THE Extra Credit Opportunity

• Attend this lecture & write a two-page

(Double spaced, 1” margins, 12 point

Times New Roman) reflection paper

(Due Tuesday, October 25th)

• Paper Should Address:• What did you learn from the lecture?

• What did you agree with?

• What did you disagree with and why?

• How does Dr. Cacioppo’s research inform

contemporary issues faced by our society?

• If you do this, I will add up to5% to

your final grade.• Late papers will not be accepted in any

circumstances.

• Papers that do not conform to the stated

style guidelines will receive no credit

• Only hard copies (i.e., paper copies) will be

accepted.

} “The system by which we retain information and

bring it to mind”

} A method of retaining the information and skills

we acquire through experience

What Is Memory?

1.Encoding

• Convertinginformationintoaformusableinmemory

2.Storage

• Retaininginformationinmemory

3.Retrieval

• Bringingstoredinformationtomind

Memory Processes

} Human memory can be represented as an

information processing system

§ Computer metaphor

} Memory does not exist in isolation!

§ “continuum of information processing”

• attention => sensation => perception => learning

=> memory => retrieval to facilitate the use of

stored information for…

§ Thinking, problem solving, language, intelligent behavior,

etc.

} Encoding refers to the process of acquiring

information and transferring it into memory.

§ The transformation of information from one form to

another

• Sensory systems transduce electromagnetic energy,

sound waves, pressure, and chemical stimulation

into action potentials that can be processed by the

nervous system.

} One important aspect of encoding is paying

attention to the incoming information!

Encoding

Storage

} The retention of information over time.

§ Storage of memories can last anywhere from

fractions of a second (sensory memory) to several

seconds (short-term and working memory) to

indefinitely (long-term memory).

} Important: Human memory does not generate

exact records.

§ Bits of information are stored separately, and are

later reconstructed into usable memories.

• Typically useful -- however errors and distortions can

occur!

Retrieval

} Recovery of stored information when it is needed

§ Storing information is no guarantee that you can

access it when you need it.

§ Common causes of retrieval failure:

• Interference (e.g., distraction)

• Stress

Types of Memory

} This section covers:

§ The stages of memory

§ Types of memory

} Information flows through a series of separate

stages of memory.

§ The model defines various memory storage areas

that differ in capacity and duration.

} The model also includes control processes

§ i.e., person’s active interventions that influence

memory.

• Rehersal

Atkinson-Shiffrin Model

Atkinson-Shiffrin Model

} Incoming information is first processed by the

sensory memory.

§ Holds enormous amounts of sensory data.

§ Data remain for very brief periods of time (e.g.,

second or less), or as long as the neural activity

produced by a sensation continues.

Sensory Memory

} Sensory input is transduced into several types of

representation.

§ Representation of a memory = a mental model of a

bit of information that exists even when the

information is no longer available.

• Visual codes are used for the temporary storage of

information about visual images.

• Haptic codes are used to process touch and other

body senses.

• Acoustic codes represent sound and words.

Sensory Memory

} Some information in the sensory memory will

move to the next stage, short-term memory

(STM), for further processing.

§ Importantly, no information will be processed in

short-term memory unless you pay attention to it!

} Like sensory memory, STM features different

types of representations.

§ E.g., Visual codes representing images

Short-Term Memory

} STM has remarkable limitations in duration.

§ Without additional processing, information in short-

term memory usually lasts 30 seconds at most

} What to do to prevent this loss of information?

§ Maintenance rehearsal

• Challenging -- during rehearsal, data are easily

displaced by new, incoming bits of data.

Short Term Memory: Limitations in Duration

} STM has severe limitations in capacity.

} The most famous estimate of STM capacity came

from George Miller in the 1950s.

§ He claimed that the “magic number” of memory

was 7 ± 2 (between 5–9 items).

} Nelson Cowan has arrived at a different

conclusion

§ He suggests that other researchers failed to

account for the strategies that participants were

using.

• True capacity is closer to 4 items

Short Term Memory: Limitations in Capacity

Chunking

} Trying to remember the following sequence of

letters:

FBIIRSCIAEPA

} The task is greatly simplified by “chunking” the

letters into meaningful batches of common

abbreviations—FBI IRS CIA EPA.

§ Now you have only 4 meaningful bits to remember

rather than 12

• Within the capacities of short-term memory.

} Store more information by increasing the

efficiency of short-term memory, as opposed to

increasing the overall capacity

Chunking

} Short-term memory and working memory differ in

two ways.

§ First, STM involves the passive storage of

information; WM involves an active manipulation of

information.

§ Second, STM is viewed as managing a single

process at a time; WM more complex, allowing

multiple processes to occur simultaneously.

Working Memory

Working Memory

} From research, we know we can manage 2 STM

tasks at the same time.

§ What types of information could be maintained

separately in STM?

} 4 components:

§ Central executive (parcels out the attention)

§ Phonological loop (responsible for verbal and auditory information)

§ Visuospatial sketch pad (holds visual and spatial information)

§ Episodic buffer (provides a mechanism for combining information

stored in long-term memory)

Working Memory

Long-Term Memory

} The final stage of memory processing is long-

term memory (LTM).

§ LTM has few limitations in either capacity or

duration.

} In most cases, information moves from ST/WM to

LTM through rehearsal. § Maintenance rehearsal -- repetition of the material

§ Elaborative rehearsal -- linking the new material to

things you already know.

An Experiment: The Serial Position Effect

Types of Long-Term Memory

} Declarative -- conscious memories vs.

Nondeclarative -- unconscious memories.

§ Easy to “declare,” or discuss verbally.

• AKA. explicit memories -- typically accessed in a

very conscious, direct, and effortful manner.

} Nondeclarative memories are difficult to

verbalize.

§ Affect our behavior in subconscious, indirect, and

effortless ways.

• AKA. implicit memories

Types of Long Term Memory

•Semantic memory contains your store of general

knowledge in the form of word meanings and facts.

•Episodic memory is a more personal account of

past experiences.

} We can distinguish between semantic and

episodic memories along four dimensions:

§ 1. The type of information processed

§ 2. The organization of the information in memory

§ 3. The source of the information

§ 4. The focus of the memory.

Declarative Memory

} SM contains general knowledge about the world,

whereas EM include more specific information

about events, objects, and people.

} SM is organized in memory according to

categories, while EM is organized as a timeline.

} SM originates from others or from repeated

experience; EM can result from a single,

personal experience.

} SM provides us with an objective understanding

of our world, whereas EM provides a reference

point for our subjective experience of the self.

Declarative Memory

} Blending semantic and episodic memories

characterizes autobiographical memories.

§ Having an autobiographical memory provides a

sense of continuity or consistency in the self.

§ Helps us build social bonds with others throughout

our lifespan.

Declarative Memory

Nondeclarative Memory

} Classical conditioning

} Procedural memory

} Priming

} Procedural memories -- memories for how to

carry out motor skills

§ i.e., how we carry out procedures.

§ Great advantage in automating our performance.

• Automaticity frees us to direct our limited capacities

for divided attention to other aspects of the task.

Non Declarative Memory

} Priming -- the change in our response to a

stimulus due to pre-exposure to related stimuli

§ Explains many everyday effects of familiarity.

§ Priming can influence our responses to stimuli that

are perceptually related (e.g., two visual stimuli, for

example) or conceptually related (e.g., two words

having a related meaning).

§ Example…

Non Declarative Memory

Priming Example

Priming Example

Organization of Long-Term Memory

} Connectionist theories

§ Spreading activation

} Schemas

} How are declarative memories organized in

LTM?

} Memories that share characteristics are more

closely linked than memories don’t.

§ “Connectionist” explanations

• Evolved to account for this tendency to group

memories that share overlapping features.

Organization of Long-Term Memory

} Connectionism -- view of the

mind as an interconnected

network made up of simpler

units.

} “The spreading activation model”

§ We do not organize concepts

according to strict hierarchies

§ Organizations in memory based

on personal experiences.

Organization of Long-Term Memory

} Schemas

§ Set of expectations about objects and situations

• “Scripts” => What happens when you go to a

restaurant?

} When we encounter new information, we attempt

to fit the new information into an existing schema.

§ Schema-consistent details are more likely to be

retained in LTM

§ Schema-inconsistent details are more likely to be

left out of LTM

Organization of Long-Term Memory

Retrieval: Cues

} Retrieval via cues:

§ Recognition vs. Recall

§ The encoding specificity

effect

} Any stimulus that helps you access target information.

§ Recognition tasks, (e.g., true-false binary decisions) are

relatively easy.

• Provide complete cues (the correct information is right on the

page in front of you).

• Judgment about how well the information matches what is

stored in memory.

§ Recall tasks require an additional step.

• Information must be retrieved from memory and then

recognized as correct.

• Fewer cues = more difficult.

Retrieval: Cues

} Why are cues helpful? Encoding specificity (ES).} In LTM, “other” information is encoded simultaneously

with our memories.

} Any “other” stimulus that was present and noticed during this

encoding process could serve as a cue for retrieving the

target memory.

Retrieval: Cues

} One example of ES: context-dependent memory:

} The more similar your retrieval circumstances are to

your encoding circumstances = more likely you are to

successfully retrieve the target memory.

} Why? Greater numbers of cues aid retrieval

} Among the bits of information that get encoded along

with target memories are features of the surrounding

environment

} Leading to context-dependent memory.

Retrieval: Cues

Forgetting

} This section covers:

§ Theories of forgetting

§ Improving memory

} Forgetting is a decrease in the ability to

remember a previously formed memory.

§ The key here is that to “forget,” a memory has to

have been formed in the first place.

• You can’t miss what you never had!

Forgetting

Theories of Forgetting

} Distribute practice

} Take tests

} Sleep

} Recite

} Use mnemonics

} Dedicate time

Improving Your Memory