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The Expressions of Spirituality Inventory
Test Development, Validation and Scoring Information
Douglas A. MacDonald (2000)
Conditions for Use of the Expressions of Spirituality Inventory
(1) Researchers should mail/email the test author at either of the addresses below to inform him of the intention to
use the test. In the letter or email, researchers should provide information on how the ESI will be used. The test
author will respond to all mailings/emails with an acknowledgment of receipt of the mail/email. In the case of
students, the letter or email should also provide the name and contact information of their research advisor.
(2) There is no cost associated with the use of the ESI and users are freely permitted to make as many copies of the
test as needed for research purposes. However, efforts should be exerted to track all copies made. Ideally, the user
should be able to store or destroy all copies at the completion of the research.
(3) The ESI is primarily a research tool and has not yet been validated for clinical applications. As a result, use of
the test for formal assessment or diagnostic purposes should be done with care and due consideration of the fact that
the instrument does not have formal norms.
(4) At the completion of research, users should provide the test author with a synopsis of the study. This synopsis
should include a description of participants, sample characteristics, and descriptive statistics for the ESI (e.g.,
descriptive statistics for scale scores including, means, standard deviations and score ranges). As well, the synopsis
should provide a discussion of the findings obtained in the research along with an overview as to how these findings
are interpreted relative to the research hypotheses examined. If the data and findings have been written up in a paper,
then a copy of completed research paper (or a link to where the paper can be found online) can be provided in lieu of
the synopsis.
(5) Copies of the ESI and related materials may be shared with interested parties for informational purposes only.
Any persons interested in using the ESI for research should be instructed to contact the test author at the address
below.
Questions, comments, and requests should be directed to the test author at the following address.
Douglas A. MacDonald, PhD
University of Detroit Mercy
4001 West McNichols Road
Detroit, Michigan 48221-3038
(313) 993-1094
Email: [email protected] or [email protected]
The Expressions of Spirituality Inventory
Test Development, Validation and Scoring Information
by Douglas A. MacDonald, PhD
The Expressions of Spirituality Inventory (ESI) is a 98 item paper-and-pencil self-report instrument that utilizes a
five-point response scale which is designed to measure a five dimensional descriptive model of the expressions of
spirituality. The five dimensions are Experiential/Phenomenological Dimension (EPD), Cognitive Orientation
Towards Spirituality (COS), Existential Well-Being (EWB), Paranormal Beliefs (PAR) and Religiousness (REL).
These dimensions may be seen as encompassing five broad and somewhat intercorrelated content areas which reflect
the expressive modalities of spirituality. That is, the dimensions may be understood as reflecting five different ways
in which spirituality may be expressed or communicated through both verbal and behavioral means. In its totality,
the ESI takes about 30 minutes to complete.
Motivation for the development of the ESI was derived from the observation that there are a large number of
measures of spiritual constructs (e.g., MacDonald, Kuentzel, & Friedman, 1999; MacDonald, LeClair, Holland,
Alter, & Friedman, 1995 have uncovered about 100 instruments), but no available means of organizing them into a
coherent picture of spirituality due to differences in the operationalization of the concept. Moreover, detailed
examination of many of the more commonly used measures (e.g., Mystical Experiences Scale- Hood, 1975; Spiritual
Well Being Scale- Paloutzian & Ellison, 1982) revealed that existing instruments are seriously limited in their
meaningfulness and usefulness due to problems in theory construction, test construction and/or marginal
psychometric validity. The ESI was created to provide a well designed and validated measure of spirituality which
incorporates existing psychometric conceptualizations into a coherent organizational framework on which to
understand and research the various elements of the construct.
Consistent with the basic stance of transpersonal psychology, the field of inquiry concerning non-ordinary states of
consciousness and their application to the enhancement of human growth and health, it is the position of the author
that spirituality cannot be wholly comprehended through psychometric methods or, more broadly, any scientific
method since, by its fundamental nature, it is trans-verbal and trans-conceptual (MacDonald et al., 1995). However,
reliable behavioral, psychological, physiological and social correlates or "expressions" may be used as a basis to
develop a systematic though ultimately incomplete science of spirituality. Nevertheless, it is important to emphasize
that spirituality cannot be reduced to its expressions. Stated differently, any expression or theory of spirituality
cannot be mistaken to adequately represent and elucidate the nature of spirituality as it is directly experienced and
lived. Consequently, any definition or theory of spirituality, scientific or otherwise, should not be reified (i.e.,
mistaken as reflecting "true" spirituality). Concepts may be seen as akin to maps-- though maps may be useful for
helping one navigate through a given terrain, the map is not the terrain and to mistake one for the other is erroneous.
The ESI was named as such in an effort to minimize the reification of spirituality as a construct by emphasizing that
it is a measure of the expressions of spirituality and not spirituality per se.
Construction of the Expressions of Spirituality Inventory
Construction of the ESI involved a two stage process. The first stage entailed devising an operationalizable
conception of spirituality which incorporates theories represented in existing spirituality assessment instruments.
The second involved the replication and extension of the findings of the first stage, as well as the formal
development and validation of the ESI. The subsequent discussion is structured to describe each stage
independently. The general results of these investigations can be found in MacDonald (1997, 2000). They are briefly
outlined below.
Stage One: Development of a Comprehensive Factor Model of Spirituality
The initial phase of the research involved examining the conceptual and empirical relatedness of existing measures
of spirituality and associated constructs in order to determine if there was a stable factor structure upon which to
further develop a model and measure of spirituality.
This was accomplished through a series of principal axis factor analyses using eleven measures of spirituality and
related constructs which were administered to 534 university undergraduates. The measures selected for use were
chosen because they were deemed to be representative measures of the spirituality test domain (as per MacDonald et
al, 1995). The instruments used included the Spirituality Assessment Scale (Howden, 1992), Index of Core Spiritual
Experience (Kass et al, 1991), Ego Grasping Orientation (Knoblauch & Falconer, 1986), Self Expansiveness Level
Form (Friedman, 1983), Spiritual Orientation Inventory (Elkins et al, 1988), Transpersonal Orientation to Learning
(Shapiro & Fitzgerald, 1989), Mystical Experiences Scale (Hood, 1975), Intrinsic Religious Motivation Scale
(Hoge, 1972), East-West Questionnaire (Gilgen & Cho, 1979), Peak Experiences Scale (Mathes et al, 1982), and the
Paranormal Beliefs Scale (Tobacyk & Milford, 1983). Detailed descriptions of each of these instruments can be
found in MacDonald et al (1995).
Factor analyses of the subscale and/or total scale scores of the above measures generated factor solutions consisting
of six stable factors. The factors were labelled as follows; Cognitive-Affective Orientation To Spirituality (CAOD),
Experiential-Phenomenological Dimension (EPD), Paranormal and Occult Beliefs (POB), Religiousness (REL),
Existential Well-Being (EWB), and Products of Spirituality (PS). All factor labels were generated based upon an
analysis of subscale and item content for those measures which contributed to each of the factors. It is important to
note that an additional replicated factor was found in analyses; made up of three of the subscales of the TOTL, this
dimension was labelled Styles/Techniques of Learning Involving the Manipulation of States of Consciousness.
Stage Two: Replication of the Factor Model and Development of the ESI
The second stage was a multi-tiered process which set out to replicate stage one factor analytic results and to
develop and validate a measure of the robust factors.
A) Replication of Stage One Factor Analytic Findings
Two approaches were utilized to determine the reliability of the factors obtained in stage one.
i) Factor Analysis of Marker Variables: The first approach involved examining the item level factor structure of a
tentative marker variable scale which was constructed using an empirical test development strategy with stage one
data. In particular, the scale, called the Supplementary Spirituality Scale (SSS), was made up of items from stage
one measures which met two selection criteria, namely: (a) the item must have belonged to a scale which robustly
contributed to a major factor found in stage one and (b) the item was observed to produce the highest corrected-
item-to-scale correlation for all items belonging to the same scale. This procedure resulted in the selection of 36
items which represented six factors; Cognitive-Affective Orientation To Spirituality, Experiential/
Phenomenological Dimension, Existential Well-Being, Paranormal and Occult Beliefs, Products of Spirituality, and
Religiousness.
Principal axis factor analyses of the SSS items (for which a five point response scale was used) utilizing data
obtained from 938 university students, generated a five factor solution. Examination of varimax rotated factor
loadings and relevant item content resulted in the following factor labels; Factor one- Experiential-
Phenomenological Dimension, factor two- Cognitive Orientation Toward Spirituality, factor three- Paranormal and
Occult Beliefs, factor four- Existential Well-Being, and factor five- Traditional (Judeo-Christian) Religious Beliefs.
ii) The second approach involved the item level factor analysis of a rationally constructed measure which was
designed to reflect the conceptual nature of the robust factors found in stage one, save the dimension labelled
Styles/Techniques of Learning which was excluded due to its limited theoretical significance.
An original item pool was constructed to reflect and extend upon the conceptual nature of the factors found in stage
one. Thereafter, the items were organized into a 218 item paper-and-pencil test which used a five point response
scale. The items were unequally divided across six dimensions designed to parallel stage one factors (i.e., Cognitive-
Affective Orientation To Spirituality, Experiential/Phenomenological Dimension, Existential Well-Being,
Paranormal and Occult Beliefs, Products of Spirituality, and Religiousness), and an additional dimension included to
explicitly address identification with the spiritual (i.e., spiritual identity).
Principal axis factor analyses of the 218 items using a sample of 938 university students and two quasi-randomly
determined subsamples of 469 students, generated stable five factor solutions. Examination of varimax rotated factor
loadings and relevant item content resulted in the following factor labels: Factor one- Cognitive Orientation
Towards Spirituality, factor two- Religiousness, factor three- Experiential/Phenomenological Dimension, factor
four- Paranormal Beliefs and factor five- Existential Well-Being. In all three analyses, items designed to assess
Products of Spirituality and Spiritual Identity consistently loaded on the factor identified as Cognitive Orientation
Towards Spirituality.
B) Development and Validation of the ESI
After utilizing the original 218 items for factor replication purposes, efforts were then directed to item selection for
the development of the Expressions of Spirituality Inventory (ESI). Given the results of the aforementioned item
factor analyses, the development of the instrument focussed on the five common factors observed. Thus, the
dimensions of Cognitive Orientation toward Spirituality (COS), Experiential/Phenomenological Dimension (EPD),
Existential Well-Being (EWB), Paranormal Beliefs (PAR), and Religiousness (REL) were examined in terms of
factorial stability (described below) and thereafter refined to reflect acceptable psychometric properties.
The development of the ESI involved a systematic item-selection procedure which relied upon the use of factor and
reliability analyses of both the entire instrument and the dimensions independently. In particular, items were retained
for use in the ESI if they met the following three criteria, namely the item (a) loaded .35 or higher on the expected
factor (e.g., an EWB item must have loaded on the factor identified as EWB) in analyses for the total and revised
item pools, (b) produced at least one stable and appreciable factor loading in item analyses for each dimension
separately, and (c) obtained a corrected item-to-scale correlation between .40 and .80 within its dimension.
At the completion of the instrument refinement, there remained 98 items. These items were submitted to a principal
axis factor analysis and their stability investigated through two independent split-sample analyses. All obtained
factors were varimax rotated. Factors corresponding to each of the five dimensions clearly emerged and all items
produced strong loadings on the expected dimensions.
In order to determine the degree of correlation between the factors, a final principal axis factor analysis was
completed in which the five factors were obliquely rotated.
The final solution accounted for 46.7% of the common score variance. Examination of the pattern matrix revealed
that the items for all dimensions produced strong loadings on their expected factors. Factor one was COS, factor two
PAR, factor three EPD, factor four EWB and factor five, REL. Only one item from REL obtained a significant
loading on more than one factor (besides loading on the REL factor, this item also loaded on the factor identified as
PAR).
Inspection of the structure matrix revealed that some items from COS, REL, and EPD demonstrated a fair degree of
overlap. Factor correlations were found to range from -.07 to .63 with a mean correlation of .16. Three correlations
were observed to be .25 or greater; COS and EPD (r= .39), COS and REL (r= .63) and PAR and EPD (r= .28). The
highest correlation for EWB was .08. When the correlation between COS and REL is eliminated from calculations
of the mean, the average correlation dropped to .11.
Constructs Assessed by the ESI
The five factors or dimensions which are represented in the ESI are described by MacDonald (2000, p. 187-88) as
follows:
Cognitive Orientation Toward Spirituality. This dimension pertains to the expressions of spirituality which are
cognitive-perceptual in nature. By cognitive-perceptual is meant beliefs, attitudes, and perceptions regarding the
nature and significance of spirituality as well as the perception of spirituality as having relevance and import for
personal functioning. This dimension does not overtly involve religiousness or the expression of beliefs through
religious means though it does appear to be highly related to them.
Experiential/Phenomenological Dimension of Spirituality. This dimension concerns the experiential expressions of
spirituality. Included within the rubric of "experiential" are experiences which are described as spiritual, religious,
mystical, peak, transcendental and transpersonal.
Existential Well-Being. This dimension involves the expressions of spirituality which may be seen to be associated
with a sense of positive existentiality. That is, it pertains to spirituality as expressed through a sense of meaning and
purpose for existence, and a perception of self as being competent and able to cope with the difficulties of life and
limitations of human existence.
Paranormal Beliefs. This dimension of the expressions of spirituality concerns belief in the paranormal. Based upon
the analyses completed, it appears to be mostly related to beliefs of paranormal phenomena of a psychological
nature (e.g., ESP, precognition, psychokinesis), though it is also composed of beliefs in witchcraft and spiritualism
(e.g., ghosts).
Religiousness. This dimension relates to the expression of spirituality through religious means. Based upon the
empirical findings, it appears to better reflect religiousness which is Western oriented (i.e., it is related to Judeo-
Christian forms of religious belief and practice). Moreover, it seems to focus on intrinsic as opposed to extrinsic
religiousness. This dimension includes not only beliefs and attitudes of a religious nature, but also behavior and
religious practice. Factor analytic work suggests that this dimension is highly related to the Cognitive Orientation
toward Spirituality dimension but is nonetheless conceptually unique.
Format of the ESI
The ESI is composed of 98 items of which 42 are reverse worded. The positive and reverse worded items are
organized in an alternating fashion throughout the test in order to counteract response bias. Two additional items are
added to the end of the instrument to serve as general indicators of face validity and response validity. Items were
constructed in such a manner so as to be short and devoid of esoteric or low-frequency words whenever possible. No
attempt was made to disguise the nature of item content; research has shown that transparent items tend to generate
more valid responses from participants, at least in volunteer populations (Costa & McCrae, 1992).
Scoring Instructions
1) Reverse item scores for reverse worded items using the following conversion key:
0=4 1=3 2=2 3=1 4=0
2) Sum the item responses for all items belonging to a dimension to arrive at the dimension scores
3) Items 99 and 100 are validity items and are not included in dimensional scores.
Cognitive Orientation toward Spirituality (COS)
Positive Items: 1, 11, 21, 31, 41, 50, 58, 65, 71, 76, 79, 81, 83, 85, 86, 87, 89, 91, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98
Reverse Worded Items: 6, 16, 26, 36, 46, 54, 62, 68, 74, 78, 80, 82, 84, 88, 90, 92
Experiential-Phenomenological Dimension (EPD)
Positive Items: 7, 17, 27, 37, 47, 51, 55, 59, 63, 66, 69, 72, 75, 77
Reverse Worded Items: 2, 12, 22, 32, 42
Existential Well-Being (EWB)
Positive Items: 5, 15
Reverse Worded Items: 10, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45
Paranormal Beliefs (PAR)
Positive Items: 9, 19, 29, 39, 49, 53, 61
Reverse Worded Items: 4, 14, 24, 34, 44, 57
Religiousness (REL)
Positive Items: 3, 13, 23, 33, 43, 56, 64, 67, 70
Reverse Worded Items: 8, 18, 28, 38, 48, 52, 60, 73
Psychometric Properties of the ESI
Reliability
Reliability analyses were completed and each of the five dimensions have been found to produce inter-item
reliability coefficients ranging from .85 for Existential Well-Being to .97 for Cognitive Orientation Towards
Spirituality. In addition, item-to-corrected-dimension total score correlations range from .40 to .80 for all items
(MacDonald, 1997, 2000). See Table 1 for descriptive statistics and scale reliability coefficients for each dimension.
Validity
Demographic Variables. Product-moment correlations were calculated between the ESI dimensions and age and sex
(N = 938). For age, statistically significant correlations were found with Cognitive Orientation Toward Spirituality
(r = .16, p<.001) and Experiential-Phenomenological Dimension (r = .10, p<.01). For sex, significant correlations
ranging from .08 to .19 were obtained for all ESI dimensions save Existential Well-Being. Given the magnitude of
correlations, it appears that the ESI is not unduly confounded by age or sex (MacDonald, 2000).
To determine if sex had an impact on the ESI factor structure, separate item-level analyses were completed for men
and women. Though some differences were seen in the final varimax rotated solutions, for both sexes, all five
factors were clearly represented (MacDonald, 2000).
Social Desirability. Product-moment correlations were calculated between the ESI dimensions and measures of
social desirability and response bias including the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale (Crowne & Marlowe,
1960), the Balanced Inventory of Desirable Responding (Paulhus, 1984, 1988), and the validity scales of the MMPI-
2. Findings indicated that all of the ESI dimensions except Existential Well-Being are marginally related to social
desirability and response bias scales. Existential Well-Being was observed to produce strong correlations with all
measures of social desirability and response bias. The patterning of correlations with Existential Well-Being
indicates that this dimension is positively related to self-deception and denial of personal difficulties and negatively
related to admission of psychological disturbance (MacDonald, 1997, 2000).
Factorial Validity. Results from principal axis factor analyses using both orthogonal and non-orthogonal rotation
(N=938) indicate that the 98 items robustly comprise the five dimensions. Orthogonal solutions tend to show
considerable overlap between the dimensions of Cognitive Orientation Toward Spirituality and Religiousness.
Obliquely rotated solutions have indicated that these dimensions share a fair degree of common variance but are
nonetheless unique factors (MacDonald, 2000).
Empirical Associates of the ESI Dimensions. For each of the ESI dimensions, there are a number of existing
instruments assessing spirituality and related constructs which were observed to be strongly related. In most
instances, these associates (witnessed in either factor analytic or correlational analyses) may be viewed as
supporting the construct validity (primarily convergent validity) of the ESI. Table 1 presents the correlations
between the ESI and a number of measures including the Assessment Schedule for Altered States of Consciousness
(van Quekelberghe et al, 1991), Ego Permissiveness Inventory (Taft, 1969), Death Transcendence Scale (Hood &
Morris, 1983; Vandecreek & Nye, 1993), Intrinsic-Extrinsic Religious Orientation Scale (Allport & Ross, 1967),
Spirituality Self-Assessment Scale (Whitfield, 1984; Corrington, 1989), Spiritual Well-Being Questionnaire
(Moberg, 1984), and the Spiritual Well-Being Scale (Ellison, 1983; Paloutzian & Ellison, 1982). In all cases, the
pattern of correlations between these measures and the ESI dimensions clearly reveals that theoretically similar
constructs produced the strongest correlations (MacDonald, 2000).
Predictive Validity. One-way ANOVAs were calculated across the ESI dimensions using religious affiliation groups
(Catholic, Other Christian, Other Religion and No Religion) and religious involvement groups (Involved, Not
Involved) created from the test development sample. Results indicated that for religious affiliation, persons reporting
No Religion produced significantly lower scores on the ESI dimensions of Cognitive Orientation Toward
Spirituality, Experiential-Phenomenological Dimension, and Religiousness. No meaningful pattern of statistically
significant score differences were observed between the other three religious affiliation groups. For religious
involvement, statistically significant findings were generated across all five ESI dimensions; for all dimensions
except Paranormal Beliefs, the Involved-in-Religion group produced the higher score (MacDonald, 2000).
In a similar vein, one-way ANOVAs were calculated for ESI dimensions as a function of reported spiritual
experience (Definitely Had Experience vs. Definitely Have Not Had Experience). Statistically significant results
were obtained for four of the five ESI dimensions (all except Existential Well-Being). In all instances, the group
comprised of persons having reported a spiritual experience obtained the higher score (MacDonald, 2000).
Relation of ESI to Other Psychological Constructs (updated 2003)
ESI and Personality
The relation of the ESI dimensions to two comprehensive models of personality was examined using subsamples
from the total sample used for test development (N = 938). The theories of personality consisted of the Five Factor
Model of personality as represented in the NEO Personality Inventory-Revised (NEO-PI-R; Costa & McCrae, 1992)
and the seven factor model of temperament and character as operationalized in the Temperament and Character
Inventory (TCI; Cloninger, et al, 1993).
ESI and NEO-PI-R. Analyses involving product-moment correlations and factor analysis were completed using the
ESI and NEO-PI-R (N = 595). With the exception of ESI Existential Well-Being, mild patterns of association were
observed between the ESI dimensions and the five domains of the NEO-PI-R. In particular, Religiousness and
Cognitive Orientation Towards Spirituality were most related to NEO-PI-R Agreeableness and Conscientiousness,
while Experiential-Phenomenological Dimension and Paranormal Beliefs were most appreciably associated to NEO-
PI-R Openness and, to a lesser extent, Extraversion. However, factor analyses using ESI item and dimension scores
indicated that all dimensions but Existential Well-Being formed factors independent of the NEO-PI-R domains. ESI
Existential Well-Being produced strong negative correlations with the NEO-PI-R Neuroticism domain. Moreover,
Existential Well-Being and Neuroticism were found to represent opposite ends of a bipolar factor produced in factor
analyses (MacDonald, 1997, 2000).
ESI and TCI. With a subsample of 376 undergraduate students, ESI Existential Well-Being was observed to produce
a strong negative correlation to Harm Avoidance and a strong positive correlation with Self-Directedness. The
remaining four ESI dimensions were found to appreciably correlate to TCI Self-Transcendence (MacDonald &
Holland, 2002a).
Boredom Proneness
The relation of the ESI dimensions to boredom proneness was examined via regression and correlational analysis
between the ESI and the Boredom Proneness Scale (Farmer & Sundberg, 1986). Existential Well-Being was
observed to be the only dimension of the ESI which strongly negatively predicted boredom proneness for both men
and women. For women only, Cognitive Orientation Toward Spirituality was also observed to serve as a significant
negative predictor (MacDonald & Holland, 2002b).
Complex-Partial Epileptic-like Signs
The relation of the ESI to self-reported temporal lobe-like signs was investigated through the calculation of
correlations between the ESI dimensions and the Complex-Partial Epileptic-like Signs Cluster of the Personal
Philosophy Inventory (Persinger & Makarec, 1987, 1993). Notable positive correlations were observed with ESI
Experiential-Phenomenological and Paranormal Beliefs dimensions (MacDonald & Holland, 2002c).
Psychopathology
The relation of the ESI dimensions to psychopathology was assessed through correlations with the Minnesota
Multiphasic Personality Inventory- 2 Clinical scales (N = 239). In general, each of the ESI dimensions was observed
to produce a different pattern of significant findings. ESI Cognitive Orientation Towards Spirituality did not obtain
any statistically significant results. ESI Existential Well-Being, on the other hand, was found to generate strong
negative correlations with all MMPI-2 clinical scales except Masculine-Feminine and Hypomania. ESI
Religiousness obtained a significant negative correlation with MMPI-2 Psychopathic Deviate. The ESI
Experiential/Phenomenological Dimension produced a significant negative correlation with MMPI-2 Social
Introversion. Lastly, ESI Paranormal Beliefs generated a significant positive correlation with MMPI-2 Paranoia
(MacDonald & Holland, 2003).
Multiple correlations between each of the ESI dimensions and all 10 of the MMPI-2 clinical scales generated
coefficients ranging from .28 (for COS) to .69 (for EWB) (MacDonald & Holland, 2003).
Table 1: Descriptive Statistics and Scale Reliabilities for ESI and Product-Moment Correlations Between ESI
Dimensions and Age, Sex and Measures of Social Desirability and Spirituality
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ESI Dimensions
_________________________________________
COS EPD EWB PAR REL _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Number of Items 40 19 9 13 17 Mean 89.86 33.32 21.86 26.91 41.08
Standard Deviation 29.12 12.60 6.20 10.49 14.65
Score Range 3-159 0-73 2-36 0-52 0-68 Alpha .97 .91 .85 .91 .94
Age .16 .10 .05 -.04 .05 Sexa .19 .08 -.01 .19 .16
Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale .15 .09 .25 .01 .18
Balanced Inventory of Desirable Responding
Total Score .14 .08 .27 .05 .11
Self Deceptive Enhancement .02 .06 .30 .05 .02
Impression Management .21 .07 .15 .02 .15
Assessment Schedule for Altered States of Consciousness
Extraordinary Mental Processes .12 .40 -.26 .21 -.04
Parapsychology, Own Experiences .18 .42 -.08 .35 .00 Parapsychology, Own View .11 .19 -.01 .72 -.04
Esoterics .06 .28 -.15 .44 -.07
Positive Mystic Experiences .39 .54 -.01 .13 .19 Negative Mystic Experiences .04 .26 -.39 .10 -.03
Imagination .26 .30 -.08 .24 .09
Dreams .16 .35 -.19 .27 .03 Dissociation .16 .36 -.19 .22 -.03
Hallucinations .23 .44 -.21 .30 .10
Hypersensitiveness .21 .41 -.12 .13 .05 Changed Feeling of Time/Space .12 .45 -.14 .21 .05
Change .41 .43 -.01 .11 .18
Death Transcendence Scale
Biosocial .08 .09 .03 .02 .07 Creative -.13 .01 -.13 .09 -.19
Mystical .29 .61 .06 .16 .13
Nature -.05 .04 .03 .15 -.08 Religious .59 .26 .06 .24 .56
Ego Permissiveness Inventory
Peak Experiences .38 .59 .02 .20 .14
Dissociated Experiences .23 .54 -.09 .27 .02 Acceptance of Fantasy .15 .30 -.09 .20 .02
Belief in the Supernatural .27 .48 -.01 .53 .02
Automatic Thought .10 .24 -.05 .18 -.05 Confidence in Cognitive Control -.15 -.16 .22 -.08 -.19
Cognitive Adaptability .06 .02 .17 .02 -.03
Playfulness vs. Endogenous Arousal -.10 -.04 .08 .09 -.16 Emotional Arousal from Social Sources -.03 .02 .03 .03 -.01
(Table Continues)
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ESI Dimensions _________________________________________
COS EPD EWB PAR REL
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Intrinsic-Extrinsic Religious Orientation Scale
Extrinsic-Original -.02 -.07 -.15 -.11 .05
Social Extrinsic .15 .05 .02 -.15 .24
Personal Extrinsic .33 .09 -.08 -.05 .36 Intrinsic-Original .72 .30 -.05 -.04 .79
Intrinsic-Revised .64 .29 -.11 -.04 .71
Spirituality Self-Assessment Scale .43 .29 .50 .14 .21
Spiritual Well Being Questionnaire
Christian Faith .60 .17 .01 -.06 .83
Elitism -.31 -.06 -.12 -.10 -.17 Optimism .08 .14 .04 .16 .06
Personal Piety .64 .22 .02 -.15 .81
Religious Cynicism -.48 -.02 -.03 .04 -.64 Self Satisfaction .39 .16 .65 .05 .23
Subjective Spiritual Well-Being .66 .22 .20 .05 .55
Total Score .66 .25 .12 -.04 .79
Spiritual Well-Being Scale
Existential Well-Being .33 .12 .62 .01 .27
Religious Well-Being .66 .26 .03 -.04 .88 Total Score .64 .25 .32 -.02 .78
Supplementary Spirituality Scale
Cognitive/Affective Orientation to Spirituality .68 .42 .04 .23 .51
Experiential/Phenomenological Dimension .50 .85 .00 .28 .31 Existential Well-Being .41 .38 .28 .28 .22
Paranormal and Occult Beliefs .12 .33 -.04 .87 -.02
Products of Spirituality .78 .59 .03 .15 .65 Religiousness Dimension .66 .32 .02 .05 .84
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Note. aMale coded 0 and female coded 1 for analyses; For age, sex and SSS N = 938, for Marlowe-Crowne n = 555, for Balanced Inventory of
Desirable Responding n = 195, for all other measures except IEROS n = 296; For IEROS n = 376. For the Expressions of Spirituality Inventory
(ESI) COS = Cognitive Orientation toward Spirituality; EPD = Experiential/ Phenomenological Dimension; EWB = Existential Well-Being;
PAR = Paranormal Beliefs; REL = Religiousness Dimension. Table adapted from MacDonald (2000).
Description of Test Development and Validation Sample
SAMPLE CHARACTERISTICS
Total N 938
Age
Mean 20.95 years
Standard Deviation 4.32 years
Range 17-51years
Sex
Males 263 (28.0%)
Females 675 (72.0%)
Religious Affiliation
Catholic 408 (43.5%)
Other Christian 312 (33.3%)
Judaism 6 (0.6%)
Islam (Muslim) 26 (2.8%)
Hinduism 11 (1.2%)
Buddhism 9 (1.0%)
Other Religion 57 (6.1%)
No Religion 109 (11.6%)
Are you currently active in your religion?
No 518 (55.2%)
Yes 413 (44.0%)
No Information 7 (0.7%)
Have you ever had an experience which
you would call spiritual?
No 280 (29.9%)
Do not know 345 (36.8%)
Yes 313 (33.4%)
TOTAL SAMPLE N = 938
COS EPD EWB PAR REL
Mean 89.86 33.32 21.86 26.91 41.08
S.D. 29.12 12.60 6.20 10.49 14.65
Observed 3-159 0-73 2-36 0-52 0-68
Range
Possible 0-160 0-76 0-36 0-52 0-68
Range
----------------------------------------------------------------------
2+ S.D. 0-31 0-8 0-9 0-5 0-11
Below Mean
1+ S.D. 32-61 9-20 10-15 6-16 12-26
Below Mean
Within 62-89 21-33 16-21 17-26 27-41
1 S.D. of
Mean-Lower
Within 90-118 34-45 22-28 27-37 42-55
1 S.D. of
Mean-Upper
1+ S.D. 119-147 46-58 29-34 38-47 56-68
Above Mean
2+ S.D. 148-160 59-76 35-36 47-52 ------
Above Mean
References
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Expressions of Spirituality Inventory
Douglas A. MacDonald 1997
This is a questionnaire which concerns your experiences, attitudes, beliefs and lifestyle
practices pertaining to spirituality. Below are several statements. Read each statement
carefully. Using the five point scale described below, rate the extent to which you agree
with each statement as it applies to you and put your response in the space provided. There
are no right or wrong answers. Please respond to every statement and respond as honestly
as possible.
0------------------1------------------2------------------3------------------4
Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly
Disagree Agree
_____ 1. Discovering the meaning and
purpose of life has to include an
examination of one's spirituality
_____ 2. I am unable to recall any
experience in which I felt
connected to the world
_____ 3. I believe that God or a Higher
Power is responsible for my
existence
_____ 4. I do not believe it is possible to
predict the future
_____ 5. I am a happy person
_____ 6. Spirituality has not had any
effect on my ability to cope with
stress
_____ 7. I have had an experience which
revealed a transcendent aspect to
reality
_____ 8. I seldom, if ever, pray
_____ 9. I believe in reincarnation
_____ 10. Much of what I do in life seems
strained
_____ 11. I consider the spiritual
consequences of a choice when
making a decision
_____ 12. I cannot remember ever having
had an experience in which I
seemed to become part of a force
or power greater than myself
_____ 13. I believe that going to religious
services is important
_____ 14. Witchcraft is pure and simple
nonsense
_____ 15. I seldom feel tense about things
_____ 16. Spirituality has not had any
effect on my physical health
_____ 17. I have had an experience in
which I seemed to transcend space
and time
_____ 18. I have made no efforts to
include religious practices as part
of my life
_____ 19. It is possible to communicate
with the dead
_____ 20. It always seems that I am doing
things wrong
Expressions of Spirituality Inventory- Page Two of Five
0------------------1------------------2------------------3------------------4
Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly
Disagree Agree
_____ 21. Spiritual orientation is
essential for a well ordered life
_____ 22. I have never had a mystical
experience
_____ 23. I see God or a Higher Power
present in all the things I do
_____ 24. I do not believe in spirits or
ghosts
_____ 25. My life is often troublesome
_____ 26. Spirituality has no validity
_____ 27. I have had an experience
during which my sense of separate
identity seemed to dissolve into
something greater than itself
_____ 28. I do not see a Higher Power
having any influence over my life
_____ 29. I think psychokinesis, or
moving objects with one's mind, is
possible
_____ 30. I make poor decisions
_____ 31. I define who I am in large part
based on my spirituality
_____ 32. I have not had an experience
during which things seemed holy
or divine
_____ 33. I believe that I have a soul
which will continue to exist after I
die
_____ 34. I am skeptical about people
who say they have left their bodies
_____ 35. I am not comfortable with
myself
_____ 36. Spirituality has not had any
impact on my body's energy level
_____ 37. I have had an experience
during which the nature of reality
became apparent to me
_____ 38. Religious beliefs are of no
concern to me
_____ 39. Dreams can sometimes be used
to predict the future
_____ 40. I often feel tense
_____ 41. I am more aware of my lifestyle
choices because of my spirituality
_____ 42. I have never had an experience
which seemed to reveal the
transcendent elements of reality
_____ 43. I feel a sense of closeness to a
higher power
_____ 44. A person's thoughts cannot
move an object
_____ 45. I am an unhappy person
_____ 46. Material prosperity is more
important than spiritual growth
Expressions of Spirituality Inventory- Page Three of Five
0------------------1------------------2------------------3------------------4
Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly
Disagree Agree
_____ 47. I have had an experience in
which the world seemed perfect
_____ 48. Religious services are of little
value
_____ 49. I believe witchcraft is real
_____ 50. Spirituality has improved the
quality of my work performance
_____ 51. I have had an experience which
I could not put into words
_____ 52. I have a difficult time
understanding how a person could
have a relationship with God or a
Higher Power
_____ 53. It is possible to predict the
future
_____ 54. Spirituality has not had an
impact on my ability to handle
difficult social situations
_____ 55. I have had a spiritual
experience
_____ 56. I see myself as a religiously
oriented person
_____ 57. No one can communicate with
the dead
_____ 58. Spirituality is an important
part of who I am as a person
_____ 59. I have had an experience in
which I seemed to go beyond my
normal everyday sense of self
_____ 60. I do not feel a sense of
connection with God or a Higher
Power
_____ 61. It is possible to leave your body
_____ 62. A person can have a well
ordered life without regard to
spiritual concerns
_____ 63. I have had an experience in
which all things seemed to be parts
of a larger whole
_____ 64. I attend religious services
regularly
_____ 65. Spirituality has enabled me to
relate to others better
_____ 66. I have had an experience in
which I seemed to be deeply
connected to everything
_____ 67. My spiritual work has been
oriented at increasing my
appreciation of my relationship to
a Higher Power
_____ 68. Spirituality has little relevance
to a person's overall quality of life
_____ 69. I have had a mystical
experience
Expressions of Spirituality Inventory- Page Four of Five
0------------------1------------------2------------------3------------------4
Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly
Disagree Agree
_____ 70. I practice some form of prayer
_____ 71. Spirituality has enhanced my
energy level and physical stamina
_____ 72. I have had an experience in
which the entire world seemed
holy
_____ 73. I do not feel that God or a
Higher Power is present in all the
things I do
_____ 74. I seldom consider the spiritual
consequences of a decision I am
making
_____ 75. I have had an experience in
which I seemed to merge with a
power or force greater than myself
_____ 76. A spiritual life has many
rewards
_____ 77. I have had an experience in
which all things seemed divine
_____ 78. Spirituality has had little
impact on my ability to relate to
others
_____ 79. Life becomes more enriched
when one embraces one's own
spirituality
_____ 80. The functioning of my body
has not been changed by my
spirituality
_____ 81. I am a spiritual person
_____ 82. Spirituality does not make a
difference
_____ 83. My ability to handle conflictual
social situations has improved due
to my spirituality
_____ 84. One does not have to be
spiritual in order to gain meaning
and purpose in life
_____ 85. I try to consider all elements of
a problem, including its spiritual
aspects, before I make a decision
_____ 86. Spirituality gives life focus and
direction
_____ 87. Spiritual practices have
improved my ability to relax
physically
_____ 88. Spirituality has done nothing
to improve how I feel about myself
_____ 89. All elements of experience,
including the spiritual elements,
are equally important in giving a
person valid knowledge about the
world
_____ 90. There is nothing to be gained
from spirituality
_____ 91. I have found that my physical
health has improved due to my
spirituality
_____ 92. Spirituality has nothing to do
with who I am as a person
Expressions of Spirituality Inventory- Page Five of five
0------------------1------------------2------------------3------------------4
Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly
Disagree Agree
_____ 93. I believe that attention to one's
spiritual growth is important
_____ 94. My spirituality has enhanced
the health of my body
_____ 95. Spirituality is an essential part
of human existence
_____ 96. My life has benefited from my
spirituality
_____ 97. I have found spirituality to
increase my sense of comfort in
social situations
_____ 98. My body's ability to cope with
stress has been increased by my
spirituality
_____ 99. This questionnaire appears to
be measuring spirituality
_____ 100. I responded to all statements
honestly
Appendix A- Revision of the ESI
Based upon feedback from research participants as well as from other investigators, the 98-item version of the ESI
appears to have some problems which detract from its use. In particular, it has been observed and/or reported that (a)
some populations (specifically elderly populations) appear to have difficulty completing the entire ESI due to its
length, (b) some respondents complain of item repetitiveness (i.e., many of the items appear to be asking for the
same information), and (c) reverse/negatively worded items present difficulties for some participants (especially
those for whom English is not the first language).
In response to this information, the author critically examined the ESI item content and revisited the original test
development data sets and, in the end, generated a revised version of the instrument which seems to address the cited
shortcomings of the 98-item version.
The revised ESI is identical to the 98-item version in terms of the general instructions, the use of a five-point
response scale, and the inclusion of two general validity items. Conversely, the ESI-Revised differs from the longer
version of the test in three ways:
1) The revised ESI consists of 30 items, six for each dimension.
2) Items were selected from the 98-item version of the ESI based upon both uniqueness of content as well as
evidence of satisfactory psychometric properties. As such, any appearance of item repetition is virtually eliminated
from the instrument. Further, the psychometric properties and correlates of the revised ESI are highly similar to
those for the longer version (e.g., all revised dimensions have been found to produce scores with good reliability
[see Table B below] and satisfactory factorial validity. Also, correlations with demographic variables [i.e., age and
sex], measures of spirituality and associated constructs [i.e., IEROS, EPI, DTS, ASASC, SSAS, SWBQ, SWBS],
personality [i.e., NEO-PI-R, TCI, Boredom Proneness Scale], social desirability, and psychopathology [i.e., MMPI-
2, CPES] are comparable).
3) Reverse worded items are kept to a minimum- outside of the items for Existential Well-Being and one item for
Paranormal Beliefs, all items are positively scored.
Scoring Instructions
1) Reverse score items marked with an asterisk (*) using the following code: 0=4, 1=3, 2=2, 3=1, 4=0
2) Sum the item responses for all items belonging to a dimension to arrive at the dimension scores
3) Items 31 and 32 are validity items and are not included in dimensional scores.
Cognitive Orientation toward Spirituality- Items 1, 6, 11, 16, 21, 26
Experiential/Phenomenological Dimension- Items 2, 7, 12, 17, 22, 27
Existential Well-Being-Items 3*, 8*, 13*, 18*, 23*, 28*
Paranormal Beliefs-Items 4, 9, 14, 19*, 24, 29
Religiousness-Items 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30
If one has used the 98-item version of the ESI and there is interest in rescoring the instrument to obtain ESI-Revised
dimension scores, the following table provides the corresponding item numbers across the two forms.
Table A- ESI-Revised Item Numbers and the Corresponding Item Numbers on the 98-item ESI
_________________________________________________
ESI-Revised ESI-98
Item Number Item Number
_________________________________________________
Cognitive Orientation toward Spirituality
1 58
6 95
11 41
16 85
21 96
26 93
Experiential/Phenomenological Dimension
2 66
7 17
12 69
17 75
22 77
27 59
Existential Well-Being
3 20
8 35
13 10
18 25
23 40
28 45
Paranormal Beliefs
4 19
9 49
14 53
19 24
24 29
29 61
Religiousness
5 13
10 43
15 56
20 23
25 70
30 3
_________________________________________________
Table B. Descriptive Statistics and Reliability Coefficients for the ESI-Revised Dimensions
______________________________________________________________________________
COS EPD EWB PAR REL
______________________________________________________________________________
No# of Items 6 6 6 6 6
Mean 14.39 9.89 14.94 12.47 13.61
S.D 4.96 4.75 4.52 5.14 5.81
Range 0-24 0-24 0-24 0-24 0-24
Alpha .87 .81 .80 .82 .89
______________________________________________________________________________
Note. N = 938
Expressions of Spirituality Inventory- Revised
Douglas A. MacDonald 2000
This is a questionnaire which concerns your experiences, attitudes, beliefs and lifestyle practices pertaining to
spirituality. Below are several statements. Read each statement carefully. Using the five point scale described below,
rate the extent to which you agree with each statement as it applies to you and put your response in the space
provided. There are no right or wrong answers. Please respond to every statement and respond as honestly as
possible.
0------------------1------------------2------------------3------------------4
Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly
Disagree Agree
_____ 1. Spirituality is an important part of who
I am as a person
_____ 2. I have had an experience in which I seemed
to be deeply connected to everything
_____ 3. It always seems that I am doing things
wrong
_____ 4. It is possible to communicate with the dead
_____ 5. I believe that going to religious services is
important
_____ 6. Spirituality is an essential part of human
existence
_____ 7. I have had an experience in which I seemed
to transcend space and time
_____ 8. I am not comfortable with myself
_____ 9. I believe witchcraft is real
_____ 10. I feel a sense of closeness to a higher
power
_____ 11. I am more aware of my lifestyle choices
because of my spirituality
_____ 12. I have had a mystical experience
_____ 13. Much of what I do in life seems strained
_____ 14. It is possible to predict the future
_____ 15. I see myself as a religiously oriented
person
_____ 16. I try to consider all elements of a
problem, including its spiritual aspects,
before I make a decision
_____ 17. I have had an experience in which I
seemed to merge with a power or force
greater than myself
_____ 18. My life is often troublesome
_____ 19. I do not believe in spirits or ghosts
_____ 20. I see God or a Higher Power present in all
the things I do
_____ 21. My life has benefited from my spirituality
_____ 22. I have had an experience in which all
things seemed divine
_____ 23. I often feel tense
_____ 24. I think psychokinesis, or moving objects
with one's mind, is possible
_____ 25. I practice some form of prayer
_____ 26. I believe that attention to one's spiritual
growth is important
_____ 27. I have had an experience in which I
seemed to go beyond my normal everyday
sense of self
_____ 28. I am an unhappy person
_____ 29. It is possible to leave your body
_____ 30. I believe that God or a Higher Power is
responsible for my existence
_____ 31. This questionnaire appears to be
measuring spirituality
_____ 32. I responded to all statements honestly
Appendix B- ESI/ESI-R Demographic and Religious Information Supplemental Survey
As the ESI and ESI-R do not include explicit items asking for demographic information or for information regarding
religious affiliation and specific forms of religious activities, identifications, and socialization experiences, the
Demographic and Religious Information Supplemental Survey was developed.
The survey is designed to be used in combination with the ESI/ESI-R.
Unlike the ESI and ESI-R which are psychometric instruments whose items and instructions should not be modified,
the survey form is not a psychometric test. Consequently, it can be modified to suit the needs of the user.
ESI/ESI-R – Demographic and Religious Information Survey
AGE: Please write down your current age in years in the space provided. ___________
GENDER/SEX: Please write down your gender/sex (e.g., male, female, transgender) in the space provided.
____________________________________________________________________
ETHNICITY: Please write down your ethnicity in the space provided.
____________________________________________________________________
MARITAL STATUS: Please check a box beside one of the following response options which best describes your
current marital status.
Single, never married
Married/Living with Partner
Divorced and currently single
Divorced but currently remarried
Widowed
EDUCATION: In the space provided, please indicate the highest level of education you have completed (e.g.,
elementary school, high school, some undergraduate college or university, undergraduate degree, graduate or
professional degree).
____________________________________________________________________
EMPLOYMENT STATUS: Please check the box beside one of the following response options to indicate your
current status in terms of paid employment.
Employed Full Time
Employed Part-Time
Unemployed
OCCUPATIONAL STATUS: In the space provided, please write down the name of your current occupation (e.g.,
student, unskilled laborer, skilled tradesperson, industry/factory worker, transport driver, business/marketing/
advertising, paraprofessional, professional, management/administration, hospitality worker, educator, scientist). If
you do not have an occupation, then please write none.
____________________________________________________________________
RELIGIOUS AFFILIATION: In the space provided, please write down the name of the religion to which you
currently have membership. If there is more than one, then please provide the names for all of them. If you do not
have a religious affiliation, then please write none.
____________________________________________________________________
PAST RELIGIOUS AFFILIATIONS: If you have been a member of other religions in the past, please write down
their names in the space provided. Otherwise, please write none or leave blank.
____________________________________________________________________
RELIGIOUS INVOLVEMENT: If you have a current religious affiliation, then please read and respond to the
following questions. If you do not have a current religious affiliation, then please skip the next four questions.
How involved are you in your current religion? For each of the next four items, please check the response option
which best describes your degree of involvement in your religion within the last 12 months. Read each statement as
it applies to you.
A) I attend religious services:
Daily
At least once a week
At least once a month
At least once a year
I have not attended religious services within the last year
B) I engage in private religious activities (e.g., praying or meditating at home):
Daily
At least once a week
At least once a month
At least once a year
I have not engaged in private religious activities within the last year
C) I am involved with social groups, events and activities associated with my religious institution (e.g., church
groups):
Daily
At least once a week
At least once a month
At least once a year
I have not been involved with any social activities or groups within the last year
D) Indicate the extent to which you consider yourself to be a religious person. (Please mark one):
Not at all Religious
Not Really Religious
Sort of Religious
Pretty Religious
Very Religious
ARE SPIRITUALITY AND RELIGION THE SAME OR DIFFERENT? For some people spirituality and religion
mean the same thing. For others, they mean different things. Please select the option that best reflects your understanding of
spirituality and religion:
Religion and spirituality are the same thing.
Religion and spirituality are not the same thing.
WHEN DURING YOUR LIFE HAVE YOU BEEN EXPOSED TO RELIGION AND SPIRITUALITY?
Using the rating scale provided below, please circle the number that best reflects the extent to which you have been exposed
to religion or spirituality during each of the periods of life indicated. Please only respond for those periods of life which you
have already lived or are currently living. For example, if you are 35 years of age, please do not provide a response for late
adulthood.
1 = Not at all exposed to religion/spirituality
2 = A little amount exposed to religion/spirituality
3 = A fair amount exposed
4 = A good amount exposed
5 = A great deal exposed to religion/spirituality
1: Not at all
exposed
2: A little
amount
exposed
3: A fair
amount
exposed
4: A good
amount
exposed
5: A great
deal exposed
Early Childhood
(before age 5 years)
1
2
3
4
5
Late Childhood
(ages 5-12 years)
1
2
3
4
5
Adolescence
(ages 13-20 years)
1
2
3
4
5
Early Adulthood
(ages 21-34 years)
1
2
3
4
5
Middle Adulthood
(ages 35-64 years)
1
2
3
4
5
Late Adulthood
(ages 65 years and older)
1
2
3
4
5
WHO OR WHAT HAS INFLUENCED YOUR UNDERSTANDING OF SPIRITUALITY AND RELIGION?
Using the response scale provided below, please circle the number to rate the extent to which each of the following people
or information sources has influenced your knowledge and understanding of spirituality or religion.
1: No
influence
2: A little
amount of
influence
3: A fair
amount of
influence
4: A good deal
of influence
5: A great
deal of
influence
Parent
(e.g., mother, father)
1
2
3
4
5
Sibling
(e.g., brother, sister)
1
2
3
4
5
Grandparent
(e.g., grandmother, grandfather)
1
2
3
4
5
Other family member
(e.g., aunt, uncle, cousin)
1
2
3
4
5
Significant Other
(e.g., wife, husband, boyfriend, girlfriend)
1
2
3
4
5
Religious figure or institution
(e.g., church, minister, Rabbi, Imam)
1
2
3
4
5
Friend or acquaintance
1
2
3
4
5
Teacher or other educator
(e.g., principal, guidance counselor, professor)
1
2
3
4
5
Employer or co-worker
1
2
3
4
5
Books, newspapers, magazines
(e.g., religious literature)
1
2
3
4
5
Electric and/or electronic media
(e.g., radio, television, internet)
1
2
3
4
5
Other (please specify in the space below):
____________________________________
1
2
3
4
5
