resulted in an IPM program for one insect,
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complete biological control for another, and apartially successful biological control program forthe other.
More recently an extensively planted exotic tree,Eucalyptus camaldulensis, river red gum, hasbeen colonized by the red gum lerp psyllid,Glycaspis brimblecombei. Populations of this leafsucking, honeydew producing insect have reachedsuch high densities that trees have been defoliatedin many parts of California. To date the insect hasbeen found in 30 counties. It was found initiallyin Los Angeles in June of 1998 and spread rapidlythroughout the state shortly after. in addition, thered gum lerp psyllid has been collected from 20other Eucalyptus species planted throughout thestate. We have confined our studies initially toriver red gum, as this is the tree that is mostseriously affected by the feeding of the psyllid.
With each of the invading species that we havestudied we have used a similar approach. Tobegin with we sampled to determine thedistribution and abundance of the life stages ofthe invading insect. We followed this with thedevelopment of a monitoring program. With theelm leaf beetle we use a presence-absencetechnique with the egg stage in the lower crownof the elms. With the psyllids we use yellowsticky traps for adults. Interestingly, theparasitoids of both the blue gum psyllid and theeugenia psyllid are attracted to the yellow trapswhich facilitates our evaluation of the efficacy ofthe natural enemy. Once the monitoring techniqueis in place we initiate foreign exploration and theimportation of the natural enemies. We follow theparasitoids in quarantine to be sure that they areprimary on the insect being studied and once wefeel that they are specific to the host and relativelysafe we release and evaluate the natural enemy'srole in the dynamics of the pest population.
Without more rigid regulations, insects willcontinue to be introduced into California's urbanforests, and some will become pests. We feel thatour approach is the best long term solution todealing with invasions of exotic forest insects.
Evaluating the risk of invasion bypotential forest pestsHugh Evans, Richard Baker
Forest Research, Alice Holt Lodge, Wrecclesham,Farnham, GU10 4LH Surrey, United Kingdom
FAX: +44 1420 23653, Email:h.evans@forestry,gov.uk
The rapid increase in volume, frequency andvariety of global trade, together with the highspeed at which it is conducted has resulted in
many examples of pest establishment in exoticlocations. This is certainly the case for forest pestswhere wood as a product in its own right and,especially, as packaging material for other products, isbeing moved around the world in very large volumes.
The risks associated with wood as a pathway for pestsare recognised by national plant health services andRegional Plant Protection Organisations (RPPOs) andthere is an increasing need for relevant and robust riskassessment methods that can be used consistentlyworldwide. in this paper we show how a pest riskassessment (PRA) scheme developed by the Europeanand Mediterranean Plant Protection Organisation(EPPO) has been employed in the UK to carry outassessments of a number of potentially serious forestpests. We highlight the strengths and weaknesses ofthe scheme. The determination of environmentalsuitability in PRA is of key importance and we showhow assessments can be improved by the use ofpredictive models, such as CLIMEX. Thus, based onpest status in their country of origin, some pests, suchas the southern pine beetle (Dendroctonus frontalis) inthe USA, appear to pose a high potential hazard butwe show that local environmental conditions in theUK are unlikely to support successful pestdevelopment, even if initial establishment is possible.By contrast, the establishment of an Asian longhornbeetle, Anoplophora glabripennis, in the USAillustrates how a pest that is relatively unimportant inits country of origin can cause greater problems in anew location. A PRA on A. glabripennis indicates thatthe major pathway in international trade is wood usedfor packaging and showed, using CLIMEX, that thispest could establish in large areas of Europe. Such anexample serves to emphasise that organisms withrelatively low pest status in their country of origin maypose a high potential hazard in new locations, but therisks these pests represent is much more difficult toassess. in addition, there may also be unexpectedestablishment of pests, even though a priori evaluationindicates that risks are low. We illustrate this bydescribing the discovery of an infestation of thesubterranean termite, Reticulitermes lucifugus, in thesouth-west of the UK. This appears to be just one ofan increasing number of examples of pests expandingtheir ranges beyond the climatic limits previouslythought to limit their successful development.
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Incursion management drawing onrecent New Zealand examples
E. Ruth FramptonMinistry of Agriculture and Forestry, PO Box 2526,
Wellington, New ZealandTel: +64 4 4989639, FAX: +64 4 4989888, Email:
Like other trading countries New Zealand hasbeen continually subject to incursions of exoticarthropods and diseases. For the purposes of thispaper, the term 'incursion' means an occurrence ofan organism not previously known to beestablished in New Zealand, and does not includeinterceptions. While it is not always possible topredict the impacts of such incursions, there is nodoubt that the number of these is increasing anddifferent approaches are required to theirmanagement.
More often than not incursions of forest-inhabiting species are detected in urban situations.Clearly, conservationists, local authority arboristsand production foresters favour theimplementation of eradication programmes forthose organisms that are potentially pests of foresttree species. However, eradication programmesare becoming more difficult to initiate in urbanareas particularly with residents' concerns aboutpesticide use. Moreover, conflicts of interest arisebetween urban dwellers and programmebeneficiaries - obvious programme beneficiariesbeing the rural forestry and horticultural sectors.Recent New Zealand examples of incursions ofparticular relevance to the forestry sector include:two lymantriid species, Orgyia thyellina (whitespotted tussock moth) and Teia anartoides(painted apple moth); Stegommata sulfuratella;gum leaf skeletoniser (Uraba lugens); andOphiostoma novo-ulmi, the causal organism ofDutch elm disease. The varying responses to theincursion of these organisms are outlined andcompared with recommendations for futureprogrammes.
Invasive Bark and Wood-boringBeetles in Western Canada
Leland M. HumblePacific Forest Research Centre, 506 West Burnside
Road, V8Z 1M5 Victoria, British Columbia, CanadaTel: 250-363-0644, FAX: 250-363-0775, Email:
The introduction and establishment of non-indigenous insects in forest ecosystems is acontinuing consequence human activity. Ongoingstudies of the introduction and establishment of
invasive bark and wood-boring insects around themajor Canadian port of Vancouver, British Columbia,have shown that six previously unrecognized exoticspecies of Scolytidae and Cerambycidae haveestablished in the urban forests. They include speciesoriginating from north temperate Europe and Asia, thesubtropics, and from eastern North America. Four ofthese five Scolytidae have also been introduced intoeastern North America and/or Europe throughcommerce.
Within urban forest sites, this recently discoveredfauna, along with other previously introduced species,now comprise the major component of survey trapcaptures. As well, the introduced fauna now dominatesthe total complement of Scolytidae (both individualsand species) attacking some host tree species. Onespecies exhibits a highly restricted distribution withinthe urban landscape, and two more species have notyet been found outside of urban forests. However, twoof the recent introductions have successfully invadedadjacent managed forest lands. Indeed, one of thelatter species, that within its native range is onlyknown to attack deciduous hosts, has also beenrecovered from two species of conifers. Studies arecurrently underway to determine the extent to whichthese species have invaded both managed and naturalforest ecosystems.
Although the full impact of these recent and otherhistorical introductions is not yet understood, existinginformation does indicate the potential for someincreased economic costs. Limited economic lossesresulting from degrade of softwood lumber shipmentsas a consequence of attack by non-indigenousambrosia beetles have occurred and attack has beenobserved in decked timber in managed forests.Preliminary evidence from survey and research trapcaptures indicates that the existing pheromone-basedmanagement systems used to control the levels ofdamage native ambrosia beetles at mill sites may notbe as effective in attracting these exotic species. Thusnew management systems may be required.
The biological and ecological impacts resulting fromthe establishment of these ambrosia beetles, and theirassociated ambrosial fungi, remains to be determined.These introduced species are now a major componentof the scolytid diversity in some forest systems andmay impact the diversity of native plant and animalspecies. The potential for the competitive exclusion ofat least one rare native ambrosia beetle exists inBritish Columbia.
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Control methods and managementstrategy of pine wood nematode in
Japan: History and future scopeNaoto Kamata
Kanazawa University, Faculty of Science, Laboratoryof Ecology, 930-1192 Kakuma, Kanazawa, Istukawa,
JapanFAX: +81-76-264-5708, Email:
In pine wood nematode (PWN), Bursaphelenchusxylophilus (Nematode: Aphelenchoididae), whichcauses pine wilt disease (PWD), is believed to benative North America and is thought to have beenintroduced to Japan in the early 1900's. The mainmethods of controlling PWD in Japan has beencut & treat (e.g. cut & burn, and cut & use sprayorsmoke insecticide). Because Japanese pine sawyer(JPS), Monochamus alternatus (Coleoptera:Cerambycidae), is the most important insectvector of PWN, the purpose of these cut & treatmethods are to prevent PWN expansions bypreventing the spread of adult JPS. Although itwas in the early 1970s that PWN carried by JPSwas confirmed to cause PWD, one of the reasonsthat PWD spread more slowly before the early1960s was that the cut & burn method had beenquite successful because infested dead pine treeswere efficiently removed from forests and usedfor fuel. The spread of PWD accelerated after the1970s, and PWD has now invaded all of Japanexcept for Hokkaido and Aomori, thenorthernmost prefecture of Honshu. Now with ourunderstanding of PWD ecology, PWD wouldtheoretically have been extinguished if all thedead trees were treated properly before the time ofJPS adult emergence. According to a simulationby Shigesada et al. (1999), <10% of untreateddead trees may allow PWD to expand its range.Therefore, it is natural to think that thereremained <10% of untreated dead trees every yearand that this percentage increased after the 1970s.Possible reasons include:
1. Rapid industrialization of Japan made itdifficult to treat dead pine trees completely,because the number of forest workers decreasedand wood as fuel was rapidly replaced by gas andoil.
2. Many dead pine trees were treated after JPSadults had already emerged, which partiallydepended on a lack of knowledge of the life cycleof JPS and partially on the budget system; as thefiscal year starts in April making it difficult toperform complete eradication before the start ofJPS emergence (May-June).
Because low temperatures cause a delay in hostsymptom development and a slower rate of both PWNand JPS population increase, the spread of the PWNand the number of infested pine trees have tended toslow down in northern Japan. This fact means that thecontrol efforts and the intrinsic rate of increase ofPWD are balanced in the regions it is speculated thatthe PWN will expand only slowly in northern Japan bythe repeating processes of 'spread and establishmentinto uninfested areas in hot dry summers' and 'keepingthe status quo in cool summers'. To stop the newinvasion in the hot dry summers is the key to controlstrategy in the northern extremes of the PWN range.The result of a barrier zone defense project in theexpanding front of northern Japan will be presented.
Biological invasion of forest insect pests -a threat to the stability of the world's
forest ecosystemsAndrew Liebhold
USDA Forest Service, Northeastern Research Station, 180Canfield St, WV 26505 Morgantown, USA
FAX: +01-304-285-1505, Email: [email protected]
For millions of years the world's biota has beenseparated by geographical barriers such as oceans andmountain ranges but humans are ever increasing theirrate of world movement and this has caused anacceleration of rates of accidental introductions ofspecies into new areas. Biological invasions representa particularly major problem to Forestry becauseinvading species often disrupt efforts to manage fornatural ecosystem functions and/or for sustainableyield of wood products.
The ecological and economic effects of biologicalinvasions in forestry probably already exceed thosecaused by either air pollution or climate change andthe problem is likely to increase in magnitude in thefuture. The enormity of the problem appears to beincompletely understood by scientists andinadequately appreciated by policy-makers.
I present here a generalized theory of the ecology ofinvasions consisting of three related processes: arrival,establishment, and spread. Specific populationprocesses dominate each phase of the invasion processand are affected by life history characteristics such thatit is possible to use these characteristics to predict therisk of invasion posed by different organisms. Thisinformation can be used to develop optimal strategiesfor management of all phases of the invasion process. Ipresent a simple model that can be applied to identifyoptimal management strategies during invasions.
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Hemlock Woolly Adelgid in the UnitedStates: Status of Ongoing Biological
Control EffortsScott Salom, Mark McClure
Virginia Tech, Dept. Entomology, VA 24061-0319Blacksburg, USA
Tel: 540-231-2794, FAX: 540-231-9131, Email:[email protected]
Hemlock woolly adelgid (HWA), Adelges TsugaeAnnand (Homoptera: Adelgidae) was firstdiscovered on hemlock (Tsugae spp.) trees inwestern North America in the 1920's. It wasn'tuntil the early 1950's that HWA was first reportedin eastern North America, near Richmond,Virginia. HWA is considered native of Tsuga spp.in Asia, principally, China and Japan. Asian andwestern North American Tsuga spp. are resistantto HWA feeding and are able to sustaincolonization and feeding with little damageresulting to the tree. The eastern Tsuga spp.,(Tsuga canandensis (L.) Carr.and T. carolinianaEngelm.) are both susceptible to HWA and areoften killed when infestation density is high. Itwas not until the 1980's that populations of HWAbegan to increase dramatically. Concurrent withthat was the expansion of the insect's geographicrange. It has spread as far north as Massachusettsand south to North Carolina. Prevailing westerlywinds have probably played a role in slowingexpansion west of the Appalachian range.
The insect has two generations per year onhemlock and can be found attached to the base ofthe needles. The insects insert their stylet intostorage parenchyna cells below the abcissionlayer of the needles. New shoot development isimpacted, affecting growth of new needles. Treescan be killed in as soon as four years, yet oftenlive longer. Trees that are able to survive mayeither be more vigorous or less disposed to HWAgenetically. Neither explanation has beenrigorously tested. The insect secretes whitewoolly material that cover the insect and serve asovisacs. The only mobile stage for movementfrom among hemlocks is the crawler stageimmediately following eclosion of the eggs.Crawlers have no wings. Therefore, dispersal ispassive. HWA poses a serious threat to easternforests of North America. Both Tsuga spp. playimportant ecological roles in the forest, especiallyin riparian areas. The prospects of losing thesespecies are real and efforts to address thisproblem have been undertaken. The mostpromising research underway for helping toreduce the impact of HWA is the importation of
natural enemies from its native habitat. Searches inJapan and China have yielded numerous predators,most previously undescribed. Two coccinellid beetlesshow the greatest promise. From Japan,Pseodoscymnus Tsugae Sasaji & McClure, has beenstudied extensively in the laboratory, and is beingmass reared for limited field releases that are currentlytaking place throughout eastern North America whereHWA occurs. This insect has survived in the field forup to two years and has reduced the density of HWAon trees in which it was released. Another coccinellidbeetle Scymnus sinuanodulus Yu & Yao, has beenstudied in the lab. It has shown good promise as apredator and is considered ready for limited releases.in western North America, a predator commonly foundassociated with HWA Laricobius nigrinus Fender(Coleoptera: Derodontidae), has been imported toVirginia and is currently being studied at a quarantinelaboratory located at Virginia Tech. This insect hasbeen able to complete several generations on HWAonly. This presentation will report on the latestresearch being carried out on these predators. Theirpotential role and effectiveness in regulating HWApopulations will be discussed.
Modelling the Spread of pine Wilt Diseasein Japan
Nanako Shigesada, Yamamota, N., Kawasaki, K., Takasu,F., Togashi, K., Nunotani, H.
Nara Women's University, Kita-Uoya Nishimachi, 630-8506 Nara, Japan
FAX: +81-742-20-3438, Email: [email protected]
An epidemic of pine wilt disease has been spreading inwide areas of Japan for nearly a century. The diseaseis caused by the pinewood nematode Bursaphelenchusxylophilus, with the pine sawyer, Monochamusalternatus as vector. We present a mathematical modelto describe the host-parasite interaction between pinesand pine sawyers carrying nematodes on the basis ofdetailed data taken from the incidence of pine wiltdisease at a study site located on the northwest coast ofJapan. With this model we simulate the temporalchange in the incidence of the disease and predict howthe epidemic could be controlled by eradication of thepine sawyer. Furthermore, the model is extended tostudy the spatial spread of disease on a large scale, byincorporating short-range dispersal of the pine sawyertogether with long-range dispersal through airconvection or transportation of logs infested withnematodes. The leap distance distribution of sawyersis estimated from experimental data.
The main results are:1) There is a minimum threshold of the initial pinedensity for successful invasion of the disease.However, even if the pine density exceeds the
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minimum threshold, the disease fails in invasiondue to the Allee effect of the pine sawyer when itsdensity is very low.2) The minimum threshold density increasesdisproportionately with increase in the eradicationrate.3) Once the disease is established, its rangeexpands at a constant speed depending on the pinedensity.4) in areas where rapid spreads of the disease areobserved, more than 10 percent of sawyers areestimated to undergo long-distance dispersalnaturally or artificially.
Recent Invasions of Forest InsectsPests in Central Europe
Marek TurcaniForest Research Institute Zvolen, Research Station
Banska Stiavnica, Lesnicka 11, 96923 BanskaStiavnica, Slovakia
Tel: +421 859 6911144, FAX: +421 859 6911044,Email: [email protected]
The eastern part of central Europe (Hungary, theCzech Republic, the Slovak Republic and Poland)is an important transit corridor between Russiaand Westem Europe and this causes a high riskfor introduction of non native species. This regionis heavily affected by anthropogenic factors (e.g.air pollution, changing climate) and these changespromote the expansion of species ranges to newareas as well. We describe 3 noteworthy invaders,the bark beetle Ips duplicatus C. R. Sahlberg 1836and leaf miners Parectopa robiniella Clemens1863 and Cameraria ohridella Deschka & Dinic1986.
In 1993, an outbreak of a previously unknownbark beetle species (Ips duplicatus) wasdiscovered in the northeastem part of the CzechRepublic in stands of Norway spruce (Picea abiesL.). The native range of this species includesnorthern Europe to west Siberia, but occasionalrecords exist from Austria, the Czech Republicand south Poland. The outbreak has continued for5 years and over 0.6 mil. m3 of trees were killed.Beginning in 1997, pheromone traps have beenused to delimit the extent of this insect in centralEurope. Data indicate, that this species nowoccupies the northwestern part of Slovakia, thesouthern part of Poland and almost all area of theCzech Republic. Out of primary outbreak area thefirst groups of trees infected by this species haverecently been found in the northwestern SlovakRepublic and it appears, that the range of thisspecies is expanding through central Europe.
In 1993, a leaf miner, Cameraria ohridela, wasdiscovered for the first time in the southwestern
of Hungary. The species probably origins from areanear Ohrid Lake (Makedonia). This pest attacks thehorse chestnut (Aesculus hippocastanum L.),frequently planted in parks, cemeteries and in specialhunting areas. The pest has 3-5 flight periods duringthe year and causes heavy defoliation of tree at thebeginning of summer often leading to their death after1- 3 years defoliation depending on their health andweather conditions. in 1996,this species reached theSlovak and Czech republics and during 2 subsequentyears infested almost all teititory of both for the firsttime in the southwestem Hungary (1978 - 1979). in1986, the species reached the Slova countries. Alsoduring this period, black locust (Robinia pseudoAcaciaL.) stands in the region were attacked by the leafminer Parectopa robiniella (this species originalesfrom North America). The pest was discovered krepublic and in 1989, the Czech republic.
These examples illustrate the enorrnity of problemswith invasive species to central Europe even thoughextensive quarantine efforts exist. These problemsillustrate the importance of preparing the GlobalForest Invasive Species Information System as a partof Global Forest Information Service at this time.
Global Spread of Insect-Associated FungiOn Exotic Plantation Pines
Michael J. Wingfield, Bernard Slippers, Zhou Xu Dong,Wilhelm de Beer and Brenda D. Wingfield
University of Pretoria, Department of Genetics andDepartment of Microbiology and Plant Pathology, 0001
Pretoria, South AfricaTel: +27 12 4293938, FAX: +27-12 420 3960, Email:
During the course of the 20th Century, plantationforestry in the tropics and Southern Hemisphere hasgrown dramatically. This growth is associated withincreased demand for wood and paper products andalso with restrictions on the felling of native forests.Thus, huge industries have been established based onextensive areas planted to highly productive exoticpine species. An important reason for the success ofexotic pine plantation forestry is that the trees havebeen separated from the insect pests and diseases thatfeed on them in their areas of origin. Pine-infestinginsects have gradually begun to appear on treespreviously separated from these pests. Theseaccidental introductions have, in many cases, occurreddespite outstanding quarantine. An aspect of theintroduction (accidental or intended) of pine-infestinginsects that is not commonly appreciated, is the factthat many of these insects live in association withfungi that are also detrimental to forestry. Theseassociations range from relatively casual (e.g.Fusarium circinatum with cone and shoot-feedinginsects) to highly specific (e.g. Amylostereum
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areolatum with the wood wasp Sirex noctilio).The identity of these fungal associates and thestructure of their populations, provide outstandingclues to the origin of the insects. Such knowledgealso has important implications for pest anddisease avoidance in the future.
7.04.00 Air Pol lut ion Impacts on ForestEcosystems
Long-term impacts of photochemicalsmog on forests: Evaluation of effects
at stand and landscape levelsAndrzej Bytnerowicz, Michael Arbaugh
USDA Forest Service, Pacific Southwest ResearchStation, 4955 Canyon Crest Drive, CA 92507
Riverside, USATel: 909-680-1562, Email: [email protected]
Photochemical (oxidant) smog episodes havebeen occurring in North America, Europe andAsia for several decades. Negative effects onvegetation have been mostly attributed to ozone,although other smog components such asperoxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) and nitric acid (HN)vapor may also contribute to the observedphytotoxic effects. Long-term photochemicalsmog-related changes in mixed conifer forests ofthe San Bernardino Mountains in southernCalifornia are well known. The oxidant-relatedchanges in vegetation have also been described inforests near Mexico City, the Sierra NevadaMountains, the Appalachian Mountains, southern,central and western Europe, Taiwan, and Japan.
Development of injury symptoms (Ozone InjuryIndex, OII) on foliage of ponderosa pine trees isproportional to a dose of the ozone exposuremeasured as "SUM O". Passive ozone samplerscan be used for measuring average ozoneconcentrations and calculations of "SUM O"indices for remote forest locations. This allowsfor development of a monitoring network at alandscape level. in the 1999 summer seasonconcentrations of ozone were monitored at 85sites located in the mixed conifer zone of theSierra Nevada Mountains. Based on thesemonitoring efforts, models of spatial and temporaldistribution of ozone concentrations will bedeveloped for the Sierra Nevada range. Ozoneconcentrations will be correlated with foliarcrown injury at selected locations (about 10% ofthe ozone monitoring sites). Results of thesecomparisons will be extrapolated to the entiremixed conifer zone of the Sierra Nevada. Theseresults will also be used for prediction ofecological risks related to ozone and other
pollutants in the mixed conifer forests of the entireSierra Nevada mountain range. Similar monitoring andmodeling efforts are also in progress in the CarpathianMountains in Central Europe.
Although information on ozone exposure can be usedfor predictions of foliar injury, relationships betweenthe pollutant exposure dose to physiological andgrowth changes in trees are difficult to establish.Influence of other factors, such as inputs ofatmospheric nitrogen, water availability, temperature,relative humidity, mycorrhizae inoculation, presenceof insects, and complexity of changes at aphysiological level, affect tree growth response toozone exposure. A much better understanding ofmechanisms of pollutant effects in complex forestenvironment is needed before reliable modelspredicting growth changes and physiologicalresponses of trees to ozone alone and photochemicalsmog in general may be developed. Rapidly increasingnumber of motor vehicles in the developing Asiancountries will lead to elevated emissions ofphotochemical smog precursors (nitrogen oxides andhydrocarbons). in conditions of high solar radiation,high temperatures and thermal inversions the areas ofpotentially phytotoxic levels of ozone and otherpollutants will expand. National and international airpollution and forest health monitoring programsshould be aided by models that are able to extrapolateresults from networks of point measurements tolandscape and regional levels. Such models areessential for evaluation of risks and properenvironmental planning.
The link between forest critical loads foracidity & nitrogen and the sustainability of
forest ecosystems.Peter Freer-Smith, Fiona Kennedy
Forest Research, Alice Holt Lodge, Wrecclesham, Farnham,GU10 4LH Surrey, United Kingdom
FAX: 01420 23653, Email: [email protected]
Enhanced sulphur and nitrogen depositions can lead tosoil acidification thus detrimentally effecting bothtrees and forest ground flora by reducing nutrientavailability and by increasing Al in soil solution totoxic values. Suitable targets for emission reductionsare therefore vital for the sustainability of our forestecosystems.
The calculation and mapping of critical loads(threshold values of pollutant deposition above whichdamage occurs to forest ecosystems) for sulphur, totalacidity and nitrogen has been a major exercise co-ordinated by the UNECE under The Convention onLong-Range Transboundary Air Pollution. Outputshave informed the decision making behind the mostrecent protocol for decreasing sulphur emissions and
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are likely to determine future nitrogen emissioncontrols. The use of the critical loads approach isalso extending to developing countries.
For forests different methods have been used forsetting critical loads ranging from the empirical,Simple Mass Balance through to dynamicmodelling. The choice of model, data collectionand model parameterisation requires carefulconsideration. in the UK a combination ofpublished information and newly collected dataare used. These data are also of very major valuein predicting the sustainability of forestecosystems (Freer-Smith, 1998).
This paper will present the approach, which hasbeen adopted in the UK and will discuss thereasoning and implications of the decisions made.Some of the key data sets which are being used inthe calculation of critical loads and judgement ofsustainability will be presented (nutrient removalin harvesting, calculation of average volumeincrement, and wood nutrient content, base cationand pollutant depositions, critical chemicalcriteria in soils i.e. Al:Ca or Al:base cations andmineral weathering rates in forest soils). Theexperimental and survey work, which providesthese data, will be described. Forest soil criticalloads maps will be presented for the UK and theirimplications discussed.
Freer-Smith P H 1998 Do pollutant-related forestdeclines threaten the sustainability of forests.Ambio XXVII No 2 123-131
Wildland fires as a source of airpollution: recent experience in
Southeast AsiaBryan Lee, Michael Brady, Adi Sasitiwarih and Harby
SandhuCanadian Forest Service, Natural Resources Canada,
5320-122 Street, P.O. Box 3910, T6H 3S5 Edmonton,Canada
Tel: 780-435-7210, FAX: 780-435-7356, Email:[email protected]
Keywords: air pollution, forests, fire danger, ElNino, Southeast Asia
Extreme weather conditions like droughts andfloods usually result in environmental disasters indifferent parts of the world costing billions ofdollars each year. Though El Nino-relateddroughts occur every two to seven years inSoutheast Asia with varying intensity, the 1997and 1998 El Nino events produced a prolongeddrought in many parts of this region. Thisphenomenon also caused the monsoon to bedelayed, greatly increasing the impact of thedrought. Both of these El Nino events were
classified as "type one", or the most severe on record.in Indonesia, the impact of 1997 El Nino was mostsevere in central Sumatra and West Kalimantan, whileEast Kalimantan received the most severe impactsduring the 1998 event. Information on these eventswas obtained by monitoring hotspots, smokedistribution, fire danger, drought conditions and airquality.
The droughts of 1997 and 1998 resulted in producingheavy air pollution from wildland fires in large areasof Indonesia, Singapore, Malaysia, Brunei, Thailandand the Philippines. These fires burnt an estimated fivemillion hectares during 1997 in Indonesia alone. Thesources of these fires were agricultural and landconversion burning. These fires generated largeemissions of carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide,nitrogen oxides, ozone, hydrocarbons, particulatematter (smoke) and other pollutants. These emissionscontributed to the local and transboundary airpollution issues of visibility, climate change, acidicdeposition and smog. Magnitude of the Haze Index(HI) and the Air Pollution Index (API) indicated thatthe worst air po1lution occurred in Sumatra andKalimantan regions of Indonesia. Also, air qualityreadings in Singapore and Malaysia were at recordhighs. The wildland fires of 2000 also resulted inconsiderable smoke and haze problems in Indonesia.Since natural phenomenon can not be readilycontrolled by people, prevention and early detection offires is the best way to minimize air pollution at thesource and the resulting impacts.
In 1999, Canada signed a memorandum ofunderstanding with Indonesia to develop a fire earlywarning system. The Fire Danger Rating System(FDRS) Project for South East Asia is a Joint Initiativeof the Canadian Forest Service (CFS) and Indonesia'sAgency for the Evaluation and Application ofTechnology (BPPT). The project is regional in natureand the participation and support of other countriesand organizations in the region has been incorporated.The project will establish appropriate fire dangermonitoring approaches at regional, national andprovincial/state levels. Smoke estimation, atmosphericdispersion and management techniques are included inthe scope of the project. Since the use of danger ratingsystems have been successful in Canada and otherparts of the world, it is anticipated that FDRS projectwill help to alleviate the fire and haze situation inSoutheast Asia.
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2000 State of science on air pollutionimpacts on forests: Applicability to
Asian RegionKevin Percy, David Karnosky, Jesada Luangjame
Canadian Forest Service, Atlantic Forestry Centre, PostBox # 4000, E3B 5P7 Fredericton, New Brunswick,
CanadaTel: 506-452-3524, FAX: 506-452-3525, Email:
Keywords: air pollution, forests, forest health,global change
Global change poses one of the major threats tointernational forest health and sustainability in the21st Century. Maintenance of forest health isessential for forest resilience to climate changeand extreme weather events. Concentrations oftropospheric O3 (smog) are increasing rapidly indeveloping regions and more gradually indeveloped ones. Acid deposition via rain, cloudand in dry form remain of concern despite recentinternational success at regulation oftransboundary transport and in emissionsabatement. Nitrogen saturation of forestedwatersheds is occurring in many regions. Cause-effect linkages may not always be made due todesign of existing monitoring networks. Levels ofO3 may largely offset modelled gains in forestproductivity from increasing global atmosphericCO2 concentrations. Future predicted patterns ofair pollution coupled with ongoing climate change(global change) may interact to significantly alterforest health and increase susceptibility to otherbiotic and abiotic agents of disease. in this paperwe shall provide a brief summary of state ofscience on air pollution impacts on forest
ecosystems emanating from the 19th IUFRO ResearchGroup 7.04.00 meeting in Houghton, Michigan, May2000 and other sources. Applicability of science fromdeveloped programmes to developing needs in theAsian region will be discussed.
Air pollution in China: Deposition andEffects on Forests
Youbin Zheng, Hideyuki ShimizuCGER, National Institute for Environmental Studies,
Tsukuba, Ibaraki, JapanEmail: [email protected]
Over the last two decades, China, a country with apopulation of 1.22 billion people - one fifth of theworld's population, has undergone a period of rapideconomic development.This fast economic andpopulation growth, inevitably has been causing a rapidincrease in energy consumption. As most of the otherAsian developing countries, China has a higher rate ofincrease in energy consumption (mainly coal), butshort of efficient air pollution control facilities, thishas been causing a higher increase rate in air pollutant(SO2, NOx, particulate and CO2) emission than that indeveloped countries. The increasing air pollutantemission already caused an alarming air qualitydeterioration in many big cities and industrial areas.Air pollution problem is so sever that it is responsiblefor more than 1 million deaths of people per year inChina, or about one in every eight deaths nation wide.China has 134 million hectares of forest, about 14percent of the total land area. in this talk, we presentthe up-to-date air pollution (SO2, NOx, O3, particulateand acid precipitation) situation in China and a reviewof the effects of air pollutant deposition on forests(field evidences and research results) in this country.
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Division 8Forest Environment
CoordinatorDr. Kyoji SASSA
Kyoto University
Disaster Prevention Research Institute
Gokasyo, Uji Kyoto 611-0011,
Japan
fax: +81-774-384300
tel: +81-774-384110, 384112
e-mail: [email protected]
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8.00.00 Forest and environment
Interference potential of CasuarinaEquisetifolia L. in natural forests of
North-Western IndiaDaizy R. Batish, Harminder Pal Singh, R.K. KohliPanjab University, Department of Botany, 160 014
Chandigarh, IndiaTel: +91-172-546666, 547777, FAX: +91-172-541409,
Email: kohli%[email protected]
Keywords: Casuarina; Allelopathy; Understoreyvegetation; Litter; Biodiversity; Seed germination.
Casuarina Equisetifolia L. (FamilyCasuarinaceae) commonly known as Horsetailtree is a fast growing, drought hardy, nitrogenfixing exotic tree with wide adaptability todifferent environmental conditions. A native ofAustralia, it has been introduced in various partsof India primarily for fuel, land reclamation andornamental value. The monoculture plantations ofC. equisetifolia can be seen various parts of thecountry including the Northern ones. Apparently,very little vegetation is seen under the canopy ofthese plantations as compared to the adjoiningopen area. This little vegetation is also probablydue to grouping of the sensitive species withstrong interactive ability. The ground, however, isseen covered with litter composed exclusively ofcladodes or needle like branchlets, whorled,reduced and scaly leaves or cone like femaleflowers and echinate fruits. The presence of litteron the ground surface may affect nutrientavailability and their accumulation in soil andmay contribute alleloc hemicals in the soil leadingto depletion in vegetation. Competition alone cannot explain the reduction in phyto-diversity underC. equisetifolia. Allelopathy which is known tooccur in many natural and managed ecosystemscan be one of the stress factor. It is known to playan important role in regulating plant diversity,non random distribution of vegetation, zonationand organisation of plant communities. Keepingin view the was, therefore, planned to determinethe ecological status of understorey vegetationand reasons of its depletion. The results indicatethat the ecological status of the species under themonoculture plantations of C. equisetifolia andopen area was strikingly different leading to clearcur differentiation. The Importance Value Indexof the species, the indices of richness, diversityand evenness also varied. in order to find out thereason the leachates from the needles of the treewhich were either fallen on the ground as well asfresh, females cones adversely affected thegermination, growth and development of the few
sensitive species. Allelopathy was, therefore,demonstrated as one of the causative factor.
Forecast of Forest Ecosystem DynamicsUnder Different Scenarios of Forest
Management (Mathematical Modelling OnGIS-technology basis)
Sergei I Chumachenko, Marya M. Palyonova, Dmitrii A.Starostenko and Vladimir N. Korotkov
Moscow State Forest University, Institutskaya, 141005Mytischi, Russia
Email: [email protected]
Keywords: Forest management; Ecosystem dynamics;Modelling; GIS; Forest planning
The problem of forest ecosystem dynamics' forecastwas solved within the framework of a programcomplex DBMS-GIS-MODEL, in which DBMS andGIS accumulate and process the attribute and spatialinformation for the forest object and MODEL ensuresthe forest dynamics forecasting. The most importantfeature of this model is the account of strata positionand their mutual influence.
As initial information for the forecast module of themodel, we have used the per-stratum data bank andcartographic bank of the forest planning and inventoryworks, which for particular forest management units,exists in the form of information systems (DBMS orGIS). As a result of the model works as similarinformation is obtained. To take into accountbioecological processes in real forest communities, alarge umber of reference databases is used within thesimulation. The presented information technologyhelps to forecast and explain the causes of biodiversitychanges in forest ecosystems under impact of forestryactivity.
Geographic Specificity of Forest Coverwithin Side-Enisey Middle Taiga Area
S. M. Gorozhankina, Konstantinov V.D.Academy of Sciences, Siberian Branch, V.N.Sukachev
Institute of Forest, Krasnoyarsk, RussiaFAX: (3912) 433686, Email: [email protected]
Keywords: Ecotone; Taiga; Landscape structure;Forest types; Russia.
Side-Enisey Siberia is an unique natural ecotone,placed at the boarder part of the greatest landstructures - the young West Siberia platform andancient Middle Siberia plate. It resulted in complicatedlandscape structure, which combined both west-siberian and middle-siberian features. Side-Eniseyecotone middle taiga section has been investigatedwithin Central Siberia Biosphere Reserve territorywith terrestrial co-ordinates at 62-64° latitude Northand 88-92° longitude East. Several landscapes aredetermined here. I - recent valley of Enisey river,
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which includes flood-plain (absolute height is 30-60m) and loamy fluvial terraces (60-120m). II -loamy left-bank divides of low hypsometric level.III - piedmont mound-ridge plain. On account ofgreat disparity in height the landscape is dividedin two relief steps: IIIa - of low hypsometric level(150-200m) and IIIb - of high hypsometric level(250-300m). IV is the higher hypsometric step -350-400, 660m. Stook-form mountains and table-form divides (with rock deposits - kurums, placedalong the tops and slopes) alternate here withfragments of ancient glacier outflow hollows.Landscapes IIIb and IV are distinguished bysevere climate, which results in wide spreading offrost ground forms and vertical differentiation inplant cover.
According to landscape structure forestcomplexes are defined here:- scrub tall-herbage spruce forests within flood-plains of low and middle ecologic level;- herb parvifoliate-spruce forests, combined withfrost-mound forest-bog microcomplexes withinflood-plains of high ecologic level;- valley moss-herb parvifoliate-spruce forests,placed along solar high-angle and convex slopes;- valley herb-moss parvifoliate-dark coniferousforests, placed along shadow gentle slopes andflat interfluves;- dwarf shrub-moss parvifoliate-cedar forestswithin divides of low hypsometric level;- lichen-moss parvifoliate-dark coniferous forests,combined with yernik open forests (along ancientoutflow hollows) within divides of highhypsometric level.
The whole of tree species have the ecologicoptimum within flood-plains and decreaseedificator capacity following land surfaceabsolute height increasing. Cedar (Pinus sibirica)and spruce (Picea obovata) are the dominatingprimary tree species. Cedar strengthens itsedificator position, following the land surfaceabsolute height increasing. Spruce ecologicoptimum comes to nothing more than rivervalleys. Fir (Abies sibirica) as the forest-formingtree-species never exceeds the boundaries offlood-plains with rich and drained ecotopes. Pine(Pinus silvestris) timber stands develop withinpeaty lands mainly. Larch (Larix sibirica) spreadsall over the territory as admixed tree speciesmainly and is the most competitive in rocky andperennially frozen sites. Parvifoliate species -birch (Betula pendula) and aspen (Populustremula) are the secondary forest-formingedificators throughout the territory. Forestcomplexes within river valleys are floristically
richest. They are specific with high phytocoenoticsignificance of grass living forms and greatnumerosity of species, which require rich nutrition andheat provided ecotopes. Forest complexes of dividesfloristically are comparatively arm at the expense ofherbs lack. Cold-resistant dwarf-shrubs and mosses,which stand poor and nun-drained soils, have theheightened phytocoenotic significance instead.
Valley forests are characterised with moss-grass andgrass ground cover. Within flood-plains the gramen(Calamagrostis obtusata, C.langsdorffii) are verymuch abundant, while at the terrace flat interfluves -Equisetum sylvaticum, E. pratense are. Within divideareas of low hypsometric level forest ground cover isusually formed with dwarf shrubs (Vacciniummyrtillus, V.vitis-idaea Ledum palustre,Chamaedaphne calyculata) and two groups of mosses- green (Hylocomium splendens, Pleuroziumschreberi, Polytrichum commune) and sphagnum ones(Sphagnum angustifolium, S.nemoreum) dependentlyon site drainage. Within divides of high hypsometriclevel forest ground cover finds north expression thanksto heightened abundance of frost-resistant species -arctic scrubs (Betula humilis, B.nana), dwarf shrubs(Vaccinium uliginosum, Ledum palustre, Empetrumnigrum), Cladonia and Peltigera lichens, someHepatica species.
Forest Ecosystem Management andSustainable Development of Forestry in
NortheastDai Limin, Hao Zhanqing, Wang Qingli, Deng Hongbing
Chinese Academy of Sciences, Institute of AppliedEcology, Post Box # 417, 110015 Shenyang, China
FAX: +86-24-23843313, Email: [email protected]
Keywords: Forest ecosystem management;Sustainability; Biodiversity; Productivity; China.
In this paper, the conceptions and developments ofecosystem and ecosystem ecology were reviewed andsummarized. Then, the conception, connotation,objective, and development of ecosystem managementwere expounded. Based on these discussions, forestecosystem management was discussed. The viewpointin this paper was that the former unreasonable forestresources management should be changed, and forestecosystem management was a suitable way tosustainable development of forestry. The chiefresearch contents were pointed out in this paper, andtaking forestry in Northeastern China as focal,strategies on sustainable development of forestry werealso advanced Northeastern forest, which has animportant effect on national and regional economydevelopment, is the most extensive forest in China andits area accounts 1/3 of the total forest area. Butnatural forest resources in Northeastern China have
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been decreasing rapidly and even will beexhausted because of unreasonable developmentand usage for a long time. in the eastern hilly areaof this region, statistics data showed that the areaof forest was 36 million hectare in 1935 and mostof the forests were broad-leaved Korean pineforest and Abies-Picea forest. However, the virginbroad-leaved Korean pine forest and Abies-Piceaforest have been almost vanished and replacedwith secondary forest and artificial forest.Moreover, artificial larch forest has beenconstructed energetically since 1949. Now, 70-80% artificial forest is pure larch forest. The largearea of artificial pure forests caused soil fertilityand productivity decreasing and unstableecosystem. It is another chief problem hinderingsustainable development of northeastern forest.So, it is the most important task to conserve andreconstruct reasonable ecosystems, manage theecosystems scientifically, and reach the objectiveof sustainable forest ecosystem development andresources utilization. Another important task ofnortheast forest is to construct the optimizedmodel of sustainable artificial larch forest.Ecosystem management is a serious managingactivity aimed at a sustainable development andits application should be guarded by policy,contracts, and factual measurements. On the basisof best awareness to necessary ecological actionsand ecological processes that maintaincomponents, structure and functions, ecosystemmanagement focus on studying and monitoring,ensuring the suitability of management. Forestecosystem management is, with a basis ofecosystem management, some managementaiming at forest resources and all the forestecosystem and it includes all the management andtechnological measure by which resources can beused sustainably. Forest ecosystem is a complexsystem, and forest ecosystem management musttake maintaining dynamic equilibrium andprotecting biodiversity as basis.
A conceptual framework for forestmanagement plans
Jelle B. Maas Bijker, Hans C. VellemaThe Tropenbos Foundation, Post Box # 232, 6700 AE
Wageningen, NetherlandsTel: +31-317-426262, FAX: +31-317-423024, Email:
Keywords: Forest management plans; Sustainableforest management; Land-use planning; Landevaluation.
Forest Management Plans (FMP) have gained inimportance as both experts and donors place moreand more emphasis on FMP as a tool for
(sustainable) forest management. The TropenbosFoundation experienced that there seems to be a lot ofconfusion about the concept of FMP.
In it most simple form an FMP is a plan whichdescribes the management of a forested area in orderto reach some (predefined) objectives. But theconcepts of what an FMP comprises differs amongpeople. Some plans are more forest managementsystems in order to sustain a certain logging operationwhile other complicated plans try to manage forests ata national level. But an FMP is not just a set ofmanagement activities. An FMP:- Justifies the establishment of a management plan;- Describes the management area, including itsresource base (the entire ecosystem, including woodyvegetation, fauna, soil etc.), actors and their objectivesor needs;- Provides an evaluation of forest use options;- Elaborates on the choices made (objectives andactivities);- Describes practices and activities that best meet theobjectives;- Includes a mechanism to respond to changingcircumstances and insights.
As such an FMP is not just about resourcemanagement practices, but comprises also the processof decision making
A definition of FMP is:
'A Forest Management Plan is the description ofdecisions and activities to produce anticipatedobjectives with regard to use and conservation offorest in an area'.
Conceptual framework
The development of an FMP takes place in differentstages or levels of planning, e.g. strategic, tactical andoperational planning. In the strategic plan thedecisions concerning the objectives of themanagement, the allocation of forest land and forestfunctions, are taken. Societal needs, economic andpolitical forces, current land use, land qualities andlocations of the land first determine whether the landis allocated as forest land (kind of land use). Aninventory of the resources base and the needs form theactors in the management area are made (land useobjectives). Finally, the decisions on the managementobjectives are matched, resulting in a future desiredforest
The tactical plan describes the management activities,which are needed to reach the stated objectives,derived from the strategic plan. The operational plancomprises the actual implementation of themanagement activities and practices.
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Although not explicitly mentioned in figure 1 (notshown), monitoring and evaluation of an FMPand its execution is essential for the management.Management is continuous process.Circumstances and insights may change in thecourse of the management or assumptions mayprove false and need to be adapted.
The conceptual framework will be enriched byoperational experience gained by Tropenbos. andthe role of research within FMP development willalso be indicated.
Literature cited: Bos, J. (1994). STAGES: asystem for generating strategic alternatives forforest management. PhD thesis, WageningenAgricultural University, Wageningen, TheNetherlands
Optimization of Parametrics ofEcological Monitoring
Jakov V. Malkov, Valentin S. ShalaevMoscow State Forest University, Oblast Mytishchy-5,
141005 Moscow, RussiaTel: +7-095-5869156, FAX: +7-095-5869134, Email:
Keywords: Ecological monitoring; Minimizationof parameters; Technical diagnosis; Influence onecosystem
Making ecologically significant decisions ispossible if one has reliable information about theenvironment and its ecological conditions.Measurements of parameters of influence on theecosystem as well as ecosystem itself must becorrelated according to accuracy. Systematicapproach is preferable when one can observe andcontrol the most important correlation betweenparameters of influence on the ecosystem andecosystem itself. Otherwise it can so happen thatthere are a lot of monitoring data but littleinformation about actual state of the ecosystem.
Means of land and space monitoring meant forglobal transnational and regional levels ofecosystems control must be connected byuniversal methodology based on similar integraland local parameters of ecosystems and theircounterparts. Hence the use of principles oftechnical diagnosis: genesis, diagnosis andprognosis of behavior of technical objects seemsuseful.
Universal algorithm of minimization ofparameters of ecological monitoring:1 - Setting tasks: inventory of all sources ofparameters of influence on the ecosystems and
qualitative evaluation of the expected content andamount of toxic substances.- Single out objects of ecosystem their parametersaccording to which the reaction of the ecosystem tothe influence will be monitored.2 - Making research: monitoring all informativeparameters of influence on the ecosystem.- Estimation of the coefficient of pair correlation of allinformative parameters of influence on the ecosystem.- Creation of a set of basic diagnostic parameters ofinfluence on the ecosystem.- Measurement of all informative parameters ofinfluence of the ecosystem.Calculation of coefficients of pair correlation of allinformative parameters of influence on the ecosystem.- Specification of the set of basic diagnosticparameters of the system.- Building up of "dose-effect" patterns.- Evaluation of "dose-effect" correlation, theirminimization (most sensitive and less correlated).3 - At the stage routine ecological monitoring:- Control of minimized set of "dose-effect" patternsonly.- Criterial evaluation of ecosystem condition.
An Assessment of Multi-data Fusion inForest Resource Management for the
Northern Part Selangor, MalaysiaMuhamed K. Musa, Yousif Ali Hussin, Michael Weir
The Internationa Institute for Aerospace Survey and EarthSciences (ITC), 99 Hengelostraat, 7500 AA Enschede,
NetherlandsFAX: (31) 53-4874-444, Email: [email protected]
Keywords: Forest resource management;Sustainability; Satellite remote sensing; Resourceinventory; Monitoring; TM image; Malaysia.
The aim of this research was to evaluate the potentialuse of fused multi-sensor images to supplyinformation to strengthening the Malaysian forestresources management programme. The work exploresthe combination of the optical and SAR data using twoimage fusion techniques namely, Brovey andIntensity, Hue and Saturation (IHS), and assesses theirefficiency and effectiveness for forest resourcemanagement.
Natural resources, and forest in particular, arebecoming increasingly scarce and exhausted. As it wasaddressed in Agenda 21 of the Rio Convention, June1992, the concept of sustainable forest managementhas become critical issue that must be addressed if theimpact on the environment and the quality of life isnot to be further threatened. To achieve sustainability,forest managers require information, not only aboutthe current status of the forest availability andutilisation, but also about the future trends. The need
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for information requires continuous inventoryingof the resources, in order to plan, manage andconserve the forest resources on a sustainablebasis. Satellite remote sensing is recognised as apowerful tool for forest resources inventorymonitoring and management.
In Malaysia, the limitations of cloud cover and thesensitivity of optical sensors to atmosphericdisturbances hamper the use of remotely senseddata, such as Landsat TM, that use the opticalrange of the electromagnetic spectrum. inaddition, forestry sector faces with difficultiessuch as broken terrain, multi-storied forestcanopies, and few maps and other baseline data.The fusion of optical remotely sensed data withimages acquired from radar seems to be apowerful method to optimise and enhanceinformation extraction. Until now, Malaysianexperience in the fusion of data sets fromdifferent sensor or platform for forest resourcesmonitoring is still in research stage. in recentyears, however, more effort has made to takeadvantage of the availability of both optical andSAR systems.
This research concentrates on the integrated useof Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) imagery fusedwith either JERS-1, ERS-1 or Radarsat SyntheticAperture Radar (SAR) imagery in a test area inNorthern Parts of Selangor State, Malaysia. Twoimages fusion techniques, Brovey and Intensity,Hue and Saturation (IHS) transformation, wereused to classify 11 types of forest ecosystem andfive types of non-forest classes. The classificationof fused images shows that the best overallaccuracy (91.4%) was obtained from Landsat TMPrinciple Component bands 123 fused with JERS-1 through the Brovey transformation. The resultsindicate that the possibility of extracting more andaccurate information from fused images is highand that it proves to be of great benefit to forestmanagement. It helps to reduce the effect of cloudcover and supply more information about multi-stories forest canopy and can therefore directlycontribute to sustainable forest management.
Forest Fuel Inventory in Plantation ForestAhmad Ainuddin Nuruddin, Dalinsip Pangalin and
Khamurudin Mohd. NoorUniversiti Putra Malaysia, Faculty of Forestry, 43400 UPM
Serdang Selangor, MalaysiaFAX: 603-943-2514, Email: [email protected]
Keywords: Fuelwood; Fuel component; Fuel loading;Forest Fire risk; Malaysia.
Forest fuel inventory is a way to describe fuelcomponents, fuel quantity and estimates its volume.This information can be used to detect high risk andhazardous areas. However, the study of this nature hasnot been conducted in Malaysia. This study wasconducted to determine the fuel components on forestfloor of two different age stands and to estimate thefuel loading of the various fuel components. Thisstudy was carried out at Bukit Tarek Forest Reserve,Hulu Selangor, Selangor Darul Ehsan, at two standage of Acacia mangium of 5 and 9 year-old. Fuelcomponents of downed woody material and duff weresampled along transect lines. Shrubs, litter, herbaceousand small trees (< 3 m height) were sampled fromquadratic plots. The results showed that thecomponents of forest fuel and their vegetation on bothstands were similar but not in term of their fuelloading and density. The 5 year-old stand showed23.31 tonne/ha of fuel components (downed woodymaterial, litter and herbaceous), 1.73 cm of duff depth,37,030 stem/ha of shrubs density and 2,175 tree/ha ofsmall trees. The 9 year-old stand showed 17.42tonne/ha of fuel components 3.03 cm of duff depth,39,151 stem/ha shrubs density and 3,515 tree/ha ofsmall trees. Downed woody material made up of 89%and 74% of the total fuel weight for 5 year and 9 yearold stands, respectively. Comparison between twodifferent age stands, showed that 5 year old stand hashigher quantity of downed woody materials than 9year-old stand. with 20.66 tonne/ha and 12.82tonne/ha, respectively. Based on diameter classinterval, the weight of downed woody material,diameter class of 0-7.6 cm were higher compared todiameter class of > 7.6 cm. The fuel weight for 0-7.6cm diameter class were 12.48 tonne/ha and 9.94tonne/ha for 5 and 9 year-old stands, respectively.Statistical analysis showed that the loading of downedwoody material on 5 year-old stand was significantlygreater than the 9 year-old stand. However, litterloading was greater on the 9 year-old stand than the 5year-old stand (P=0.05). The study concludes that interms of fuel loading, 5 year old stand has higher firerisk than 9 year old stand. This is due to thesilviculture activities in the 5 year old stand.
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Analysis of allelopathic substancesfrom roots and leaves of Robinia
pseudoacaciaYoung-Goo Park, K.S., Kwon
Kyungpook National University, Department ofForestry, Lab. of Forest Genetics, Department of
Forestry702-701 Taegu, Korea R.
FAX: 82-53-950-6798, Email:[email protected]
Keywords: Allelopathic substance; Leaching;Seed germination; Black locust.
Robinia pseudoAcacia (black locust), whoseorigin is in America, was introduced to theKorean Peninsula from China in about 1897. Thisspecies was planted extensively for fuel in ruralareas during the 1970's, and plantations currentlycover about 320,000 ha. Black locust now hasmany additional uses in Korea such as buildingmaterials, soil conservation, shade trees, forageand honey production. This tree exhibits rapidgrowth and is ecologically aggressive withallelopathic effects on other species. We analyzedthe allelopathic substances in leachates from rootsand leaves of black locust using HPLC, anddetermined leachate effects on seed germination.
Leachates from black locust roots inhibited seedgermination of Alnus firma and Pinus taeda bymore than 50% compared with distilled water.Germination frequency of Lespedeza bicolor wasless than 54% of the control in treatments withleachates from fallen leaves of black locust. Seedgermination of Arundinella anomala was alsohighly inhibited by 68% with leachates from liveblack locust leaves obtained in October.
Germination rate of lettuce was reduced to 10%with a 30% dilution of leachate from leaves (200g/L distilled water, 24 h extraction). Completesuppression of germination was obtained with a50% dilution and undiluted leaf leachatesolutions. Leachates from root bark (200 g/Ldistilled water, 24 h extraction) suppressed lettucegermination by 70%. A mixture of leachates fromleaves and root bark reduced seed germination oflettuce to 10%.
Phenolic compounds in leachates were analyzedby HPLC using a Microbondapak C18 column(300 x 3.9 mm) with 0.5% acetic acid in distilledwater and 0.5% acetic acid in acetonitrile suppliedat a flow rate of 1.5 mL/min. Detection was madeat 260, 280 and 320 nm. Robinia leaves containabout seven times more phenolic acids thanRobinia roots per unit dry weight. Although
paracommaric acid is in lesser quantities in roots(18843 ng) than leaves (42142 ng), this acid accountsfor the majority of phenolic acids in roots. in leaves,gentisic acids are the major phenolic componentfollowed by parahydroxybenzoic acid.
Migration Technical Pollutions inMountain Landscapes of Ukrainian
CarpathiansY. S. Shparyk
Ukrainian mountain forestry research institute (UkrMFRI)Grushevskogo street, 31, 284000 Ivano - Frankivsk,
UkraineTel: 380-03422-25216, Email: [email protected]
Keywords: Ecological monitoring; Natural landscape;Toxic elements; Pollution; Ukraine
In region of Ukrainian Carpathians of work onecological monitoring of forests are conductedUkrMFRI since 1990 under the european program"ICP-Forest". On the first level monitoring (thenetwork of 16 x 16 kms) is incorporated 80 plots ofconstant supervision behind a condition of forests inLvov, Ivano-Frankovsk, Zakarpatye and Chernovtsyareas. in 1996 the institute has begun development ofthe second level monitoring, which purpose is theprofound study of biogeochemical laws of functioningof natural landscapes. On all of plots are selected thetests of basic structural elements forestry ecosystems:
soil, litter, herbaceous covering, mosses, lichen, barkand also atmospheric downfalls (snow). in 1997 yearare begun researches on biogeochemical indication:estimated absolute contents 39 chemical elements intests, analyse their deflation coefficients and migrationon system "atmosphere - soil - plant".
For contents estimation technical pollutions in testspressed into the service of method nuclear issue ininductively connected plasma (ICP). Set a presence inall of analysed structural elements of mountain forestsof such toxic microelements: B, Be, Bi, Cd, Ce, Cu,La, Pb, Sn, V, Zn. Now detailed biogeochemicalestimation develops of vertical migration technicalpollutions into mountain landscapes.
Done such previous deductions:
- on regions territory takes place accumulation inforestry ecosystems cadmium and molybdenum, andin atmospheric downfalls - barium, cobalt, to chrome,copper, iron, to manganese, to molybdenum, to nickeland to lead. On all of counted elements set anomalieson their concentrations in environment.
- in territorial attitude all pollutions both in soil and insnow waters characterize by maximum concentrationsin more industrial parts of region. This bears witness
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to dominating role of local sources pollutions informing of environments contamination.
- checked off exceeding of admissible levels forcontents in soils to lead and to chrome, and insnow waters - copper, molybdenum, vanadiumand zinc. Analysis of correlation matrices gives apossibility to affirm, that exists a definiteelements group, which determines contaminationof regions environment, and by them source thereare local aerotechnical pollutions.
- calculated a geochemical background for regionof Ukrainian Carpathians on contents in soils ofanalysed microelements. Will check essential offdifference on his senses for forest and industrialregions.
- amount of definite microelements most inatmospheric downfalls, and diminishes in row:soil, litter, herbages, mosses, lichen, bark. Thisshows, that basic by dint of contamination ofmountain forests is atmospheric falls.
Important, on our thought there is also factintercommunication a forests state indexes withenvironment contamination levels of UkrainianCarpathians. Consequently, forests defoliationarrives at maximum senses in such regions: alpineparts north - east megaslope, regions of greatentranse technical pollutions with atmosphericfalls and on territory of south part countrybetween river Dnister and Prut. The minimumparametres of defoliation are marked into north -to western part of Carpathians region.Dechromation of trees indicates on appearancedamage (technical pollutions) and reaches tomaximum in industrial regions too.
Secondary Forests in Slash-and-BurnAgriculture in Latin America:
Opportunities for Rural Livelihoodsand Environmental Improvement?
Joyotee Smith, Cesar Sabogal, Bryan Finegan, SocorroFerreira, Gilberto Dominguez, Alejandro Mejia and
Dean Current.Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR),Post Box # 6596 JKPWB, 10065 Jakarta, IndonesiaFAX: +62 251 622 100, Email: [email protected]
Keywords: Slash-and-burn agriculture; Secondaryforest; Regeneration; Productivity; Ecosystemmanagement
The regeneration of secondary forests (SF) onpreviously cleared land in the forest margins ofLatin America is a promising development withinthe generally pessimistic scenarios of tropicaldeforestation. This has stimulated efforts toaugment the value of SF to their owners, to
induce them to increase the area in SF and delay theirre-conversion to other uses. This is expected toimprove the livelihoods of the rural poor, whilesimultaneously contributing to environmentalimprovement.
This paper synthesizes results from the emergingliterature on SF to take the first steps towards thedevelopment of a strategy for increasing the value ofSF. We present future scenarios of SF by analyzinghow SF change as colonist frontier areas develop overtime. We identify major problems resulting from thesescenarios and the problems which research couldsignificantly ameliorate.
We then make preliminary assessments of possiblestrategies for ameliorating these problems.
The paper uses a dynamic conceptual framework foranalyzing how secondary forests evolve with thedevelopment of colonist frontier areas over time.Results draw on interdisciplinary field studies carriedout by the authors in areas settled by slash-and-burnmigrants in the forest margins of Brazil, Peru andNicaragua. These include farm surveys and floristicinventories in each of the three countries, with sitesselected to provide an international continuum in thefrontier development process.
Results available so far show that the area in SFincreases over time in areas of low population density.in areas settled about 100 years ago, SF is the onlyforest cover and covers about 25% of farm area. Thisimplies that deforestation in slash-and-burn farmingmay be less than previously believed. SF isregenerated primarily to recuperate the soil.Multivariate analysis shows that farmers increasefallow periods over time, because site productivitydecreases with repeated cycles of crop production.This gives rise to SF. in older areas, farmers changetheir strategy and compensate for decliningproductivity by increasing the area under cultivation,which is achieved by reducing fallow periods. Thusunsustainable agriculture eventually leads to a declinein SF and the elimination of forest cover on farms. Ifan increase in SF value, could induce longer fallowperiods, this could increase farmer incomes, contributeto the sustainability of agriculture and maintain forestcover on farms.
The current potential of SF for timber production isgenerally limited, as the succession is onlyoccasionally allowed to pass beyond the stage ofdominance by pioneers. Guazuma crinita, a pioneertree with an established market in Peru, is one of thefew exceptions. Older stands generally have greatertimber production potential, made up mainly ofspecies of the long-lived pioneer ecological group.Families also use SF plant species for multiple
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purposes, with medicinal use and firewood beingparticularly important.
Well-documented factors such as productivitydeclines over time may limit the forestmanagement potential of SF. Frequentuncontrolled fires are shown to represent a majorbarrier to the development of productive stands.These results indicate that innovative ways toincrease the value of SF will have to be identified,such as the possibility of using carbon-offsets(under the Kyoto Protocol) to stimulate anincrease in fallow periods. Marketing andprocessing improvements could also contribute,as well as policy changes, such as the removal ofincentives for extensive cattle production.
What is needed is not a single "magic solution",but an "ecosystem management approach" whichlooks for synergies among the multiple productsand environmental services that SF are capable ofproviding, identifies the need for policy changesand harnesses new opportunities at the globallevel.
A study on the Ecological andEnvironmental Quality in the MainManagerial Areas of Plantations in
ChinaXianfeng Su, Wang Bing
Chinese Academy of Forestry, 100091 Beijing, ChinaTel: 86-10-62889073, FAX: 62884972, Email:
Keywords: Plantations, ecological andenvironmental quality, insect pests and diseases,soil fertility, water loss and soil erosion.
A comprehensive analysis was made on the forestecological and environmental state and quality bythe five years successive monitoring from 46located monitoring sites of newly establishedplantations for 7 main species in the managerialareas in China. The results showed that thedecisive factors affecting the ecological andenvironmental quality were water loss and soilerosion soil fertility states and occurrence ofinsect pests and diseases.
Basing on the statistics and analysis of soilerosion monitoring, the results indicated that thesoil erosion mainly occurred in the first and thesecond year after the plantations established. andabout 81% of monitoring sites showed extremelyslight or slight soil erosion, 16% of sites showedheavy soil erosion. High intensive site preparationand young plantations tending were the maincauses of soil erosion, especially the over allploughing. The soil nutrient loss was
simultaneous with soil erosion. The amount of organicmatter loss was the largest, while the amount ofavailable NPK was the least among the total amount oflost nutrients.
According to the observations conducted to the pestsand diseases, the occurrence rate caused by both insectpests and diseases in the plantations of masson pine,loblolly pine and poplar were high, while, the diseaseoccurred frequently in Eucalyptus plantations either.and only 2.5% of monitoring sites were damagedheavily by insect pests, 5.1% by disease, most of themonitoring sites were attacked slightly. The damage ofinsect pests and diseases was slight to the mainmanagerial areas of plantations in China.
The study on the monitoring findings of soil fertilityshowed that the soil available nutrients changedsignificantly, especially the available P. Fertilizationaffected the available nutrient of soil, particularly, theavailable P would increased significantly by theapplication of P fertilizer. A multiple regressionanalysis was done on the forest ecological andenvironmental quality by soil erosion, soil fertility andinsect pests and disease, and a model Y=f(x1,x2,x3)between the ecological and environmental quality (Y)and soil erosion (x1), soil fertility (x2), pests anddiseases(x3) was made.
Al stress on the photosynthesis ofQuercus glauca Thumb
Chisato Takenaka, Masayuki AkayaNagoya University, Bioagricultural Sciences, Chikisa-ku,
464-8601 Nagoya, JapanTel: 81-52-789-4052, FAX: 81-52-789-4055, Email:
Keywords: Al stress; photosynthesis; Quercus glaucaThumb; Ca/Al;
Soil acidification is one of the serious forestenvironmental problems caused by human activity.The effect of Aluminum on trees is the most criticalamong the various impacts by soil acidification. Notonly the Al concentration but also the Ca/Al ratio insoil solution have been considered as important factorsfor the assessment of Al stress. Although many studiesabout Al stress on photosynthesis have been reported,the specific response and mechanisms by each treespecies are ambiguous. The purpose of this study is toclarify the mechanism of Al effects on thephotosynthesis of Quercus glauca Thumb, which isthe typical tree species in the Japanese temperateforests.
To investigate the effects of Al concentration andCa/Al ratio in root environment on the photosynthesisof Quercus glauca Thumb, three-year-old seedlingsplanted in glass beads instead of soil were exposed to
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various nutrient solutions containing Al at twoconcentration levels (5 and 10 mM) with threelevels of Ca/Al ratios (5.0, 1.0, and 0.16). The pHof the solutions were adjusted to 3.3-3.4 to avoidthe precipitation of Al. The treatments werecontinued for 14 weeks. Before, during and afterthe Al treatments, photosynthesis activities andchlorophyll fluorescence were measured. Afterthe treatments, the morphology and the waterabsorption ability of roots were observed Thecontents of various elements and chlorophyll inthe leaves were also determined.
The exposure to the nutrient solutions, in whichthe Al concentration was 10 mM (Ca/Al=0.16),limited the photosynthesis and caused a decreasein the stomatal conductance. The treatments with5 mM Al did not affect the photosynthesis evenwhen the Ca/Al ratios were 0.16. The results ofthe chlorophyll fluorescence and chlorophyllcontent, which showed no significant differencesamong the treatments, indicated no effect of theAl treatments on the photochemical processes.This means that the photosynthesis limitationshould be due to the stomatal closure and thedecrease in the carbon dioxide fixation process.All seedlings treated with Al had increased Alcontents in the leaves, decreased P contents in theleaves and decreased water absorption ability inthe roots. These results indicate that the Altreatments affected the nutrient availability andfunction of the roots. However, since the effect onphotosynthesis was observed only with the 10mMtreatment, it is suggested that the Al effects on theroot functions were not correlated with thedecrease in photosynthesis.
In addition to these results, the changes in theenzymatic activities due to Al stress will beshown and the mechanism of stress transmissionfrom the root to the photosynthesis function inleaves will be discussed.
Decision making on cutting cycles inneotropical forests in Costa Rica and
BoliviaJuvenal Valerio, William Cordero
Instituto Tecnol¢gico de Costa Rica, School ofForestry, Post Box # 159, 159-7050 Cartago, Costa
RicaFAX: 506 591 4182, Email: [email protected]
Keywords: Logging; Sustainable forestmanagement; Cutting cycle; Neotropical forest.
One of the points of departure for the sustainableforest management is that the logged volume mustbe equivalent to the growth of the forest in adeterminated period of time. in the case of the
polyciclic forest management of mixed, irregularforests, this period is the cutting cycle and isdetermined by the structure of the residual forest andits growth rate. That is the importance of growthstudies.
Twelve one-hectare Permanent Sample Plots (PSP)have been established before logging in a rainforest atthe Osa Peninsula, Costa Rica. Eighty, one-thousandsquare meters, PSP were established in a dry forest atLas Trancas, Lomerios Region in Santa CruzDepartment, Bolivia (eight hectares sample). in bothcases increment models have been fitted by regression.
The models of increment show that in bolivian forestthe diametric increment, three years after harvest is 29per cent lower than that of two years after logging. inthe case of costa rican forest the increments, five yearsafter logging are 35 percent lower than the observed inthe period of three years after harvest.
The models have been used to predict the growth ofresidual forests and to determine the time required togrowth a volume equivalent to harvest. A spread sheetprogram has been used in order to simulate growth.Changes in increment rates causes differences inestimated cutting cycle
In conclusion:
It has been observed, and measured, that growth ratesof logged forests shows changes in different periodsafter logging. Then it is necessary to adjust the timeperiod of the cutting cycle, in order to avoid a harvestgreater than growth. PSP have showed to be anexcellent tool for the monitoring of the main factorsthat assure sustainability in wood production. It isnecessary to make a revision of the ForestManagement Plan each five years. Forester must useinformation from the PSP established in the forest orfrom other similar forests.
Goals and Goal Conflicts in ForestryStig Wandén
Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, s-10648Stockholm, Sweden
FAX: +46-8-69815585, Email: [email protected]
Keywords: integration, environmental goals, goalconflicts, evaluation.
In the European Union, as well as in Sweden, there isnow a general consensus to accept the principle ofintegration, meaning that environmental protectionshould be integrated into the definition andimplementation of other societal policies andactivities. In other words, every sector of society -such as transport, energy, agriculture, forestry, anddefence - is required to integrate environmental goalswith its "ordinary" activities. In Sweden, this principleis closely connected to the introduction of explicit
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environmental goals. Thus, the nationalenvironmental goals are to be broken down intogoals for each sector, which is then in principleresponsible for their implementation. The processof defining goals on different levels is presentlyunder way.
The Swedish Parliament has decided that theproduction goal of forestry (producing enoughtimber and pulp for forest industry) should becombined with environmental goals such aspreserving old forests and biological diversity,avoiding acidification and eutrophication, andsaving cultural values. The Forestry Board inOctober 1999 proposed more concrete goalsconcerning biotopes, ecological processes andfunctions, cultural values, diversified use offorests, and recycling. These goals are partlyquantified, such as the area to be assigned toNational Parks and the area of older forests to bepreserved.
However, the problem of goal conflicts thenarises, including not only conflicts betweenenvironmental and other goals (externalconflicts), but also conflicts between differentenvironmental goals (internal conflicts). Thepaper outlines an on-going evaluation of theprinciple of integration and goal conflicts. Theevaluation uses methods from the social sciences,including questionnaires and interviews. Theresults of these are presently being analysed. Oneobservation is that government agencies, as wellas private sector actors, widely differ betweeneach other - a fact which may have farreachingconsequences for environmental policies. Anumber of suggestions to improve sectorintegration are also being considered, e.g.establishing principles for solving goal conflictsbefore they occur, more rational goal formulationsincluding alternative goals, a more rationaldistribution of responsibilities, and better andopen information about goal conflicts.
8.01.00 Ecosystems
Net primary production and nitrogenmineralization of 12 forest ecosystems in
Shikoku District, JapanYoshiyuki Inagaki, Satoru Miura
Shikoku Research Center, Forestry and Forest ProductResearch Institute, 915-2 Asakura Nishi machi, 780-8077
Kochi city, JapanTel: +888-44-1121, FAX: +888-44-1130, Email:
Keywords: Nitrogen mineralisatiion; Net primaryproduction; Conifer forest; Deciduous forests; Japan
Nitrogen (N) is one of the limiting nutrients forproductivity in temperate forest ecosystems. Thus, onecould expect that nitrogen availability index such asnet mineralization rate is positively correlated withforest productivity. Although many studies haverevealed that the productivity of some plantations inJapan is significantly related with soil conditions suchas water status and C/N ratio, little is known about theeffect of net N mineralization rate. in the presentstudy, we investigated the relationship betweennitrogen availability determined by the laboratoryincubation technique and forest productivity of 12forest ecosystems in Shikoku District, Japan. They arecomposed of four different types of forests; Sugi(Cryptomeria japonica) plantations, Hinoki(Chamaecyparis obtusa) plantations, pine (Pinusdensiflora) forests, and secondary temperate deciduousforests.
In addition, we estimated annual N input rates vialitterfall for 2 years using litter traps. The study sitehas the warm climate and high annual precipitation(2800mm), which favours plant growth. Net Nmineralization rates during 28-day laboratoryincubation ranged from 7 to 207 ugN g-1, which washigher in the deciduous broadleaf forests and lower inthe Hinoki plantations and the pine forests. Annuallitterfall N input rates ranged from 2.1 to 7.0 gN m-2yr-1, which was significantly correlated with netmineralization rates (r=0.79, p<0.01). This indicatesthe supply of N via litterfall is a crucial factor to affectthe net N mineralization rate in soil. Indices of primaryproduction, mean annual diameter growth of canopytrees and mean annual increment of stem biomass,were higher in the coniferous forests and lower in thedeciduous broadleaf forests. We found no significantrelationship between net primary productivity and netN mineralization in these forests. It is noted that highnet N mineralization was observed in the deciduousforests with low productivity. On the contrary,litterfall N input to soil was negatively correlated withnet primary production. This suggests the species,
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which has the high potential biomass production,can reduce N loss by litterfall. Nitrogen loss bylitterfall implies the N loss form the ecosystem byleaching due to heavy rainfall in the region. in thedeciduous forests, the net N mineralization rateduring the 28-day incubation was as much as theannual litterfall N rate. This suggests that net Nmineralization is very high and exceeds the plantdemand in this ecosystem. In summary, weconcluded that net N mineralization rate of soil islargely determined by the litterfall N input, andthe effect of species is a primary factor in theseforest soils. The differences of the net primaryproduction were largely due to the inherentnatures of the species rather than net Nmineralization rates.
Relationship between HumanActivities and Condition of FloodplainForest Ecosystems in Central Europe
Emil KlimoUniversity of Agriculture and Forestry, Institute of
Forest Ecology, Brno, Czech RepublicEmail: [email protected]
Keywords: Flood-plain forests; Anthopogeniceffects; Regional comparison; Central Europe
In Central Europe, floodplain forests represent aresidual biome that persisted after profoundchanges in landscape use taking place in the past.The first human settlements were established inthe territory of floodplain forests so that their areaand nature gradually changed due to theanthropological effects. Floodplain forests in thealluvia of Morava, Dyje and Danube riversrepresent today unique biomes which show a highlevel of production, excellent biodiversity of bothplant and animal species, and valuable aestheticand recreational functions in the landscape. in thisterritory, there is a national park, several protectedlandscape and many natural preserves. At present,the responsible organs try to take measures, whichwould enable their reconstruction, extension andre-vitalisation. Using the ecosystem of Central-European floodplain forests as an example weshall try to describe the extent, present conditionand way of use of these forests by man. We haveselected floodplain forests in the LitovelskéPomoraví alluvium (Czech Republic) as well asthose along the confluence of the Morava andDyje rivers (Czech Republic and Austria), in theNational Park Danube (Austria), floodplainforests along the Morava river in WesternSlovakia, floodplain forests near the Gabekovodam in South Slovakia, and a unique example offloodplain forests situated within an urban regionof Leipzig (Germany).
Simulating landscape scale forestmanagement of disturbance-prone forest
ecosystemsVolker C. Radeloff, David J. Mladenoff, Eric J. Gustafson,
Donald R. Field, and Paul VossUniversity of Wisconsin, Department of Forest Ecology andManagement, 1630 Linden Drive, WI 53706-1598 Madison,
USATel: +1 / 608 / 265-6321, FAX: +1 / 608 / 262-9922, Email:
Keywords: Forest modeling; Landscape scale; Forestmanagement; Disurbance; Land-use US
Landscape patterns of many unmanaged forestecosystems are shaped by fire disturbance. Thesepatterns tend to change once forests are managed; forexample, forests become denser and large openings nolonger occur. Such changes are often detrimental towildlife species adapted to openings previouslycreated by fire. It has been suggested that the spatialpatterns of forest management should be altered sothat they resemble natural disturbance patterns moreclosely. However, very little experience exists withsuch management, and experiments are difficult toconduct at the landscape scale. Our objective was tosimulate landscape scale forest management of thePine Barrens in northwest Wisconsin, U.S.A, to testhow closely different management scenarios mimicnatural disturbance patterns. The Pine Barrens regionwas shaped by fire until European settlement beganaround 1860. Detailed vegetation assessments of thepre-settlement vegetation are available. Also availableis a satellite classification of the current vegetationcover, which is significantly different from the historiclandscape due to logging, farming, fire suppression,and forest management. We used LANDIS, alandscape model that incorporates fire, windthrow,succession, seed dispersal and forest management tosimulate possible future conditions of the PineBarrens. We conducted a factorial experiment andchanged the variables 'clear-cut size', 'rotation length','tree species for forest regeneration', and 'spatialallocation of clear-cuts' within LANDIS. The modelwas run under each management scenario for 500years. We summarized the results as the abundance ofopenings for wildlife, and the volume of timber beingharvested. The comparison of different managementscenarios allows resource managers to choose theoptimal management strategy according to theirmanagement goals. Our analysis reveals that forestmanagement options exist that improve landscapepatterns for wildlife without decreasing timberproduction significantly. However, differentlandowners in the Pine Barrens will manage theirlands for different goals. We specified severalmanagement areas according to land-ownership andhousing density, and conducted further LANDIS runs
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with spatially variable forest managementscenarios. For instance, areas with high housingdensity and small private landowners are unlikelyto be harvested in large clear-cuts. Land owned byindustrial forest corporations may be harvested inlarge blocks, but economic considerations arelikely to determine management decisions. Publicforestland may be managed to maintain both largeopenings and commodity production. By allowingfor different management practices for differentlandowners we were able to simulate future statesof the Pine Barrens realistically. Landscape scaleforest modeling can provide realistic predictionsabout the future of landscapes. These predictionsare important for forest managers when theyattempt to achieve multiple goals, such as wildlifehabitat and commodity production over extendedperiods of time, and across entire landscapes. Ourresults highlight the potential and the limitationsof forest management to restore landscapepatterns previously created by naturaldisturbances. We suggest that similar modelingapproaches may be suitable for many otherforested ecosystems previously shaped by fire.
Long-term chronosequences ofNorway spruce primary succession
Johan SvenssonSwedish University of Agricultural Sciences,
Department of Forest Ecology, S-90183 Umea,Sweden
Tel: +46 90 7865895, FAX: +46 90 7867750, Email:[email protected]
Keywords: Picea abies; Primary succession;Postglacial rebound; Chronosequence; Old-growth
The Fennoscandian crust is experiencingpostglacial land uplift following the weight downby the Weichselian ice mass. A consequence is aperpetual exposure of new ground along theshores of the Gulf of Bothnia, ground on whichprimary succession is occurring as plants colonizeand community forms. The ongoing land upliftprovides a topographic sequence equivalent to achronosequence - the lower the elevation theyounger the land with younger, pio-neercommunities, the higher the elevation the olderthe land and the more develo-ped thecommunities. The uplift amounts to maximum0,092 m/year in the northern part of the Gulf ofBothnia. On a specific shore, the vegetationalgradient reflects the actual course of succession.As long as no major disturbance interferes theprimary succession continues progressivelytowards the regional climax for each ecosite type.
The exposure of a specific shore is a key-factor thatinfluences the vegetational gradient, i.e. speciescomposition, initial establishment levels, rate ofsuccession, etc. Thus, islands and peninsulas continueto rise seawards, and con-sequently the ex-posure of aspecific shore may change (decrease) over timebecause of changed (increased) relative shelter.Moreover, as the community matures the importanceof allochthonous plant colonization decreases, whilethe importance of autochthonous resurgence increases.It can furthermore be assumed that early successionalprocesses primarily are under abiotic control whilebiotic factors take on greater importance later in thesequence. As the condition changes, this may modifythe successional sequence by trigging a switch, ormaintain a continuous change, in the pathway. Hence,multiple successional pathways should be taken intoconsideration, as well as disruptions in the presumedchronosequence.
8.02.00 Site: soi l carbon
Soil properties under different types oftropical seasonal forests, in western
ThailandKeizo Hirai, Masamichi Takahashi and Pitayakon LimtongForestry and Forest Priducts Research Institute, Soil Chem.
Lab., Forest Site Envir. Sec., Forest Envir. Div., 1Matsunosato, Kukizaki, Matsunosato, Inashiki, 305-8687
Ibaraki, JapanTel: +81-298-73-3211(Ext.362), FAX: +81-298-73-1542,
Email: [email protected]
In tropical seasonal forest area, soil moisture gradientsare one of the major factors for regulating forest types,so that soil chemical and physical properties would bedifferent among forest types. The aim of this researchis to clarify the characteristics of soil properties underdifferent types of tropical seasonal forests in westernThailand. It is necessary to evaluate soil productivityfor sustainable management of qualitative andquantitative maintenance of tropical seasonal forest.Sites and methods The study site is located at the MaeKlong Watershed Research Station, Kanchanaburiwestern Thailand (Suksawang, 1995). Soil type aroundstudy site was classified to Ultisol or Inceptisol(USDA 1997). Natural vegetation types around thewatershed are mainly mixed deciduous forest (MDF),dry dipterocarp forest (DDF) and dry evergreen forest(DEF). Teak (Tectona grandis) plantations (TPF) andgrassland that was used for shifting cultivation (GRL)in the watershed were also surveyed. in 1995,seventeen soil profiles under different forest types andtopographic positions were described, and soil samplesare collected for soil chemical and physical analysis.Nitrogen availability of top and sub surface soilsamples were also determined. Results and discussion
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Amounts of carbon storage in soil were higher205t/ha/100cm depth in DEF and lowest 71t/ha/100cm depth in DDF. The carbon storage onMDF, TPF, and GRL did not vary among pedons.Organic carbon and total nitrogen content in GRLwere higher than another soils but these contentsamong another soil were not so different. in mostcase, carbon contents decreased gradually fromtop to lower horizon but the soils under DDFshowed drastically decrease in carbon contentsfrom the surface horizons. The same trends wereobserved for nitrogen distribution patterns in thesoil profiles. Available nitrogen contents in soilsof MDF and DDF types were 0.45-1.1mg-N/kgdry soil. GRL also had high available nitrogen insoils (1.3-1.6mg-N/kg dry soil) while TPF hadlow available nitrogen (0.5 mg-N/kg dry soil). ineach forest type Soils in lower slopes showedhigher nitrogen availability than in ridge andupper slopes. Nitrate nitrogen was major part ofavailable nitrogen. Nitrification rate (nitratenitrogen to available nitrogen) were more than80% in almost of surface soil samples. Calcium isa major exchangeable base and following tomagnesium and potassium. The content of Ca andMg were also high in GRL, DEF and lower slopeof TPF but were on the lower than those in thesoils of limestone plateau near the watershedreported by Janmahasatien et al. (1997).
Conclusion: The results of soil chemicalproperties indicate that soils in this watershed arerelatively fertile, especially for soils under DEF.The GRL also showed high soil fertility althoughthey used to be utilized for shifting cultivation.The soils in TPF contained lower nutrients eventhough they located on lower slope. The reason isnot sure but this may be caused by high nutrimentrequirement of tree growth or surface soil erosionof teak plantation. We are great thanks to NationalResearch Council of Thailand Science andTechnology Agency Japan and JapanInternational Research Center for AgriculturalSciences for their financial support in thisresearch.
Nutrient Dynamics in the Throughfall,Stemflow and Litterfall of Korean Pine,
Japanese Larch and Hardwood Stands atKyunggi-Do, Korea
Don Koo Lee, Dong Yeob Kim and Young Dae ParkSeoul National University, Dept. Forest Resources, 103Seodun-Dong, Kwonsun-Gu, 441-744 Suwon, Korea R.
Tel: +82-331-290-2337, FAX: +82-331-293-1797, Email:[email protected]
Keywords: Nutrient dynamics; Pinus koraiensis; Larixleptolepis; Hardwood
The objective of this study was to examine the amountof nutrient input and dynamics by throughfall,stemflow and litterfall among Pinus koraiensis, Larixleptolepis and hardwood stands including oak forestsat Kyunggi-Do, Korea. The nutrient distribution andcycling in a forest ecosystem was strongly influencedby tree species and human impacts including forestpractices. The amount of Ca in the abovegroundvegetation was the highest, followed by N, K, Mg, Pand Na in descending order. Nutrient content in thehardwood stand was relatively high, although its treebiomass was low. The amount of K in the hardwoodstand was exceptionally high whereas that of L.leptolepis stand was the lowest in nutrient contents.The amount of litter nutrient in the P. koraiensis standwas relatively lower than other stands, which seems tobe due to the forest practices. The amount of N in thelitterfall was the highest, followed by Ca, Mg, P, Kand Na in descending order.
Monthly amount of nutrient input by throughfall andstemflow was significantly affected by thecharacteristics of rainfall and stand structure. Theamount of throughfall in the hardwood and L.leptolepis stands showed greater than P. koraiensisstand while that of stemflow in the hardwood stand didgreater than other stands. The differences in theamount of throughfall and stemflow for each of thestands seemed to be caused by its leaf-retaining periodand physiological characteristics.
The ion concentrations of throughfall and stemflowshowed in the following order: NH4
+-N>K+> Ca2+>Na+> Mg2+ for cations and SO4
2-> NO3-N> Cl- for
anions. After the precipitation passed through thecanopy, K+ increased most in the hardwood stand,whereas NH4+-N did most in the P. koraiensis and L.leptolepis stands.
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Ectomycorrhizal fungal flora in themiombo woodlands of Africa: diversity
and sensitivity to land-useEsron Munyanziza
Sokoine University of Agriculture, Department ofForest Economics, Post Box # 3011, Morogoro,
TanzaniaTel: +255 56 4865, FAX: 255 56 4648/3718, Email:
Keywords: Miombo woodlands; Ectomycorrhizalfungi; Mushroom; Thinning; Tap root; Africa
The miombo woodlands occur in the eastern,central and southern African countries. They arefound in areas having limited rainfall,experiencing regular wildfires and subject tocontinuous human disturbance. They are the mostextensive vegetation and the most used type ofwoody ecosystem in Africa. Millions of humansand animals depend upon the miombo woodlandsfor food, water and shelter. Wild mushrooms areamong the most frequent resources and yet themost vulnerable and the most endangered. inorder to cope with uncertainties and capture short-lived opportunities, the miombo trees focus on thedevelopment of the root compartment. (1) Theydevelop a very extensive and robust tap rootsystem where they store carbon and water. (2)They are associated with ectomycorrhizal fungi,which help extract water and minerals in a hostilephysical environment.
The working hypothesis was that sugar reserve inthe taproot is a necessary store to enhance andsustain mushroom occurrence during the periodwhen the top is thinned in the cropping season.This kind of thinning is common in the miomozone. in order to test this hypothesis selectivecutting of all ectomycorrhizal trees of the generaJulbernardia globiflora or Brachystegia specieswas implemented in the middle of the miombowoodlands in Morogoro, Tanzania. Cutting wasmade just prior to the short rains, which usuallystart towards the end of October. Subsequentshoots, which sprouted from the stumps, wereregularly thinned to zero. Stumps were kept alive.The control plots were demarcated in thesurrounding of cut plots. These were left intact.Farms established in the neighbourhood by totalclearing of the miombo woodlands wereidentified. During the short rains and the longrains, which fall sometimes between end ofFebruary to the end of May, daily visits weremade to the plots and mushroom occurrenceassessed in the cleared and the non cleared plots.Similar assessments were made in agricultural
lands where miombo trees were earlier cut withregular thinning of sprouts or uprooted and replacedby exotic agroforestry trees. Selective cutting ofectomycorrhizal trees followed by removal of sproutsfrom the stumps inhibited the occurrence ofectomycorrhizal mushrooms in the site and in thefarms. in the cleared plots only saprophytic fungiproduced sporophores while a wide range ofectomycorrhizal fungi produced mushrooms in thecontrol. The study revealed the very intimaterelationship between the trees and the mushrooms. Itshowed the sensitive part of the host: the leaves. Thestudy suggests that the energy stored in the rootsystem or in the stem is either unfit forectomycorrhizal fungal use or is set aside for particularfunction of the tree prbably to reinitiate sprouting afterthe long dry season or after top removal. This studycarries the message for the sustainable management ofthe miombo woodlands for multiple uses.
Planting trials of indigenous species atsandy soil area in southern Thailand
Mariko Norisada, Katsumi Kojima, Gaku Hitsuma, TakeshiTange, Takashi Yamanoshita, Masaya Masumori, Tanit
Nuyim, Hisayoshi Yagi, Satohiko SasakiThe University of Tokyo, Asian Natural EnvironmentalScience Center, 1-1-1, Yayoi, 113-8657 Tokyo, Japan
FAX: +81-3-5689-7233, Email: [email protected]
Keywords: Reforestation; Sandy soil; Indigenousspecies; Dipterocarps; Southern Thailand
We have been carried out reforestation trials since1994 in southern part of Thailand, where infertilesandy soil area is expanded as a result of a failure ofagricultural development. We have been trying toplant valuable trees focusing on indigenous speciesincluding Dipterocarps. Twenty-three tree specieshave been tried; Anisoptera sp., Dipterocarpus alatus,D. chartaceus, D. obtusifolius, Hopea odorata, Shoreaglauca, Shorea hypochra, Shorea leprosula, Shorearoxburghii, Parashorea sp., Vatica pauciflora, Acaciamangium, Acacia auriculiformis, Anacardiumoccidentale, Alstonia macrophylla, Alstonia spatulata,Casuarina equisetifolia, Euodia roxburghiana,Fagraea fragrans, Syzygium grande, Syzygiumkunstleri, Syzygium oblatum and Syzygium spicatum.The area undergoes a severe drought in dry season andis waterlogged in rainy season. in dry season, thesurface soil temperature exceeds 40 oC. The seedlingsplanted in such area are faced to harsh environmentalstresses, resulting in low survival ratio and littlegrowth. Our trials revealed that planting Acaciamangium proceeding to the purposed-tree plantingimproves the seedlings' survival and growth. in Acaciamangium forest, light intensity was diminished andsoil surface temperature was dramatically lowered
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than those in open area, which may weaken thephotodamage under infertile condition or hightemperature stress. Acacia mangium itself alsosuffers from the harsh environment, resulting inlow survival ratio in case of no treatment.Plowing brought remarkable improvement of theAcacia mangium survival, which confirms itsbeneficial ability to nurse the subsequently-planted indigenous species. Pot size effects onseedlings' survival and growth were examined onsome dipterocarp species. Larger pots broughtbetter seedlings survival without any help ofAcacia mangium. Ecophysiological studies havealso been carried out for better understanding ofthe planted seedlings' growth performance.Among the dipterocarp species examined forplanting at open site, D. obtusifolius showedobviously better survival than others. Wecompared photosynthetic performance of D.obtusifolius, D. chartaceus and H. odorata, whichrevealed remarkably higher light-saturatedphotosynthetic rates in D. obtusifolius than inother two species. Additionally, the light-saturated photosynthetic rates of D. obtusifoliuswere even higher than those of Acacia mangium.
Properties of organic matter and thesoil adsorption complex in forest
ecosystems of CroatiaNikola Pernar, Darko Baksic
University of Zagreb, Faculty of Forestry,Svetosimunska 25, Zagreb, Croatia
Tel: 385 1 235 24 29, Email: [email protected]
Keywords: Organic matter; Humus; Soiladsorption complex; Forest ecosystems
Transformation and movement of matter andenergy is a characteristic feature of everyecosystem. A specific correspondence amongindividual elements of an ecosystem is manifestedin a particular manner in the soil. in forestassociations, which are in natural harmony withthe climate and parent substrate, the properties ofphysical-chemical soil sorption and the conditionof organic matter in the surface part of the soil arevery interesting. This is significantpedogenetically in terms of transformation andmigration of matter, and physiographically interms of the nutritive soil status analysis and therelated ecosystem diversity.
Research was done on the humus content and theadsorption complex saturation in humus-accumulative soil horizons in characteristicclimatozonal associations in the vegetation beltslocated in flat, hilly, and mountainous regions inCroatia. The results of research have shown that
some forest ecosystems have characteristic humusproperties, characteristics of the adsorption complexdisplay considerable variability, the correspondencebetween the properties of humus and the adsorptioncomplex can be explained with internal and externalfactors, the adsorption complex and humus correspondwell to floristic diversity of forest stands, in clayeyand sandy substrates (or substrates that release eitherclayey or sandy material via transformation) aninfluence can be detected not only on the state ofadsorption complex, but also on the state of humus.
Brazilian ecological classification for treeplanting
Maria das Gracas F. Reis, Ivone P.S. Moreira, Leonaldo A.Andrade; Victor H. Acosta
Federal University of Vicosa, Department of Forestry,36571-000 Vicosa, Brazil
Tel: 55-031-8991209, FAX: 55-031-8992478, Email:[email protected]
Keywords: Ecological classification; Brazilianterritory; Tree planting
An ecological classification of the Brazilian territoryhas been developed in order to subdivide the countryinto ecological regions and sub-regions with the aim tosubsidize tree species selection for planting. Theclassification system was subdivided into two levels:at the first one, the country has been subdivided intoecological regions using the altitude and severalclimatic variables related to air temperature,precipitation, humidity and some of the Thornthwaite?indices; at the second one, native vegetation types, soilclasses, geological groups, relief classes and drainagedensity have been used to subdivide the country intoecological sub-regions.
In order to obtain the delimitation of the territory intoecological regions, the steps are described as follow.All published data available from meteorologicalstations have been used. Considering the reducednumber of meteorological stations in Brazil,precipitation data have been obtained frompluviometric stations. Estimated temperatures havebeen obtained for all pluviometric stations lacking thisinformation. At first, these data were submitted tointerpolation, using cells of about 15 x 15 km, in orderto have an even distribution of the data. This analysishas been developed in blocks of 4o by 4o of latitudeand longitude. in the next step, the data weresubmitted to factorial analysis. Factorial loads withcorrelation higher than 70% were extracted from eachfactor to constitute the linear indices, which replacedthe original variables. These indices originated theinput data for grouping and discriminant analysis,generating the subdivision of the territory intoecological regions. Each region was described based
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on the average value of the cells contained on it,for each variable analyzed.
In order to obtain the delimitation of the territoryinto ecological sub-regions, the steps aredescribed as follow. The maps containing nativevegetation types, soil classes, geological groups,relief classes and drainage, when available, weredigitalized. A net corresponding to 8 x 8 km in thefield was designed over the map in order to obtainthe proportion of cover of each variable per cell.These data were submitted directly to both non-hierarchical grouping and discriminatory analysis,making possible the delimitation andcharacterization of each ecological sub-region.
At the ecological region level, the results haveshown that three to four factors can be responsiblefor 80 to 88% of the cumulative explanation ofthe original data. The first factor usually explainsfrom 40 to 59% of the variance in the originaldata and is mainly constituted by altitude andtemperature variables. The recent inclusion ofThornthwaite? indices improved substantially thedelimitation of the ecological region, once mostindices were included in the first or secondfactors, in special for the northeastern region,where water availability is quite variable withinvery short distances. in the southern region ofBrazil precipitation is quite high and uniformlydistributed. For this region, humidity was moreimportant than precipitation with all humidityvariables used being included in the secondfactor.
At the ecological sub-region level, the methodwas already applied to one block of 4o by 4o. Thediscriminant analysis proved that 94% of the cellswere correctly allocated to the ecological sub-regions, using a subdivision into 12 sub-regions.The variables used were complimentary, i.e.,when two or three regions were similar in termsof one variable they differed from each otherbased on other group of variables.
Carbon and Nutrient Cycling in a MixedDeciduous Forest of western ThailandMasamichi Takahashi, P. Limtong, S. Suksawang, U.
Kutintara, P. Tummakate, S. Anunspongsak, K. Hirai, andK. Ishizuka
Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute, TsukubaNorin Kenkyu Danchi-nai, P.O.Box 16, 305-8687 Ibaraki,
JapanTel: +81-298-733211, FAX: +81-298-731542, Email:
Keywords: Nutrient cycling; Seasonally dry tropicalforest; Soil conditions; Mineralization
Nutrient cycling is an essential knowledge forsustainable forest management. Especially in tropicalcountries, biomass is largely accumulated inaboveground on relatively nutrient poor soils, whichindicates that deterioration of forest would directlyresult in loss of nutrient from the ecosystems. Manystudies on the distribution of carbon and nutrient poolsin the forest ecosystems were conducted in the tropicalrain forests but a few studies are available inseasonally dry tropical forests. Mixed deciduous forest(MDF), a vegetation type of seasonally dry tropicalforest, is widely distributed in eastern Asia, from Indiato Thailand. It is concerned that intensive uses andfrequent fire may reduce forest resources and nutrientpools in the ecosystem. The objective of this study isto determine the pool sizes and fluxes of carbon andnutrients in MDF of western Thailand forunderstanding nutrient dynamics in undisturbedcondition. The study was conducted at an undisturbedmixed deciduous forest in the Mae Klong watershedresearch station, Kanchanaburi, western Thailand.Annual rainfall is about 1,600 mm and it falls mostlyfrom April to November. Mean annual air-temperatureis about 27 C. Dominant tree species are Shoreasiamensis, Dillenia parviflora var. kerrii, Xyliaxylocarpa var. kerrii, and Vitex peduncularis. Most ofthe forest understory was prevailing with bamboospecies. Ultisols are dominant soil types, which arederived from sedimentary rocks and gneiss. in thiswatershed, limestone is also found. Soils show slightlyacidic and lightly clay textures.
In the total ecosystem, carbon was sequestrated 308MgC/ha. Above and below ground biomass wereaccounted for 130 and 43 MgC/ha, respectively.Bamboo understory showed 16.4 MgC/ha foraboveground, and 3.1 MgC/ha for belowground.Mineral soil (0-1m in depth) stored 125 MgC/ha. Fordead organic matter, a carbon pool in standing dead oftrees and bamboos (6.8 MgC/ha) were larger than thatin litter layer (2.8 MgC/ha). Annual carbon input was4.5 MgC/ha by litterfall and carbon release by soilrespiration was estimated 19.3 MgC/ha annually.
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The amounts of nitrogen in the above and belowvegetation were 1,470 and 593 kg/ha. Soil is alargest pool for nitrogen and the pool size was9,170 kg/ha. Phosphorus was distributed 166kg/ha for aboveground vegetation and 57 kg/hafor belowground. For cation distributions,vegetation is a main nutrient pool. Around 56 - 60% of cations were stored in the abovegroundbiomass. Nutrient pools in the soil were small foravailable P and exchangeable cations: 13 - 15 %of total pool.
Annual litter production was 9.0 Mg/ha and 66%of the total litterfall was leaf litter. The fluxes ofnitrogen and phosphorous by litterfall were 66kgN/ha and 5.5 kgP/ha, respectively. For cations,39 kg/ha of K, 129 kg/ha of Ca, and 27 kg/ha ofMg were return to the soil by litter annually. inthese nutrient returns, more than 90% of eachelement was transferred via leaf litter.
MDF contained relatively larger amount ofnutrients in aboveground biomass than tropicalrain forests reported. Low ratios of biomass:elements in fresh litter also indicate that there wasno nutrient deficiency in this ecosystem.
Effects of carbon properties oncharacteristics of nitrogenmineralization in forest soil
Hirohoto Toda, Kikuo HaibaraTokyo University of Agriculture and Technology,
Fuch, 183-8509 Tokyo, JapanTel: +81-42-5812, FAX: +81-42-367-5813, Email:
Keywords: Carbon mineralization; C/N ratio;Kinetics model; Nitrogen mineralization;Nitrogen immobilization
Nitrogen (N) is usually the most limiting nutrientin forest ecosystem vegetation. The amount of Nmineralization by microorganisms is an importantindicator of N availability in forest soils. ingeneral, the net N mineralization of organicmatter is small when the carbon/nitrogen (C/N)ratio of soil is high because inorganic N isimmobilized by soil microbes. Nitrogenavailability in soil is frequently limited by notonly the amount of carbon (C) or the C/N ratio,but also by the amount of available C. in thisreport, the characteristics parameters of N and Cmineralization in forest soils were investigated byanalyzing the kinetics model. It was based on theresults of the following in vitro incubation. Thesoil samples were taken from Japanese cedar(Cryptomeria japonica) stands (3 plots), Japanesecypress (Chamaecyparis obtusa) stands (3 plots),deciduous broad-leaved stands (1 plot) and
evergreen broad-leaved stands (2 plots) in Kantoregion, Japan. Soil samples were taken at depths of 0-10cm and 10-20cm in each plot. The organic layer (O-layer) samples of forest soil were taken from 5 plots.The fresh soil samples were sifted through a 4mmsieve, and the fresh O-layer samples were cut intoabout 10mm pieces, and incubated at 20, 25, and 30?for 100 to 200 days. The samples were extracted at 3-30 day intervals, and the amount of inorganic N andthe rate of C dioxide (CO2) evolution were measured.Using Arrhenius' law, experimental results obtainedunder each temperature conditions can be transformedinto a mineralization rate at a standard temperature(25°). Parameters of N mineralization potential (N0),the N mineralization rate constant (k) at 25° andapparent activation energy (Ea) are normally estimatedby mathematical analysis using a simple type ofkinetics model in forest soil. The N mineralizationprocess in the O-layer of forest soil was fitted to akinetics model of N mineralization combined with animmobilization. in the case of the O-layer, thepotential of gross N mineralization (Nm0),immobilization (Ni0) and net N mineralization (netN0= Nm0 - Ni0) were examined. The amount of Cmineralization was calculated by integration of theCO2 evolution rate. The integration of Cmineralization was fitted to a simple type of thekinetics model, and the C mineralization potential (C0)was examined. The relationship between the C/N ratioand N mineralization parameters was not significant inany of the soil samples. However, in soil sampleswhere the C/N ratio was >20, the C/N ratio and N0had a negative correlation and the C/N ratio and Eahad a positive correlation. These suggest that Nmineralization was limited by the C/N ratio of soilbecause active N was immobilized in soil where theC/N ratio was >20. in soil samples where the C/N ratiowas <20, N mineralization was not limited by the C/Nratio because N immobilization activity in the soil wasdepressed. There was a positive correlation betweenC0 and N0; the regression line was C0/N0=20. Thepotential C/N ratio of available organic matter utilizedby microbes was about 20 in the forest soil. k was thegreatest and Ea was the smallest when C0 was 7-8% oftotal C (C0/C). This suggests that there is little C0available for N mineralization when C0/C<7-8%, andthat there is sufficient C0 for N immobilization whenC0/C>7-8%. Thus, C properties are important asindicators of movements of the amount of available Nin forest soil.
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8.03.00 Forest Hydrology and WaterQuality
Applying the caesium-137 techniquefor studying sediment redistribution at
basin scaleVito Ferro, C. Di Stefano, G. Callegari, F. Iovino, P.
Porto, A. Veltri, S. RizzoUniversiti di Palermo, Facolti di Agraria, Dipartimento
di Ingegneria e Tecnologie Agro-Forestali, SezioneIdraulica, Viale delle Scienze, 90128 Palermo, Italy
Email: [email protected]
Keywords: caesium, sediment yield, tracers
Identifying areas of the landscape that are mostsensitive or susceptible to erosion stimulated thestudy of within-basin variability of the sedimentdelivery processes and the use of spatiallydistributed models coupled with GeographicalInformation Systems.
The progress of distributed models is hindered bythe lack of measurements able to establish the linkbetween the eroded soil leaving an area and thepatterns of erosion and deposition occurring alongthe hydraulic path from the considered area to thenearest stream reach. Tracer techniques afford analternative to the use of plots and a means ofovercoming the problems of measurementrepresentativeness and spatial variability.
The tracer most widely used in soil erosion andsediment yield studies is caesium-137, anartificial radionuclide which was released into theenvironment as a result of above-groundthermonuclear weapons testing. Fallout depositionon the land surface occurred mainly withprecipitation. When fallout caesium-137 comes incontact with soil, it is readily fixed or adsorbed onthe organic and clay particles and subsequentmovement by natural chemical and processes islimited.
In this paper caesium-137 measurements availablefor two basins with different crop covers, locatedin Sicily and in Calabria, are used for validatingthe Sediment Delivery Distributed (SEDD)approach based on the Revised Universal SoilLoss Equation and the sediment delivery ratio ofeach morphological unit into which the basin isdivided. For the Sicilian basin, which is used forwheat cropping, the predictive ability of theSEDD model is positively tested comparing thecalculated sediment yield values with themeasured ones obtained by the caesiographic mapand the proportional method of Martz and deJong. For the Calabrian basin, which is covered
by Eucalyptus occidentalis Engl., the testing of theSEDD approach is carried out by comparing thecalculated sediment yield and the caesium loss at themorphological unit and basin scale.
Assessment of Selected Water Channelsas Affected by Waste Disposal in
Nangalisan, Tuba, Benguet, PhilippinesFilmorie G. Ganzon
Ecosystems Research and Development Service,Department of Environment and Natural Resources
Cordillera Administrative Region, Loakan Road, 2600Baguio City, Philippines
FAX: 0063-442-4531, Email: [email protected] words: water quality, biochemical oxygen demand
In the Philippines, water quality assessment started atIrisan, Baguio City (dumpsite ) and Calot Sablan,Benguet (piggery farm). The other sampling pointschosen for consideration were closely monitored andevaluated as to which tributaries may contribute waterpollution to stream and rivers.
The BOD (Biochemical Oxygen Demand) for allwater samples collected during the rainy season iswithin or below the limits of 5 mg/l (yearly averagevalues). The results of analyses during the dry monthsare also below this limit. The findings revealed that thestream can presently accommodate the approximatequantity of oxygen that will be required to biologicallydegrade/stabilize the organic matter present but in aspecified time and temperature.
On the other hand, the DO (Dissolved Oxygen) in allwater samples collected from the sampling pointsestablished at various locations during the rainy seasonis above the limit of 5.0 mg/l. Surprisingly, when itwas compared to the results taken during the dryseason, it is still above this limit. From laboratorytests, it appears that dissolved oxygen is sufficient tosupport and maintain all forms of aquatic life.Although it is being contaminated by variouscombinations of liquid and solid wastes fromresidences and industrial establishments, aerobicdecomposition is still taking place in the presence ofoxygen.
Meanwhile, the total coliform organisms detected incolonies per 10 ml of water samples at 24 hoursincluded Escherichia coli, Citrobacter freundii, E.agglomerans and Enterobacter aerogenes. Watersamples tested on site have pHs ranging from 6.5 to8.5 indicating that microbial growth can beaccommodated but if the pH falls below 5, microbialactivity will cease. No health-based guidelines havebeen proposed for pH.
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Sustainable Management of aForested Catchment following
Conversion from Eucalypt Forest toRadiata Pine Plantation
Peter Hopmans, L.J. Bren, and D.W. FlinnCentre for Forest Tree Technology, Post Box # 137,
3084 Heidelberg, AustraliaTel: +61 3 9450 8693, FAX: +61 3 9450 8644, Email:
[email protected] words: water quality, water yield, radiata pine
Australia has a large trade deficit in forestproducts and extensive plantations of radiata pinehave been established as part of a strategy toexpand the nations wood resources. Initially,softwood plantations replaced native eucalyptforest, but since the mid 1980s plantations havebeen established mainly on cleared agriculturalland. Associated with this conversion ofcatchments to intensively managed, fast-growingplantations are changes in hydrology and potentialimpacts affecting water yield and water quality.
Australia has adopted the Montreal Process ofsocio-economic and environmental criteria andindicators for the sustainable management offorests. The maintenance of water quality withinthe range of historic variation is one of theenvironmental indicators included in this Process.
In the mid 1970s the Cropper Creek Hydrologyproject was established to study the hydrology ofthree small catchments of mixed species eucalyptforest. in 1980 one catchment was cleared exceptfor a 30-m wide riparian zone for theestablishment of a plantation of radiata pine. inthe short term this change in land use increasedannual water yield by 3.5 ML/ha, but yieldgradually decreased to pre-treatment values withtime from clearing (Bren and Papworth 1991).Only minor changes in water quality wereobserved, but export of suspended solids andnutrients in streamwater increased because ofhigher water yield in response to clearing(Hopmans et al. 1987).
In 1997, the Cropper Creek study was resumed toevaluate the long-term changes in hydrology andwater quality of the 17 year-old radiata pineplantation compared with historic data for theforested catchment prior to conversion. Thisshowed little change in water yield and waterquality. Present median values for turbidity (3.6NTU), total suspended solids (4.2 mg/L),electrical conductivity (2.9 mS/m), andconcentrations of sodium (2.4 mg/L), potassium(0.6 mg/L), calcium (0.8 mg/L), and magnesium(1.5 mg/L) are in close agreement with historicvalues. Furthermore, results also showed that the
variation (median absolute deviation) for each of theseparameters at the mid-rotation stage of the plantationclosely matches the historic variation of the catchmentunder native eucalypt forest. These results indicate thatthe change in land use to more intensively managedsoftwood plantations has maintained the high qualityof the water from this forested catchment.
Modelling the Water Balance on SmallMountaineous Catchments
Pavel KovarCzech University of Agriculture, Forestry Faculty,
Kamycka 129, 165 21 Prague 6 Prague, Czech RepublicTel: + 420-2-24382148, FAX: + 420-2-20922252, Email:
[email protected] words: Water balance, torrent control, deforestation
Land use and management in a catchment cansignificantly influence rainfall-runoff processes. Thiseffect is even greater on small mountainouscatchments with highly fluctuating water dischargesand with substantial sediment transport. To reduce thedetrimental impacts associated with storm rainfalls,foresters may apply a broad variety of torrent controlmeasures on a catchment.
Expensive hydraulic structures and heavyembankments in river beds are usually less effectivethan those implemented sustainably over the wholecatchment. However, this does not mean that torrentcontrol associated specifically with rivers should beminimized, and land use or forest protection appliedexclusively as a safeguarding measure. Foresters areusually well aware that a combination of bothtechnical and biological aspects applied over thewhole catchment is necessary for effective torrentcontrol. Such a qualitative assessment is well known.However it is necessary to quantify rainfall-runoffprocesses and to understand them better beforedeciding on a final form of torrent control.
To better analyse natural processes in a catchment, theimplementation of hydrological models isrecommended. With this view in mind the WBCM-5model (Water Balance Conceptual Model, version 5,Kovar et al., 1996) has been developed. This modelcan provide a good simulation of the catchment waterbalance when rainfall-runoff data are available. in thecase of ungauged catchments the model parameterscan be estimated from hydrological andgeomorphological analyses. Furthermore, the WBCMcan be used to predict the impact of changes in landuse, and forest pattern especially species displacementand age structure. The model is physically based onprobability distributed values of parameters over acatchment in respect to their area variability. It has 13parameters only three of which need to be optimizedaccording to runoff observation or "adjusted" toresemble similar soil-hydraulic conditions. The other
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parameters can be determined from maps andfrom commonly available data. The WBCMmodel considers all substantial interactionsbetween individual horizontal zones asvegetation, land surface, active (root) zone,unsaturated and groundwater zones. It simulatesthe following processes:• Potential evapotranspiration and interception• Surface runoff and active zone dynamics• Unsaturated zone moisture and actual
evapotranspiration• Saturated zone dynamics, basic runoff, total
runoff
In this study, the water balance of a smallexperimental catchment, CERNA NISA innorthern Bohemia in the Czech Republic (area:1.87 k m2, length of stream 2.10 km with theslope of 2.3%, average altitude 800 m a.s.l.,average annual rainfall 1070 mm, average annualrunoff 666 mm) was analyzed. The outlet ofCERNA NISA is gauged (profile UHLIRSKA)and the daily flow was first used for the modelparameter assessment. Data for the growingseasons from 1980 to 1996 were used to simulatethe water balance. The next step was toimplement the model further in a simulation ofhypothetical scenarios representing changes inland use and deforestation in particular. It hasbeen shown to what extent deforestation caninfluence individual components of the waterbalance. It usually decreases interception andactual evapotranspiration, and increases surfacerunoff. These changes have been quantified by theWBCM model in other places in the CzechRepublic (Kovar, 1998). The model can also beused to predict flood levels when the active zoneis close to saturation.
The mountainous stream waterchemistry from Japan to northern
ThailandYasunori Nakagawa, Goro Iwatsubo
Kyoto University, Laboratory of Forest Ecology,Graduate School of Agriculture, Oiwake-cho,
Kitashirakawa, Sakyo-Ku, 606-8502, Kyoto, JapanFAX: +81 75-753-6080, Email: [email protected]
u.ac.jp
Key words: stream water chemistry
The chemistry of mountainous stream watersfrom 12 forested watersheds in six regions wasevaluated. Three watersheds were selected fromShibecha (43°17’ N, 147°37’ E), HokkaidoPrefecture, two from Takayama (36°11’ N,137°19’ E), Gifu Prefecture, two from the Mt.
Hiei (35°06’ N, 135°51’ E) in Otsu, Shiga Prefecture,three from Kagawa Prefecture (34°12’ N, 134°12’ E),one from Jiulianshan (24°31’ N, 114°28’ E), southernChina, and Chiang Mai (18°47’ N, 98°37’ E), northernThailand. pH was determined by glass electrode; EC(electrical conductivity) by a conductivity meter; Na+,NH4
+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Cl-, NO3-, and SO4
2- by ionchromatography; Si (only for stream water) byinductively coupled plasma (ICP) spectrometry. Theconcentrations of HCO3
- (meq/L) were calculated fromthe difference between total measured cation andanion concentrations.
EC and strong acid anion concentrations in streamwater increased with low Humidity Index (HI) values,suggesting that dry conditions increasedconcentrations due to high rates of evapotranspiration.Anion concentrations were also affected by otherfactors. The Cl- concentrations in stream waters werehigher in those watersheds which had closed canopiesand were nearer to the ocean. The NO3
- concentrationswere higher in those watersheds having welldeveloped soils and high moisture conditions, butwere lower in tropical and subtropical watershedswhich had high rates of nitrogen uptake and forwatersheds with large areas of saturated soils. TheSO4
2- concentrations were affected by SO42- adsorption
properties of the soils: at Shibecha, Jiulianshan andChiang Mai with high adsorption capacities. SO4
2-
concentrations in streams were low. High SO42-
concentrations were found at Mt. Hiei and Kagawadue to the weathering of sulfur minerals and highlevels of atmospheric sulfur deposition. Within theregions, SO4
2- concentrations were inversely related toNO3
- concentrations. However, HCO3- concentration
did not exhibit a clear relationship with HI. This maybe caused by the fact that (a) HCO3
- concentration isaffected by CO2 partial pressure, pH and geologicalconditions, and (b) HCO3
- concentrations may includesome organic anions in this study. A comparisonamong all watersheds exhibited significant positivecorrelation between HCO3
- concentration and pH,suggesting that H+ consumption in deeper soilincreased pH and HCO3
- concentrations. Thecorrelation between pH and EC was clearer than thatbetween pH and HCO3
- concentrations in streamwater. The relationship between pH and EC wasdetermined mainly by that between pH and HCO3
-
concentrations, and partially by the neutralization ofstrong acid anions in soil.
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Water yield from Pinus radiataplantations: A review
Lindsay Rowe, B D Fahey, R J JacksonLandcare Research, PB # 69, 8152 Lincoln, New
ZealandTel: +64 3 325 6701, FAX: +64 325 2418, Email:
[email protected] words: water yield, Pinus radiata, plantations,afforestation
Globally, there are fears that the establishment ofplantations of exotic forest species for wood fibreproduction may have a detrimental effect on theenvironment, especially those aspects relating towater yield, water quality, erosion andsedimentation, soil degradation, and biodiversity,These fears are often raised where Pinus andEucalyptus forests are established in theheadwaters of catchments in areas where therecould be diminished water yields. Arguments canthen arise between foresters who 'use' rain waterto meet the biological needs of trees for growth,and downstream-users who require water formunicipal, stock-water and irrigation supplies,and to sustain minimum levels in rivers forrecreation and maintaining-stream habitats,especially at times of seasonally low river flows.This paper reviews data on water yields fromcatchments with established Pinus radiataplantations. The information, mainly from studiesin New Zealand, Australia and South Africa, hasbeen obtained from a search of the literature inworld-wide databases. A number of these studiesreport on the differences in water yield betweenpine-covered catchments and those with othervegetation covers, e.g., indigenous forests,grasslands, and pasture.
Layang Reservoir sorbed-phosphorous loadings estimation
Supiah Shamsudin, Mohd Azraii KassimUniversity Putra Malaysia (UPM), Serdang 43400
Selangor, Malaysia
Key words: phosphorous loadings, sediment yield
Phosphorous (P) and sediment inflow fromreservoir drainage areas can accelerate the processof eutrophication or lake aging. The phosphorousand sediment inflows may originate from forestsor agricultural activities and plantations aroundthe drainage area. Recent investigations seem tofavour phosphorous as the limiting factor forreservoir productivity (Henderson 1979). Thepurpose of this study was to estimate the rate ofphosphorous loadings from the drainage area intoSungai Layang Reservoir situated in Johor,Malaysia. The phosphorous loadings rate at the
Sungai Layang Reservoir was determined by using anevent-based stochastic model developed by Ducksteinand Bogardi (1978).
The area surrounding Sungai Layang Reservoir iscovered with palm oil and rubber trees with someportions under primary forest. The remaining land isused for agriculture, cultivation of fresh water fish,etc. Fertilizer was used to increase the agriculturalyield. There are some chicken and pig breeding areaswhich affected the water quality of the reservoir.There are five rivers flowing into the reservoir.However, all of the rivers except the river flowingthrough Ladang Ban Foo are dry most of the time, butthe main channel has water flowing throughout theyear. All other rivers have water flowing only duringheavy rainfall.
The model described by Duckstein and Bogardi tookinto account the two types of phosphorous: dissolved-phosphorous and sorbed-phosphorous. Sorbed-phosphorous is also known as sediment-phosphorous.In the precipitation event-based stochastic model thestochastic nature of the nutrient input is recognized.The model also encoded uncertainties in the form of arelative frequency distribution and probability densityfunction (pdf). Daily inflows for the stochasticityestimation are acquired by means of the Mike 11NAM model. The probabilistic description ofphosphorous loadings in terms of relative frequency,mean and variance is sought.
Water samples were taken randomly from both theriver and reservoir at the water surface, and themiddle, and bottom layers. The water samples weretested with reagent phos Ver 3 phosphate using DR3000 to indicate the phosphorous content in mg/l.Preliminary studies indicated that dissolvedphosphorous concentrations ranged from 0.01 mg/l to1.07 mg/l from various locations in the river andreservoir. The total average concentration obtainedfrom the study was 0.0410 mg/l @ 41.0 ug/l. Otheraspects of water quality were also recorded: averagepH was 6.95, while the average DO was 7.19 mg/l.The mean dissolved-phosphorous loadings per stormcomputed from the event-based stochastic model was0.095 t/event while the variance was 0.021 t/event.The mean annual total dissolved P-loadings was 4.175t/yr and the variance was 3.81 t/yr.
Sediment yield was estimated using the Modified SoilLoss Equation (MUSLE) developed by Williams(1975a). The average annual sediment yield wasestimated at approximately 400 tons/ha/yr. This valuewas compared to information given by the Departmentof Agriculture. The sediment yield value was used tocompute the total sediment-phosphorous loadings.
In order to retain overall lake water quality, activitieswithin the watershed should be properly and
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systematically managed. The various controlmethods proposed to decrease the content ofphosphorous in the lake include soil erosioncontrol, better techniques for fertilizer utilization,the timing, amount and method of application,chemical treatment by alum or copper sulphate,and bubbling oxygen through anaerobic layers ofstratified lakes. Wetland construction could beconsidered as an alternative technique forphosphorous removal besides improving thenature of the landscapes upstream of the reservoir.
Interactions of Woody Debris andSediment in Headwater Channels of
Coastal AlaskaRoy C. Sidle, T. Gomi
University of British Columbia, Department of ForestResources Management/Geography
2424 Main Mall - 2nd floor, V6T 1Z4 Vancouver,Canada
Tel: +1-604-822-3169, FAX: +1-604-822-9106, Email:[email protected]
Key words: large woody debris, timber harvesting
Numerous studies in larger low gradient foreststreams have noted the importance of large woodydebris (LWD) in relation to fish habitat, sedimentstorage, and channel morphology. Very fewstudies have been conducted in headwaterchannels even though these systems are moredirectly impacted by timber harvesting.Headwater streams are dynamic environmentsbecause of their steep gradients (usually > 10%),susceptibility to landslides and debris flows, anddirect effects of land use activities, especiallywhen channels are deeply incised. To address thehydrologic and geomorphic linkages between thehillslope and channel in steep terrain as well asthe dynamics of sediment and water movementrelated to riparian vegetation and woody debris instreams, a series of headwater channels on Princeof Wales Island, Alaska was investigated.
All streams were in steep glaciated valleys; someof the sites were clearcut in the late 1950s, otherswere clearcut in 1995, and still others were in old-growth Sitka spruce-western hemlock forests. Sixof the 15 channels studied were impacted bydebris flows: 3 of the channels were scoured bydebris flows in the early 1960s several years afterclearcutting; the remaining 3 channels werescoured by more recent debris flows in 1993. ofthe other 9 streams, 3 were in old-growth forests,3 in recent clearcuts, and 3 in older clearcut areasthat were not significantly impacted by debrisflows. Riparian zones of channels scoured byearlier debris flows have recolonized with alder.
The steep upper portion of these headwater channels,as well as the channels impacted by more recent debrisflows, contain less woody debris than other channels.LWD was transported to the lower reaches of thesesystems where large volumes of sediment collectedbehind these dams. The recent clearcut sites containlarge accumulations of logging slash. While this slashis storing some sediment in these headwater systems,it is doubtful that stability of such small dams willwithstand large stormflow events. It appears that thesmaller diameter woody material associated with thedebris flow and recent clearcut channels is rathereffective in storing sediment from more chronicerosion processes, e.g., minor bank erosion, bedloadtransport, surface erosion from old landslide scars. incontrast, the old-growth sites have less but largerdiameter LWD in their channels. These jams trap alesser amount of sediment, presumably because of theundisturbed nature of the drainage, but the depositedsediment appears more stable. For more episodicevents (e.g., large storms, small debris flows), LWDdams may fail sequentially based on structuralintegrity and position. Additionally, we areinvestigating the effect of LWD type, volume, andlocation in these headwater systems on the channelroughness as it affects the routing of water andsuspended sediment to larger fish-bearing streams.Such information is useful to help evaluate the effectsof timber harvesting in steep terrain on sedimentdynamics and hydrology of headwater systems as wellas to estimate downstream impacts.
Stream Chemistry and The Sources ofSolutes in Rainforest Catchments
Underlain By Metamorphic SandstoneZulkiflli Yusop, Abdul Rahim Nik and Baharuddin KasranForest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM), Kepong, 52109
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Keywords: stream water chemistry
Streamwater quality of two forested catchmentsnamely, C1 and C2 was monitored over 3 years atBukit Tarek Experimental Watershed (BTEW) in theState of Selangor, Peninsular Malaysia. The forest waslogged more than thirty years ago and now has fullyregenerated. The area is underlain by metamorphicsandstone. Streamwaters were grab sampled duringbaseflow conditions and sampled by automatic watersamplers during storms.
The water is slightly acidic with mean pHs of 5.57 and5.30 for C1 and C2, respectively. The acidity wassignificantly higher during high flow conditions andseemed to be governed by NO3 concentrations. Levelsof electrical conductivity (EC) were low with a meanof 8.3 µS/cm. The EC levels increased during storms
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and were accompanied by increases in theconcentrations of major ions (K+, Ca2+, Mg2+).This indicates that the upper soil horizon could beequally important in providing nutrients/solutes tothe ecosystem especially for sites that have lowweathering rates. The sources of nutrients in theupper horizon are mainly leached from canopiesand forest litter. The concentrations of K+, Ca2+,Mg2+ and Na+ at BTEW were generally lowerthan those reported for catchments of differentlithologies.
Total ionic contents were higher in the stormflowsamples than in the baseflow: 181.4 vs. 162.3µeq/l in C1 and 189.9 vs. 150.4 µeq/ in C2. Thisshowed that stormflow components were moredominant than baseflow for delivering ions intothe streams. The sum of cations exceeded theanions during both baseflow and stormflowconditions. The anionic deficits vary from 10.3 to37.4% and most probably are due to unanalyzedorganic compounds. in both catchments, thebaseflow was dominated by Mg2+ with slightdifferences in the cationic sequence as follows:
C1: Mg2+ >Ca2+ > K+ > Na+ > NH4 + > H+ ;
C2:Mg2+ > K+ > Ca2+ > Na+ > NH4 + > H+
With Mg2+, Ca2+ and K+ dominating the cations,the weathering sources could be attributed tomicas and plagioclase which are commonminerals in metamorphic rocks. The sequenceshifted slightly during storms with K+ becomingmore dominant than Ca2+, and H+ took over fromNH+. K is a major element in plant tissues andcould be easily leached from the organic horizon.The two catchments shared similar anionicsequences with HCO3
- dominating the baseflowand NO3
- the stormflow as follows:
Baseflow:HCO3- > NO3
- > Cl- > SO42- > PO4
3-;Stormflow:NO3 > HCO3
- > Cl- > SO42- > PO4
3-
HCO3- is the by-product of silicate weathering
from the deeper soil layer whereas NO3- was
entrained from the upper soil during storms.
It is evident that stream chemistry is influencedby the paths by which water travels to the streamchannel. The slower path at the deeper soil profilecarries ions from the weathering front whereas themore rapid flow is dominated by ions derivedfrom organic matter in the upper soil horizon.
Hydrologic Effects of Forest Harvest inNorthwestern California, USA
Robert ZiemerUSDA Forest Service, 1700 Bayview Drive, CA 95521
Arcata, USATel: +01-707-825-2936, FAX: +01-707-825-2901, Email:
[email protected] words: forest harvesting effects, peakflows, lowflows
Streamflow, suspended sediment, and bedload havebeen monitored since 1962 in the 473-ha North Forkand the 424-ha South Fork of Caspar Creek. Thesewatersheds are about 7 km from the Pacific Ocean, onthe Jackson Demonstration State Forest, 10 km southof Fort Bragg, California, USA. About 35% of theslopes are less than 17° and 7% are steeper than 35°.Elevation ranges from 37 to 320 m. The soils of thebasins are well-drained clay-loams, 1 to 2 m in depth,and are derived from Franciscan graywacke sandstoneand weathered, coarse-grained shale of CretaceousAge. About 90% of the average annual precipitation of1200 mm falls from October through April. Snow israre and rainfall intensities are low.
Prior to treatment, the watersheds supported a 90-year-old second-growth forest composed of coast redwood(Sequoia sempervirens (D.Don) Endl.), Douglas-fir(PseudoTsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco), westernhemlock (Tsuga heterophylla (Raf.) Sarg.), and grandfir (Abies grandis (Dougl. ex D.Don) Lindl.). From1963 to 1967, both forested watersheds were measuredin an "untreated" condition. in 1967, logging roadswere built in the South Fork. From 1971 through 1973,about 65% of the stand volume was selectively cutfrom the South Fork watershed, while the North Forkremained as an untreated control. Logging began inthe North Fork in 1985 and ended in 1991. The timbervolume removed from the North Fork watershedapproximated that cut from the South Fork in the early1970s, but clearcutting rather than selective harvestwas used. The size of clearcut blocks in the NorthFork ranged from 9 to 60 ha and occupied 35% to100% of individual tributaries.
Logging-induced changes in the South Fork's peakstreamflow were greatest for the first storms followinglengthy dry periods. There was no significant changein the largest peakflows (>10-year return interval)after selectively logging the South Fork. Peakstreamflows following clearcut logging in the NorthFork behaved similarly. There was a mean increase of17% for the class of peakflows with return intervals>0.45-year (>0.004 m3 s-1 ha-1). Annual runoff in theSouth Fork increased between 9% and 30% for thefirst 5 years after selective logging. This is equivalentto an average increase in water yield of 900 m3 ha-1.The increased annual water yield slowly returned toprelogging levels over the following 15 years. After
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clearcut logging in the North Fork, the annualincrease in water yield varied from 9% to 58% inthe first 7 years, with an average increase of 945m3 ha-1. This result is similar to that observedfollowing the removal of about the same volumeof trees from the South Fork. However, 7 yearsafter clearcutting, there is still no trend of returnto prelogging levels.
Selection logging of the South Fork increasedsummer lowflow by about 0.3 l-s-1-km-2 for eachof the first 3 years after logging, an increase ofabout 80% from that predicted by the pre-loggingregression. This increased summer flow declinedwith regrowth of the vegetation so that within 7 to8 years after logging, summer lowflow hadreturned to pre-logging levels. Clearcut loggingabout 50% of the North Fork produced minimumsummer flows averaging 0.4 l-s-1-km-2 (146%)larger than predicted. The increased flow wasgreatest (250%) during the first 2 years afterclearcutting, but 7 years after cutting, summerflow was still 112% above prelogging levels.
8.04.00 Natural disasters
Krottenthaler Graben Landslide -Disaster Documentation - An
Approach To A SolutionGünther Bunza, Göttle, Albert
Bayerisches Landesamt für Wasserwirtschaft,Lazarettstrasse 67 (Postfach 19 02 41), 80602
München, GermanyTel: (089) 92 14-01, FAX: (089) 92 14-14 35, Email:
Keywords: Landslide case history; Ground water;Preventive measures
The "Krottenthaler Graben landslide" near Geitau,municipality of Bayrischzell, county Miesbachhappened on 21 November 1996 at the north -exposed slope of the "Miesing massif" (1,861 mabove sea level) orographically situated on theright of the so-called "Krottenthaler Graben". Themain fracture area of the landslide lies at analtitude of 1,370 m above sea level, its lowestlevel at 965 m. The loose masses of a cone-shaped debris slope partly stocked with forest anddwarf mountain-pines were affected by thesemovements. in all, some two million cubic metresof material covering an area of approx. 50 acresstarted to move. Whereas between 1,030 m and1,100 m above sea level the highly piled upmasses blocked the Krottenthaler Graben for ashort term, eastern parts of the masses weremoving downwards the slope in a debris flow
manner (see also sketch referring to local andgeological situation).
Triggering factors for the slope movement were:- the saturated debris masses resulting from heavysummer rainfall- the movement of previously occurring wet snow-falls- the inflow of karst water and the damming up ofwater by aquiclude strata underneath.
In November and December 1996 the landslide wasstill very active, meanwhile it became stabilised. Thewater of the Krottenthaler Graben discharges withoutproblems below the debris masses. A reactivation ofthe slope movement seems only possible when theprevalent coarse-grained material is highly soaked.Extreme conditions can, however, lead to thedamming up of the Krottenthaler Graben, which mayend in a breakthrough of debris flow extending to thevalley floor, thus endangering the settlement at thefoot of the debris cone and the trunk road B 307.
As a preventive measure the office for regional watermanagement in Rosenheim arranged for the clearingof the retention basins downstream of existing torrentdefence works and gravel traps in order to dispose ofsome 40,000 cubic metres of receiving volume. Thecosts of these measures amounted to about one millionDM.
As further preventive measures the Bavarian StateOffice for Water Management (LfW) and the StateOffice for Geology (GLA) prepared an investigationand observation concept. The relevant investigationswill be based on previously performed laser-scan airphotography in 1998.
Urban growth and geodynamic processesin the high jungle of Peru
Raol C. Carreno, Susana KalafatovichSwiss Federal Institute of Technology - Lausanne (EPFL),
DGC-Ecublens, CH-1015 Lausanne, SwitzerlandFAX: + 41 - 21 - 693 4153, Email: [email protected]
Keywords: Subandean cities development;Agricultural exploitations; Floods and debris flows;Geological setting
The transition area between the andean mountainrange and the amazonian plain of Peru is known asforest brow or high forest (Ceja de selva o Selva alta).This region is characterized by its relatively narrowvalleys and their high slope. The soils plows not verystable and easily prone to erosion.
The climatic conditions and the abundance of humusfavour the abundant vegetation and the high biologicaldiversity.
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Historically this region has not a significanthuman occupation, especially due to the existenceof illnesses against those the andean inhabitantsdidn't have defenses. The Inkas didn't end upconquering this region, where small cultures ortribes only existed. The colonization of the highforest begins strongly in the XIX century, afterthe peak of the rubber, the vanilla and thechestnut. Some valleys were previously only busyfor the cultivation of coca and fruits. Due to thesocial problems of the coastal and of themountainous regions, as well as for the arrival ofEuropean and Japanese immigrants, thecolonization of this region acquires greatimportance and they have been formed the firstcities approximately for one century.
The main characteristic of these cities is that theysettle in alluvial terraces or in the few placeswhere the rivers form wide plains. These citieshave strong dependence of the agricultural andforest activities.
In the last times, several subandean cities shows agreat urban growth that induced them to occupyhillsides and unstable terranes. This process goesaccompanied by the qualification of newagricultural exploitations in and lives sheer landsit lives. The destruction of the natural forests isquick.
The most tangible effects in this process of urbanand agricultural growth are given in the field ofthe geodynamic disasters. in the last decades theflood episodes, debris flow and big massremovals have increasing, forming natural damsand overflowings. The soils erosion is alarming,the same as the reactivacition of large landslides.
The geological setting favor these processes,because the predominance of the paleozoicmaterials (mainly Schists), and the Quaternarydeposits are not well consolidated. Besides it, theseismic activity is important, due to the existenceof active regional faults, like they are thoserelated with the of Abancay and Huancabambadeflexions.
Cities like Oxapampa, VillaRica, Quillabamba,Huanuco, Satipo, etc. are affected almost annuallyby floods and debris flow. The access highways tothese areas are continually off for collapses andlandslides. The economic effects are devastating,mainly during the rainy season: the supply ofservices and the supply of products are disrupted.The lost of crops and the prices increasingaccompanies to these phenomena.
Another aggravating factor is the lack of urbanplanning that disables an orderly growth of the
cities. of another side, the ignorance of the soilscharacteristics and of the geodynamic processesprevents to begin or to organize prevention andmitigation activities. in this way, many cities of thePeruvian high forest go a state of permanent disaster,thanks to the irreversible environmental deteriorationthat suffer the surrounding ecosystems.
Determination and designation of floodplains in Bavaria
Albert Göttle, Karl DeindlBavarian State Ministry for Regional Planning and
Environmental Affairs, Postfach 810140, 81901 Munich,Germany
Tel: +49 89 92 14 ext 43 78, FAX: +49 89 92 14 ext 22 66,Email: [email protected]
Keywords: Flood control storage; High waterdischarge; Aerial photographs
The most effective way to avoid risks for thepopulation as well as flood damages is the preventionof danger potentials in areas, which are susceptible toflooding. Sustainable regional planning can beachieved by preventive flood protection measures,especially by providing special-use corridors whichare designed for flooding or must be kept free fromsettlements or other similar uses. To secure thesespecial-use corridors for flood control storage and highwater discharge the designation of flood plains isprovided for in the German water laws. in order tofulfill this legal obligation within the scope of anation-wide initiative, Bavaria started in June 1996 theproject "Determination and designation of flood plainsin Bavaria" Approximately one third of the requireddesignations have been put in practice. Priority of thisproject is, however, to determine flood plains alongwaters of a total length of about 6,000 km and makethem ready for designation. It is planned to achievemost of this task until the end of the year 2005. Toobtain the necessary actual data and working basis forthis project, aerial photographs of flood plains havebeen taken since the year 1997.
Gold exploitation and erosion processesin the rain forest of southeastern Peru
Susana Kalafatovich, Raul CarrenoPROEPTI, Apartado postal 638, Cusco, Peru
Email: [email protected]
Keywords: Peruvian high jungle; Alluvial gold oreexploitation; Forest ecosystems; Soil erosion andcontamination; Socio-economic problems
The well-known region as high jungle (Selva alta)corresponds to the subtropical humid forest (andeanpiedmont) and it constitutes the transition areabetween the andean mountain range and theamazonian plain. The soils of this region are extremely
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fragile, for their little tickness and their highorganic content. The erosion processes isdeveloped quickly by effect of forestal activity,agricultural or mining exploitations. This isfavoured by the intense rains concentrated on fewmonths a year.
In this subandean region located at the southeastof Peru, there are very important Quaternarygeological formations that possess big alluvialgold ore deposits. Most of these locations areexploited of handmade way. The depredation ofthe forest ecosystems become highly disturbing.Due to the low tenor of the ore deposits, a veryhigh removal of masses is required. in the lastyears begun is had to it introduces heavymachinery but without any planning neithercontrol. of another side, in spite of the greatthickness of the Quaternary formations, theexploitation is only bounded to the superior strata,while the deepest deposits cannot be exploited bytechnical and economic questions.
The erosion is heady directly to the rivers(especially the fine silts) while the thick materialsform piles where the vegetation difficultly can beregenerated. At the moment there are among120'000 to 150'000 people working in the goldexploitation in Madsre de Dios department, atsoutheast of the Cusco. The great majority ofthese workers comes from the andean region andthey develop a parallel agricultural activity to themining, the same one that is also depredatorysince it applies inappropriate technicalagricultural for the forest. Equally they huntspecies in risk and they destroy uniqueecosystems of the subtropical rainy forests.Among the problems caused by this irrationalexploitation we have:- Beginning of a wide desertificaction process, fordestruction of the vegetable covering and for thelaundry of the fine particles of the floor. Therecovery of the forests seems impossible. Neitherthe agricultural use is viable.- Appearance of fronts of regressive erosion thataffect to the forest and they advance toward areasof more slope.- Permanent water turbidity that affects to theflora and the fluvial fauna and it produces theelevation of beds, with what the flood dangersincrease.- Strong contamination of the soils, waters andplants for irrational use of the mercury.- Climatic alteration.- Contamination of soils for petroleum and oils.
- Biotopes and endemic species destruction, withalteration of the biological general regime of the area.
Besides these effects on the environment, big socio-economic problems announce many great scaleconflicts in the future. Another secondary effect is thepermanent installation of human groups in the forest,above its soportability limits. After the exhaustion ofthe auriferous locations or the technical impossibilityof continuing their exploitation, the workers opt forthe agriculture.
The soils of the forest are not very favorable for theintensive agriculture, for what a process of migrantagriculture begins, where after three or four years ofexploitation, people are obligated to leave theselocations, to enable new lands, leaving desertifiedspaces.
Network constructions for wood debriscontrol in torrents
Anton Loipersberger, Albert GöttleBavarian Water Management Agency, Lazarettstrasse 67, D
- 80 636 München, GermanyTel: +49-89-92141042, FAX: +49-89-92141041, Email:
Keywords: Torrent control; Wood debris control;Construction works
Not only in Bavaria, but all over the europian alpsmountain forests are widely not in a good status,moreover the situation tends to deteriorate even more.Consequently wood debris has become an increasingproblem in the recent years. Due to blockage ofbridges or in the torrent bed itself additional damagesare caused, which otherwise would not have occurred.
During the last few years different constructions forwood debris control have been developed, consistingof various types of grid or slit construction. Sometimesthey are built in combination with check dams. Asexperiences in Switzerland (Sachseln 1997) show, thiscombination may fail in special situations and theretention of the wood debris does not work.
In Bavaria we have been using network constructionsfor about 10 years successfully in the field ofavalanche control. So the idea arised, to transfer theexperience to torrent control works for the retention ofwood debris. in fact the idea of network or ropeconstructions for torrential works is not completelynew. in East-Tyrol (Austria) this type has been usedfor about 10 to 15 years. The main purpose here is theretention of bedload.
For the first works carried out we developed a designmethod based on theoretical considerations. Thedevelopment of the network construction in practicewas accompanied by a physical model at the Water
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Research Institut of the Technical UniversityMunich. of course we are aware of the fact, thatthe simulation of a complex natural process isvery difficult. Nevertheless we expected a betterunderstanding of the process and also someinformation about the influence and sensitivity ofdifferent design criteria. Now as the simulationsare completed some valuable results andtendencies became obvious. At the moment weare considering another test in a 1: 1 scale innature. This should serve detailed informationabout the external static and dynamic load on theconstruction which couldn't be investigatedsufficiently in the model.
Mechanical Estimation of BiotechnicalSlope Stability Effect by Tree Root
SystemsMasanori Suyama
Shizuoka University, Fac.of Agriculture, Ohya 836,422-8529 Shizuoka, Japan
Tel: +8154 238 4889, FAX: 81-54-238-4889, Email:[email protected]
Keywords: Suburban Forest, Tree RootMorphology, Tensile Strength, Shear Strength,Slope Stability
In the metropolitan area and the Kansai district ofJapan, there are many urban and suburban forests.These forests serve frequently asdisasterprevention forests. Recently in Japan,improvement of techniques for the creation andmaintenance of disaster prevention forests andurban and suburban forests has been urgent.Accordingly, the existing protection forests ofurban and suburban areas were firstly described.in order to find out mechanism of biotechnicalslope stability maintained by tree rootsystems, thevariety of tensile strength of tree roots betweenseveral species was discussed by comparinghillside revegetation works in urban and suburbanforests. and the latest topics about the efffect ofenvironmental conservation function of forestfrom the above mentioned point of view will becomparatively discussed. On the other hand, theshear strength decreases due to distance from asolitary tree and the distribution of shear strengthchanges at the middle of sample tree were alsodiscussed for the urban forests in Kyoto.
The forests in Japan, in response to the variousrequirements of the national economy, have animportant role in providing steady supplies oftimber and other forest products. The forests, onthe other hand, possess a function of publicbenefits as conservation of national land andwater resources, filtration of air and water, andpromotion of health and recreation for the people.
Thus, the forests in Japan have close interaction withthe people's life. Especially, as a result of significanteconomic development of Japan in recent years, thefoot of mountains near cities were developed intohousing land and leisure facilities in many areas afterfelling forest trees so that the danger of the occurrenceof natural disasters tended to increase. After all, urbanand suburban forests around residential areas are moreimportant than remote mountain forests when naturaldisasters such as landslides, falling rocks, and debrisflow are likely to occur. Consequently, it is necessaryto improve techniques for the creation andmaintenance of urban and suburban forests in order toprevent disasters. With respect to the effects of forestsin urban and suburban areas on the surroundingmicroclimate, the degree and range of the effects offorests on temperature and humidity has been studiedbased on the balance of solar energy among forestswith different tree species and stand density. On theother hand, the estimation of the environmentalconservation effect of urban and suburban forests hasnot studied completely yet. In the present research, theslope stability of forests were generally determinedfrom the incidents of slope failures by investigatingthe forest conditions in mountainous regions where thefailures occurred frequently after heavy rainsaccording to the classification such as plantedforest,natural forest, conifer tree, broad leaf tree, treeage and forest density and it confirms that trees areused to control erosion on slopes, to stabilize landslidescars, and to absorb debris flow impacts. Roots due totheir tensile strength and frictional or adhesiveproperties, reinforce the soil, increase soil shearstrength. Particularly, the tree roots may anchor intofirm strata providing support with the upslope soilmantle through buttressing and arching. In this paper,the latest topics about the effect of environmentalconservation function of forests from the abovementioned point of view was comparatively discussed.Then we reported on the results of our survey of theactual situation of urban and suburban forests and wediscussed the mechanical evaluation method for thebeneficial factors in terms of slope stability due to thepresence of urban and suburban forests.
The role of forests in slope stability andpreventing landsliding processes
Ahmad bin Mat Isa Zainal, Haron bin Hj. Abu HassanInstitut Rimbawan Malaysia, Forestry Deapartment, 50660
Salahuddin, MalaysiaTel: 03 2988244, FAX: 603 2925657, Email:
Keywords: Landslides; Storm precipitation; Groundwater in forests; Slope stability; Pore pressure increase
Malaysia's commitment to achieve sustainable forestmanagement in the overall context of sustainable
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development will continue to emphasize pollutioncontrol and prevention, the integration ofenvironmental factors into project planning andimplementation as well as incorporation ofenvironmental inputs into resource and regionaldevelopment. Concerted efforts and developmenttowards sustainable management are diverse andmanifold whereby Forestry Departments ofPeninsular Malaysia, Sabah and Sarawak andother related agencies will enhance their policies,strategies and programmes towards the attainmentof the goals of sustainable development andintegrated environmental considerations indecision making process.
The paper describes the present situationelaborating on the role of rainfall andgroundwater in landsliding processes and slopestability concern in forestry with special referenceto Peninsular Malaysia. Landslides and washoutsare becoming a common cause of accidents on thesteep terrain areas. Landslides occur naturally inundisturbed areas or are influenced by effects ofmanagement and development activitiesespecially with regards to roads. Roads have thecapability of altering natural water pathways ofsubsurface moisture flow and road drainagedesign as well as maintenance should be a majormanagement concern. It is noted that climatestrongly influences landslide occurrences. inaddition, landslides rates are strongly influencedby intense precipitation events and saturatedantecedent conditions. As such, it is also observedthat landslides invariably occur during periods ofstorm precipitation. Among other occurrences inMalaysia, as reported by the STAR on the 3 July1995 (Monday), the tragedy of two landslidesoccurred at the Genting Highlands slip road thattook the lives of at least 20 people and injuredanother 23. The second landslide caused most ofthe damage of bringing down large volume ofgushing water and uprooting a 150 m stretch oftrees.
The paper also articulates the need to enhance theunderstanding of relevant factors such astopography, bedrock geology, the hydraulicproperties of forest soil and the hydrologicproperties of water that have major effects onsubsurface flow processes during large rainfallevents.
The paper highlights the important mechanism forcausing slope failures which emphasizes theheight of saturation above a potential failure plane(and the accompanying increase in pore pressure)decreases the shear strength of forest soils. Lackof information in areas of steep terrain where
landslides occur is an issue to be looked into. Thematter of concern is our ability to model or predictstream flow responses from rainfall events and ourability to simulate subsurface water levels in landslide-prone terrain.
8.05.00 Forest Fire
A study of fire history and the vegetationchange of a lowland, peat swamp forest inthe Lake Sentarum Wildlife Reserve, West
Kalimantan, IndonesiaGusti Z. Anshari
Monash University, Dept. Geography & EnvironmentalScience, Wellington Rd, Victoria 3168 Clayton, Australia
Email: [email protected]
Keywords: Tropical lowland peat land; Biomassburning; Vegetation history; Pollen study
This research provides a long-term perspective onimpacts of fires on tropical lowland peatland forest,and record vegetation change in the Lake SentarumWildlife Reserve. This study used pollen andmicroscopic charcoal analyses of sediment corescollected from the peat swamp forest within thereserve. The correlation of pollen spectra with thepresent vegetation types in the Lake SentarumWildlife Reserve was analysed, using correspondenceanalysis, while impacts of prehistoric fires on pastvegetation was valued, using Monte Carlo permutationtests.
Peat land forests in the Lake Sentarum WildlifeReserve has existed since at least 30000 yr BP. Theinitiation of peat in Late Pleistocene in this reservesuggests that this area is predominantly ever wet. Thisstudy also indicates that prehistoric forest firesfrequently occurred in this region. These firedisturbances have minor effects on past vegetationcommunities, but recent forest fires, probably since3000 yr BP, seem to have persistently shifted theforest types, from closed peatland forests to secondaryforest types. Human activities and recent El Ninophenomenon may have significant roles in this currentchange.
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Fire in Temperate and Boreal Forests-Global Change, Fire Management, and
SustainabilitySusan G. Conard, Brian J. Stocks
USDA Forest Service, Vegetation Management andProtection Research, Sidney R. Yates Federal Building
(1CEN), PO Box 96090, 20090-6090 Washington,D.C., USA
FAX: 1-202-205-2497, Email: sconard/[email protected]
Keywords: Global carbon budget;Boreal/temperate fire emissions; Managementstrategies
While the importance of temperate and borealforests as potential carbon sinks is widelyrecognized, the role of wildland fire in thedynamics of these sinks is not. in some instances,accurate accounting of fire emissions maycompletely alter estimates of source/sinkrelationships. in most of these forest types,surface fires or stand-replacement crown fireshave been part of the landscape for thousands ofyears. These fire patterns are altered by humanactivities (such as fire suppression, grazing,forestry practices, urbanization, or intentional orunplanned ignitions), by interactions with otherdisturbances such as insect outbreaks, or by shortand long-term changes in climate. Changes infrequency, intensity or size of fires, in fuelstructure, or in forest health and composition canhave important effects on net carbon storage, onforest health and sustainability, and onsusceptibility to future fires. Fires in boreal andtemperate forests contribute perhaps 20-30percent of the global carbon emissions frombiomass burning. Fires are also sources of keygreenhouse gases, which add to the potentialimpact of changing fire regimes on globalclimate. Estimates based on global climate changemodels suggest that fire hazard in boreal zoneforests could increase substantially in the future.Management of global carbon requires a fullunderstanding of the factors affecting carbonrelease from fires, and of the potentials andpitfalls for managing fire regimes to enhancesequestration. For example, attempts to increasecarbon storage through elimination of fire on alandscape scale can lead to increased risk of insectand disease attack, increases in flammable fuels,and greater danger of severe fires in the future.While intensive silvicultural treatments, such asthinning, can reduce these risks, they are notpractical on the scale that would be necessary forfire protection across the vast landscapes oftemperate and boreal forests. and the ecologicalimpacts of substituting mechanical treatments for
fire on a broad scale are poorly understood. Despitethe global importance of understanding the role,management, and impacts of fire on forest health andsustainability, we do not have adequate monitoringsystems to accurately quantify burned areas, fireseverity, or the effects of boreal and temperate forestfires on carbon storage (or trace gas emissions). Forestmanagement, and estimates of global carbon balance,must consider the changing role and impacts of fireand impacts of alternate fire management strategiesand changing climate in these temperate and borealsystems.
Forests fire: monitoring and managementusing satellite remote sensing data
Mohd. Hasmadi Ismail, Kamaruzaman JusoffUniversiti Putra Malaysia, Faculty of Forestry, 43400 UPM
Selangor, MalaysiaTel: 60-3-9486101 ext. 2414, FAX: 60-3-9481522, Email:
kamaru @forr.upm.edu.my
Keywords: Satellite remote sensing; Forest fire;ASEAN Region; Malaysia
Forest fire has an important influence on thevegetation cover, dependent animal, soil, stream flow,air quality, microclimate and perhaps life and even theworld climate. The loss of timber, destruction ofwildlife, property and recreation value are also readilyperceived. Unfortunately, the damage to the protectivevalues of the forest are not equally discernable. It isquite clear that an innovative approach on forest firehazard monitoring and management requires the use ofnew technique to obtain, process and display spatialinformation in a timely and cost effective ways. Thelarge size, remoteness, and temporal variability inoccurrence of wildfires in tropical forest regions makeremote sensing/GIS techniques well suited formonitoring and studying wildfire.
In other situation, the information gathered are usefulin helping to make decision on the wildfire area. Thispaper focussed and emphasized on Malaysia andSouth East Asia due to the frequent occurrence ofmany forest fires during the past few years. The mainobjective of this paper is to promote the usefulness andcapability of satellite remote sensing as an alternativetool for monitoring, mapping and managing forest firein the ASEAN region.
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Forest Fire Monitoring and DamageAssessment Using Remotely Sensed
Data and GIS: A Case Study from EastKalimantan, Indonesia.
Yousif Ali Hussin, Heri SunupraptoThe International Institute for Aerospace Survey and
Earth Science (ITC), 7500 AA Enschede, NetherlandsFAX: (31) 53-4874-399, Email: [email protected]
Keywords: Forest fire hazard; Damageassessment; Remote sensing; GIS
Forests are inestimable and renewable naturalresource of a nation. They are gaining prominenceincreasingly day by day on account of theirprotective, productive, recreational and ecologicalvalues. So is the case with the wildlife, of whichforests are the abode. Furthermore, soil and waterare to be given salience of the highest order asthese two support the plant kingdom directly andultimately affect mankind in its varieddimensions. Thus, soil, water and forests form thetrinity which is indispensable for the existenceand survival of mankind. But unfortunately theseforests of utmost importance are subject tovarious kinds of injuries, out of which forest fireis the most consequential incite, doingincalculable harm to the forests.
Forest fire has an portentous influence on most ofthe vegetation and, through it, on dependentfauna, soil, stream flow, air quality, microclimate,and perhaps even general climate. Many of thedirect, immediate effects of fire are commonknowledge; they are also the reasons why fire is amatter of concern for foresters. The cumulativeimpacts of the environmental perturbationsunleashed by the forest fire, poses insurmountablethreat on the supply of natural resources. in anarea of wildlife the risk is even more pronouncedas they can be devoured by the fire or asphyxiatedby the scorching debilitated air.
Indonesia, as a part of Malaysian botanical region,is the richest tropical rain forest in the world.Those forests are second only to Brazil's forest insize, and represent 10 percent of the worldremaining tropical rain forest. of its total land areaof 193 million hectares, about 144 millionhectares or nearly 75 percent are classified as"forest land". More than 95 percent of those forestland are outside Java island (80 percent inSumatra, Kalimantan, and Irian Jaya). Indonesiasuffered from huge forest fires in 1983, 1986 andlast year (1998).
Forest fire in Indonesia is a yearly potentialcaused for forest degradation. Insufficient
information available about the main factors thatpromote the forest fire and information about theforest condition after the forest fire. This is one of thereason why forest area neglected after they are burned.Remote sensing and GIS are helpful tools to provide aquick and accurate data acquisition and that candescribe the forest condition after the forest fire.
The objectives of this research were to asses the abilityof satellite remotely sensing data to detect, identifyand classify forest damage caused by fire and todevelop a forest fire hazard spatial model.
Sustainable Management of Naturalresources: Forest and Fire (Ghana)
Paul KankamForestry Research Institute of Ghana, BOX 632, Kumasi,
GhanaFAX: 233-51-60121, Email: [email protected]
Keywords: Ghana forest/savanna fires; Fire damage;Control and prevention
This paper describes how the tropical country in theworld began to record most of its important forest fireevents from the early 1970s which normally spreadoccasionally from nearby savannah along the northernmargin of forest zone. in 1983, fire in the forest zoneof West Africa were so severe and extensive thateveryone become aware of their importance. The yearwas notable for prolonged and extensive drought inWest Africa and in many of the worlds tropical forestareas.
During that time, the environmental damage from thecombined effects of fire and drought wasunprecedented with great losses of crop yield and thedestruction of an estimated 4 million cubic meters oftimber in savannah dry semi-deciduous forests, amiddle zone vegetation. Since than fires have recurredin years with unexceptional dry season, carving aprogressive degradation of the forest especially on thenorthern margin vegetation bothering the forest zonein the south and savannah zone in the north which arethe two main vegetational types in Ghana.
The major causes of the bush fire have been harshclimate condition and anthropogenic or humanactivities. Due to this activities forest fire in thecountries have had adverse and widespread influenceon especially the semi-deciduous forest. Following thedrought of 1982-1983, fire has significantly altered thestructure and composition of about 30 percent of theseforests. The stem densities have been reduced andproportion of pioneer trees in the communityincreased. The effect of the fire is the considerablereduction of the economic value of forest in terms ofstands timber. The measures which have been takenfor forest protection through prevention and control
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include fire risk assessment and publicity, firebreaks, early burning, operational forest firemanagement and policy and legislation. Thereforea more intensive collaborative approach is beingadopted to ensure a better protection of thecountry forest. There are also plants to intensifythe development of more feasible forest firemanagement action plan and policy which willfully integrated not only. Monitory, research,institutional framework and capacity developmentbut also socio-economic considerations landresources management ad utilization, training andeducation. It is importance to identify the need toprevent and suppress wildfire and to rehabilitatedegraded forest reserves.
Fire-related Regeneration Dynamics inthe Moist Deciduous Forests ofWestern Ghats: A case study
A. R. R. Menon, K.J. Martin LowelKerala Forest Research Institute, PeechiThrissur, 680
653. Kerala, IndiaFAX: 0487 - 782247, Email: [email protected] in
Keywords: West Ghats; Tropical forest fireimpacts; Regeneration; Fire behavior
One of the major causes of degradation in tropicalforests and particularly the moist deciduousforests, is the recurrent incidence of fire. It is wellknown that fire causes extensive damage in theforest ecosystem by affecting regeneration andstocking and ultimately leading to poor status.Impact of fire on regeneration largely depend onthe intensity and periodicity of fire and the levelof the regeneration. The present paper deals withimpact of fire on the regeneration of moistdeciduous forest at a location in the Western ghatsin Thrissur forest division, Kerala State, India, atvarying fire frequencies.
Twelve 0.25ha (50m x 50m) plots wereestablished for different burning treatments, viz.early-burn, late-burn, one year and two-year firefrequencies and control, with three replications.Regenerating elements of tree species (1-10cmdbh) were tagged and enumerated in all the plots.Shrubs with height above 50cm and dbh below1cm were identified, height measured andrecorded from randomly selected 4m x 5mquadrats in each of the plots. Herbs (height below50cm) were also identified and counted fromrandomly selected 1m x 1m quadrats. All theobservations were taken before and afterprescribed burning and compared with the control(no burn) plots.
The intrime results indicate that impact of fire ismore in lower diameter classes (1-2.5cm dbh and
2.6-5cm dbh), whereas regeneration above 5cm dbhare less effected. Prescribed burning carried out in theearly summer season was found to cause the minimumdamage to regeneration, as compared to burningcarried out in the late summer season. Shrubs andherbs showed an apparent increase either in totalnumber or species diversity after fire. Fire favouredthe growth of secondary tree species, herbs andgrasses. This trend was more obvious in late burnplots. Among the different moist deciduous treespecies, thick bark species such as Gmelina arboreaand Pterocarpus marsupium were found to be moreresistant to fire. Air temperature and air humidity playa very critical role in predicting fire behaviour. It isobserved that once the fuel quantity and fuel moisturecontent cross a certain limit which is sufficient foroccurrence of fire, further change in fire behaviour iscontrolled by fuel porosity and fuel continuity. Otherfactors which control the rate of fire spread are sizeand thickness of leaves, rate of decomposition, soilmoisture regime, wind and presence of grasses. Thepaper elucidate the different aspects of this experimentand concludes on the possible impact of fire on thestatus of moist deciduous forests in this part of India.
Haze, Forest Fires and Landuse Practices:An Assessment
Samsudin Musa, Shamsudin Ibrahim, Ismail Harun RajaBarizan, Azman Hassan, Wan Mohd Shukri & Ismail ParlanForest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM), Natural Forest
Division, Kepong, 52109 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Keywords: Indonesian fires; Transboundarysmoke/haze impacts; Cross-sectoral approach
Malaysia and some of her neighbouring countriesnamely, Indonesia, Singapore and the Philippines haveof late experienced one of the worst occurrences ofhaze. The Problems is mainly caused by poor landusepractices of burning secondary forests and agriculturallands during preparation for agriculture. Thisphenomenon is not new and has been occurring almostevery mainly in Indonesia. However, its severity andimpacts have increased to such an extent thatenvironmentalists have called the 1997 haze and forestfires in these region ecological disasters. The fires hadresulted in a significant loss to property, loss ofincome, reduced the quality of the environment andalso caused health problems to nearby communities.However, several issues pertaining to the occurrenceof the fires has not been properly addressed and theextent of these negative impacts not adequatelyassessed. It is evident the problems are transboundaryin nature and that a collective effort is required toaddress them. At the same time, the problems are alsocross-sector in nature involving a variety of differentagencies and ministries and thus an integrated effortwould be necessary. This paper gives an assessment of
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the extent of the fires, its causes and impacts, andefforts that could or that are being made toovercome the problem.
History of Forest Fires in the Provinceof Pinar del Rio, Cuba
Marcos Pedro Ramos Rodriguez, Ronaldo VianaSoares
University of Pinar del Rio, Pinar del Rio, CubaFAX: +55-41-253-2332, Email: [email protected]
Keywords: Cuban fire dynamics; Fire causes;Impacts; Fire control efforts
The knowledge of the fire occurrence history in aregion is of great usefulness for the efficientplanning of fire control activities, because itpermits to establish the: i) locals of greateroccurrences; ii) length of the fire season; iii) maincauses of the fires; iv) types of vegetation affectedby the fires; v) extension of burned areas byperiods of time; and vi) evaluation of theefficiency in fire control. in this paper the historyof fire occurrence in the province of Pinar del Rioduring a 22 year period (1975 to 1996) isanalyzed in order to contribute to the increase ofthe efficiency on fire control in the region. Pinardel Rio, region of natural occurrence of Pinuscaribaea var. caribaea, the most important forestspecies in Cuba, is located between the latitudes21° 45' and 23° 01' North and the longitudes 82°51' and 84° 57' West, covering an area of 10,901 km2. During the observation period the total annualprecipitation varied from 1,089 to 2,229 mm; themonthly average temperature ranged from 21.59C in January to 26.85 C in August; the mean windspeed ranged from 7.0 km.-1 in August to 12.0km-1 in March; and the mean relative humidityvaried from 76% in April to 84% in September.Pinar del Rio is the most important forestprovince in Cuba and also the number one in fireoccurrence, with 21.48% of the total forest firesrecorded in the country. The majority of the fires(93.28%) and the area burned (94.44%) wereobserved in native or planted forests of Pinus spp(76.72% of the recorded fires), Eucalyptus spp(11.56%), and Casuarina spp (5.00%). Statisticalanalysis showed that fires were significantly morefrequent in forestry plantations than in naturalforests. The main cause of the fires was lightning(47.46%) but most of the burned area (39.42%)was due to fires caused by negligence, the secondmain cause, with 27.38% of the recorded fires.About 83.70% of the fires and 92.40% of theburned area were recorded from March to August,and 69.43% of the fires occurred between 1:00 to4:00 PM. During the studied period the annual
average number of fires was 55.45 and the meanburned area 460.46 ha. Using indicators cited in theliterature, the efficiency of forest fire control in theprovince of Pinar del Rio, when compared to othercountries, can be considered very good.
Managing Smoke in Forestry and CropEstate Sector in Indonesia
Eulis RetnowatiForest and Nature Conservation Research and Development
Center, FORDA, Jl. Gunung Batu, PO BOX 165, Bogor,Indonesia
Tel: +62-251-325111, FAX: +62-251-325111, Email:[email protected]
Keywords: Smoke impacts; Fire research; Shiftingcultivation; El Nino
The increase of destruction in Indonesian forest firesin 1997 and 1998 totaled around 10 million ha, withdamage estimates of US$ 10 billion. Other negativeimpacts included heavy smoke effecting flora andfauna, humans, and relations between other countries.Law enforcement was weak, proving that themanagement of forest fire prevention, suppression,mitigation and rehabilitation was neither satisfactorynor effective. Even with highly advanced equipmentused to fight, millions of US$ spent, and manyinternational groups and thousand of peoples involved,the fire did not stop, ending with heavy rains at theend of May 1998. It was found that Indonesian forestfire management lacked useful data rooted in forestfire research, making effective action against forestfires very weak. There was also a weakness in theinterest of the people who working in the forestplantations and agricultural activities such as rubberand oil palm plantations that use fire in landpreparation without any clear guidelines. There is noalternative solution for shifting cultivators who havebeen using fire for land clearing for thousand of years.There is also a loss of control from the governmentside which cause rules and laws become absurd. Thissituation has remained for a long time, even there werea large forest fires in 1982/1983 which destroyed 3.6million ha. Unfortunately forest fires have occurredevery year from small to large scales as happened in1994, destroying 5.4 million ha of forest and land.Shifting cultivation and El-Nino would be blamed forthose fires, without any clear solution on how to solvethe problem. To solve this problem, the managementof Indonesian forest fires must be based oninformation sources from research; and not just thosedirectly translated from other countries experienceswithout any adjustments. The local people who livenear the forest must also be approached, giving themthe best alternative solutions, so that their life stylewill be highly appreciated. Full attention must also be
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focused on the peoples working in the forest andwith agriculture activities using fire. They mustbe given clear guidelines and law enforcementmust be defined and established correctly. Thegovernment side should give full support for thismechanism, including their official staff not onlyin the forestry and environmental sectors but alsofrom the justice side along with other sectors.
Fire Research and Society Interest asLimiting Factors in Minimizing Large
Forest Fires in IndonesiaBambang Hero Saharjo
Bogor Agricultural University, Faculty of Forestry,Post Box # 168, 16001 Bogor, Indonesia
Tel: +62 251 627750, FAX: +62 251 621244, Email:[email protected]
Keywords: Smoke impacts; Fire research;Shifting cultivation; El Nino
The increase of destruction in Indonesian forestfires in 1997 and 1998 totaled around 10 millionha, with damage estimates of US$ 10 billion.Other negative impacts included heavy smokeeffecting flora and fauna, humans, and relationsbetween other countries. Law enforcement wasweak, proving that the management of forest fireprevention, suppression, mitigation andrehabilitation was neither satisfactory noreffective. Even with highly advanced equipmentused to fight, millions of US$ spent, and manyinternational groups and thousand of peoplesinvolved, the fire did not stop, ending with heavyrains at the end of May 1998. It was found thatIndonesian forest fire management lacked usefuldata rooted in forest fire research, makingeffective action against forest fires very weak.There was also a weakness in the interest of thepeople who working in the forest plantations andagricultural activities such as rubber and oil palmplantations that use fire in land preparationwithout any clear guidelines. There is noalternative solution for shifting cultivators whohave been using fire for land clearing forthousand of years. There is also a loss of controlfrom the government side which cause rules andlaws become absurd. This situation has remainedfor a long time, even there were a large forestfires in 1982/1983 which destroyed 3.6 millionha. Unfortunately forest fires have occurred everyyear from small to large scales as happened in1994, destroying 5.4 million ha of forest and land.Shifting cultivation and El-Nino would be blamedfor those fires, without any clear solution on howto solve the problem. To solve this problem, themanagement of Indonesian forest fires must bebased on information sources from research; and
not just those directly translated from other countriesexperiences without any adjustments. The local peoplewho live near the forest must also be approached,giving them the best alternative solutions, so that theirlife style will be highly appreciated. Full attentionmust also be focused on the peoples working in theforest and with agriculture activities using fire. Theymust be given clear guidelines and law enforcementmust be defined and established correctly. Thegovernment side should give full support for thismechanism, including their official staff not only inthe forestry and environmental sectors but also fromthe justice side along with other sectors.
The Interest of Students on Forest FireStudies (Bogor, Indonesia)
Lailan SyaufinaUniversiti Putra Malaysia, Faculty of Forestry, 43400 UPM
Serdang, MalaysiaTel: 603-9486101-10 Ext.2405, FAX: 603-9432514, Email:
Keywords: Forest fires; Insects; Disease;Regeneration; Fire danger rating; Forestry students
There are about 32 undergraduate thesis of thestudents of the Faculty of Forestry, Bogor AgriculturalUniversity, Indonesia on forest fire in the period of1984 to 1998. Though the figure seems to befluctuating during the period, however it indicates apositive tendency of the interest of the students onforest fire studies. The studies were conducted inforest plantation as well as in natural forest in Java,Sumatra and Kalimantan which consist of varies areasof forest fire such as: forest fire impacts (12 titles or37.5 %), fire danger rating (9 titles or 28.1 %), fireseason (3 titles or 9.4 %), fire causing factors (3 titlesor 9.4 %), fire behaviour (2 titles or 6.3 %) and control(3 titles or 9.4 %). of which 2 titles (6.3 %) werelaboratory studies while the other 30 titles (93.7 %)were field works. The studies on forest fire impactswere primarily emphasised on soil and vegetationdamages, appearance of pest and diseases, forestregeneration, besides on socio economic condition offorest dependent people. Forest regeneration andinventory of dead trees and injured trees, which areclassified by species and diameter classes, werecommon studies in the last few years. Besides, thestudies on the appearance of pest and diseases in fireaffected areas were also get interest by the students.While, the impacts of fire on soil were still on earlystage of which emphasised on soil properties anderosion. Economical loss of forest resources, woodand non-wood forest products, gets more attention inrecent years. Fire danger rating was the second mostinteresting study of the students. The following aresome examples of the studies: the application of firedanger meter types such as 8-100-0 and Rocky
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Mountain, Drought Index calculation,determination of relationship between VegetationStress Index and Normalised DifferenceVegetation Index, and determination ofrelationship between Drought Index andNormalised Difference Vegetation Index. Close tothe study is fire season, which had also been aninteresting study of the students. Since almost allforest fires in Indonesia are caused by humanfactor, the study on fire causing factors seemed tohave little attention. The study in Java stressed onclarifying the socio economic background offorest dependent people as the most common fire-causing factor. On the other hand, the study in theother outer islands more focused on classificationof activities using fire in land clearing forplantation, timber estates and traditionalagriculture. Besides, there was a study on the roleof cigar on forest fuel burning in laboratory scale.Though fire management is an important area inthe study of forest fire, it seemed that the studentshad paid lees attention on the area. The studieswere still in the preliminary study, which isfocused on fire prevention, such as: vegetativefire breaks, fire prevention system and fireapplication techniques in land clearing. Similarly,the study on fire behaviour got also less intention.So far, only two titles concern with the area,namely: the influence of wind velocity and aspecton fire spread and the influence of forest fuelcharacteristics on fire spread.
Based on the above information, it can behighlighted that there is still lack of studies in thearea of: fire behaviour and fire characteristics, firemanagement including forest fire prevention andsuppression, and also fire ecology. Therefore, it isrequired to imply some efforts in encouraging thestudents in conducting their studies in thoseimportant areas.
8.06.00 Wildl i fe
Planning for conservation of biologicaldiversity: lessons learned from Sri
LankaVinod B. Mathur
Wildlife Institute of India, Post Box # 18, 248 00248001 Chandrabani, Dehradun, India
Tel: +91-135-640112 to 115, FAX: +91-135-640117,Email: [email protected]
Keywords: Biological Diversity; Conservation;Protected Areas; Conflict Resolution
Sri Lanka, though one of the smallest nations inAsia harbours biological diversity of globalsignificance. Its varied topography, diverse
physical environment, unique biogeographic locationand tropical conditions have given rise to extremelyhigh levels of biological diversity, higher than in mostother tropical Asian countries, when measured per unitarea. Much of this diversity is endemic, presumably areflection of the island's separation from the Indiansubcontinent since the late Mesozoic. More than 3650species of flowering plants, 300 species ofpteridophytes, about 400 birds, almost 100mammalsand more than 160 reptiles are known to occur andnew species, of even higher plants and animals, arestill being discovered. Sri Lanka is also one of theAsia's most densely populated countries and much ofits natural forest has been cleared for settlement,cultivation, development and timber production. Theforest area per capita has declined from 1.3 ha in 1900to less than 0.1 ha in the 1999. Sri Lanka fortunatelyhas a strong tradition in conservation and its system ofconservation areas is one of the most extensive in Asiaand covers about 14% of the total land area. Theserelatively impressive area figures notwithstanding, anumber of deficiencies beset the conservation of itsbiological diversity and management of wildlife andprotected areas (PAs). These arise mainly from theDepartment of Wildlife Conservation (DWLC), theagency responsible for the management of PAs, notbeing able to keep pace with the drastic demographic,land use, socio-economic and political changes thathave come about since its inception in the mid 50s.Management of PAs is largely ineffective and suffersfrom inadequate scientific inputs and weakinstitutional structures. The situation is furthercompounded by a majority of PAs being small (30%of PAs are less than 100 ha and 54% are less than1000 ha) and isolated, reflecting the fragmented natureof the remaining natural habitats.
No systematic PA management plans exist whichcould meet the scientific requirements of wildlife andbiodiversity conservation, as well as relate to theground realities of the pressures and problems of thelocal communities. It is widely recognized that a goodmanagement plan is a pre-requisite for goodmanagement as the plan provides strategies forresolving conflicts between conservation objectivesand prescribes actions for achieving the managementobjectives. Realizing the importance of themanagement plans for scientific and efficientmanagement of PAs, the Global Environment Facility(GEF) project of the DWLC initiated the process ofmanagement plan preparation for its PAs in 1996.
The paper discusses the lessons learned in thepreparation of scientific management plans for PAs inthe dry zone of Sri Lanka. New strategies formaintaining the integrity of PA boundaries,organizational strengthening, conflict resolution,
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mitigation of man-elephant conflict,ecodevelopment, ecotourism, research andmonitoring have been adopted in the planningprocess. It is felt that the speedy implementationof these strategies would go a long way inconserving the rich and varied biological diversityof this island nation.
Wildlife conservation amidstdevelopment: challenges in Indian
scenarioAsha Rajvanshi
Wildlife Institute of India, Post Box # 18,Chandrabani, 248 001 Dehradun, India
Tel: +91-135-640112 to 115, FAX: +91-135-640117,Email: [email protected]
Keywords: Hydropower projects; Wildlifeconservation; Biodiversity impacts; Socio-economic impacts; Mitigation planning
India with varied attributes of geology, terrain,hydrology and climatic regimes, harboursapproximately 7% of the world's flora and 6.4%of the world's fauna on approximately 2.2% of theglobal land that actually represents 0.5% of thetotal world's forested area. India also enjoys thedubious distinction of being the world's secondmost populous country supporting 16% of theworld's population (846.3 million) and 14% of theworld's livestock population (415.8 million).Given the constraints imposed by the adverseratios of people to land and wildlife species towildlife habitats, setting aside of 4.5% of thecountry's geographical area and subsequentproposal for an increase to 5.6% for theconservation of wildlife in protected areas hasbeen a formidable undertaking.
Incongruities and aberrations in landuse continueto remain and are increasing. These, coupled withunsound development strategies have led toincreasing challenges in wildlife conservationwhich so far have been partially achieved againstseveral odds. The existing inadequacy in thecoverage of wildlife areas under Protected Areas,and the loss of forest due to diversion of land foragriculture (2.6 m ha.), river valley projects (0.5m ha.), transportation and infrastructure projects(0.8 m ha.), industries (0.13 m ha.) and othermiscellaneous uses (1.0 m ha.) in last one decade,have severely jeopardized the wildlifeconservation efforts in highly man modifiedenvironments of the wilderness areas of thecountry.
This paper illustrates through some selectexamples, the inherent inconsistencies betweendevelopment and conservation that are linked to
generation of hydroelectric power projects. Thecreation of valley bottom water reservoirs is now anintegral part of the planned development in India.Developments of this form undoubtedly place thegreatest demands on some of the country's finestforests and wilderness tracts. Experiences of impactassessment studies of most of the water resourceprojects in the country suggests that the diversion offorest land and the non forest wilderness areas forriver valley projects and their associated losses ofwildlife and genetic resources may lead to someirreversible ecological trends. These trends if nothalted or arrested, can lead to the geneticimpoverishment of some of the wildlife areas of thecountry.
The growing economic instability of the forestdependent society, generally induced due to themarginalistion of the land and the shrinking resourcebase that supports the sustenance driven demands ofthe local people is another undesirable dimension ofwater resource development projects.
Given the present scenario of disparities indevelopment and conservation interest, pressures willcontinue to mount to both use and conserve ourresources, as a result of which it may not be possibleto fully prevent the impacts of development. The papersuggests the need for evolving and implementing morepragmatic approaches for mitigating biodiversitylosses that involve the enhancement of productivity ofcroplands and the increased protection in the residualwilderness areas.
Importance of Bird Species in ForestReproduction
Mohamed Zakaria, Mohd NordinUniversiti Putra Malaysia, Department of Forest
Management, Faculty of Foresty, 43400 UPM Serdang,Malaysia
FAX: 603-9432514, Email: [email protected]
Keywords: Primary forest; Logged forest; Frugivorousbird; Seed-trap; Disperse
Selective logging has created great impact to flora andfauna in Malaysia (Nordin and Zakaria 1996, Zakaria1994). Although only the timber species wereharvested, non-timber species were also destroyedduring logging. Most of these non-timber species werefruit trees important for birds (Howe and Smallwood1982). As a result most of the fruit-eating birds(frugivores) were less often observed feeding on fruittrees in logged forest compared to primary forest(Zakaria and Nordin 1998). Chapman and Chapman(1995) asserts that when frugivore community was nolonger intact, recruitment of fruiting trees might bereduced and thus, the long-term persistence of treespecies is questionable. However, there was no
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evidence to show that fewer seeds were dispersedin logged forest compared to primary forest.
Thus, in this paper, results of an 18-month detailstudy on the amount of seeds dispersed byfrugivorous bird species in primary and loggedforest were presented. The study was conducted atthe Ulu Segama Forest Concession, in the state ofSabah, East Malaysia. Two study sites werechosen - a primary forest which was locatedwithin the Danum Valley Conservation Area(DVCA), and a two-year-old logged forest whichwas located adjacent to the DVCA. Seed trapswere used to estimate the number of seeds beingdispersed in both study sites. Each trap was made-up of four PVC pipes (75cm long) and a net(100% polyester cloth) of about 1 m2 in area. Thenet was raised at each corner by the four PVCpipes to about 30cm above the ground, dependingon the ground level. Fifty traps were placed atrandom in each study site.
This study clearly shows that more of the smallersize seeds (less than 5mm in length) were beingdispersed in logged than in primary forest. This isconsistent with earlier study that found that inlogged forest there were abundant of small sizebirds particularly bulbul species (Nordin andZakaria 1996). Bulbuls are colonising species andprefer to feed on small size fruits especially ofsecondary or pioneer species such as Macaranga.in primary forest, bulbuls were uncommon andmostly dominated by larger size frugivores suchas barbets, myna, bluebirds and hornbills (Zakariaand Nordin 1998). This suggested that they preferto eat larger size fruits and thus, dispersed largersize seeds (more than 5mm in length). Larger sizefruits are normally produced by primary plantsspecies (pers. observations). This is probably thereason why higher number of large size seeds wasobtained in primary forest.
The implication of this study is that more seeds ofthe secondary species were being dispersed inlogged forest. Vice versa, more seeds of theprimary species were being dispersed in primaryforest. Logged forest would then be dominated bysecondary species of plants. This wouldeventually change the species composition ascompared to the primary forest. Therefore, thesurvival of frugivorous birds is vital to thesurvival of fruiting trees and in maintaining thebiodiversity of our tropical forests.
As a result re-establishment of original standsparticularly of primary fruit tree species importantto birds would take longer period of time inlogged forest. If they fail to establish and become
mature within 30 years, many of the fruit tree speciesmight become extinct since the next cycle of loggingwould happen in 30 years. These species might nothave an opportunity to produce and disperse theirseeds because it has been shown that many speciesrequire more than 80 years to mature and reproduce(Liew 1978). Thus, it is concluded that logged forestmight be able to regenerate, but it might not be able tofully recover as the original species composition.
8.07.00 Biodiversity
Biodiversity assessment and monitoring:an adaptive management approach forforest conservation and development
Francisco Dallmeier, Alfonso Alonso and James ComiskeySmithsonian SI, MAB Biodiversity Program, Washington
D.C., USAEmail: [email protected]
Keywords: Forest biodiversity; Conservation anddevelopment; Multi-taxa; Forest assessment andmonitoring
The Smithsonian Institution/Monitoring andAssessment of Biodiversity Program (SI/MAB) andShell Prospecting and Development B.V. Per (SPDP),in cooperation with national and internationalorganizations, joined efforts for the environmentallysensitive development of world class reservoirs ofnatural gas and condensates. The area is located in theheart of Amazon rain forest hot spot for biodiversity.For sensitive development and forest conservation,two main goals were established: 1) through the forestbiological assessment of six taxonomic groups(vegetation, aquatic systems, invertebrates,amphibians and reptiles, birds, and mammals), toobtain baseline information on the distribution andabundance of species for long-term monitoring inorder to determine possible changes due to theindustrial operation; and 2) to provide SPDP with theinformation necessary to make decisions concerningtheir operation. The assessment started in August 1996and ended in November 1998, when SPDP and thePeruvian government failed to reach an agreementconcerning the full development of the area. We foundhigh diversity in all groups studied, and publishedreports have being distributed widely. Throughadaptive management, we influenced SPDP in threeimportant decisions: 1) the location for thedevelopment of a gas plant; 2) the continued use of an"off-shore" policy by using helicopters rather thanbuilding roads; and 3) the depth in which the proposedpipeline had to be burried for immediate revegetationwith native species. A forest biodiversity conservationand development model was developed.
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The BEAR-project: Indicators formonitoring and evaluation of forest
biodiversity in EuropeTor-Bjorn Larsson
Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, S 106 48Stockholm, Sweden
Email: [email protected]
Keywords: Biodiversity indicators; Europeanforests; Biodiversity evaluation tools; Assessmentand monitoring methodology
The need for Indicators and BiodiversityEvaluation Tools
European countries have agreed upon a commongoal to conserve the biodiversity of forests. Thisis essential for the sustainable use of the forests aswell as for preserving forest ecosystem functions.European forestry is diverse, ranging fromindustrially managed forest areas supplying woodto export industries to private forests treated tomeet the owners, specific needs.
Furthermore, forests may primarily be managedwith respect to multiple socioeconomic goals, likerecreation, beauty, biodiversity, historical value,water protection etc. Grazed areas are currentlybeing transformed into forested land.Sustainability with respect to timber harvesting issince long an accepted prerequisite for Europeanforestry. The sustainable management of forests isfurther developed in a panEuropean cooperationsigned by the Forest Ministers ("The MinisterialProcess for Protection of Forest in Europe"). Theenvironmental awareness of the customers offorest products has resulted in certificationprocedures. Forest management and silviculturalmethods are thus currently being furtherdeveloped in order to satisfy the increasingenvironmental awareness, including theconservation of biodiversity. Landscapeapproaches are introduced, in which thearrangement in time and space of forest types andages are considered when the planning of forestryoperations. Biodiversity Evaluation Tools (BETs)are required to make these new planning andsilvicultural methods effective. The BEAR-project will formulate an integrated system ofindicators of forest biodiversity that are applicableover a wide range of European biogeographicregions, and at regional, landscape and standlevels.
The work procedure will recognise potentialindicators of forest biodiversity by: (1)Identification of key parameters with respect tobiodiversity according to forest structure anddynamics in a wide range of European forest
types, (2) Identifying potential indicators of forestbiodiversity for these forest types, (3) Agreeing on thepreferred methodology for assessing these indicators.(4) Performing a dialogue on feasability with endusers(5) Packaging the results as Biodiversity EvaluationTools (BETs).
In the conference, the followings will be presented;1) What are indicators and BETs?2) How will we work?3) The BEAR-workplan
Species Diversity and Stand Structure ofSecondary Forests after Different
Disturbance EventsJunji Sano
Tottori University, Department of Forest Science, 4-101Koyama-minami, 680-8553 Tottori, Japan
Tel: +81-857-31-5376, FAX: +81-857-31-5347, Email:[email protected]
Keywords: Deciduous broad-leaved secondary forest;Disturbance events; Fire-oak hypothesis; Prescribedfire; Quercus serrata; Selective cutting; Speciesdiversity; Sprouting capacity; Tree speciescomposition
The patterns of species diversity are due to the effectsof different disturbance regimes on life historystrategies (Denslow, 1980). The forest structure is alsodependent on the pattern of forest developmentfollowing major disturbances (Oliver, 1981). in thisstudy, the species diversity and stand structure wereexamined in deciduous broad-leaved secondary forestsdominated by Quercus serrata and the other species inwestern Japan, with an emphasis on the effects ofdifferent disturbance events on the species diversity oftrees in the secondary forests. Although the substrateand topography are fairly homogeneous in bothforests, they have different disturbance histories. Thesecondary forests established after differentdisturbance events (fire and selective cutting) showeddifferent patterns in species composition and standstructure. Lower diversity with even-aged structuredominated by Q. serrata was shown in the site afterfire whereas higher diversity with many sprouts wasshown in the site after selective cutting.
Fire and selective cutting are a large-scale and a small-scale disturbance, respectively. Large-scaledisturbances are likely to contain relatively fewspecies adapted to patches with the size andenvironmental conditions created by fire (Denslow,1985). The domination of Q. serrata and even-agedstructure after fire must be an evidence of the fire-oakhypothesis (Abrams, 1992). As establishment patternsand species composition affect stand developmentpatterns (Cobb et al., 1992), the Quercus domination
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will have a profound influence on the growth anddevelopment of other species.
The stand seems to be in the understoryreinitiation stage of the forest stand development(Oliver, 1981) from the point of stand structurewith two strata. The lack of Quercus in theunderstory suggests its shade-intolerant and earlysuccessional traits (Goebel and Hix, 1996).Quercus, however, may be able to regenerate inthe old-growth stage after several decades or more(Sano 1997).
Impact of selective logging on aviancommunity with respect to
environmental and habitat condition inWanariset Sangai, Central Kalimantan
Titiek Setyawati, Timothy J. Boyle, Agus SalimCIFOR, Center for International Forestry Research,Post Box # 6596 JKPWB, 10065 Jakarta, IndonesiaTel: 62-251-622622, FAX: 62-251-622100, Email:
Keywords: Selective logging; Dipterocarp forest;Avian community; Species at risk; Impacts offorestry practices; Species Diversity
In Indonesia there are approximately 25-30,000species of flowering plants, 750 mammals speciesand 1250 birds species. Logging and clearance foragriculture had threatened the island ofKalimantan or Borneo which known as the mostextensive remaining Dipterocarps forestremaining within the region. Selective logging islikely to deplete the density of bird species thatmay cause to the extinction of some sensitivespecies. Still, no one know precisely on whatextent that several birds species can sometimesurvive suffering such a heavy disturbance orsome would easily gone even after experiencingthe light one. This study is aimed to furtherexamine the effect of selective logging on aviancommunity and find out its relationship betweenvegetation structure. Field study was carried outwithin a logging concession in the LowlandDipterocarps forest of Central Kalimantan. Welooked over three location of one unlogged andtwo logged over forest for comparison (3 and 8years) within 3000 ha concession areas.Environmental model was used to predict theavailability of physical resources necessary forplant growth. The use of this method hasadvantages over field observation in that it cancalculate attributes that are not readily observablein the field. It was shown from research result thatlogging become the most important factor indetermining the vegetation structure. The aspectof vegetation structure affected may be grouped
as follows: canopy/understorey structure (height andfurcation index of trees, frequency of poles andsapling), abundance of lianas, volume and state ofdead wood and leaf size classes. These vegetationstructure variables were correlated with variousindices of bird species diversity. Under furtheranalysis, number of species is not significantly differsamong the three sites but species composition withinguild are changing with respect to logging. It wasrecorded that 7 species from unlogged forestdisappeared including 2 endemic species, 19 newspecies were added within 3 years over logged site (1of migrants) and 5 new species appeared in loggedover 8 years site. The vegetation structure caused bydifferent intensity of logging may create diversity ofmicroclimate preferably to certain bird species andcause to the distinction in species composition andhigh variability in number of individual per speciesamong the sites. Other factors for example differencesin landscape formation prevailed on any single sitemay contribute to such and influence as well. Somecommon species to the primary forest that foundwithin logged over forest indicating that theenvironment is not much differ from the pristine siteor it may due to the less intensive logging prevailed. Itis clear that every single species may responsedifferently based on their capability to adapt with theenvironmental changes and these will be furtherdiscussed in the full paper. Hence, to find out theunderlying causes of animal dynamic in some extentneed to justify the sample sizes, which that for birdswill certainly require much larger study areas. It isrecommended to conduct further study on specific birdspecies within particular guild sensitive to disturbance.
Plant Species Diversity of LarchEcosystems of Siberian Cryolithic Zone
and its Post-fire TransformationO. A. Zyryanova, T.N. Bugaenko, N.N. Bugaenko
V.N.Sukachev Institute of Forest SB RAS,Akademgorodok, 660036 Krasnoyarsk, Russia
Tel: +7(3912) 49-44-65, FAX: +7(3912) 43-36-86, Email:[email protected]
Keywords: Species diversity; Siberian forestecosystems; Fire disturbance; Larch forests
Larch ecosystems of Siberian cryolithic zone arecharacterized by the lowest plant species diversityamong the forest ecosystems of the Northern Eurasia.It has resulted from the small heatrovision andgeological youth of the subpolar landscapes. Thephytodiversity of the northern forests has beenforming at the permafrost conditions. The groundwildfires are the main disturbing factors of the region.They destroy the millions of the forested areaannually.
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Plant species diversity (diversity according toR.H.Whittaker (1977)) of Siberian larchecosystems has a number of the peculiarities.There are many evolutionary primitive plants intheir composition. The share of the wooden plantsis usually more than a half (56%) of the totalspecies number. The mosses and lichens occupyalmost all forest habitats. Their amount can varyfrom 27 till 45% per each larch association.Subarctic and boreal species (their ratio is equalto 53.7:58.2%) combine in the floristiccomposition as well.
Northern larch associations have very complexstructure. There are 4- species groups in themwhich differ in dominance degree. As a result, thedominance-diversity curves have the multistepshape. Such species composition has resultedfrom the cryogenic microrelief as well as frommixed hydrothermal and edaphic conditions.
The ground fires considerably change plantspecies composition of larch associations. in 3years after the fire the number of the vascularplants is 1, 2, 3 times more as compared to that ofbeforefire association. Both the appearance of thenew plant species and their families as well as therestitution of beforefire plants are responsible forsuch increase of species diversity. The initialplant species diversity has usually regenerated in3 postfire years. Green moss and lichen speciescomposition is completely changed after the fire.It regenerates extremely slowly. The pioneer mossspecies of the permafrost burned areas isMarchantia polymorpha.
Temporal and spatial structure of larchassociations begins to change only in 2 years afterfire. The dominance-diversity curve analysiswitnesses this fact. The following years themicrorelief destroyed, the permafrost depthdecreased, the hydrothermal and edaphicconditions of the habitats changed as well.Structureless plant associations are characteristicof such postfire progressive stages. They includeannually change single dominant species and alarge number of the separate plants of smallabundance. The first structural elements of thenew secondary communities appear in four yearsafter the wildfire. Plant species diversity of90year old larch associations is the result of theinterspecific competition. The experimentaldistributions for such associations are moresimilar to the geometric series distribution.
8.08.00 Forest and Climate
Interconnection between environmentalchange and forest on the mountainous
territory of the South Central Asia.Hukmatullo M. Ahmadov
Tajik Forest Institute, 724055 Dushanbe, TadjikistanFAX: (3772) 213332, Email: [email protected]
Keywords: Environmental change; Mountain forests;Desertification; Reforestation; Drought
One of the biggest parts of the mountainous territoryof the South Central Asia is the Pamirs-Alai mountainsystem. The most investigated area of this system issituated on whole territory of Tajikistan 93 % ofterritory of our republic compose of mountain rangeswhich altitudes come up to 7500 m above sea level.The insignificant violation of fragile mountainousecosystem always can lead to many catastrophicconsequences. At the beginning of century the area offorests of Tajikistan was in several times bigger than itis at the moment. The modern position of wood andbush vegetation is damaged by human activities and itis necessary to start the intensive restoring processes.Otherwise the climatic drought and desertification(erosion processes) can be really strengthened andtheir consequences would be very tragic. The mainrole in the mountainous ecosystem play wood andbush vegetation. This is because the mountainousforests are the main components in the mountainlandscape formation. The insignificant negativeanthropogen influence of human on mountainouslandscape can lead to many negative consequences.The connection between changes in environment andforests takes place by such scheme: first of all thedestruction or cutting of wood and bush vegetation<=> desertification (degradation of soils) and dynamicprocesses <=> the changes of water balances <=>changing of climate <=> biodiversity etc. All elementsof environment are tightly connected betweenthemselves and forests are taking the main place inthis structure. in the different parts of South CentralAsia the connection between wood and bushvegetation with another components and their changeswas investigated. It is determinated that the main rolein this process plays human. in different climatic zonesit happens differently and depend on complex of somenatural, anthropogenal and economical factors. Thehuge tracts of forests are in good conditions only inthe zones there the big coalfields are found. The localpopulation is sparing the mountainous forests. Thelack of fuel is lead to destruction of uniquemountainous forest- massifs and valley tugays. By thetime the peoples don’t think about futureconsequences and about life of next generation. Theydon’t execute the reconstruction of these forests. The
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Tajikistan in some conditions has the really bigpossibilities for reconstruction and widening offorest- and rarely forest- areas. Theinterconnections between mountainous forestsand mountainous river- balance, dynamicprocesses and degradation of soils, intensive cattlegrazing and etc. parameters were determinated.
The recommendation of plantation of new wideleafed and small leafed antierosion forests wascompiling. in the low mountain and middlemountain zones the big attention spared topistachio and nut plantations and in middle andhigh mountain zones to juniper plantations.
For the first time in Tajikistan the map ofenvironment change degree which found underthe influence of anthropogen factors (cutting anddestruction of forests, degradation of soils inforest zones, intensity of watershed agriculture)was compiled.
The common scheme of interconnection betweenforest formation with another natural anthropogencomponents and of their degree of influencing onenvironment were compiled.
Environmental changes recording inRussian protected areas
Vladimir A. BorissoffAll-Russian Research and Information Centre ForForest Resources, 69, Novochermushkinskaya Str.,
117418 Moscow, RussiaTel: +7-095-332-5360, FAX: +7-095-331-0533, Email:
Keywords: Nature reserve; Environmentalmonitoring; Global change; Natural disaster;Biodiversity
By end-1998 Russia had 99 strict nature reserves(zapovedniks) and 34 national parks taking uprespectively 32.6 and nearly 7 million hectares(other kinds of protected nature areascorresponding to the IUCN categories III, VInumber several thousands and occupy tensmillion hectares). State zapovedniks and nationalparks are territories of Federal importance. Thepurposes of these two categories are determinedin the Law no as to protect and to study uniqueand typical natural complexes and features,remarkable natural formations, features and genepool of plant and animal life, processes in theBiosphere and to monitor changes in its state.Since the beginning, the main task of RussianState Nature Zapovedniks research consisted incarrying out stationary year-roundinterdisciplinary studies in situ of unimpededcourse of natural processes and phenomena.
Recording of every changes in the natural environmentof the Nature Zapovedniks forms a special documentcalled Chronicles of Nature. It is a yearly master dataregister of the state of the protected areas, of allbiogeocoenological observations. Some ofZapovedniks have been keeping records of theirChronicles over 60 years. This work is to beperformed in all Zapovedniks following an unifiedprogramme agreed by researchers throughout thecountry. The programme was prescribed to mark notonly common, usual phenomena, but alsoextraordinary ones. The document should markvarious deviations in the natural environment:droughts, severe winters, avalanches, high floods,downpours, forest fires, epizooties, etc. The dataobtained in such a manner are united each year in thebook called Charonicles of Nature, and once in 5 yearsa summary book is compiled. The highly developednetwork of biotic observation posts and stations givenby the State Nature Zapovedniks has allowed to obtainreliable information on biodiversity changes inselected territories in all natural zones of Russia.
Research carried out in most State NatureZapovedniks and in some National Parks differs fromthat in other forest areas, first of all, by almostcomplete exclusion of experiments in nature. in thisrespect, forest research in these two categories is inopposition, and at the same time, a complement forestexperimental stations. Research in protected areas is aconditio sine qua non for environmental monitoring.Unspoiled plots are ideal points of reference forsurveying natural and anthropogenic changes in thenatural environment.
Even excluded from direct econimic use, theZapovedniks of the central areas of Russia situatedless than 50 km from large cities and major industrialcentres are appreciably affected be human impacts,acid rains, alien wildlife species intrusion, increasedconcentration of game animals that leads todegradation of vegetation and soil cover. Research inremote Pas allows monitoring background changes inthe natural environment.
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Modifications in Microclimate andLitter Fall Production and
Decomposition Caused by ForestryUse of Natural Nothofagus pumilio
Forests in Magallanes, ChileJuan Caldentey, Ibarra Manuel, Schmidt Harald,
Promis Alvaro y Hernandez JorgeUniversidad de Chile, Departamento de Silvicultura,
Casilla Postal 9206, Santiago, ChileFAX: 56 - 2 -541 79 55, Email:[email protected]
Keywords: Forest; NothoFagus pumilio;Intervention; Nutrient; Litter fall; Decomposition;Biomass
The use of a forest ecosystem under sustainableassumptions implies the need of evaluating thedistribution and total amount of existing productsfeasible of being extracted from a forest with eachforestry intervention. The productive capacity of aforest site may be determined throughquantification of existing biomass (dry weightunit/surface unit). This information may besupplemented with the study of nutrientaccumulation in trees to optimize forest resourceuse.
In order to estimate the effects of naturalNothoFagus pumilio forest management onbiomass and nutrient extraction, two stands - onepure, uneveraged of the species, and another onemixed, uneveraged with NothoFagus betuloides -were studied, both located in the Province ofMagallanes, Chile.
In order to estimate existing biomass in eachstand, allometric equations providing the dryweight of the different tree components wereadjusted using BHD and their total height aspredictive variables. Nutrient accumulation wasestimated by weighing biomass amount withnutrient concentrations determined in tissuesubsamples. Forestry intervention in each standwas simulated using extraction rates acceptedunder Chilean legislation, estimating biomass andnutrient amounts extracted, to remain standing,and to remain as waste on the forest floor,comparing two treatments: one with and the otherwithout barking.
Total accumulated biomass in the pure stand was421.8 t/ha (85.1% boles and 14.9% crowns). Totalestimated aerial mineralomass reached 5,572kg/ha (96% accumulated in woody tissues and 4%in leaves), with percentage distributions of 55.2,29.2, 6.7, 4.4, 2.2, 1.6, 0.3, 0.4, 0.7, and 0.03 inCa, N, K, Mg, P, Mn, Fe, Zn, B, and Cu,respectively.
The mixed stand exhibited a total accumulatedbiomass of 322.2 t/ha (81% boles and 18.6% crowns).Total estimated aerial mineralomass was 3,480.2 kg/hadistributed on a percentage basis in 52.9, 27.2, 9.7,4.5, 3.6, and 1.1 of Ca, N, Mg, K, P, and Mn,respectively. The remaining 1% corresponds to Cu, Fe,Zn, and B.
When simulating application of a protective felling(shelterwood system) on the pure stand with a 49.6%reduction in the basal area and a protective canopy of161 trees to remain standing, 129 t/ha of biomasswould be extracted and 79 t/ha would remain asharvesting waste. An amount of 521 kg/ha ofmineralomass (97.9% macro-nutrientes and 2.1%micro-nutrients) would be removed. A figure of 1,935kg/ha of nutrientes in the waste would remain on theforest floor. If extracted boles were barked on site,extracted biomass would descend 7.2% and theremoved mineralomass amount would be 422.5 kg/ha.
When simulating application of a protective felling onthe mixed stand, with a 45.2% reduction in the basalarea and a protective canopy of 176 trees to remainstanding, 146.2 t/ha of biomass would be extractedand 30.4 t/ha would remain as harvesting waste.Development would remove 1,125 kg/ha ofmineralomass (98.2% macro-nutrients and 1.8%micro-nutrients). A figure of 564 kg/ha of nutrients inthe waste would remain on the forest floor. If barkingis considered, extracted biomass diminishes 9.6% andexported mineralomass amounts to 462 kg/ha.
Estimation of soil erosion levelsDavid Lopez Cornelio
Shimane University, Faculty of Life and EnvironmentalScience, Office #505, 690 Matsue, JapanEmail: [email protected]
Keywords: Soil erosion; Deforestation; Tropicalforests; Land-use change; Satellite observation;Biodiversity
In Peru, nearly 1,800 acres of tropical and subtropicalforests are cut daily, amounting to 670,000 deforestedacres each year; this phenomena eliminates criticalhabitats for wildlife and plants species (Peru ranksnumber two in the world in bird diversity, numberthree in mammal diversity and number five in plantdiversity, within its borders exists 83 of the worlds114 natural community types). An accurate and up todate assessment of forest area and rates of depletion isfundamental to the development of improved nationalforest management strategies. Satellite observationsprovide an objective and quantitative approach to themeasurement of land-cover change; a research isproposed in order to determine the land use change,the conversion from active agriculture to secondaryforest (re growth), infer the patterns of land use by
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type in the long term considering the past andpresent trends, and propose an ideal map ofsustainable land use according to the ecologicaland socioeconomic characteristics of the site, in arepresentative area of Peruvian tropical rainforests(Iquitos region, a 75km x75 km area located inthe Amazon watershed at 3*43*46 SouthLatitude, 73*14*18 West Longitude) using JERS-1 images. The Japanese Earth Resources Satellite?1 has been continuing to observe and collect datasince 1992 with a mission data recorder by thehigh performance Synthetic Aperture Radar(SAR) and Optical Sensor (OPS); TNT mips willbe used in order to process the images, aprocessing system for geo spatial analysis withfully integrated GIS, CAD, TIN, desktopcartography and geo spatial databasemanagement.
Monitoring of the Forest Damaged bythe Salt-winds and the Gale of the
TyphoonTadashi Nakashima
Kyoto University Forest in Hokkaido, Tawa, Shibecha-cho Kawakami-gun, 088-2339 Hokkaido, Japan
FAX: +81-1548-5-3667, Email: [email protected]
Keywords: Forest; Wind damage; Salt-wind;Typhoon
There was a great deal of damage throughoutJapan caused by typhoon No.19 in 1991. As thepeak gust records in many of the meteo-rologicalobservatory were renewed, a great deal of damagewas caused by gales. Damage to the forests in thenorthern part of Kyushu and the western part ofChugoku were very severe, and salt-wind damagewas added in Chugoku.
The damaged forests near TokuyamaExperimental Forest (T.E.F.) were investigated.The southeast gales came over the ridges. Theheavily damaged forests are situated on theridges, on the slopes of the valley and in thedepths of the valleys. The leaves of bambooaround T.E.F. were changed to yellow or whiteand those of needle-leaved trees in the edge offorest turned brown. Three years after, the leavesdamaged by the salt-winds seemed to haverecovered, but the leaves and trunks damaged bythe gale had either not recovered or had someafter effects of injuries.
The change of a damaged forest, which is situatedin the depths of a valley has been observed. Thisforest is the 28 years old plantation of Hinoki(cypress) and has about 400 trees. According to
annual numbers of dead trees and the stem analysis ofthose, remarkable affections by the typhoon is clear.
The Effect of Reforestation and ForestPlantation Programme On Carbon Sinks
Zuraina SamliRCFM + FRIM, Kepong, 52109 Kuala Lumpur, MalaysiaFAX: 603 - 6377233, Email: [email protected]
Keywords: Carbon sink; Tropical forests;Reforestation; Forest plantation
Although deforestation in the tropics has beenidentified as one of the main contributing factors, veryfew studies have actually been made on the effect ofreforestation and forest plantation programme oncarbon sinks. Since the early seventies the debate onthe increase of carbon dioxide concentration in theatmosphere and its predicted impact on global climatehas been the focus of many national, regional andinternational discussions. The large amount of carbonin its vegetation and in its soil has made forests to beone of important factor to be considered in regulatingclimate. It has been acknowledge that the release ofcarbon from this vegetation and soil due to humanactivities could have significant impact to the climate.This paper highlights the important contribution offorest ecosystem to the total carbon budget includingabsorption and release of carbon in Malaysia.Preliminary results from a study conducted inMalaysia show that tropical forests particularly theundisturbed forests, play an important role as a carbonsinks in the global carbon cycle. Based on the analysisusing COPATH method in the project underSustainable Forest Management, result shows thattotal carbon above ground portion for Superior Forestbased on third National Forest Inventory in PeninsularMalaysia is about 205.8 million ton. Thus, any form ofdestruction (burning) or reduction in area of theseforests will lead to a substantial increase of carbondioxide concentration in the atmosphere. It isanticipated that carbon sinks will be increased throughappropriate reforestation and forest plantationprograms.
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A Free Atmospheric CarbonEnrichment Experiment on Short
Rotation. Intensive Poplar PlantationGiuseppe Scarascia-Mugnozza, P. DeAngelis, M.
Sabatti and G. MatteucciUniversity of Tuscia, DISAFRI, 01100 Viterbo, Italy
Tel: +39-0761-357395, FAX: +39-0761-357389,Email: [email protected]
Keywords: Plantation; Poplar; Global change;Agroforestry; Productivity; CO2
The mechanistic and process-based responses oftrees and tree communities to global change,particularly in response to the predicted increaseof atmospheric [CO2], will be crucial indetermining the ability of woody plantations andnatural forests to sequester carbon at the globalscale. Despite the key role played by trees andforests within the terrestrial biosphere, we stillhave very limited information on the totalresponses of agro-forestry and forest systems toenhanced CO2 because of the complex web ofpossible interactions. The few studies conductedat the whole-tree and community scale indicatethat there will be a marked increase of primaryproduction, but this increment will be mainlyallocated into below-ground biomass. However,the proportionality of this response may welldepend on nutrients and water availability in thesoil and, also, on genotypic characteristics. Afundamental issue of the research on globalchange effects on terrestrial biosphere is the needto appropriately design the experiments to beconducted at the community and ecosystem level.The FACE technology has the great merit of notaltering the general microclimate of the test areaand allows to conduct the research on impacts ofglobal change truly at the ecosystem level;however, FACE facilities should be combinedwith adequate forest tree systems in order to avoidsuch drawbacks as lack of replication, largegenetic variability and delayed response ofalready adult trees. The aim of this research is toimprove our understanding of the effects ofelevated [CO2] on forest ecosystem, using a shortrotation intensive plantation of poplar trees as amodel system. Poplar trees represent a uniqueopportunity to study processes and mechanismsdetermining biomass production at the ecosystemlevel, since they are extremely fast growing, havegenetic reproducibility and a short life-cycle,especially when grown as short-rotation coppice.Therefore, the research we present is ratherunique because we combined a fast growing,agro-forestry ecosystem, capable of elevatedbiomass production, with a large-scale FACE
system. The performance of the FACE system togetherwith the growth and physiological responses of threepoplar clones grown under CO2-enriched atmospherewill be discussed.
The forest fire transformation of soil covercondition
L. I. Sukhorukova, Belenets Y.E., Kobrin N.Y.St.-Petersburg Forestry Research Institute, Institutsky pr.,
21, 194021 Saint-Petersburg, RussiaFAX: (812) 552-80-42, Email: [email protected]
Keywords: Forest fire; Ground vegetation; Borealforests; Soil structure; Soil chemistry
To study changes in forest function of growth andqualities of forest soils, subjected to fires, two types ofburned-out forest lines were defined. Each line waspresented by five burned-out plots (from latest to 25year-old ones) and a test virginal plot. The type of fireis low with elements of debris layer and humus.Variants with low and high fire intensity wereobserved. These experimental plots were located inLeningrad region in different forest growth conditions.The first line consists of Pinetum hylocomosum of theIV age class and III quality of locality class, whichgrow on semipodzol rough (coarse) sandy soils typicalfor these sites. On the plots subjected to the highdegree of fire intensity the soil is damaged to greatextent: the ground vegetation and debris layers burnout and the lower podzolic mineral horizon A2uncovers. It leads to the considerable loss of soilproductivity. On the plots with low fire intensity onlypartial damage of top soil cover is observed: groundvegetation and part of debris layer (the thickness ofdebris layer is 1-3cm on this plot and 3-4cm on the testvirginal plot). The second line is presented by Picetummyrtillosum of the V age class and II quality oflocality class, growing on the peaty podzol loamysandy and loamy soils. in these moistening conditionsthicker debris layer and A2 horizon are formed, whichare the high-quality combustibles in the dry period of ayear. When the organic horizon is destroyed by fire,spruce rots burn out and the tree falls down. in theburned-out forests of this line there are such sprucetrees. in this case, on the plots subjected to fires ofhigh intensity the vegetation layer and debris layer andpeat horizon that is organic synusia and the organicburn out. The plots subjected to fires of low intensitycan be referred to the category of slightly damageddebris layer and peat horizon is only partiallydestroyed. Thus influence of fires on soils is versatile.Intensive debris-humic fires cause the greatestdamages, changing morphological qualities of soils.Soils under investigation have an acid reaction.Organic and A2 horizons are characterized by higheracidity (pH3,25-3,90). in the lower soil layers its levelevidently decreases (pH 4,57-5,52). Soil-colloidal
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complex has a low degree of base richness(saturation)-less than50%. in the organic soilhorizons the content of carbon is 32-37%. Thegreat quantity of carbon is concentrated in thedebris layer. The content of humus in the top soillayer varies from 0,72 to 2,45%. The supply ofpodzol soils by the elements of mineral nutritionwholly depends upon their level of humicilization(presence of humus). The quantity of nitrogenavailable in hydrolyzed organic compoundsmakes up 15-20 mg/100g in debris layers and 0,7-1,8 mg/100g in top mineral layers.
After the fire which partially or completelydestroys organic part of soil a new pirogenichorizon appears. Thus, the top soil profile ischaracterized by neutral and alkaline reactions(pH 7,0-8,0), low exchange and hydrolytic acidityand high quantity of exchange bases. The contentof carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium islower than on the test virginal plot. Carbon lossesmake up 10-14 t/hectare. The level of trophogenicsoil productivity decreases. Deterioration of soilconditions influences the general state of foreststand.
The researches carried out on the burned-outforest plots showed that as a result of forest fires,acidious indicators get to their norm in 8-10 years,whereas neutral and alkaline reactions transforminto sub-acid reaction even in 2-3 years.Restoration of mineral nutrition and humuscontents is a slower process. Five years after thefire the content of carbon makes up about 2,5-3,0t/hectare (15-20%) of the initial quantity. It willtake no less than 25-30 years for completerestoration of carbon. According to our data,restoration of flora and phytocoenosical structureof vegetation layer will take about 25 years. Onlythen differences in debris layer on the test virginalplot and experimental plots completely disappear.
Effects of global warming on themountain vegetation in Japan
Nobuyuki Tanaka, Hirosi Taoda and Kenji OmasaForestry and Forest Products Research Institute
(FFPRI), Regeneration Process LaboratoryPost Box # 16 Tsukuba Norin, 305-8687 Ibaraki, Japan
FAX: +81(Japan)-(0)298-73-3796, Email:[email protected]
Keywords: Mountain forests; Natural vegetation;Global warming; Litter decompostion; Spatialdistribution; Snow cover
Studies on effects of climate change on mountainvegetation were conducted in mountains ofcentral and northeastern Japan. Among the topics,
thermal conditions and soil properties, alpine dwarfpine scrubs, snow patch vegetation and beech forestshave been dealt with in detail.
1. Effects of temperature on soil properties on Mt.Akaishi
One of the studies evaluated the effects of thermalconditions on soil properties, measuring thermal andsoil conditions along a slope from the montane (1120m a.s.l.) to the alpine zones (2725 m a.s.l.) of theAkaishi Mountains, central Japan (Kobayashi et al.1996). These results suggests that the global warmingwill accelerate litter decomposition rate at higherelevation in subalpine and the acidity of topsoil will bemore neutral.
2. Alpine dwarf pine scrubs on Mt. Kinpu
Kajimoto et al. (1996) studied the effects oftemperature increase caused by global warming on thepopulation dynamics of the alpine dwarf pine (Pinuspumila) in relation to the predicted upward shift ofsubalpine conifer trees on Mt. Kinpu, central Japan. Itis suggested that subalpine confers expand into alpineregions, but hardly succeed the vegetation zone wherewell-developed P. pumila scrubs had alreadyoccupied, even under the higher temperatureconditions.
3. Snow patch vegetation on Mt. Zarumori
Two studies focus on the snow patch vegetation onMt. Zarumori, Northeast. in snow patches formed bysnowdrifts, the spatial distribution of the snow depth ismainly affected by the interaction between topographyand the prevailing wind direction in winter. One studyon microclimate and phenology of snow patch plantsrevealed that the phenological stages of Faulia crista-galli, that is one of the dominant species in the snowpatch, are closely related to the effective accumulatedtemperature which is determined by locations on theslope and vary mainly with the distance from the snowpatch (Ohtani et al. 1996). It appears that the F. crista-galli changes its phenological stages with an increasein the effective accumulated temperature. Anotherstudy reconstructed past climatic conditions by meansof alpine-subalpine meadow soil stratigraphy, whichrecords past snow disappearance time in nivationhollows (Daimaru and Ikeda 1996). The analysis offossil peat soils suggests that "Medieval Warm Period"was prevailed in the meadows in Northeast Japan.When the warming will exceed 2 C (BC, snow patchesand the alpine-subalpine meadows will shrinkconsiderably and when it will be accompanied bydecreasing snowfall and snow accumulation, theshrinkage will be accelerated and many meadows willdisappear.
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4. Beech forests in the Pacific Ocean and the Seaof Japan sides
Similar to the cases of snow patch vegetation, butin the larger scale, the distribution area of beech(Fagus crenata) is affected by snowcover as wellas by temperature. There is a climatic gradient ofsnowfall between the Pacific Ocean side and theSea of Japan side of the Honshu Island as well asa temperature gradient along latitude. in view onthe time scale of more than 100 years, the presentpattern of beech distribution may shift upward inresponse to the global warming if the precipitationconditions do not change. On the other hand,changes in winter precipitation may affect beechdistribution, even if the thermal conditions do notchange. in the Pacific Ocean side, an increase insnowfall may assist beech to expand its habitatalong elevation and increase its dominance inforests. in the Sea of Japan side, a decrease insnowfall may reduce its elevational distributionand dominance in forests. in conclusion, theseresearches indicate the importance of snowcoverand topography as controlling factors ofvegetation distribution as well as temperature.Effects of global warming on vegetation will notonly induce the shift of vegetation zones towardnorth and higher elevation in macro-scale, butalso complex changes depending on the diversecontrolling environmental factors in smallerscales.
Long-term carbon dioxide and watervapour fluxes of European forests and
interactions with the climate systemRiccardo Valentini
University of Tuscia, Department of ForestEnvironment and Resources (DISAFRI), Via San
Camillo de Lellis, I-01100 Viterbo, ItalyFAX: +39 0761 357389, Email: [email protected]
Keywords: Carbon absorption; Gas fluxes; Eddycovariance; European forests
The EUROFLUX program, funded by the EU forthree years (1996-98), investigated the relevantbiosphere atmosphere exchanges of Europeanforests.
The quantitative estimation of fluxes is needed todevelop surface parameterizations andaggregation schemes in order to scale up from thepatchwork of landscape evident in Europe toregional and, ultimately, global scale.Atmospheric exchange of European forestecosystem deserve special attention due first totheir potential mesoscale effects on rainfalldistribution and soil water storage, and alsobecause of their potential role in the long-term
CO2 uptake from the atmosphere and carbon storage.
The long-term continuous measurements ofatmospheric fluxes by means of the eddy covariancetechnology are a powerful tool for investigating theoverall ecosystem exchanges and hence to determinethe annual budgets of carbon and water. Furthermorethe possibility to analyze the response of theecosystems to climatic and biotic perturbations, in avariety of conditions, including extremes events,represent a unique framework for biogeochemicalmodels evaluation and improvement.
In synthesis the general objectives of the project canbe summarized as follow:
1. Characterize long-term fluxes and energy exchangeof representative European forests in order to provideuseful parameters to modelers and to analyze thevariables that determine energy partitioning by forestsin different climatic conditions;
2. Determine the sink strength of European forests forcarbon and analyze the variables that determine thegains are the losses of carbon from different forests;
3. Analyze the response of European forest water andcarbon fluxes to climate factors in order to aid regionalscale modeling designed to predict impacts of globalenvironmental change on forests;
4. Provide objective data for the validation of forestmodels, related to growth, partitioning of primaryproduction, water cycling and hydrology;
5. Recommend management strategies for theconservation of carbon stores in forests.
The project was carried out at 15 representative forestsites encompassing the entire range in Europeanclimate, species distribution, and site conditions. inaddition 2 sites with external funding have joined theconsortium. Common protocols and hardwarerequirements have been defined and implemented, aswell as data quality checking and missing datainterpolation policies. The variation of the ecologicalparameters and climatic factors is rather interestingand allow to explore the ecosystem responses alongenvironmental gradients.
There has been also a modeling component within theEuroflux program. The aims of Euroflux in thisrespect were to develop tools be used for interpolatemissing data, extend in spatial scale the fluxmeasurements and establish a bridge between ourproject and other existing initiatives.
The presentation will describe the project with moredetails and results from 1996 to 1998 will bepresented. Overall, the results indicated a greatercarbon uptake of temperate forests versus the northern
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boreal forests, with a pronounced internalvariability site by site.
8.09.00 Human impacts on tropical rainforests with long term view
Effects of selective logging onunderstorey butterflies and flower
visiting beetles after 30 yearsK. Fukuyama, K. Maeto and Laurence G. KirtonHokkaido Research Center, FFPRI, EntomologyLaboratory, Hitujigaoka 7, 062-8516 Toyohira,
Sapporo, JapanTel: +81-11-851-4131, FAX: +81-11-851-4167, Email:
Keywords: Balloon trap system; Attractant trap;Scarabaeidae; Dasyvalgus; Canopy fauna
Lowland tropical forests should be preservedbecause of the importance of genetic resources forfuture human beings. On the other hand most ofall tropical lowland forests have already beendeveloped. Therefore, one of the best ways topreserve bio-diversity in tropical forests is topractice sustainable use of secondary forestsbased on thoughtful consideration for bio-diversity.
Though selective logging is the most typicalforest treatment in tropical forests, there is littledata on the effects of the treatment on bio-diversity in tropical rain forests, especially a longtime after logging. Also, we do not know howmany years it takes to recover the primaryarthropod assembly of tropical rain forests afterselective logging. Therefore, we attempted toestimate effects of selective logging on bio-diversity of forest arthropods. Comparativeanalysis of flower visiting beetles and butterflieswere carried out between primary and secondaryforest logged about 30 years ago, in Pasoh ForestReserve, Peninsular Malaysia.
Ten plots to research on flower visiting beetleswere set from edge to core along a path in PasohForest Reserve. Two attractant traps to catchflower visiting beetles using flower flagrance,linalool and eugenool, were hung from emergenttrees at the height of 20m and 10m in each plot.The number of Dasyvalgus spp., one of the mainflower visiting groups, in the core area (primaryforest) was significantly greater than that in bufferarea (secondary forest), whilst Mecinonota,another dominant flower visitor, showed nodifference. Species structures of Dasyvalgus weredifferent from each other. We established researchplots (100m X 100m) in secondary forestsselectively logged 30 years ago (S1) and in a
primary forest (P1). We set flower fragrance attractanttraps on forest canopies in plot S1 and P1 for flowervisiting beetles. Numbers of dominant species ofDasyvalgus in the primary plot (P1) were greater thanthose in secondary plot (S1).
We compared the assemblies of understoreybutterflies, as representatives of understorey insectherbivores, between two primary (P1, P2) and twosecondary (S1, S2) plots. We placed every 8 fruit-baittraps around the 1 ha square plots to attract and catchunderstorey butterflies. Twenty-two nymphalidspecies were captured, with 0.65 individuals per dayper trap. The similarity in species composition wasvery high between the two secondary plots, thoughthey were most distant from each other. On the otherhand, it was low between the primary plots, thus thetotal number of species captured in the primary plots(19 species) was about 1.5 times that in the secondaryplots (13 species). It is most likely that the assembly ofunderstorey butterflies and flower visiting beetles hasnot completely recovered after selective logging about30 years ago. Understorey butterflies can bequantitatively sampled with the traps and are rathereasily identified by non-specialists, thus they shouldbe counted as one of high priority indicator groups forthe monitoring of protected or disturbed forests, inaddition to birds and mammals.
Recovery assessment of logged-overforest areas in Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia
Mohd Zaki HamzahUniversiti Putra Malaysia (UPM), Faculty of Forestry,
43400 Serdang Selangor, MalaysiaFAX: 03-9432514, Email: [email protected]
Keywords: Forest recovery; Logged-over forest;Malaysia
Over the years, large tracts of tropical forests inPeninsular Malaysia have been deforested mainly forthe expansion of crop-tree plantations. The remainingforests are under constant pressure from commercialand illegal harvesting. These forest stands requiresome kind of assessment as to their natural recoveryand succession. Forest recovery assessment based onphytosociological vegetation studies was made in thestate of Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia to elucidate thestate of natural recovery of the degraded, logged-overforest areas. This approach called for vegetationsurveys to be conducted on logged-over areas(harvested in 1950s, 1960s, 1970s, 1980s and 1990s)as well as primary forests in the state. A total of 35phytosociological releves were made in four forestreserves during the two-year study period (early 1997to the end of 1998). The natural recovery is very slowfor areas that were heavily logged and compacted,such as sites formerly used as logging roads and
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timber landings during forest harvesting. Onlyhighly adapted, early-successional species, suchas METLAstoma, Eupatorium and Paspalum,managed to inhabit the sites. Such sites with verypoor environmental conditions will take a longtime to recover their pristine original state, unlessintensive rehabilitation is carried out. Similarly,sites that were harvested from 1963 to 1973 withconventional harvesting techniques (under theMalayan Uniform System) have shown arelatively slow recovery rate. The sites have smallaverage coverage by emergent and dominanttrees, and only a few Dipterocarps occupy thislayer. However, the stands have recovered interms of species abundance and dominance. inthese stands a few more years are required for thedipterocarp species from the lower layers to reachdominant and emergent sizes. On the other hand,the sites harvested in 1984 under the SelectiveManagement System recorded an average ST-layer coverage of 12% and fairly even coverage inthe tree (dominant), tree understorey (co-dominant), shrub and herb layers. Due to lack ofdipterocarp species in these forests, the forestsrequire replanting of dipterocarp species to enrichthem. The 1996 stand is in the beginning of itsrecovery following harvesting recently. As in theforest harvested in 1984, this 1996 stand requiresreplanting of some dipterocarp species. The onlycomplete recovery was achieved by the standsharvested in 1950s. The stands have recoveredboth in terms of canopy structure and speciesabundance and dominance. The mean emergentheight in these stands is 47m which is similar tothe natural stands, and the average canopycoverage (of emergent and dominant) isinsignificantly different from the primary forests.The study shows that it takes at least around 40years for the logged-over stands to recover to theoriginal state. It is proven through this study thatthe phytosociological vegetation study approachis very useful to assess the present status ofnatural recovery (succession) of the deforestedarea.
Monitoring of CO2 flux above PasohForest
Yoshikazu Ohtani, Y. Yasuda, T. Watanabe, M. Okano, Y.Tang, N. Liang, T. Yokota, Abdul Rahim Nik, Zulkifli
Yusop, M. Tani and T. OkudaForestry and Forest Products Research Institute, Kukizaki,
Inashiki, 305-8687 Ibaraki, JapanTel: +81-298-73-3211 Ext.374, FAX: + 81-298-73-1542,
Email: [email protected]
Keywords: CO2 flux; Eddy correlation method; NEE;Rain forest
The CO2 flux over tropical rain forest was measuredby an application of the eddy correlation method. Theforest for our study was in Pasoh Forest Reserve,Forest Research Institute Malaysia, located in thecenter of Peninsular Malaysia (2ø58N 102ø18E). Theelevation of the gently undulated terrain wasapproximately 120 m. The forest had a complexcanopy, i.e. the general height was approximately 35m, although emergent trees exceeded 45 m. A 52 mtall tower constructed in the forest was used for theplatform of the meteorological observations. A threedimensional ultrasonic anemometer-thermometer(DAT-600, Kaijo) and an air inlet were installed on thetower at a height of 52.6 m. The fluctuation of CO2
concentration in the air was measured by the closed-path CO2 gas analyzer (Li-6262, Li-Cor). Data wererecorded at the sampling frequency of 10 Hz. The CO2
concentration at the different 6 heights above andwithin the forest was also measured to calculate thestorage changes. The net ecosystem exchange (NEE)was a main interest of the observation. The NEE isdefined as NEE = Fc + Qc, where Fc is the CO2 flux atthe reference height. and Qc is the storage term thatthe temporal change of the CO2 storage below thereference height. The diurnal change of the CO2 flux,storage and NEE were obtained for the representativedays.
The maximum CO2 flux was approximately 0.3 mgm-2s-1 and 0.8 mgm-2s-1 for the release in the night timeand the absorption in the day time, respectively, on afair day in March. The magnitude of the storage termwas comparable to that of the flux. The CO2 fluxrapidly changed from release to absorption at 10 MST,and it showed the maximum absorption at around 13MST. After 13 MST, the CO2 flux (absorption)gradually decrease until 18 MST, and then it changedto release. However, the CO2 storage rapidly changedfrom increase (release) to decrease (absorption)approximately 2 hours earlier than the flux, and itshowed the maximum absorption at 10 MST. Thestorage term decreased rapidly after 10 MST, then itshowed almost zero at 13 MST.
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In the early morning, the large CO2 absorption bythe ecosystem was initiated when the decrease ofthe stored canopy CO2 in the night time seemed tobe the main contributor. This continuedapproximately for 2 hours, then the CO2
concentration of the canopy air decreased. in theday time after 10 am, the flux played the maincontributor for the ecosystem absorption. Thedaily NEE showed absorption ranged from 7.4 to8.1 gm-2day-1 through the observation period.
Effect of Selective Logging on CanopyStructure and Tree species diversity in
a Lowland Dipterocarp Forest inPeninsular Malaysia
Toshinori Okuda, N. Adachi, M. Suzuki, E.S. Quahand N. Manokaran
NIES (National Insititute for Environmental Studies),Onogawa 16-2, 305-0053 Tsukuba, Japan
FAX: +81-298-50-2483, Email: [email protected]
Keywords: Canopy structure; Lowland TropicalRainforest; Selective logging; Species Diversity
In order to study the impact of selective loggingon the tropical rain forest, canopy structure andspecies diversity were compared between primaryand regenerating forests in Pasoh Reserve,(2o58'N, 102o18'E) in the state of NegeriSembilan, about 70 km southeast of KualaLumpur, Malaysia. For the primary forest, a dataset taken in a 50-ha plot in 1995 was used. For theregenerating forest, a 6-ha plot was selected in1997 in an area at the southern end of the reservethat was selectively logged under the MalaysianUniform System (MUS) between 1955 and 1960.in both plots, all woody plants of 1 cm in diameteror larger within these plots were identified,measured, tagged and mapped to the nearest 10cm. The canopy height was determined every 2.5m intervals from aerial photographs taken at ascale of 1:6000 in February 1997, which coveredthe entire part of the 50-ha and 6 ha study plots,and canopy digital elevation model (CDEM) wasmade for both plots. Canopy surface area wasacquired in every 10 x 10 m mesh based uponCDEM. Crown size of trees in canopy layer wasdetermined by tracing the crown edges shown inthe aerial photographs.
There was no distinct difference in the meancanopy height between the primary (27.4 m) andregenerating forests (24.8 m). However, thevariance of the mean height was much larger inthe primary than in the regenerating forest. Thisimplies that there are many more emergent andcanopy trees > 40 m in height and many more
canopy gaps in the primary forest than in theregenerating forest.
The mean canopy surface area per hectare in theprimary forest was 27844 m2, 1.5 times as large as thatin the regenerating forest (19288 m2). The mean crownsize of individual trees of the canopy layer in theprimary forest was 95 m2, which was twice as large asthat in the regenerating forest (43 m2). The number oftrees whose crown size >300 m2 was 3.3/ha in theprimary forest and 0.5/ha in the regenerating forest.On the other hand, the number of trees with smallersize crown (<100 m2) was 49.5/ha in the primaryforest and 177.5/ha in the regenerating forest.However, the species area curves derived from the treemap data were not distinctively different betweenplots. The two plots did not differ in the ten familieshaving the largest number of species. The stem densitywas not distinctly different between the two plots;6418 individuals /ha in the primary forest and 6067individuals/ha in the regenerating forest. The basalarea in the primary forest was 42.2 m2/ha and 43.3m2/ha in the regenerating forest.
These results suggest that selective logging underMUS regime did not significantly change tree speciescomponents and diversity, but resulted in monotonouscanopy structure which was formed by small canopytrees growing in high density. These findings alsoimply that gap formation and structural developmenttake a long time in a regenerating forest, owing to thetime taken for self-thinning among the trees.
Species assembly and site preference oftree species in a primary Seraya-Ridge
Forest in Peninsular MalaysiaK. Abd. Rahman, K. Niiyama, Azizi R., S. Appanah and S.
IidaForest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM), Kepong, 52109
Kuala Lumpur, MalaysiaTel: +603-634-2633, FAX: +603-636-7753, Email:
Keywords: Cluster analysis; Ordination; Indicatorspecies; Seraya-Ridge forest
The paper describes the use of common species as thecriteria to classify forest sites using multivariatemethods. The main objective is to clarify indicatorspecies and its site preferences in a typical primarySeraya-Ridge Forest. The sample is based on acontiguous 150 subplots of 20 m x 20 m from a sixhectares plot (200 m x 300 m). The group of sites wasdetected using hierarchical clustering analysis and siteranking by ordination method. The indicator speciesanalysis determined the characteristic species of thatparticular site group. Eight site groups were identified.The ordination results showed a strong correlation
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with elevation gradient. Most of the characteristicspecies showed a strong association withelevation gradient and topographic positions,while generalist species showed a weakcorrelation. The indicator values of thirty-ninecharacteristic species at each step of hierarchicalstructure were computed and tested with the meanindicator value obtained from a Monte Carlorandomization procedure at P-value 0.01. Thecharacteristic species which have broad nichebreadth in the higher elevation were Shoreacurtisii Lithocarpus wallichianus, Eurycomalongifolia, etc., while in the lower elevation thecharacteristics species were Pimelodendrongriffithianum, Antidesma cuspidatum, Artocarpuslanceifolius, etc. These species were responsiblefor similarities between habitat and for the nestedhierarchy structure in the site typology. Severalspecies such as Drypetes polyneura andGironniera parvifolia had been identified asrequiring narrower site preferences. The diagramof hierarchical cluster and associated indicatorspecies provides a simple and intuitive way toexpress species assembly, while the ordinationhelps in explaining their site preferences.
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Task Force 1Environmental Change
CoordinatorJohn INNESForest Resources ManagementUniversity of British ColumbiaForest Sciences Centre2nd Floor - 2424 Main Mall, Vancouver V6T 1Z4, Canadafax: +1-604-8229106tel: +1-604-8226761e-mail: [email protected]
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Excess nitrogen in a fragile montaneforest ecosystem
Robert Jandl, Lee Heng, Jiri SimunekForest Research Center, Seckendorff Gudent Weg 8,
1131 Vienna, AustriaTel: +43-1-87838-1302, FAX: +43-1-87838-1250,
Email: [email protected]
Montane forests on calcareous limestone arefragile ecosystems of the Alps. We investigate, ifthere are already indications for nitrogensaturation and derive its consequences for theregional water quality. The soils are mostlyshallow and often have a low water holdingcapacity. The growth of most of these forests hasbeen limited by nitrogen until now. The nitrogendemand of the forest stand and the herbaceousvegetation was high enough to almost fullyexploit the nitrogen supplied by the soil solution.The last few decades have modified thebiogeochemistry forest ecosystems in Europe.Due to the increase in combustion processes andthe increase in N emissions from agriculturalsources the availability of nitrogen has generallyincreased. The recently shown increase of growthrates of European forests is understood as aconsequence of a nitrogen eutrophication.Ecosystems, that used to be a sink for nitrogen,will no longer retain it fully. Consequentlynitrogen is lost from the ecosystem, primarilydissolved as nitrate in seepage water, andsecondarily in gaseous form as nitrous oxide. Thesurface waters draining montane forests have sofar been of the highest chemical quality and havebeen suited as drinking water without furthertreatment. So settlements, as potential polluters,had access to water of highest purity and localpollution was diluted to water of still goodquality. If nitrogen leaks out of montane forestsindeed, this favorable situation may be history.Society will be able to rely to a lesser extent onthe water purification by montane forests.
Our study site is located in the province of theTyrol. It is a mature spruce forest with some truefir and beech. We monitor the quantity andchemical quality of precipitation above and belowthe stand canopy, soil temperature and moisture,and emissions of trace gases. The assessment ofgeochemical fluxes is especially difficult, becausesoils are gravelly and shallow. Karst phenomenainhibit the direct measurement of stream waterbecause an unidentified quantity of groundwaterleaches into subterranean caveats. We thereforeuse a combined soil chemical- physical simulationprogram, UNSATCHEM, to derive a nutrientbudget. We intend to present both the results of
our locally valid case study, but also extend our resultsto a bigger picture, that considers the regional waterbalance. Moreover we intend to present the remedies,that can be offered by silvicultural managementpractices, that help to improve the utilization of theavailable nitrogen.
Keywords: nitrogen deposition, eutrophication,montane forest
The adaptation potential of CentralEuropean mountain forests underscenarios of climatic change - an
ecological risk assessmentManfred Lexer, Karl Hönninger, Helfried Scheifinger;
Matulla, Ch., Groll, N., Kromp-Kolb, H.University of Agricultural Sciences, Institute of Silviculture,
Peter-Jordanstraáe 70, A-1190 Vienna, AustriaTel: 0043/1/47654 - 4050, FAX: 0043/1/47654 - 4092,
Email: [email protected]
Keywords: risk assessment; climate change; climatechange impact; mountain forests; patch model;
Central European forests comprise a wide range ofecological site conditions from high altitudeconiferous mountain forests to low elevation forestsdominated by broadleaved species. These forests ingeneral have to serve a multitude of functions and inparticular play an irresistible role in maintaining alpinelandscapes. Discussions on a likely global climatechange give rise to questions on possible impacts onforest ecosystems. So far model applications to assessthe potential impacts of climate change on forestssuffered from several shortcomings: (a) simulationstudies for individual more or less synthetic siteconditions conducted with forest succession models ofthe gap-model type miss the spatial dimension andcoverage, (b) risk asessment studies with staticvegetation-site equilibrium models miss theindividualistic nature in the formation of vegetationcomposition, and (c) the non-consideration of todaysforest composition and structure in climate changerelated simulation experiments. To circumvent theselimitations in this contribution a risk assessmentprocedure for the identification of potential impacts ofclimatic change on mountain forest ecosystems in theEastern Alps in Austria is presented.
In our approach a newly developed 3D-patch model isemployed to simulate vegetation development atapproximately 3.000 sample plots of the AustrianForest Inventory (AFI) under current climate andunder climate change scenarios. The model runs areinitialized with ground true site (slope, aspect, waterholding capacity, pH, C/N-ratio) and vegetation(species, diameter distributions regeneration) dataprovided by AFI. The sampling scheme of AFI withmore than 10.000 of sample plots all over Austria
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allows to sample from the multi-variate space ofvegetation/site-combinations of Austrian forests.Current climate data were interpolated from anetwork of more than 800 climate stations of theAustrian weather services. Simulated vegetationdevelopment under current climatic conditions isused as a control-run. For each involved sampleplot several climate change scenarios werederived from global circulation model (GCM)output by statistical downscaling techniques. Nomanagement interventions are assumed to capturethe potential natural transient behaviour of currentforests. To synthesize the various model outputvariables as rational as possible the analytichierarchy process (AHP) and multiple-attribute-utility-methodology (MAUT) were utilized.Indicators used in this approach represent both thetransient as well as the longterm response ofcurrent forests, and comprise shifts in thepotential natural vegetation composition (PNV),short- to midterm vegetation development(species, accumulated biomass) and detailedthermoenergetical indices of potential bioticstressors such as phloem feeding insects.
In a demonstration example for a subregion in theEastern Alps substantial shifts of the potentialnatural vegetation under altered climate occuredindicating changes of the ecological site potential.Under the climate as produced by the globalcirculation model ECHAM4 under the "businessas usual run" of the IPCC just at a small portion(11.7 %) of 409 simulated sample plots includedin the example abrupt changes in speciescomposition or biomass occured, thus indicatingforest dieback events due to the underlyingclimate change scenario.
From our experiences we conclude that thepresented methodology is well suited to identifypotential problem areas where the functioning offorests might not be granted under the assumedclimatic changes. We found it especiallyimportant to evaluate the possible range of forestresponses to a changing climate by using severaldifferent climate change scenarios, thus coveringthe uncertainties involved with predictions offuture climates. To derive management scenariosto mitigate possible adverse impacts of a climatechange and to secure the sustainable functioningof alpine forest ecosystems forest managementhas to be considered explicitely. However, it isimportant to note, that optimized silviculturalresponse strategies within the frame of a multiplepurpose forestry have to be planned at spatialscales beyond the stand level.
Modeling Tropical Deforestation andCarbon Flux Scenarios
Matti Palo, Erkki LehtoFinnish Forest Research Institute (METLA), Unioninkatu
40 A, FIN-00170 Helsinki, FinlandTel: +358 9 857051, FAX: +358 9 85705 717, Email:
Keywords: tropics, deforestation, carbon fluxes,modeling, scenarios
The purpose of our paper is to make quantitativescenario analyses on tropical deforestation and itsconsequences to carbon fluxes up to 2025 and 2050.The study comprises natural tropical forests, whichmeans that plantation forests, trees outside forests andother wooded lands are excluded.
The empirical source of forest, land and ecologicalzone data is FAO's FORIS-database, which covers 117tropical countries and about 600 subnational units. Theoriginal inventory year data from 1953 to 1998 fromthe FORIS database are used. The number of countrieswas reduced to 62 when more independent variableswere included in the modeling.
Scenarios are based on trends and multiple regressionmodels for tropical Africa, Asia and Latin America.The trend scenarios assume that deforestationcontinues as in the 1970's and in the 1980's. The lineartrend with equal deforested area in the future isadopted as a base scenario (zero alternatives). Threeother trends were computed including another kind oflinear and two non-linear trends.
The regression models were estimated using ordinaryleast squares method (OLS) with standard statisticaltests. Cases were weighted with forest areas because inthe scenario making this would reflect in a more validway the different roles of the small and large countriesand their subnational areas in the deforestationprocess.
Regression scenarios until 2025 were computed bycontinents. The results indicate that forest area woulddecrease in Latin America by 29-39, in Africa by 37-41 and in Asia by 31-36 percent. Accordingly, tropicalAmerica has the largest potential for carbonconservation (40-55GT C) if deforestation isdecelerating, followed by tropical Africa (21-23 GT C)and tropical Asia (15-17 GT C).
New modeling of deforestation scenarios was madefor this conference. The model has not only income,population and reliability of forest data variables aschanging independent variables but also agriculturalproductivity and the openness of trade as keyindependent variables. The other - time-invariant -independent variables consist of moist and dry
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ecological zones, total land area as well as twodummy variables for island and Africanidentification.
The model is operational and statistically sound.It nearly doubles the previous degrees ofdetermination (R2 = 0.79 in this latest model).The previous regression scenarios are respectivelyrevisited. in the conference paper proper we shallreport primarily the results from this newmodeling.
The new provisional scenarios indicate somewhatlower scenarios on deforestation and carbonfluxes than the previous results. Increasingagricultural productivity is decreasingdeforestation whereas the growth of openness inforeign trade tends to expand deforestation undertropical land tenure conditions where often openaccess to forests is existing. This effectively slowsdown the appearance of competitive stumpagemarkets which would automatically deceleratedeforestation.
Our results indicate higher deforestation thanFAO has modeled for 1990-1995 in the State ofWorld Forests in 1997. We have the followingexplanation for this difference. in the two studiesdifferent models are applied - in our caseregression modeling with log-log transformationof the variables and Chapman-Richards-model byFAO. Our model has some more relevantvariables, such as an income variable, which aremissing from the model by FAO. We believe thatour modeling approach is more relevant for thispurpose.
Wood-to-ethanol: process options andtargets for commercialization
John N. Saddler, David J. GreggFaculty of Forestry, University of British Columbia,
Forest Products Biotechnology, Department of WoodScience
2424 Main Mall, V6T 1Z4 Vancouver, BC, CanadaTel: 1 604 822 9741, FAX: 1 604 822 8154, Email:
There is growing concern that the continual build-up of atmospheric CO2 is contributing to globalclimate change. The combustion of gasoline intransportation vehicles represents a significantsource of CO2 produced anthropogenically.Several groups around the world are researchingways to convert forestry and agricultural residuesto ethanol as a way of displacing gasoline fortransportation vehicles.
When ethanol is produced from renewablesources such as biomass it can both decreaseurban air pollution and reduce the accumulation
of carbon dioxide. Thus replacement of gasoline withethanol, derived from renewable biomass feedstocksthat sequester carbon dioxide during growth, isexpected to reduce carbon dioxide emissions by 90-100%. Researchers in the U.S. estimated that enoughneat ethanol could be made from the available localcellulosic biomass residues to replace twice theamount of gasoline consumed within that country.
The bioconversion of lignocellulosics (includingwood) to ethanol is a complicated and stronglyinterdependent series of process steps. Currently thereare no true examples of commercial or totallyintegrated demonstration-sized plants which canconvert lignocellulosic materials to ethanol. Althoughsome of the current and past pilot plants have beenable to demonstrate the successful operation of entiresets of process steps, these plants have not been able tooperate over a prolonged period of time.
Through our association with the International EnergyAgency (IEA) we have come in contact with a numberof groups researching and commercializing variouslignocellulosic-to-ethanol processes. We are aware,through this association with IEA, that there arecurrently a number of commercial interests buildingpilot and demonstration facilities to technically provea number of the process steps. However, at this time,there does not seem to be a single group that possessesall of process steps required to provide a completecontinuous process particularly when presented with anumber of different lignocellulosic feedstocks(agricultural, hardwood and softwood residues). Thispresentation will review some of these attempts atdemonstrating biomass-to-ethanol process elementsand provide a likely scenario for the future.
Our group at the University of British Columbia(UBC) has been researching the potential of usingsoftwood sawmill residues as a feedstock forproducing fuel ethanol. Our recent techno-economicmodelling work has shown us that it is crucial foreconomic viability to recover as much of the originalcost of the feedstock in the form of marketableproducts. Most of the past research (agriculturalresidues and hardwoods) concentrated on processingonly the cellulosic component to a marketable product(ethanol). The lignin component was assumed to beburned to produce energy and steam for the rest of theprocess and the hemicellulose component wasdiscarded or only minimally utilized to produce amarketable product (ethanol). Our more recentresearch has focused on optimizing the recovery andutilization of all three main components as marketableproducts and developing new processing methods forsoftwoods (processes that were developed forhardwoods and agricultural residues are not effective
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for softwoods). This presentation will provide asummary of current worldwide researchdirections.
Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissionsfrom the forestry sector in Malaysia
Azman Zainal Abidin, Jenny Wong Siew Chiong, andRamdzani Abdullah Abdullah
Universiti Putra Malaysia, Department ofEnvironmental Sciences, 43400 UPM Serdang,
Selangor D.E., MalaysiaFAX: 603-9438109, Email:[email protected]
The world community has many needs for reliableestimates of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions asit discusses global climate change. Emissionestimates can be used to compare the relativecontribution of different emission sources anddifferent GHGs to climate change, and toascertain the portions of emissions attributable toindividual countries and different regions of theworld.
A preliminary GHG inventory for the country wasfirst carried out in 1995, in which the emissions ofcarbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrousoxide (N2O) were estimated from the varioussectors. However, in that inventory, thecomponent on land use change and forestry(LUCF) was not included due to lack ofappropriate data at that time.
The present study was therefore carried out to fillin that missing gap. The objectives of the studywere to estimate the GHG emissions and sinksfrom the LUCF sector, and to determine ifMalaysia was a net CO2 emitter or sink in as faras the LUCF sector was concerned. in carryingout the study, the following procedures wereadopted: 1) the collection of relevant secondarydata, 2) the preparation of the inventory using the1995 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change(IPCC) Guidelines, and 3) the comparisonbetween the emissions and sinks for the years1990 to 1996.
From the inventory exercise carried out, it wasfound that in the LUCF sector, Malaysia was a netCO2 sink. Keywords: Greenhouse gases (GHGs),carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrousoxide (N2O), land use change and forestry(LUCF), Intergovernmental Panel on ClimateChange (IPCC).
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Task Force 2Forest in SustainableMountain Development
CoordinatorDr. Martin PRICECentre for Mountain StudiesPerth College, University of the Highlands and IslandsCrieff Road, Perth PH1 2NX, United Kingdomfax: +44-1738-631634tel: +44-1738-877217e-mail: [email protected]
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Characterization of AgroforestryExperiences with Coffee in the Zona da
Mata of Minas Gerais, BrazilFernando Silveira Franco, Laercio Couto, Irene Maria
Cardoso, Cassio Murilo Moreira Trovatto, Marcos IwaoIto, Juliana Sialino Müller
Universidade Federal de Vicosa, Departamento deEngenharia Florestal, 36570.000 Vicosa, Minas Gerais,
BrazilFAX: (031) 899-2478, Email: [email protected]
Agroforest systems are alternatives in naturalresource management in which woody species(trees, bushes, palms) are utilized in deliberateassociation with agriculture and/or animalhusbandry in the same area, either simultaneously orsequentially, with significant ecological andeconomic interactions between components. Thesealternative systems can use natural resources toaugment or maintain land productivity withoutfurther degradation beyond that already seen in theelevated degree on occupied and cultivated landsthat do not permit such augmentations to food, fiber,energy, or other products. Agroforest systems areviable practices that can be utilized to recuperatelandscapes degraded and fragmented by farming andgrazing, common situations in the Zona da Mata.The Zona da Mata is characterized by centuries ofagricultural occupation, traditional agriculturalpractices, and a preponderance of smallholderproduction. The resulting landscapes areinsufficiently productive for natural recuperation totheir productive potential. For many local farmers,coffee cultivation still represents the principalsource of income to meet family needs. Many agro-ecosystems of the Zona da Mata are characterizedby declining productivity and low soil fertilityderived from the adoption of technologies ill-suitedto the region.
The central objectives of this work are to contributeto an ecologically and economically efficientagriculture, strengthen coffee cultivation, and createconditions in which the cultivator may diversify andsustain production through agroforest systems. Tothese ends, surveys were undertaken of agroforestsystems and trees associated with coffee in the Zonada Mata to describe their predominant functions, thephyiological comportment of coffee under the shadeof these trees, and the establishment of a system torecord descriptive and quantitative information onthe systems and species located.
To develop this work visits were undertaken toproperties where the concept of agroforest systemswere integrated in the method of production and
coffee was the principal product. Twelveexperiences of family production, one experimentalarea of the Federal University of Vicosa, and oneexperimental area of the Vicosa Family AgricultureGroup were studied during the years 1997-98. Thevisits utilized Rapid Participatory Diagnosis throughthe technique of semi-structured interviewscharacterized by a few pre-established questions toprovide a line of discussion and a basic structureconnected to themes in which all subjects werepermitted. in this way the interviewees wereconsiderd the "experts" in their respective areas ofactivity and in the way in which they related theiropinions, thoughts, and desires. The protocol usedcovered History (land use, degree of awareness ofadoption, reasons for adopting the system, naturalvegetation prior to implantation); Resources,including natural (solo, water, temperature,exposure, et cetera), agricultural (size, quality, andownership of land; skill and availability of labor),capital (financial physical,), and productive; andSystems, including species (objectives for thecomponents, interactions, spatial and temporalarrangements), management (species comportment,succession, silvicultural techniques), and evaluation.
The majority of experiences were initiated fouryears prior in areas of low carrying capacity.Vegetative species numbered 115, representing 49plant families. By category of use, these specieswere implanted in different stages of soil recovery,succession, and agroforest production and furnishedfoods, medicinals, and other products such asfuelwood and sawtimber. Diverse types of systemswere identified, from simple associations of coffeewith two forest species to more complex systemsinvolving 76 species with a variety of objectives(rapid production, green manures, nitrogen-fixation,shade production, advancing natural succession, etcetera). Conclusions include both ecological andeconomic benefits (reduced erosion, greater soilmoisture and organic matter, reduced use of agro-chemicals, and reduced labor expense at laterstages) described by the interviewees as well aslimitations related to management and economics.
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Global Distribution of Mountain ForestsVal Kapos, J. Rhind, I. Lysenko, C. Ravilious and M.
PriceWorld Conservation Monitoring Centre, 219 Huntingdon
Road, CB3 0DL Cambridge, United KingdomFAX: +44 (0)1223 277136, Email:
Despite constituting only a small proportion of theworld's forests, mountain forests are especiallyimportant in providing resources that benefit humanpopulations and are particularly susceptible todamage and loss. The importance of soundmanagement of mountain forests has recently beenrecognised increasingly in international policy fora;a thorough understanding of their global distributionis critical to identifying policy and managementissues that need to be addressed at internationalscales. in this paper we present the results of ananalysis combining global forest distribution andprotection data with topographic data to generate thefirst mapped dataset on the distribution andprotection of mountain forests world-wide.
The importance of mountain forests for mankind ismultifaceted. They are vital as sources of water forirrigation and power generation. They intercept andstore water from rainfall, mist and snow, and releaseit slowly, thereby reducing soil erosion anddownstream flooding impacts. Mountain forests arevery important as repositories of biodiversity. Theproximity of many different ecosystem types insteep topography and an evolutionary history ofclimatic fluctuation and species migration, have ledmany mountain forests to develop diverse andcomplex faunas and floras. Because they are usuallyisolated from similar ecosystems by steep terrainand intervening lowlands they are frequently sites ofhigh species endemism. That very isolation and theincreasing pressures on the forest below make manymountain forest species very vulnerable, a factreflected in the occurrence of many mountain forestspecies on the lists of the world's most criticallyendangered species.
Mountain forests are often highly threatened by theactivities of growing human populations aroundthem. Some of the most densely populated areas ofthe world are mountain zones, where demands forland to grow crops, for fuelwood for cooking andheating, and for construction materials combine toexert high pressure on remaining forests. FAO(1993) has estimated the annual loss of forest fromupland regions in the tropics to be 1.1%, 30% higherthan elsewhere in the tropics.
Despite the importance and vulnerability ofmountain forests their distribution has been poorlyunderstood. The first global digital map of forestswas published by WCMC in 1996, but this did notidentify mountain forests. While subsequentversions did identify some mountain forests basedon classifications in the source data, coverage ofthese important ecosystems was not consistent.
Global forest data are constantly being updated bothat WCMC and through remote sensing programmes(e.g. EROS Data Centre in collaboration with FAOand WCMC), but explicitly identifying mountainforests in a globally consistent manner has notpreviously been included in any of these efforts.
The analysis presented in this paper addresses anumber of the difficulties inherent in consideringmountain forests. While globally accepteddefinitions of "forest" exist, the problem is withidentifying those that fill the important roles andcharacteristics of mountain forests. Though it is notin itself sufficient, elevation is one key componentin defining mountain forests. A newly availableglobal digital elevation model (DEM; GTOPO30)provides new possibilities for defining andidentifying mountain areas; elevational difference asa proxy for slope and total local altitudinal rangewere employed to try to include those mountainforests that occur at relatively low elevations as aresult of the "Massenerhebung effect" and relatedphenomena. By developing such methods ofidentifying mountain areas using the DEM andcombining the result with digital forest cover data, ithas been possible to produce a preliminary map ofmountain forests in order to highlight regions ofpotential conservation concern.
Wild Edible Herbs and Maple Sap as anIncome Source in Mountain Areas of
KoreaDon Koo Lee, Gab T. Kim
Seoul National University, Dept. of Forest Resources,103 Seodun-Dong, Kwonsun-Gu, 441-744 Suwon, Korea
R.Tel: +82-331-290-2337, FAX: +82-331-293-1797, Email:
Characterized by four distinct seasons andmountainous topography, extending southward fromthe northeastern part of the Asian continent, Chinaand Russia, the Korean peninsula has a wide rangeof habitats and corresponding vegetation types -located at the latitudes 34° 40' to 43° 39' N and thelongitudes 124° 0' to 132° 42' E. of these plants,wild edible herbs widely distributed in mountainforests are useful and valuable as sources of food orfor their medicinal effects or commercial attraction.
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However, only a small minority of wild edible herbshas been studied by biologists or for their role in thelocal economy. This paper presents a case study onwild edible herbs in mountain forests, conducted atMt. Gariwang (about 5000 ha, Pyungchang-gunKangwon-do, South Korea) with a focus on theirdistribution and contribution.
At Mt. Gariwang, there were 58 species of wildedible herbs and 80 species of wild medicinal herbs.These are important beneficial species - their higheconomic value makes them highly attractive tomountain villagers. However, increasing marketdemand for such resources has resulted in their rapiddepletion in recent years.
Of the 58 species of wild edible herbs, Pimpinellabrachycarpa, Ligularia fisheri and Codonopsislanceolata provide the largest source of income. Thedistribution of herbs was diverse and distinctive: P.brachycarpa was distributed mostly in mixedbroadleaved forests; L. fisheri in clear-cut areas,meadow and oak forests; and C. lanceolatarandomly. P. brachycarpa and L. fisheri were foundunder wet soil-moisture conditions, and slopeorientation was one of the major determinants ofdistribution. C. lanceolata was generally found onnorth-facing slopes. Most species of wild herbs wereabsent from conifer plantations.
Leaf production of wild edible herbs differed withforest type: P. brachycarpa yielded 37.9 kg. ha-1 inoak forests, 34.5 kg.ha-1 in mixed broadleavedforests and 2.5 kg. ha-1 from clear-cut areas andmeadow. Leaf production of L. fisheri was 30.3kg.ha-1, 24 kg.ha-1 and 34.6 kg.ha-1, respectively,while that of C. lanceolata was 2.5 kg.ha-1 in oakforests and 1.5 kg.ha-1 in mixed broadleavedforests. Annual leaf production of wild edible herbswas estimated as follows: P. brachycarpa yielded48 t.year-1 fresh weight (10 t.year-1 dry weight).Annual leaf production of L. fisheri was 40 t.year-1and 9 t.year-1, respectively, while that of C.lanceolata was 2 t.year-1 and 0.5 t.year-1,respectively.
Overall, 25% of households collected wild herbs,with an average of 1.2 collectors per household. Thecollection period was from mid-April to early Juneand the mean number of collecting days was 12.6per year. The mean amount of wild edible herbscollected by mountain villagers was estimated to be12 kg.day-1.person-1. of this, 58% was sold and42% consumed by the household. (73% raw 27%cooked).
A survey of mountain villagers found that 71%considered wild edible herbs highly profitable. For28%, the economic contribution of wild edible herbsto total income ranged from 10% to 20%. Half of
the villagers questioned expressed great concernregarding the rapid reduction of plants due to over-collection, and increasing numbers of collectorsfrom outside the area.
The geographical distribution, habitat, growth, fieldcharacters and chemical contents of wild edibleherbs should be further studied. Based on well-established biological information on wild edibleherbs, economic potential of the plants can be muchenlarged. Considering its demand as the essentialsource of food and relative rarity in amount,marketability of wild edible herbs is brisk andsteady. Therefore, development of appropriatecultivation methods in mountain areas isindispensable to meet the increasing demands andhelp maintain sustainable production of the plantsconcerned. in particular, utilization of marginalagricultural upland areas, which are expanded by30,000 ha per year countrywide, can beadvantageous to the economy and environment ofthe local communities.
Maple (Acer mono) saps were collected below 800mof Mt. Gariwang during 10 - 15 days in March.Mean amount of saps per day was 2,250 ml frommaples with DBH of 12 to 25 cm and mean amountcollected from single maple tree ranged from 22.5 to33.7 litters. The collecting period at Mt. Gariwangwas later than that at Mt. Baekwoon located inSouthern areas of Korea and the collecting amountat Mt. Gariwang was greater by 20 litters than thatat Mt. Baekwoon.
A total of 231 trees in Mt. Baekwoon and Mt. Chiriwere monitored for daily sap flow from 1993 to1995 to understand factors affecting spring sap flowof Acer mono Max. Major factors were tree size,tapping methods, weather and site conditions.
Annual mean sap flow per tree was 6.73 liters in1993, 11.20 liters in 1994, and 11.30 liters in 1995with mean DBH of 21.4cm. Sap flow increased withincreasing crown diameter, DBH and tree age, witha correlation coefficient of 0.52, 0.49 and 0.56,respectively. Size of tap hole did not affect the sapflow, but number of tap holes per tree from one totwo holes increased sap flow substantially. Maplesin north-facing slope produced more sap than thosein south-facing slope. A large temperaturefluctuation between day and night raised sap flow.Night temperature below freezing point, clear sky ofthe daytime and slight breeze considered favorableweather conditions for sap flow. Day time forheaviest sap flow was observed during 2 to 4 p.m.As of July 1997, there were a total of 99,347 A.mono trees in 16,211 ha: 6.1 trees/ha. Meanfrequency of A. mono was 20.7%. The 73.9% ofmaple trees were younger than 40 years with less
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than DBH of 20cm. Therefore, sap production isexpected to increase naturally with tree age.
Further research on maple sap production is neededto develop strategies for sustainable management ofAcer mono; to promote its natural regeneration andto grow them in artificial plantations.
Multifunctional management in theAlpine mountain forests
Claudio Pollini, Vittorio TosiWood Technology Institute (ITL-CNR), 38010 SanMichele a/A. (Trento) Via Biasi, 75, Trento, Italy
Tel: +39 0461 660111, FAX: +39 0461 650045, Email:[email protected]
Management of the mountain forests has changedgradually over the last few decades: sylviculturalobjectives characterised by the primary aim oftimber production have been replaced by thedevelopment of multi-functional cultivation modelsdesigned to satisfy a range of new and differingneeds.
The interest of the community for other forestfunctions has been increasing and at the same time anaturalistic type of sylviculture (near-to-nature) hasdeveloped, attempting to harmonise differing andsometimes opposing interests which tends to:- search for cultivation equilibrium characterised bya high degree of naturalness and stability;- maximise the different functions exercised by theforest;- reduce conflicts that may appear among thedifferent functions;- favour forest self-defence capability against bothnatural and human attack.
Cosequently forests are managed according tomanagement plans prepared by the Province's orCommunity's forestry technical office. Adaptingtraditional forest management practices is deemedessential: one must develop techniques that are cost-effective, that respect the typical structure of thestand and that allow a continued maintenance ofthese forests, so that they can exert at best theirprotective, productive and recreational roles.Moreover, considering the different roles ofmountain forests, one must approach the silvicultureand the harvesting of these stand in an holistic,coherent and objective way, in order to implementthe most effective strategy for each specificobjective.
This is the approach of a particular experimentalproject, carried out in the Italian Alpine region by amulti-disciplinary team of silvicolturists, forestmanagers and harvesting experts.
One of the experimental sites was chosen in asecondary valley (Sadole) of Fiemme valley(Province of Trento), where, because the high slope,the forest cover has a primary role of protection forthe people and the infrastructures, limiting thebreakdown and the rocks rolling caused by thesteepness of the slope. The forest cover is also asource of wood production. Besides it has anadditional role in landscape and recreation.
The forest is represented by pure spruce stands or, insome cases, by stands of prevailing spruce withlarch and Swiss stone pine.The structure partition ofthe stand is almost even-aged; mature over maturestand and adult trees prevail. The one storedstructure of the stands depend on the naturaltendency of the primary species present (P.abies). inthis site the rules adopted for the forest planning arebased on the sylvicultural needs of the variousstands.
It was decided to begin a regeneration phase of themature and over mature stands, starting from thegroups that are in the best site conditions in regardto the stability of the stand. With these remarks, inthe area the general rules of forest system arefollowed, using the clear cutting by hole inside theolder stand to stimulate the regeneration of spruceand larch, and in the same time it is tried to satisfythe multi-functions of the area (protection,recreation, landscape and wood). A first felling wascarried out during 1996 in two holes. The timberwas yarded by using a sky-line crane.
The operation was a complete success because itwas possible to apply the sylvicultural forest systemas designed, in an attempt to reach a number ofgoals. The important hydrological function of thisforest was left intact. Releasing a number of greenscreens along the cut was extremely effective in thisrespect. After two years no erosive problemsinterested the slope. No rockfalls have reached thevalley bottom. Furthermore the cut did not detractfrom the scenic value of the landscape. Althoughrather large, the patches were managed in a way thatthey are screened if observed from the most popularobservation points. The adequate space of eachopening will certainly favour the regeneration ofspruce and of other less common species, such assSwiss stone pine and larch which could increase thelocal biodiversity and the ecosystem level.
In conclusion, this trial gives us a founded hope thatthe most part of Sadole forest could be successfullyrejuvenated in the next years. That entails that if alarge regeneration effort must be conducted in ashort time span, it may be worth planning some
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improvements that will make the operation evenmore effective.
Enjeux écologiques et financiers de larevégétalisation des mines en Nouvelle-
CalédonieJean Michel Sarrailh, A. Cornu, C. Le Roux
CIRAD-Forêt Programme Arbres et Plantations, BP10001 Noum‚a, New Caledonia, France
Tel: 687 - 246515, FAX: 687 - 246519, Email: [email protected]
Un grand massif de péridotites s’étend sur un tiersde la superficie de la Nouvelle Calédonie faisant dece Territoire le troisième producteur mondial denickel. Jusqu’à récemment les entreprisesdéversaient systématiquement les stériles dans lespentes. A l’impact environnemental de premièregrandeur – stérilisation des terres, pollution descours d’eau, dégradation du paysage, pollution dulagon – s’ajoute une perte progressive de labiodiversité, le milieu possédant une flore unique aumonde avec 90% des espèces végétales endémiques.
Aujourd’hui les sociétés minières adoptent uneattitude beaucoup plus respectueuse, mais faute deréglementation contraignante les travaux derevégétalisation n’ont réellement commencé quevers 1993. Chaque société intervient à sa guise,selon des priorités qui lui sont propres. Certainesaffichent une volonté de maintenir avant tout labiodiversité et la conservation d’espècesemblématiques des lieux où elles exercent leuractivité. D’autres, plus préoccupées de corriger ladégradation du paysage et de réduire l’érosionchoisissent une revégétalisation considérée commeplus pragmatique, à plus grande échelle. Pour yparvenir, elles interviennent au moyen d’espèces,parfois même introduites, dont l’utilisation avec destechniques appropriées permet des résultatsrapidement visibles et relativement fiables.
Cette dualité entre un contexte d'urgence et lemaintien de la biodiversité est au cœur de laproblématique posée par la revégétalisation sur leTerritoire.
L'environnement industriel et financier évoluesensiblement avec une baisse structurelle des coursdu nickel et l’arrivée de compagnies internationales.Il imposera une approche beaucoup pluséconomique de la revégétalisation.
Les recherches menées par le CIRAD – Forêt enNouvelle Calédonie doivent permettre de définir desitinéraires techniques qui soient un compromissatisfaisant entre la biodiversité et le coût deréalisation. En effet la revégétalisation des talus estdifficile en Nouvelle-Calédonie et nécessite pourl’essentiel l’utilisation d’espèces endémiques dont la
mobilisation est onéreuse. Ces expérimentationsdevraient garantir à terme (dans les vingt à trenteans) une variabilité d’espèces suffisante, mais aussil’installation d’une couverture végétale complète quidiminuera rapidement l’érosion et apporterarapidement une forte amélioration paysagère, avecdes coûts d’installation convenables.
On a montré, par exemple, que deux espècesligneuses locales, Acacia spirorbis et Casuarinacollina avaient une croissance rapide sur ces milieuxdès que l’on apportait de la matière organique etformaient aisément des peuplements denses etfermés. Ces deux espèces faciles à multiplierpermettent actuellement le meilleur rapportrésultats-coûts. Il est cependant possible d’ajouterquelques autres espèces à développement moinsrapide et de définir des modes d’installation et degestion qui vont garantir une diversification propiceau développement naturel d’autres espèces et à ladurabilité du système. Les travaux menées enmicrobiologie autorise à espérer des avancéesrapides dans la maîtrise des associations bactériesou mycorhizes avec les espèces plantées.
Rehabiliation of Degraded Forestlandsby the Poor Families in the Hills of
Nepal: the Community-based Actionresearch
Bijay Kumar SinghFAO Representative, GPO Box 25, Kathmandu, NepalFAX: 977-1-242640, Email: [email protected]
The paper summaries the results of community-based action researches in the Leasehold Forestryand Forage Development for poor in which processhas been developed for the rehabilitation ofdegraded forestlands remained barren for longperiod and degrading each year. All the researcheshave been conducted between 400-2000 metrealtitude from average sea level (asl) mostly insloppy hills and mountains of Nepal which are mostfragile. These forestlands are now a good source ofincome for poor families with a new concept offorage farming in multiple product forestry. Thetechnologies and processes are simple but effectivethat include: (a) zero (no) grazing in the degradedlease land; (b) forage farming (with properinoculation) of perennial species preferably legumeswith a minimum tillage, (d) establishment of legumehedgerows that also provide forage, (e) cut-and-carry system for animal rearing, (f) application of A-Frame to find out contours and planting of fastgrowing multipurpose tree and fodder species alongcontours, (g) multiple product forestry that renderboth short-term and long-term products and benefitsto rural poor.
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The institutional arrangement for the action researchencompassed: (i) formation of small functionalgroups of families living below poverty line ranging5-10 families, (ii) land tenurial ownership ofdegraded forestland to these groups up to forty yearsand renewable of another term, (iii) participatoryaction research facilitated by the Nepal AgricultureResearch Council (NARC) involving leaseholdgroups members (poor families), (iv) minimuminput supply including seeds and planting materialsand training to the leasehold members, (v) researchplots in the open degraded lands without fencingand protection responsibility of the leaseholdmembers, (vi) assurance of ownership on products(forage and tree) to the leasehold groups butharvesting of crops at the presence and observationof researchers for data recording.
The action-research package contains IntegratedResearch, Development, Extension and Training(IRDET) which covers research with poor farmers atopen forestlands (without barbed wire fencing).Field staffs and farmers are trained in this aspect andlessons learned are replicated in other areas as well.
The results of action researches are obvious that theproject, on its initial three-year exploratory phase,initiated and tested the technologies and processesin four project districts. High level Mid-termEvaluation Mission (including representatives fromthe (FAO/IFAD/HMGN) evaluated the findings andvery interesting lessons were learnt from the action-researches. Now the concept of leasehold forestryfor poor and its technologies have been successfullyreplicated in ten hilly districts of Nepal. in total4268 hectares degraded forestlands have beenbrought under productive area that accrue a goodsource of income to the poor families chieflythrough improved animal rearing. of the ten speciestested, Stylo (Stylosanthes species) and molasses(Melinis minutiflora) are found the promisingspecies for eradicating forest killer (Eupatoriumodoratum) and improving soil. Other species thatstabilizes the degraded forestlands and also providesshort-term benefits to poor families are:broomgrass(Thysonaleana maxica), bamboo(Dendrocalamus), Arunodnaria and suitable fruittrees in the locality. Shrub species like Flemengia,sunhemp (Crotalaria juncea) are found suitableleguminous hedgerow forage species in therestoration of degraded forestlands.
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Task Force 3Sustainable ForestManagement
CoordinatorAlain FRANCUniversity of ForestryDépartement Mathématiques Appliquées et Informatique19, avenue du Maine, F-75732 Paris, Francefax: +33-1-45498827tel: +33-1-45498905e-mail: [email protected]
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Research Establishment andMaintenance of Access Racks' Network
in Relation to tending Operations ofYoung Sessile Oak Stands
Mihai-Liviu Daia, Ion I. Florescu and Norocel-ValeriuNicolescu
National Forest Administration Romsilva, B-dul Magheru31, 70164 Bucharest, Romania
Tel: 01- 659 20 20, Email: [email protected]
Sessile Oak (Quercus petraea (Mattuschka) Mill.) isone of the most valuable forest species in Romania,covering about 720,000 ha (3 per cent of the forestarea). Usually, it is naturally regenerated by usinggroup shelterwood system and young stands areextremely dense (tens of thousands of seedlings perhectare), pure and impenetrable.
Taking into account some of its main characteristics(e.g., high stand density; relative intolerance ofshade; danger of epicormic brancing; quite slowgrowth), the silvicultural models traditionallyapplied to the Romanian young sessile oak stands,before the first commercial thinning, includes lowmoderate intensity weedings and cleanings,reducing stand density down to about 80 per cent.
Based on research works carried out in differentsessile oak-based stands from the Tirgoviste Branchof the Romanian Forest Administration since 1992,a new approach is proposed and includes:
- opening and maintenance of access racks, 0.8 - 1.0m wide (seedling stage) up to 1.5-2.5 m wide(thicket stage), made at intervals also depending ondevelopment stage (between 6-12m in seedlingstage in 25-40 m in thicket stage);
- weedings and cleanings of various intensities (e.g.,moderate in highly dense stands, non-treated fromthe very beginning, with high slenderness indices(over 120-150), where stand density is reduceddown to about 85 per cent or moderate-high incontinuously treated stands, where stand density canbe reduced down to 80 or even 75 per cent).
Costing Study of ImplementingSelective Management System (SMS) for
an Integrated Timber Complex inPeninsular Malaysia
Ahmad Fauzi Puasa, Abdul Rahim Nik, Mohd AzmiMohamed Idris, Salleh Mat, Mohd Shahwaid Othman
and Awang Nor Abdul GhaaniForest Research Institute Malaysia, Techno-Economics
Division, Kepong, 52109 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
The current practice of forest management inPeninsular Malaysia is based on Selective
Management System (SMS) with the objectives ofoptimising the management objectives of economicand efficient timber harvest, sustainability of forestand minimum forest development cost, underprevailing conditions. The practice requires theselection of management regimes based oninventory data, which will be equitable to bothlogger and the government, as well as ensureecological balance and environment quality. Thispaper deliberates on the costs incurred inimplementing the current SMS practicesincorporating Malaysian Criteria & Indicator(MC&I) verses conventional SMS in an integratedtimber complex in Peninsular Malaysia. The actualcosts of forest management activities were collectedusing data from thirty-seven logging compartmentsfor the period 1992 to 1997. The cost of forestmanagement activities was computed for eightactivities: pre-felling inventory; tree marking;boundary delineation; road and log yardconstruction; harvesting; closing report; post fellinginventory; and silvicultural rehabilitation cost. Thebreakdown of the logging cost components wasreported and cost equations of each of this forestmanagement were estimated using linear regressionmodel. The cost function was estimated using theordinary least square technique. Results of the studyshow the cost of implementing the SMS varies bydifferent forest management activities. Timberharvesting and administration costs accounted forabout 62.37 percent of the total cost, either perhectare of area logged or per cubic meter of timberharvested. The average cost of timber harvestingand administration is estimated at RM2, 454.10 perhector (RM50.41 per cubic meter) and Rm1, 746.79per hectare (RM37.30 per cubic meter),respectively. The higher proportion of cost incurredby these two activities is due intensive forestmanagement activities during harvesting andplanning stags. Regression analysis indicates thatsuch factors as timber output, area of the distance offorest to the main road and altitude affect each costcomponent in a different manner. The depends onthe nature of forest management activities carriedout by the Concessionaire. If the loggingconcessionaires were to comply with the sustainableforest management guidelines using the MC&I,higher costs would be expected since manyadditional activities and specifications of forestmanagement activities will have to be followed bythe concessionaire. The implication is that theincremental cost would have significant effects onthe economics of timber harvesting and forestmanagement. Suggestions on appropriate policy toensure long term benefits of sustainable forestmanagement resulting from incremental cost of
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forest management activities is also highlighted inthe paper.
Elementos tecnicos para la producciónsostenible de recursos vegetales no
maderables del bosque tropicalDaniel Marmillod, Roger Villalobos, Gabriel Robles
CATIE, 7170 Turrialba, Costa RicaTel: (506) 556 0301, FAX: (506) 556 8417, Email:
Desde 1989 el Centro Agronómico Tropical deInvestigación y Enseñanza (CATIE) estudia laproblemática del aprovechamiento sostenible de losbienes del bosque diferentes a la madera, comoalternativas para el desarrollo. La experiencia deestos años de investigación se ha sistematizado enuna metodología para incorporar especies vegetalesen procesos de manejo forestal diversificado,entendido como un manejo técnico de laspoblaciones naturales y no como algunas prácticasextractivas tradicionales, carentes de indicadoressobre la capacidad y limitaciones productivas delrecurso. Esta metodología esta basada en estudiossobre plantas con diversos tipos de producto yhábitos de crecimiento.
El desarrollo de nuevos criterios de manejo en elbosque tropical debe ser paralelo alaprovechamiento, por lo cual la selección cuidadosay sistemática de las especies a incluir en ese procesoconstituye el primer paso del mismo, y se basa en sucapacidad de adaptarse a los objetivos últimos delplan de manejo. Considerando la gran gama decombinaciones de las especies no maderables encuanto a hábitos de crecimiento, órganos cosechadosy tipos de mercado, la definición clara del productoa cosechar en cada caso y sus normas de calidad esel segundo paso, sin el cual es imposible definir lasherramientas del trabajo posterior, solo debe salirdel bosque la biomasa que será aprovechada.
El tercer paso es la definición del procesoproductivo, esto incluye el conocimiento mínimo dela especie en cuanto a su hábito de crecimiento yrequisitos ambientales generales. Posteriormente sedesarrollan herramientas para caracterizar suestructura de población, es decir variables prácticasde medición que permitan diferenciar estados demadurez de los individuos, calificarlos comoproductivos o no productivos y estimar la cantidadde producto de cosecha por unidad de área. Lainformación que se obtiene a partir del diámetro a laaltura del pecho de los árboles maderables puedeobtenerse de otro tipo de variables en el caso deespecies no maderables, como número de cepas pormacolla o dimensiones de una hoja. El desarrollo deun sistema silvícola y plan de aprovechamiento para
cada especie en particular implica determinar larespuesta de la especie a diferentes condicionesambientales y tratamientos de manejo, así como sustasas de crecimiento y regeneración de la biomasade cosecha.
El cuarto paso se refiere a la integración de variasespecies dentro del proceso de aprovechamientointegral del bosque, es decir la concepción delsistema de manejo diversificado del bosque. Paraello se deben definir metodologías de inventariodiversificado que reduzcan los costos y determinarla compatibilidad o antagonismo entre especies enfunción de su respuesta a los tratamientos silvícolas.La experiencia de CATIE demuestra que esteproceso es práctico y factible de realizar, como unaforma de contribuir a la valoración y conservaciónsubsecuente de la biodiversidad en bosquestropicales.
Vers des Aménagements ForestiersVillageois de Concepcion Evolutive
Regine Peltier, S. Dan Baria, H. Djibo, S. Giraud, P.Montagne
CIRAD-Forêt et E.N.G.R.E.F., Montpellier, FranceEmail: Genevieve Reynaud [[email protected]]
En 1992, le projet Energie II a initié l'aménagementde plusieurs forêts du Sud-Niger au profit despopulations riveraines. Des groupements villageoisdenommés "Marchés Ruraux" (M.R.) ont été crééspour commercialiser le bois de feu.
Six années plus tard, en 1998, une évaluationtechnique et socio-économique de cesaménagements et des organisations villageoisesdenommées "Structures Locales de Gestions"(S.L.G.) a été réalisée.
Il s'avère que certaines S.L.G. ont fait preuve dedynamisme tant dans le domaine des réalisationssociales au profit du village que dans celui de lagestion des forêts villageoises. D'autres au contrairese sont rapidement essoufflées dès quel'encadrement du projet s'est retiré.
Les notions de quota, de parcellaire, de rotation,d'espèces protégées, de diamètre minimum et dehauteur de coupe ainsi que les techniques simples derégénération (paillage) ont été assimilées etréappropriées par la majorité des bûcherons.
On constate que les aménagements ne peuvent êtredurables que s'ils sont conçus de façon évolutiveafin de pouvoir s'adapter aux aléas climatiques(nécessité d'exploiter d'avantage à l'occasion desannées d'alimentation déficitaire) et aux nouvellesconnaissances acquises par l'encadrement ou par lesbûcherons eux-mêmes. La composition de la S.L.G.
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doit également être revue régulièrement.L'aménagement doit donc pouvoir être modifiélégèrement en cas de nécessité et, plusprofondément, à chaque rotation de coupe.
En général, lors de la création d'un M.R., lesvillageois sont méfiants par rapport àl'administration ou au projet et ne veulent s'imposerqu'un minimum de contraintes concernant la gestiondes forêts. Ce n'est qu'au bout de quelques années defonctionnement de la S.L.G. qu'une confiancemutuelle peut s'établir entre l'administration et cettestructure. Cette dernière peut alors imposer auxbûcherons des règles plus contraignantes. On peutainsi passer d'une gestion très simplifiée, à unaménagement préservant l'écosystème etgarantissant une production soutenue. L'Etat peutalors accorder des baisses importantes de taxes, surle bois provenant de ces forêts, pour encouragercette démarche patrimoniale. Il doit alors êtrevigilant sur le contrôle de son application réelle surle terrain.
On comprend donc que les états qui se sont engagésdans ce type de stratégie de gestion décentraliséedoivent tout faire pour que leurs fonctionnairesapportent un appui effectif aux structures locales degestion.
Mots clés: Aménagement Forestier, Gestionparticipative, Sylviculture, Niger, Décentralisation
Development of Criteria and Indicatorsfor Sustainable Management of Forest in
India: Bhopal-India ProcessRam Prasad, S. Raghavan, Bharati Joshi
Indian Institute of Forest Management, Nehru Nagar, POBox 357, 462003 Bhopal, MP, India
Tel: +91-755-775716, FAX: +91-755-772878, Email:[email protected]
Over a hundred years ago India adopted theprinciple of sustained timber yield managementfrom its forests. The other dimensions ofsustainability, though considered during thedevelopment of management plans for forestdivisions, were given lesser priority. However therewere major changes and some reversal of prioritiesin the National Forest Policy (1988). The mainfocus of forest management from now on was tomaintain environmental stability throughpreservation and restoration of ecological balanceand the conservation and enhancement of biologicaldiversity. Direction of forest management has to befocussed towards the increase in forest productivityand to meet the basic requirements of fuelwood,smallwood, fodder and non-timber forest produce ofthe rural and tribal people.
Sustainability in the Indian context is the dynamicand complex interaction of the existing social,economic and ecological conditions. Well being ofthe forest dependant communities along with thewell being of the forest health is the key to figuringout sustainability of India's forests. However, therewas no mechanism to monitor the progress ofachievement of sustainability as envisaged in the1988 Forest Policy.
A hierarchical framework of "Criteria andIndicators" (C&I) is being used in eight differentregional processes as part of the UNCEDsustainable forest management (SFM) initiative.Due to the unique nature of the socio-economic andforest conditions in India it was found that none ofthe earlier regional processes would be appropriateto assess sustainability in Indian conditions. ForSustainable forest management (SFM) of India'sforests, a separate set of C&I was designed toprovide cost-effective information for helping in thesustainable management of forests in conditions ofthe South Asia subcontinent. A set of eight criteriaand fifty-one indicators was developed under theBhopal-India process. Assessment of the sustainabledevelopment of India's forest and simultaneously theachievement of the forest policy principles is to bedone at the national level by using these C&Is.Though these indicators would not directly establishwhether management is sustainable or not, thedirection of change of indicators would provideinsights into the directions of change towardssustainable forest management. This would help indeveloping or revising policies and legislation andrefining national forestry programs.
The eight criteria identified in the Bhopal Indiaprocess were based on the principles enunciated inthe 1988 forest policy. These are the extent of forestand tree cover, forest ecosystem and vitality,biodiversity conservation and soil and waterconservation. and also other criteria like forestresource productivity, forest resource utilisation,social cultural and spiritual needs and policy, legaland institutional framework.
This paper deals with the method of evolution anddevelopment of each criterion and its associatedindicators and verifiers. The paper also discusses theresearch needs required for each criterion and thedevelopment of norms or standard for some verifiersand indicators. The applicability of these criteria andindicators at the regional or state level is discussedand the type of changes required to adapt these C&Iat the forest management unit level is alsodiscussed.
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Sustainability of remaining forestfragments in the Atlantic forest region
Maria das Gracias F. Reis, Geraldo G. Reis; Jose S.Almeida-Junior, Agostinho L. Souza; Joao A. A. Meira
NetoFederal University of Vicosa, Department of Forestry,
36571-000 Vicosa, BrazilTel: 55-031-8991209, FAX: 55-031-8992478, Email:
The floristic, successional stage and landscapecharacteristics were studied in four secondary forestfragments within the Atlantic Forest domain inMinas Gerais State, southeastern region of Brazil.Fragments 1 and 2 are elongated with an area of 12and 13 ha, respectively, and fragments 3 and 4tended to round with an area of 23 and 18 ha. Allfragments were mostly located on the upper part ofthe slope.
The point centered quarter method was used toobtain the data. Three approach levels were takeninto account to proceed analyses: height: 3 m andDBH: 5cm; 5 cm DBH: 10 cm; DBH 10 cm.
It was sampled 57 species in the fragment 1 and 77in the fragment 2, which are elongated, and 85 infragments 3 and 4, which tended to round.
The initial secondary species group predominated inall fragments, however, these fragments presentdifferent successional stages. The fragments 1(elongated) and 4 (round) exhibited the earliest andlatest successional stage, respectively. Lianas werepresent in all fragments and represent a seriousbarrier for natural regeneration, and imposed highmortality of trees.
The biodiversity was deeply depreciated in allfragments due to their small size, strong edgeeffects, low surround permeability (roads, crops,pastures) and high antropic pressure, specially forthe fragment 1. The fragment 1 presented 19.3 % ofspecies with a population smaller than 50individuals with height greater than 3 m. The valuesfor fragments 2, 3 and 4 were 14.2, 0.0 and 10.5 %,respectively. These results indicate that fragment 1presents the lowest sustainability, followed byfragment 2, both with elongated form and smallsize.
Ecosystem Management of Forests inRussia: Strategy of Forest Account
WorksValentin V. Strakhov, andrey N. Filipchuk
All- Russian Research and Information Centre for ForestResources, Novocheremushkinskaya STr. 117418,
Moscow 69 Moscow, RussiaTel: 7-095-332-5338, FAX: 7-095-331-0533, Email:
Economic reforms in Russian are conducted todelimit mechanisms employed in State managementand economic development. in all branches ofeconomy they are directed, first of all, on adecentralisation of management and of decision-making procedures. However, as regards the forestmanagement and system of forest accounting, firstof all, with inventory and planning, the mostpersistent inertia survives in preservingcentralisation of planning and financing regardlessof real needs of regions. Enlargement of approaches,completeness and depth in realisation of the wholecomplex of forest accounts needed.
The sustainable forest management is connected,first of all, to the economic activity. Transition toanew quality of human interrelations with forestsfrom "using" to "management", brings on the firstplan the interconnection of ecological, social andeconomic process. The economic aspect, thus,moves from the first to the last place in the system"Nature - Society - Economics". The estimationonly of timber resources concedes a place to acomplex estimation of forests as ecosystems.Therefore, traditional use of existing base ofknowledge on forests becomes insufficient forsustainable forest management.
Forest, these spatially distributed natural features,require a geographical approach (i.e. use of extractco-ordinates for the describing and updating data);that is especially important for ensuring sustainabledevelopment of land and forest uses. Besides, andinfluenced by economic activity and environmentalchanges, is necessary. It needs urgently to fixpriorities concerning depth completeness andtimeliness of the information on forest.
It is obvious that t the State level (federal andRegional) of forest management we should have thepossibility to assess truly key parameters of theforests' dynamics. This issue could be carried outwith a system of State Forest Inventory (SFI),budget-fed irrespective of the pattern of ownershipof forest parcels.
SFI should provide for collecting, transmitting,processing and analysing information on forest and
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for selective driving it to bodies of forestmanagement and of nature conservation, as well asto various users. The information is intended forduly revealing of changes in the forest state, theirestimation, prevention and elimination ofconsequences of negative processes. It will be alsoan practical opportunity to integrate data of Russianforests into world information system of world-wideforest resources assessment.
Accuracy and the reliability of the SFI willguarantee bodies of forest management againstmaking strategically faulty decisions, they willallow to reliably assess contribution of Russianforests into global processes of climatic changes andpreservation of a biological diversity.
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Task Force 4Management andConservation of ForestGene Resources
CoordinatorDr. Veikko KOSKIFinnish Forest Research InstituteDepartment of Forest EcologyMetsäntutkimuslaitos (Metla)PO Box 18, FIN-01301 Vantaa, Finlandfax: +358-9-85705711tel: +358-9-85705470e-mail: [email protected]
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Genetic Impacts of ForestFragmentation in Northwestern Costa
RicaJohnathan Cornelius, Timothy J. B. Boyle and Francis C.
YehTropical Agricultural Center for Research and Higher
Education, 7170 Turrialba, Costa Rica
Since the sixteenth century, grazing and agriculturehave transformed the landscape of the BagacesValley, northwestern Costa Rica; where once wasforest interrupted only by rivers, there remain onlyriparian and non-riparian forest patches embeddedin pastureland, sugar-cane and rice-fields. Asgenetic diversity of forest trees is thought toinfluence their population viability the geneticcharacteristics of fragment populations haveimportant implications for the conservation ofbiodiversity in such landscapes. We report on suchcharacteristics, concentrating on two species.Plumeria rubra (Apocynaceae) is a wind-dispersed,hawkmoth-pollinated pioneer. Within the studyzone, it is typically found on the exposed rock of themany river canyons, with outliers on similar, butnon-riparian, habitats. Anacardium excelsum(Anacardiaceae) is bat- and gravity-dispersed andpollinated by small-to-medium-sized insects. It isfound predominantly as the dominant species of thegallery forest, but also occurs as non-linear, discretefragments. We report on allozyme diversity,effective sizes and mating systems within fragmentpopulations of these contrasting species, and theirrelation to variables such as fragment size, shapeand degree of isolation. in our conclusions, weaddress the implications of our results forbiodiversity conservation.
Genetic Consequences of Intensive andAlternative Silvicultural Systems
Yousry A. El-Kassaby, Michael StoehrThe University of British Columbia, Department of
Forest Sciences, Faculty of Forestry, Vancouver, BC,Canada
Tel: (250) 381-1404 Local 230, FAX: (250) 381-0252,Email: [email protected]
The effects of various intensive silviculture optionssuch as tree improvement delivery systems andalternative silviculture methods such as partialcutting and commercial thinning on geneticdiversity are assessed. Intensive managementmethods of parent tree selection before and afterprogeny testing, genetics of seed orchards andseedling production are evaluated. Moreimportantly, seed orchard "after-effects" that areresulting from the common practice of moving seedorchard parents by several degrees of latitude from
their origin to locations that are suitable for seedproduction are assessed and reviewed. Alternativesilviculture systems such as seed tree, shelterwoodand patch cuts were compared to clear cut andcontrol old growth forest and the genetic quality ofnatural regeneration is determined. Finally,commercial thinning practices are evaluated andtheir impact on tree species' genetic diversity andthe understorey plant species community dynamicsare evaluated.
Impact of logging on tropical forestresources
K. Wickneswari, Ho, W.S.; Lee, C.T.Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, School of
Environmental and Natural Resource Sciences, Faculty ofScience and Technology, 4360015KM Bangi, Selangor,
Malaysia
Tropical forests are found in more than 80 countriesand account for about one third of the world's forestcover. Although deforestation occurs in all types oftropical forests ranging from lush rainforests to aridthorn woodlands, logging is more predominant inthe humid tropical forests. Annually more than 4.0million hectares of tropical rainforests are logged fortimber. The volume of timber extracted varies fromregion to region according to the stocking ofcommercially valuable stems. The damage to thestand is generally related to the number of stemsharvested per hectare and the nature of the loggingoperations. Logging not only has an impact on thetimber species being harvested but also on all othergoods and services provided by the forest viz, fuelfood, fodder, shade, shelter, environmentalstabilization, and amenity, cultural and spiritualvalues. Hence, a continuous assessment of damagesto the biotic and abiotic components due to loggingis important for sustainable management of forestsfor its goods and services. This paper will addressthe impact of logging on forest genetic resources,mainly the plants which form the base for most lifeforms.
Reduction in basal area of trees from different sizeclasses due to a single logging event can range from13-56% in tropical rainforests with large tees of lowabundant limber species being most affected.However, recruitment of seedlings and presence ofsaplings are generally high in immediately logged-over forests. A decrease in genetic diversity rangingfrom 5-23% has been detected in adult individualsof timber and non-timber species immediately afterlogging. An evaluation of young regenerants ofthree tree species immediately after loggingrevealed high genetic diversities. Pedigree analysisof regenerants in one species showed substantialcontribution of genes from neighbouring stands in
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the logged stand. No significant change in geneticdiversity has been observed for a number of plantspecies in regenerated forests after about 40-45years of logging. Implications of these and otherdemographic and genetic diversity changes on
harvesting practices and sustainable management oftropical forest genetic resources will be discussed inthis paper.
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Task Force 5Water and Forests
CoordinatorDr. Rob VERTESSYCooperative Research Centre for Catchment HydrologyCSIRO Land and WaterGPO Box 1666, Canberra ACT 2601, Australiafax: +61-6-2465845tel: +61-6-2465790e-mail: [email protected]
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Terrestrial Biosphere Models andForest-Atmosphere Interactions
Michael Raupach and Damian BarrettCSIRO Land and Water, Canberra, Australia
Tel: +61-2-6246 5848, Fax: +61-2-6246 5845, E-mail:[email protected]
The terrestrial biosphere, encompassing vegetationand the adjacent soil and atmosphere, is abiogeochemical crossroads. Here the fluxes ofwater, carbon, energy and nutrients all interact andinfluence one another, to an extent greater thanpractically anywhere else in the cycles of theseentities. To understand the transfer of any one entitythrough the terrestrial biosphere, say water, it isnecessary to recognise the relationships among thesecrucial fluxes. Why are they crucial? From thestandpoint of a catchment or forest hydrologist, thecycles of water and nutrients through vegetationexert crucial influences on vegetation growth,catchment water yield, and water quality. From anatmospheric standpoint, the energy and water fluxesat the earth's surface largely control atmosphericmotions and the global hydrological cycle. From thestandpoint of the biogeochemistry of the earthsystem, key fluxes through the terrestrial biosphereinclude those of chemically or radiatively activegases such as CO2, methane, N2O, volatile organiccarbon compounds (VOCs) and particulates.
Because of these diverse motivations, transportprocesses in terrestrial biosphere are important inmeteorology and climatology, plant physiology,agricultural science, ecology, remote sensingscience, and hydrology (including forest hydrologyas an important sub-discipline). However, thesedisciplines have developed views of essentially asingle set of processes which are surprisinglydistinct. When encapsulated in model form, theresulting descriptions are often known as terrestrialbiosphere models, or sometimes as SVATS (Soil-Vegetation-Atmosphere Transfer Schemes).Examples of extant terrestrial biosphere modelsinclude SiB, Century, Biomass, Biome-BGC,SCAM, WAVES, and others.
The task of this chapter is to review the current stateand development of terrestrial biosphere models,especially from the standpoint of forest hydrology,and to highlight some directions for futuredevelopment. A theme throughout is that there is agreat deal of convergent evolution betweenterrestrial biosphere models arising from differentparent disciplines. This is happening as a small partof a much larger movement towards a unified studyof the earth system, in which the interactionsbetween components (atmosphere, oceans, soils,
terrestrial water, ecosystems and humans) are theprimary focus of study rather than processes withinany of these components.
The chapter begins with a description of a terrestrialbiosphere model, followed by a description of thekey processes operating in the system. We thenconsider the integration of these processdescriptions to canopy scale, and introduce the newphenomena that need to be handled at this level ofintegration. These include nutrient distributions andlight use efficiency, gross and net primaryproductivity, and plant growth and resourceallocation. We describe new techniques forparameter estimation which move away from thetraditional view of a model as an a priori predictorfrom specified data on the meteorological variablesand process parameters. Finally, we demonstratehow the terrestrial biosphere (as a complex systemdescribed by a terrestrial biosphere model) exhibitssimple or at least understandable behaviours at large(canopy and greater) scales. These behavioursemerge from the negative feedbacks exhibited bythe system, and are manifested as quasi-equilibriumstates.
Forest Management Induced Leachingof Nitrogen from Temperate Forests
Karsten R. Rasmussen, Per GundersenDanish Forest and Landscape Research Institute,
Department of Forest Ecology, Hoersholm Kongevej 11,DK-2970 Hoersholm, Denmark
Tel: +45 4576 3200, FAX: +45 4576 3233, Email:[email protected]
Nitrogen leaching may potentially causeeutrophication of surface water and contaminationof ground water. Generally, water from forests is ofgood quality with a relative low concentration ofdissolved nitrogen. Water resources from forests arealready in use for drinking water purposes in severalregions and this use may increase in the future sinceother land use (agriculture industry and urban use)expose a high risk for contamination of ground andsurface waters. Afforestation on agricultural landtakes place, e.g. in Northern Europe, to improve thewater quality and to secure water resources in thefuture.
Temperate forests are generally considered nitrogenlimited and they are characterised by a very tightnitrogen cycle. Losses of nitrogen are low withbackground levels less than 0.3-0.5 mg N l-1 in soilwater. Often the losses mainly occur as organicnitrogen. However, low concentrations of nitrogenin seepage water from forests may not per se beexpected. Several investigations show
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concentrations of nitrate in the soil solution andstream water well above the background levels.
In parts of Europe and North America, air pollutionwith nitrogen compounds is the main reason forincreased nitrogen leaching. Inputs often above 10-20 kg N ha-1 yr-1 increase nitrogen concentrations infoliage and foliage litter, increase nitrogenmineralisation and thus accelerate the nitrogencycle. Recent advances in the understanding ofnitrogen cycling in forest and the effect of nitrogendeposition have identified the conditions wherethere is risk for nitrate leaching from mature forestsat least for coniferous forests. As an exampleconiferous sites with nitrogen concentrations inneedles above 1.7 mg g-1, total nitrogen input to soil(throughfall + litterfall nitrogen input) above 80 kgN ha-1 yr-1 and/or forest floor C/N ratio lower than25 were leaching nitrate if nitrogen deposition waselevated.
Other reasons for elevated nitrate leaching may berelated to forest management. The classicalexperiment at Hubbard Brook in the 1960s withclear-cut and herbicide treatment of a wholecatchment illustrated the potential vast impact onwater quality (leaching of 140 kg N ha-1 yr-1) atextreme forest disturbance.
Forest management induced leaching may resultfrom one or a combination of the following impactson the nitrogen cycle:
Increased input of nitrogen (fertilisation, planting ofN2 fixing trees)
Decreased biological uptake (clear-cut, thinning,weed control)
Increased net mineralisation (liming, soilpreparation, ditching (lowering of groundwater)).
Following the Hubbard Brook experiments forestresearch in Europe and North America havesubstantially increased the knowledge on impacts offorest management. Especially the impacts of clear-cut are well established demonstrating that the riskfor nitrogen losses is highest at nitrogen rich sites.High nitrogen losses have been demonstrated afterliming and ditching, as well as after planting ofconiferous species on former deciduous forest soils.
Afforestation on former agricultural land will be animportant silvicultural activity at least in Europeduring the next century. Modern agricultural soilsare characterised by high pH, high amounts ofnitrogen bound in organic matter with a C/N ratiooften below 10 and nitrogen mineralisationdominated by nitrification. in the first years afterafforestation nitrate leaching will occur until the
plant cover has developed. The question is how thenitrogen cycling will develop in the long-term onthese types of soils. Recent studies of forestsdeveloped on formerly cultivated soils have shownthat the soil still have nitrogen cyclingcharacteristics more comparable to cultivated soilsthan to soils with continuous forest cover even 100years after afforestation.
In the paper, findings on the impact of silviculturalmanagement on soil solution chemistry andfreshwater quality from the temperate forest regionswill be synthesized. The interaction betweenmanagement and air pollution nitrogen input will bediscussed as well as ways to reduce the impact ofsilviculture on water quality.
Effects of disturbance on nutrient exportfrom forested catchments in the humid
tropicsPaul Reddell, Michael J. Webb
CSIRO, Tropical Forest Research Centre, Atherton,Queensland, Australia
Site fertility affects the productivity, structure andfunctioning of tropical forests. Consequently, themaintenance of site fertility is an essentialbiophysical element in the sustainable utilization offorest resources in humid tropical landscapes.Disturbance events (both natural and man-induced)frequently cause the release or 'mobilisation' ofnutrients within the ecosystem and this may result inan increased potential for nutrient loss or 'leakage'out of the system. A predictive understanding of thelikely risks and levels of nutrient export fromecosystems and catchments associated withparticular forest disturbances in the humid tropics isthus critical to the sustainable long-termmanagement of both natural and plantation forestsin these landscapes.
In this review we consider:
- the pathways of potential nutrient loss fromtropical forest catchments;
- the features of disturbance events in natural andplantation forests that govern the extent of possiblenutrient export, and;
- some of the methodological problems involved inmeasuring nutrient export from catchments.
The importance of integrating research in nutrientdynamics, hydrology and plant ecology to addressissues of sustainable utilization of forest resourcesin the tropics is emphasised.
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Transpiration of Trees and shrubs andhydrological balance in water limited
environments under XerothermoMediterranean climate
Gabriel Schiller, Yehezkel Cohen and Shabtai CohenThe Volcani Center, Department of Agronomy andNatural Resources, Post Box # 6, 50250 Bet-Dagan,
IsraelTel: +972-3-9683678, FAX: +972-3-9669642, Email:
Studies were conducted in the late 60is and early70is on the hydrological balance of areas of variousvegetation types and cover, in Thermo-Mediterranean climatic conditions sensu Embergeret al. 1963. Interest in these studies resulted fromconcern about the hydrological balance of Israel'saquifers as influenced by large afforestation projectsand reclamation of devastated natural oak scrubformations. The studies failed to produce accuratedata due to calibration problems of the differentmethods used, and the extremely large spatialvariabilityin site conditions, which prevented thedetermination of the water storage capacity of thebedrock-soil complex.
One of the ways to determine the water balance offorest areas is to use physiological parameters of thevegetation itself as an indicator of the bedrock-soilcomplex water availability. of the severalparameters available, we selected the sap flowvelocity, i.e., transpiration measured by theimproved and calibrated heat pulse technique sensuCohen et al. (1981, 1989) in the tree's trunk.
Sup flow, (i.e., transpiration) was measuredcontinuously during several days on between 8 to 15dates during a year in eight or 16 trees, whosediameter distribution represent the diameterdistribution of all the trees growing in a plot situatedeither in Pinus halepensis, Quercus calliprinos, Q.ithaburensis, Phillyrea latifolia and Tamarixaphylla forests, (all native species); and inEucalyptus camaldulensis plantations, a introducedspecies. Results of these measurements were used toscale up the single tree water use to stand water useat a given environment.
The relationshipe between water availability(rainfall), and the estimated amount of water usedby the forest vegetation, should be regarded as amajore factor in forest management.
The hydrologic and growth response ofeucalypt forests to soil salinity and
waterlogging.Richard P. Silberstein, Robert Vertessy
CSIRO Land and Water, CRC for Catchment Hydrology,Canberra, Australia
Tel: +61-2-6246 5848, FAX: +61-2-6246 5845, Email:[email protected]
The response of trees to salt in the soil is a vexedproblem for land managers in much of southernAustralia. Clearing native woodland for agriculturehas resulted in dramatic increases in waterloggingand secondary salinisation which are arguably ourtwo greatest land management issues. Over the last10-15 years there has been a concerted effort bygovernment, and private groups and individuals, toput trees back on the land, and to do this in a waywhich complements rather than replaces existingagricultural systems. This "greening" of agriculturalareas is intended to ameliorate the hydrologicimbalance which has arisen from the forest clearing,and simultaneously provide an alternative crop forfarmers.
However, there is considerable debate over thelikely success of replanting much of the degradedland. Many of the commercial tree species aresensitive to salinity and waterlogging in their rootzone. These sensitivities are compounded by thedegradation of soil structure which has arisen fromcultivation and from the rise in, often saline,watertables. The structure of the clayey subsoils hasalso been degraded by changes in the soil waterelectrolyte mix which accompanied the risingwatertables.
Most of the native forest and woodland cleared inAustralia grew in regions with mean annual rainfallfrom 300 to 1100 mm. The trees adapted, andflourished, in conditions where small scale salinitylevels were very high, but the depth and extensionof their root systems appeared to allow them tocapture water where it was available. This strategyresulted in forests and woodlands which couldsurvive drought periods, as well as locallyconcentrated salt. This ability to exploit the soildepended on macropores from old root channels andpedological structures, features which may well behampered by the changes in soil structure. Thispaper reviews knowledge of how the native, largelyEucalyptus, forests of southern Australia respond tosoil salinity, soil water deficit, and waterloggingconditions, and implications these have forintegration of plantations with agriculture.
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Task Force 6Internet Resources
CoordinatorLauri VALSTAFinnish Forest Research InstituteMetsäntutkimuslaitos (Metla)Unioninkatu 40 A, FIN-00170 Helsinki, Finlandfax: +358-9-85705717tel: +358-9-85705242e-mail: [email protected]
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Web-based information resources forforestry research on the Internet
Alois KempfSwiss Federal Research Institute WSL, Zürcherstrasse
111, CH-8903 Birmensdorf, SwitzerlandEmail: [email protected]
Keywords: bibliography; reference information;document type; public access; knowledge exchange;resource discovery; electronic publishing
Internet applications have evolved in many waysduring recent years. One extraordinary developmentis the multiple use of World Wide Web features.This is especially true in the scientific context, butdevelopments in e-commerce, web-basedmessaging, cyber-administration, distance learningor in the entertainment industry are also shapinginterpersonal communication and businessprocesses. These changes can be observed in theforestry and wood sector as well as in the field offorest sciences, e.g., electronic publications,directory information on the Web, archives ofmailing lists, downloading of software, e-shopfacilities, document repositories, modellingprogrammes.
In fact, facing the mass of data available by anInternet address (URL) on the Web the user islooking for support in locating, filtering, selecting orsorting relevant information. The retrieval processhas become - in a paradoxical manner - simpler andmore complex at the same time. New search engines
may link very fast to a specific document or data setby their weighting mechanisms.
However, in other cases only the visit of anauthoritative source on the net will allow to searchfor the information needed in a database stored"locally" .
A few examples will illustrate the current situationwith respect to both fee-based services and publiclyaccessible data. As far as forestry research isconcerned one can expect quite a broad range ofbibliographic collections available through webinterfaces: library catalogues / web-OPAC,publisher's price lists, table of contents or citedreferences produced by research institutions andscholarly associations, personal homepages, etc.Additionally one can find other types of referenceinformation, i.e., current research descriptions,meta-data services, media collections (images, audiofiles, ...) or even basic data on patent literature.Terminological aids, classification schemes, virtuallibraries and other tools which facilitate a highquality profile of interaction within the scientificcommunity are increasingly in use on the Web.
IUFRO is also supporting these activities by its website and special projects, namely the Task ForceGFIS (Global Forest Information Service), theterminology clearinghouse SilvaVoc, itsbibliographies/catalogue, search engine, anddocuments in PDF. The Task Force on InternetResources has contributing in the past to setting up abasic information infrastructure in favour of theIUFRO research network.
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Task Force 7Global Forest InformationService
CoordinatorDr. Risto PÄIVINENEuropean Forest InstituteTorikatu 34 / PO Box 333, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finlandfax: +358-13-124393tel: +358-13-2520213e-mail: [email protected]
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The Role of Libraries and InformationCentres in the Global Forest Information
ServiceR. A. Mills
University of Oxford, Oxford Forestry Institute, SouthParks Road, OX1 3RB OXFORD, United Kingdom
Tel: +44 1865 275080, FAX: +44 1865 275074, Email:[email protected]
As the information society develops, traditionallibraries and information providers are changing:moving from physical 'places' to digital 'spaces'.Electronic resources supplement and in part replacelocal holdings, and formerly stand-alone services areincreasingly integrated into institution-wide,country-wide or regional facilities. Despite this,there remain huge distributed collections of printedmaterial, not available in electronic format but stillof high relevance to forest research; and eventhough electronic publishing is growing fast, so isprint: every year sees a further rise in the numbersof printed scientific journals published. Theprovision of access to non-electronic material is thusa key element of the Global Forest InformationService and this paper examines the role of librariesin meeting that challenge.
Libraries have traditionally had both a curatorial andan educational role, which applies as much toelectronic as to conventional resources. Digitalmaterial poses difficulties in organisation, long-termretention and preservation, just as other media do,and librarians have long experience in devisinginnovative solutions to these problems. Theprofession is devoted both to the preservation anddissemination of knowledge, working witheducators and researchers to facilitate its creation,sharing and use. The computer, and the internet inparticular, provide powerful tools in aiding thisprocess, but human input is required in all three ofits facets; machine based systems speed up itsoperation, but also create increasing demands forreliable, well-evaluated resources and high-qualityeducation in their use.
Libraries within the GFIS subject envelope can helpmeet these demands by:- locating, describing and classifying relevantresources in all formats- guiding local and remote users in their mostefficient use- providing rapid access to requested material bytraditional and electronic means- identifying non-electronic resources fordigitisation- organising the creation and maintenance of digitalarchives
- providing local access to electronic resourceswhich cannot be globally networked- developing inter-connected catalogues hyperlinkeddirectly to electronic resources- encouraging IT literacy and the development ofelectronic publishing- advising on copyright and other intellectualproperty issues- publicising GFIS in conjunction with local andregional networks of all sorts- offering a 'human face' for electronic systems, in afamiliar context and local language
This paper reviews how far these and relatedactivities have already progressed, what more can beimplemented with current technology and whichareas need further investment.
IUFRO Task Force Global ForestInformation Service (GFIS) for improving
access to information on forestsRisto Päivinen, Reynolds, J., Landis, E. Martin, M. Mills,
R., Petrokofsky, G., Richards, T., Saarikko, J. andSchuck, A.
European Forest Institute, Torikatu 34, FIN-80100Joensuu, Finland
Tel: +358.13.252.020, FAX: +358.13.124393, Email:[email protected]
Improving access to forest information was formallyrecognised as a priority by the United NationsConference on Environment and Development in1992 when it stated in Agenda 21, Chapter 40:"Countries and organisations should exploit variousinitiatives for electronic links to support informationsharing, to provide access to databases and otherinformation sources, to facilitate communication formeeting broader objectives, such as theimplementation of Agenda 21.TheIntergovernmental Panel on Forests in 1997"emphasised the need to review and improveinformation systems. Attention should be given toworld-wide access to information systems thatwould encourage effective implementation ofnational forest programmes, increased private-sectorinvestment efficient development and transfer ofappropriate technologies, and improved co-operation".
The aim of the Task Force on Global ForestInformation Service is to develop a strategy for, andto implement an Internet-based meta-data servicethat will allow co-ordinated world-wide access toforest information. The resulting service willprovide multiple benefits to information users andproviders including: faster access to key informationsources; and improved dissemination and quality offorest-related data and information.
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The service will provide access to both digital andnon-digital information on forest resources, forestpolicy, criteria and indicators for sustainable forestmanagement, research activities, and other timelyand relevant issues.
Technical & Design Options forImplementation
Tim Richards, Reynolds, J.Global Vegetation Monitoring Unit
Space Applications Institute, Joint Research Centre; TP641, Via E Fermi,1, I-21020 Ispra, Italy
Tel: +39-0332-789102, FAX: +39-0332-789960, Email:[email protected]
The mission of the Task Force on Global ForestInformation Service (GFIS) is to develop a strategyfor, and to implement, an Internet-based catalogueservice that will provide access to forest informationworld-wide. The resulting service will providemultiple benefits to information users and providersincluding faster access to information resources; andimproved dissemination and quality of forest-relateddata and information. The service will provideaccess to both digital and non-digital information onforest resources, forest policy, criteria and indicatorsfor sustainable forest management, researchactivities, and other timely and relevant topics.
This paper describes the technical options forimplementation of GFIS. By definition, GFISfacilitates information dissemination between forestinformation providers and the user community usingthe Internet. Users should be able to find theinformation they require in a simple and logicallyconsistent manner, and in such a way that ownershipand attribution of the information is respected.
GFIS has predecessors in other disciplines thanforestry, and there are many lessons to learn.Different design options are reviewed and one isproposed based on the model of a regional networkof 'information servers' which, taken together, forma single distributed catalogue (known as ametadatabase). With such an arrangement, usersmay search for 'metainformation' held in diverse anddisparate databases. Having located the informationrequired, they can then access the informationthrough appropriate hyperlinks. The informationserver concept enables peers to interact in a virtualcommunity.
The language used by information specialists differsfrom that used in other disciplines, includingforestry. This paper attempts to describe theimplementation of GFIS in language that bothcommunities can understand.
Mobilising and DisseminatingInformation on Forests to PromoteSustainable Management in Africa
Robert Szaro, Cobbinah, Joseph; Martin, P. Michael;David Langor
International Union of Forestry Research Organizations,Seckendorff-Gudent-Weg 8, A-1131 Vienna, Austria
Email: [email protected]
Keywords: Global Forest Information Service,Africa, Networking, Capacity building
Much of the groundwork for building capacity inAfrican countries that are signatories to the LoméConvention (ACP countries) has already beencompleted: contact has been made with the relevantinternational forest information providers, aprototype of the Global Forest Information Service(GFIS) has been launched on the Web, a Users'Needs Analysis has been carried out, andenthusiastic agreement in principle to the concept ofthe GFIS has been received from FAO, JRC, EFI,OFI, IUFRO, CIFOR and WFI. This Service willanswer needs highlighted by the Convention onBiological Diversity, the Intergovernmental Panelon Forests, the Convention on Climate Change andthe Forest Principles. Without access to goodinformation on forests, policy-makers, forestmanagers, economic planners and researchers frommany disciplines do not have a solid basis on whichto operate. This is particularly important in tropicalforest countries, where forest change is happeningmost rapidly. GFIS will serve the needs of a greatvariety of people, and ultimately lead to a betterunderstanding of the world's forests andmanagement impacts, both positive and negative.
With the approval of the 3 year project by theEuropean Commission DG VIII "Mobilizingscientific information on forests to promote theirsustainable management in ACP countries" theestablishment of five nodes within Africa began.These nodes will facilitate access to anddissemination of scientific and technical informationon forests and their utilization. The location of thesenodes are Western Africa (Ghana and Senegal),Eastern Africa (Kenya), Southern Africa(Zimbabwe), and Island Africa (Madagascar).
GFIS and its regional nodes will be a valuableinformation resource for decision-makers in tropicalforest countries, and others. in particular it willprovide forest information and generating integratedinformation products. The use of the World WideWeb is rapidly increasing in the developingcountries, and GFIS will give agencies in thosecountries an opportunity to use information that hasup to now only been accessible through inter-library
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loans or after long searches through foreigninstitutional facilities.
Two project staff members will be located at FAOin Rome and will have responsibility for developingthe interfaces for GFIS-AFRICA and for helping toset up equipment. Each node will be providedequipment, training, salary for an informationspecialist and operational costs for each of the fivenodes. As the project is implemented many newpartners will be included to help develop thenetwork.
The objectives are: (1) to improve access to reliablescientifically based information on forests in ACPcountries and their utilization, (2) to build capacityin selected regional research institutions to developand manage internet-based systems to facilitatebroad access to research information on forests inthe ACP countries, (3) to share experience and goodpractice in information management between ACPcountries, and (4) to enhance integration andcomparability between national data on foreststhroughout the ACP countries.
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Task Force 8Science/Policy Interface
CoordinatorDr. Richard GULDINUSDA Forest ServicePO Box 96090, Washington D.C. 20090-6090,United Statesfax: +1-202-2051530tel: +1-202-2051507e-mail: [email protected]
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How social values have affected forestpolicy
Jo Ellen Force, Greg FizzellUniversity of Idaho, Forest Resources, ID 83844
Moscow, USATel: 885-7311, Email: [email protected]
Social values are difficult to define and measure.Social scientists define social values as desired end-states that go beyond self to address the concerns ofthe larger society; they are not necessarily valuesheld by the majority of society. Two primaryindicators of social values are public opinion andpeople's behavior. The American people associate awide range of social values with our forests. Forestpolicies attempt to respond to and reflect a range ofsocial values. The challenge facing foresters is thedisconnect between public opinion which supportsincreased environmental protection and reducedforest commodity production (i.e., "what I say") andpeople's behavior which demands an increasedamount of forest products and services (i.e., "what Ido"). We suggest that public judgment, which goesbeyond public opinion and addresses takingresponsibility for the consequences of one'sbehavior, merits consideration. Foresters have animportant role to play in facilitating publicjudgments about our forest resources.
Keywords: Social values, public opinion, behavior,public judgment, forest policy
Qualitative Comparative Analysis:Opening New Paths for Social Science
Research in ForestryEeva Hellström, Kati Rantala
Finnish Forest Association, Salomonkatu 17 B, FIN-00100 Helsinki, Finland
Tel: +358-9-685 088 12, FAX: +358-9-68508820, Email:[email protected]
The internationalisation of the forestry dialogue andsubsequent internationalisation of forest policybrings about new challenges for social scienceresearch in forestry. One evident need is to increaseour understanding of similarities and differencesbetween cases through comparative studies at bothregional and global scale.
On the one hand, comprehensive social or policyresearch in forestry typically addresses a largenumber of economic, resource, social, policy andcultural aspects, not all of which are quantifiable sothat they could be analysed with quantitativemethodology. On the other hand, despite significantadvances in qualitative analysis software, mostqualitative methods are rarely used to do more than"pattern" analysis, that is discovering structural
patterns (e.g. groupings) in the data. Accordingly,many policy researchers face the problem of havingto compare extensive data, consisting of bothqualitative and quantitative elements, in a largenumbers of cases in a systematic way.
Qualitative Comparative Analysis (QCA) is acomparative tool which has been developed byCharles Ragin to bridge some of the gap betweenqualitative and quantitative analysis. The methoduses Boolean algebra for a systematic analysis ofsimilarities and differences across cases. It isgaining popularity in sociology and politicalscience, and it is also taking its first steps incomparative forest policy research. Therefore, it isreasonable to ask what this new tool is like. Whichtype of applications have most potential for socialscience research in forestry, and why?
QCA is mostly associated with causal terminologyand applications, which makes it unattractive tomany qualitative researchers. in our view, thegreatest problems related to QCA are not based onthe technique of the method but on the limited waysin which it has been applied. Although notcommonly recognised, the method has no in-builtpremises validating only causal applications.
This paper aims to provide an understanding ofQCA that would encourage experimentation withthe method in social science in forestry, regardingdifferent kinds of research, data and questionsasked. This is done by presenting an example of twodifferent types of non-causal approaches to QCA inresearch that compares environmental forestryconflicts during 1984-95 in seven cases (Finland,Sweden, Norway, France, Germany, Minnesota andthe Pacific Northwest region of the USA). The datafor the research consists of a total of 210 focusedinterviews conducted within these countries.
At first, the data is analysed with the "empiricaltypology" approach to QCA. in this approach, thevalue, policy, market and resource aspects ofenvironmental forestry conflicts are analysedseparately, with the aim to organise and condensethe data in a systematic way. The empiricaltypology approach is already known in literature butit has been used in very few applications with realdata. Secondly, the "hermeneutic" approach to QCAis used to explore the interface and to discoverinteractions between value, policy, market andresource aspects of environmental conflicts. Thisapplication to QCA has been developed withinresearch conducted by the authors of this paper.
These non-causal applications increase flexibility inthe use of QCA and, thus, greatly extend theapplicability of the method in comparative social
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research in forestry. It will also be demonstrated thatwhen applying QCA, different types of applicationsmay be combined in order to produce anunderstanding of the whole.
Changer de mode de régulation del'utilisation des ressources forestiere
MadagascarBruno Ramamonjisoa
Ecologie Politique et Biodiversite, C/o ESSA Forêts BP3044, 101 Antananarivo, Madagascar
FAX: 261 20 22 611 84, Email: [email protected]
Madagascar s'est doté d'une nouvelle politiqueforestière depuis 1995 avec l'appui méthodologiquedes universitaires. Cette politique pour sa mise enœuvre préconise plusieurs types de moyensstratégiques dont celui de la gestion participative, ledésengagement de l'Etat de la gestion opérationnelleet la réforme de l'administration forestière. Malgréque l’Etat et les bailleurs de fonds se sont engagéspour sa mise en œuvre, cette politique présente desdifficultés d’ordre méthodologiques. En effet, lasociété malgache vit avec un ancrage culturelprofond qui fait que les méthodologies découvertesailleurs rencontrent des problèmes d'adaptation pourleur utilisation dans des projets forestiersMalgaches. Ainsi, la gestion participative quiconstitue le moyen stratégique par excellence pourl'intégration des acteurs dans la préservation etl'exploitation de la ressource risque d'aboutir, dansle cas d'échec, à un résultat totalement contraire.C'est dans cette perspective que la recherche sur laformulation de méthodologie ayant rapport àl'élaboration de norme a été conduit depuis 1997 auniveau de la Division d'Enseignement et deRecherche en Economie et Politique forestières duDépartement Forêts de l'ESSA. Cette étude a pourbut de mettre à disposition des forestiers de terrainune méthodologie pour la mise en œuvre d'unegestion participative d'une ressource forestière.
La recherche est conduite sur plusieurs sitesmalgache correspondant à une typologie écologiquemais aussi culturelle notamment Mandraka etRanomafana (forêt dense humide et une populationd'agriculteur à niveau d'éducation élevé) sur lafalaise orientale Malgache, Morondava (forêt densesèche décidue et une population d'agriculteur-éleveur ) sur la Côte Ouest et Tampolo (forêt densehumide littorale et population d'agriculteuritinérant).
L'approche utilisée a été celle systémique quienglobe à la fois l'analyse des pratiques forestière(produits ligneux et non ligneux, défrichement) etdes systèmes de gestion de la ressource mais aussil'analyse du système de production, celle du système
de gestion publique et de la dynamique régionaleainsi que l'analyse du système de taxation forestière.
Au niveau des pratiques forestières les acteurs quijouent les rôles les plus importants sont pour laplupart des citadins pour ce qui concerne les filièresde produits ligneux. Ce sont ces dernières quireprésentent la plus importante chiffre d'affaire envaleur monétaire. Pour les produits non ligneux lescommunautés riveraines des ressources maîtrisent ladécision de coupe mais les filières ne représententqu'un chiffre d'affaire monétaire minime. Au niveaude ces pratiques, et quels que soient les sitesd'études, plus le chiffre d'affaire est important etplus le rôle des spéculateurs urbains devientprépondérant. Mais le système de gestion de laressource bute aussi sur des problèmes de gestiontechnique proprement dit tant au niveau del'exploitation (forte perte) qu'au niveau de lareconstitution de la ressource (manque de données).
Au niveau du système de gestion public lescommunautés sont assez différentes mais présententdes ressemblances notamment sur l'existence dedeux types de pouvoir: celui légal qui estconstamment contourné et celui coutumier qui estplus ou moins respectée. Les premières conclusionsont mis en évidence la nécessité de faire transiter parles droits coutumiers les règles de gestion.
Mais la durabilité de la gestion participative résideaussi dans la possibilité de répartir équitablemententre les acteurs la ressource monétaire mobilisableà partir des taxes forestières. En effet, les enjeuxmonétaires sont telles que les activités sources derevenus sont rapidement contrôlées par les acteursdominants que sont les spéculateurs urbains. Lesystème actuel de taxation transitant par des circuitsadministratifs trop classiques ne peut quedévelopper la pratique de la corruption et nécessiteun besoin de réarrangement institutionnel quidevrait suivre le processus de la décentralisation dupouvoir à Madagascar.
Mots clés: Politique forestière, gestioncommunautaire, fiscalité forestière, dynamiquerégionale
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Forestry in TransitionTamas Szedlak
Ministry of Agriculture, Bureau of Forestry (ErdészetiHivatal), Pf. 1, 1860 Budapest 55, Hungary
Tel: 36-1-301-4000, FAX: 36-1-301-46-78, Email:[email protected]
Keywords: political changes, countries in transition,sustainable forestry, public awareness, climatechange.
There are many changes and challenges for themankind at the end of the 20th century. The worldchanged dramatically during the last hundred yearswhile the population reached the 6 milliard peoples.There are substantial changes in natural, politicaland social environments and these components havea certain reaction one another. The political changespromote the natural awareness in the formersocialist countries. These countries are the"countries in transition", because the centrallyplanned system is replaced by market economyconditions. Since 1990 also the Forestry is adaptingto the market economy. Co-operative forests havebeen given back to their former private owners, andone part of the state forest have been privatisedtogether with some technical services and woodprocessing plants. These changes are coincidingwith the reorientation of the internationalenvironmental and forest policy. in accord with theincreasing public awareness in environmentalissues, the non-wood forest functions got higherpriority, and the sustainable forest management areinterpreted in a much wider context, where theconservation of biological diversity and sustainabledevelopment of the natural and human environmentare equally important criteria. While the other partof the world the area of the forests decreases, inEurope increases. The multifunctional forestryappears important in this densely populatedcontinent. The climatic and economic changes in thelast decade arose the importance of forests, forestscience and forest policy. The transition includes alarge scale changes in ownership in course ofprivatisation in the eastern part of Europe. Some ofthese countries have a large agricultural potential,while they want to join into the European Unionwhich has a great problem with his own agriculturalpolicy. The changes in environment and societywere the main elements which made the legislationto create new acts for forestry and environmentprotection in these transition countries. How can theforests serve the needs of the environmentprotection, rural development under the changingclimate, economy and society? There will be themain questions for the forestry, forest policy andforest science in the beginning of the next century.
Foreign Direct Investments of ForestIndustries in a Global Economy
Jussi Uusivuori and Susanna Laaksonen-CraigFinnish Forest Research Institute, Unioninkatu 40 A, FIN
00170 Helsinki, FinlandTel: +358-9-857051, FAX: +358 9 8570 5717, Email:
Even if forest industries have not been theforerunners in the globalization process, foreigndirect investment (FDI) by forest companies hasincreased rapidly in the 1990s. A central questionthen is to what extent FDI and traditional trade inthe forest sector are substitutes or complements toeach other, for example, does FDI lead to increasedor decreased exports from the home country in thelong-run. This paper explores the dynamicrelationship between foreign direct investment(FDI) and exports of forest industries with U.S.,Finnish and Swedish data. Both short-term andlong-term interrelationship between FDI and exportsis studied, as well as the short-term and long-termeffects of exchange rate movements and exchangerate variation.
The results show that for the U.S. forest industries,FDI generates more exports of forest products in thelong-run. in the case of the Finnish and Swedishforest industries, it is the exports that seem to drivethe investments abroad. The effects of exchange raterisk and movements on FDI were estimated to below in the case of the U.S. and Finnish forestindustries, and only moderate in the case of Swedishforest industries. The results suggest that initiativestoward freer trade may also spur increased FDI byforest industries.
Keywords: Globalization, trade, corporate strategies
Index
412
INDEX
Abrahamson, L.P., 9Acar, Halis Hulusi, 61, 243Achard, Frederic, 135Adnan, Mohammad, 100Agbeja, Busuyi Olasina, 283Aggarwal, Sudesh, 196Agyeman, Viktor, 64, 254Ahern, Frank, 115Ahmadov, Hukmatullo M., 356Ahmed, Miyan Rukunuddin,
235Akca, Alparslan, 109Alder, Denis, 96Alfaro, Rene, 303Ali, A. Emran, 213Alig, Ralph J., 119, 281Aloni, Roni, 149Alvarez, Nerida Puentes, 224Aly, Hussein Ibrahim
Mahmoud, 155Andersen, Finn G., 142Anshari, Gusti Z., 344Arola, Esa, 251Aruga, Kazuhiro, 76, 82Asan, Üal, 126Ashton, P. Mark S., 21Awang, Kamis, 205Ayan, Sezgin, 59Azlan, Nik Ismail, 238Bagyaraj, Joseph D., 291Bahamondez, Carlos, 136Baier, Peter, 289Bailleres, Henri, 177Balandier, Philippe, 14Balasundaran, M., 292Ballerini, Aldo, 172Banik, Ratan Lal, 101Barbour, Jamie, 206Batish, Daizy R., 317Beck, Roland L., 231Becker, Michel, 197Begus, Jurij, 232Bellefontaine, Ronald, 102Bergdahl, Dale R., 296, 305Bertrand, Alain, 246Bevers, Michael, 127Bhandari, Ananda, 246Bhargava, Alka, 52, 55Bhat, K. M., 177Bismarck, Friedrich von, 16Blada, Ioan, 40Blay, Dominic, 21Borazjani, Hamid, 166Borissoff, Vladimir A., 356
Braasch, Helen, 306Brack, Cris, 274Brand , Martha Andreia, 158Brandl, Helmut, 73Brassel, Peter, 122Bratovich, Ricardo Armando,
119Buford, Marilyn A., 83Bunza, Günther, 340Burns, Denver, 226Bustos, Oscar, 67Bytnerowicz, Andrzej, 312Caldentey, Juan, 357Campbell, Bruce, 198Carreno, Raol C., 340Cavendish, William, 198Chaix, Gilles, 53Chi, Yeong-Nain, 255Christy, Lawrence C., 263Chumachenko, Sergei I, 317Clancy, Karen M., 289Cleuren, Herwig, 3Cobbinah, Joe R., 303Conard, Susan G., 345Connor, M. A., 183Conroy, Czech, 238Cornelius, Johnathan, 391Corona, Piermaria, 110Cote, Marc André, 255Couto, Laercio, 226, 375Cown, David J., 149Dahlsten, D.L., 306Daia, Mihai-Liviu, 383Dallmeier, Francisco, 352Dambrine, Etienne, 36Darmawan, Wayan, 163Daugavietis, Mauris, 199Davis, Robert, 125Dawson, Bernard, 164Day, Keith, 304de Bello, N., 96de Gier, Alfred, 110, 123, 136de Hoop, Cornelius, 69de Jong, Wil, 198, 200de Souza, Amaury Paulo, 63,
69De Yoe, David, 227Devall, Margaret, 190Dey, R. K., 301Dhanda, R. S., 97Dralle, Kim, 111Duju, Alik, 150Duncan, Michael J., 9Duplain, Gordon, 164
Dupuy, Bernard, 3Dwyer, John, 270Eckelman, Carl, 173Edge, Philip, 219Edwards, David George W, 54Eid, Tron, 120, 128El-Kassaby, Yousry A., 391Ellatifi, Mohammed, 103Elliott, Stephen, 22El-Sayed, Abdelwahab B., 61Eriksson, Lennart, 74Eriksson, Ljusk Ola, 129Essmann, Hans, 259Evans, Hugh, 307Falck, Jan, 22, 65Fauzi Puasa, Ahmad, 383Feng, Fong Long, 111Ferro, Vito, 334Finegan, Bryan, 5, 323Finkeldey, Reiner, 40Foahom, Bernard, 304Folving, Sten, 137Force, Jo Ellen, 411Fox, Julian Christian, 89Frampton, E. Ruth, 308Franco, Fernando Silveira, 375Fredericksen, Todd S., 6Freer-Smith, Peter, 312Fui, Lim Hin, 247Fukuda, Kenji, 299Fukuyama, K., 362Fung, Paul, 181Futai, Kazuyoshi, 296Fuziah, Raja, 187Galiana, Antoine, 33, 34Gallardo Gallardo, E., 263Gallo, L., 43Gandaseca, Seca, 62Ganzon, Filmorie G., 334Garland, John J., 69Gautam, P. L., 200Gellerstedt, Sten, 70, 78Gertner, George, 122Giri, Chandra Prasad, 137Gnanaharan, Rajamoney, 185Goglia, D. Vlado, 71Goh, Doreen K. S., 34Golubeva, Elena, 17Gorozhankina, S. M., 317Göttle, Albert, 341, 342Green, Edwin J., 122Greene, J., 264Grönlund, Anders, 153, 165Grulke, M., 23
Index
413
Guan, Biing T., 123Guerard, N., 289Guimier, Daniel, 79Gürses, M. Kurtulus, 239Guttenberger, Helmut, 47Hailu, Michael, 220Hameed, Salwa M. Abdel, 112Hamzah, Khali Aziz, 138Hamzah, Mohd Zaki, 363Hannerz, Mats, 44Haque, M. S., 248Hardiyanto, Eko B., 4Harstela, Pertti, 74Harun, Ismail, 65, 97, 347Harun, Jalaluddin, 188Hasenauer, Hubert, 112Hasmadi Ismail, Mohd., 345Hecker, Markus, 79Hellström, Eeva, 236, 411Helms, John A., 223Herbst, Peter, 264Hetemäki, Lauri, 282Heuveldop, Jochen, 98, 228Hirai, Keizo, 328Hiroshima, Takayua, 129Ho, K. S., 159Hoeflich, Vitor Afonso, 227Hoen, Hans Fredrik, 120, 128Hogg, James N, 143Holm, Mikael, 138Holopainen, Markus, 275Hopmans, Peter, 335Horne, Paula, 251Hornsten, Lisa, 213Hossain, Mohammed Kamal,
24, 25Houpis, James L.J., 31Humble, Leland M., 308Hummel, Susan Stevens, 4Husain, Hamdan, 174Hussin, Yousif Ali, 114, 320,
346Hutacharern, Chaweewan, 301Hüttl, Reinhard F., 17Hytonen, Leena, 130Hyttinen, Pentti, 260Ibrahim, Shamsudin, 65, 347Ikeda, Takefumi, 299Inagaki, Yoshiyuki, 326Inoue, Makoto, 243Ishii, Katsuaki E., 35Isik, Fikret, 41Iwaoka, Masahiro, 76, 82Jakobsen, Christine H., 262Jandl, Robert, 369Janssen, Jules J.A., 186Jim, C.Y., 271Jinshan, Ye, 49Jöbstl, Hans A, 143Joeman, Bernadette, 220
Johnson, James E., 233Johnson, Marlin, 207Josue, James, 66Kahle, Hans-Peter, 93Kalafatovich, Susana, 340, 341Kamata, Naoto, 309Kammesheidt, Ludwig, 6Kamo, Koichi, 25, 27Kang, Kyu-Suk, 50Kangas, Jyrki, 131Kankam, Paul, 346Kanowski, Peter, 207Kant, Shashi, 143Kapos, Val, 376Karjalainen, Eeva, 216Kärnä, Jari, 193Kastenholz, Edgar, 71Kathirithamby-Wells,
Jeyanacar, 237Katigula, M. I. L., 249Kaudia, Alice A., 233Kawai, Shuichi, 172Kempf, Alois, 401Kennedy, P., 116Keogh, Raymond M., 178Khosla, Prem Kumar, 257Kiam, Thai See, 50Kilic, Ayben, 155Killmann, Wulf, 201Kim, Joong Myung, 216Kim, Kae-Hwan, 10Kiragu, Jane, 276Kirschbaum, Miko U.F., 94Kleinn, Christoph, 123, 134Kleinschmit, Jochen, 37Klemperer, David, 133Klimo, Emil, 327Klins, Ullrich, 265Knowles, James M., 14Koch, Barbara, 139Kofman, Pieter D., 80Koizumi, Toru, 123Kong, Hoi Why, 182Konstantinov, V. K., 112Korotkov, Alexander V., 126Koskela, Erkki, 284Kostrikin, V. A., 48Kovar, Pavel, 335Kraigher, Hojka, 44, 83Kremsa, Vladimir, 117Krpan, Ante P. B., 77Kukreti, M. C., 234Kulinich, Oleg A., 297Kumar, S. Shashi, 49Kuo, Yau-lun, 31Kurbanov, Eldar, 284Kusan, Vladimir, 140Laasasenaho, Jouko, 124, 275Lal, Piare, 35Lal, Ravindra B., 103
Laming, Peter B., 179Langström, Bo, 290Larsson, Tor-Bjorn, 353Lausti, Antrei, 133Le Master, Dennis C., 266Lee, Bryan, 313Lee, Don Koo, 10, 329, 376Lee, Shih-Hao, 153Legilisho-Kiyiapi, James, 256Leinonen, Timo Antero, 80Lexer, Manfred, 369Li, Bailian, 38, 41Li, Bosheng, 103Li, Huiqing, 104Li, Zhiyong, 252Liebhold, Andrew, 309Lim, S. C., 150Limin, Dai, 318Lindholm, Markus, 191Lipoglavsek, Marjan, 71, 72Liu, Jinlong, 229Löfström, Irja, 270Loipersberger, Anton, 342Lopes, Eduardo da Silva, 63Lopez Cornelio, David, 140,
358Lou, Yiping, 188Lujan Alvarez, Concepción,
105Lund, H. Gyde, 225Maas Bijker, Jelle B., 319Maddumba, Helen A., 229Magnussen, Christer, 297Maguire, Douglas A., 89Majumdar, Neil B., 202Malkov, Jakov V., 320Mandallaz, Daniel, 124Mander, Ülo, 18Maoyi, Fu, 186, 188Marmillod, Daniel, 384Martin, Yuri, 105Martinic, Ivan, 276Marzalina, M., 55Mathur, Vinod B., 221, 350Matsumoto, Mitsuo, 224Matyas, Csaba, 38McNabb, David H., 140Meidinger, E., 267Mendoza , Guillermo A., 141Menon, A. R. R., 347Millan, Jaime, 277Mills, R. A., 405Miner, Cynthia L., 230Mohan, Varadharaja, 59Mohanan, Choran, 294Moren, Tom, 160Muguga, Kefri, 257Munyanziza, Esron, 330Murray, John, 217Musa, Muhamed K., 320
Index
414
Musa, Samsudin, 347Muziol, Christoph, 127Nabuurs, Gert-Jan, 121Nair, K. K. N., 26Nair, K. S. S., 302Nakagawa, Yasunori, 336Nakashima, Kiyoshi, 42Nakashima, Tadashi, 358Natarajan, K., 293Nayyar, Harsh, 189Ndam, Nouhou, 98Negri, M., 113Nilsson, Kjell, 272Nitami, Toshio, 77Nketiah, K. S., 106Nobuchi, Todashi, 180Norisada, Mariko, 330Nuruddin, Ahmad Ainuddin,
321Nuutinen, Tuula, 121Nyrud, Anders Qvale, 165O'Hara, Kevin L., 90Ohtani, Yoshikazu, 364Oja, Johan, 153Ojeda Ojeda, Nelson Herno, 117Okai, Reynolds, 161Okuda, Toshinori, 364Okuyama, Takashi, 180Olsen, Carsten Smith, 244Ozanne, Lucie K., 208Paiva, Maria Rosa, 291Päivinen, Risto, 121, 405Palijon, Armando Manito, 273Palo, Matti, 245, 370Pandalai, R. C., 60Pandey, Deep Narayan, 278Park, Young-Goo, 322Parnuta, Gheorghe, 42Parrotta, John A., 18Parysow, Pablo, 90Pathania, M. S, 222Peltier, Regine, 384Penttinen, Markku, 75Percy, Kevin, 314Pérez Cordero, Luis D., 7Pernar, Nikola, 331Persson, Reidar, 239Peterson, George, 253Petrovici, Valeriu, 167Peyron, Jean-Luc, 144Philip, Elisabeth, 223Phillips, Paul, 91Phua, Mui How M., 132Picard, Olivier, 76Podgorski, Laurence, 162Pollini, Claudio, 378Pouta, Eija, 253Prasad, Ram, 202, 385Price, Colin, 145, 254Prietzel, Joerg, 94
Prins, Kees, 240Prüller, Renate, 226Puri, Sunil, 27Purohit, Mamta, 55Purwanto, Yohanes, 107Quintana, Yudel Garcia, 107Quirino, W., 184Radeloff, Volker C., 327Rahman, K. Abd., 365Rajvanshi, Asha, 351Ramamonjisoa, Bruno, 412Ramirez, Fernando Ortiz, 234Ramirez-Angulo, Hirma, 99Ramos Rodriguez, Marcos
Pedro, 348Rasmussen, Karsten R., 395Raupach, Michael, 395Razak, Mohd Abd. Ali, 15Rebugio, Lucrecio L., 258Reddell, Paul, 396Reed, Mark, 278Reis , Maria das Gracias F., 386Ressmann, Johannes, 81Retnowati, Eulis, 245, 258, 348Richards, Tim, 135, 406Robak, Ted E.W., 63Robek, Robert, 83Rodrigo, V. H. L., 100Roos, Anders, 11, 166Rowe, Lindsay, 337Roy, Shyamal K., 60Rozenberg, Philippe, 45Run-Peng, Wei, 43Rykunina, Irina, 162Sabogal, César, 8Saddler, John N., 371Saharjo, Bambang Hero, 349Sakai, Tetsuro, 261Salang, Andrew Tukau, 150Salleh, M. N., 46Salom, Scott, 310Samli, Zuraina, 359Sanabria, Ernesto O., 185Sano, Junji, 354Saracoglu, Nedim, 11Saranpää, Pekka, 151Sarkar, M., 172Sarrailh, Jean Michel, 379Sasaki, S., 66Sawaguchi, Isao, 67Scarascia-Mugnozza,
Giuseppe, 359Schaaf, Wolfgang, 19Schabel, Hans G., 302Schaitza, Erich Gomes, 175Schardt, Mathias, 117Scherr, Sara J., 8, 15Schiller, Gabriel, 397Schmithüsen, Franz, 267Schmoldt, D., 132
Sedjo, Roger A., 144Sehgal, R. N., 279Seitz, Rudi Arno, 8, 237Sekyere, Daniel, 175Sellers, Terry, 168Setiadi, Yadi, 20Setyawati, Titiek, 354Shakri Mat Seman, Ahmad,
169Shamsudin, Supiah, 337Sharma, Jyoti K., 294Sharma, Om. Prakas, 230Shehaghilo, I. M, 60Shiba, Masami, 68Shigesada, Nanako, 310Shin, Won Sop, 214Shiratori, Keiko, 214Shiva, Mahabir Prasad, 203Shparyk, Y. S., 322Shukla, A. N., 293Shulga, Galia, 169Shutov, I. V., 47Sidle, Roy C., 338Siegel, William C., 268Sievänen, Risto, 91Silberstein, Richard P., 397Simatupang, Maruli H., 170Singh, Adya P., 155Singh, Bijay Kumar, 379Sinha, Diwakar, 231Skoupy, Alois, 84Smith, Colin, 85Smith, Joyotee, 8, 323Smith, Robert, 194Solberg, Birger, 282Sougoufara, Bassirou, 108Spiecker, Heinrich, 95Stahl, Göran, 125Statz, Jochen, 204Sterba, Hubert, 92Stier, Jeffrey C., 268Stokes, Bryce J., 82, 83Strakhov, Valentin V., 386Straw, Nigel A., 305Su, Xianfeng, 324Su, Yu-Chang, 151Suharti, Sri, 249, 259, 262Sukhorukova, L. I., 360Sulaiman, Ani, 152Sundarapandian, S. M., 108Surep, Aswati, 114, 141Suryaprakash, S., 250Suyama, Masanori, 343Suzuki, Yasushi, 78Svensson, Johan, 328Syaufina, Lailan, 349Szaro, Robert, 406Szedlak, Tamas, 413Tabarsa, Taghi, 154Taira, Hideaki, 51
Index
415
Takahashi, Masamichi, 328,332
Takano, Tsutomu, 171Takenaka, Chisato, 324Tamm, Ülo, 32Tanaka, Nobuyuki, 27, 360Tang, R. C., 154Tang, Yanhong, 32Tangan, Fatima T., 109Tay, John, 145Taylor, Peter, 280Teissier du Cros, Eric, 39Teraoka, Yukio, 114Thibaut, Bernard, 177Toda, Hirohoto, 333Togashi, Katsumi, 300Toivonen, Ritva, 182Tomazello, Mario, 191Tosi, Vittorio, 378Tromborg, Erik, 285Tuck-Po, Lye, 242Tullus, Hardi, 12, 18Tunytsya, Yuriy Y., 285Turcani, Marek, 311
Tyrväinen, Liisa, 273Uusivuori, Jussi, 413Vaganov, E. A., 192Valentini, Riccardo, 361Valerio, Juvenal, 325Valkonen, Sauli, 93van Acker, Joris, 173, 187van Heerden, Schalk W., 295Verwijst, Theo, 13Vila, C., 64Virtanen, Jussi, 195Visschedijk, Peter A. M., 215Vlosky, Richard, 195Wagner, Stefan, 268Wanden, Stig, 325Wästerlund, Dianne Staal, 73Weaver, George W., 134Webster, John M., 298Weiss, Gerhard, 269Westphal, Joanne M., 218White, Robert H., 156Wickneswari, K., 391Wiedenhoeft, Alex C., 156Wimmer, Rupert, 193
Wingfield, Michael J., 295, 311Wisniewska, Emilia, 118Wong, A. H. H., 157Xuhe, Chen, 209Yahya, Noor Azlin, 218Yamane, Akiomi, 300Yamashita, Naoko, 27Yang, Baojun, 299Youngquist, John, 173Yusop, Zulkiflli, 338Zainal Abidin, Azman, 372Zainal, Ahmad bin Mat Isa, 343Zakaria, Mohamed, 351Zang, Daoqun, 33Zhang, Daowei, 270Zhang, Shougong, 13, 152Zheng, Yongqi, 46Zheng, Youbin, 314Zhongrong, Cao, 171Ziemer, Robert, 339Zingg, Andreas, 135Zuhaidi Yahya, Ahmad, 4Zyryanova, O. A., 355