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THE EXPLORERS CLUB FLAG 117 REPORT

Survey of conch populations, including a report on other investigations

in the coastal waters of

Marie Galante, French West Indies

6 – 11 March, 2015

Figure 1: Les Isles de la Guadeloupe, de Marie-Galante, de la Desirade, et celles des Saintes. – 1780 image courtesy (MOA)

Jason Paterniti, FRGS, FN’10

Like the record of earth itself, the history of man is often hidden in riddles,

A strangely carved stone in the wilderness,

A ruin or ship wreck swallowed by the sea,

Yet man insists on answers ...some time true, sometimes fanciful....

-adapted from J.Y. Cousteau

Table of Contents Summary: ...................................................................................................................................................... 4

Expedition Members & Areas of Responsibility: .......................................................................................... 5

Logistics: ........................................................................................................................................................ 5

Research Aims: .............................................................................................................................................. 6

Project Objectives: ........................................................................................................................................ 6

Project Methods: .......................................................................................................................................... 7

Survey Protocol ............................................................................................................................................. 7

Results: .......................................................................................................................................................... 9

Discussion: .................................................................................................................................................. 10

Part 2. Investigation of reported Cultural Material related to a shipwreck ............................................... 11

Introduction: ............................................................................................................................................... 12

Project Objectives: ...................................................................................................................................... 13

History of the Island: ................................................................................................................................... 13

Site Description ........................................................................................................................................... 14

Methods: ..................................................................................................................................................... 16

Project Results & Outcomes: ...................................................................................................................... 17

Structure from Motion ............................................................................................................................ 18

Conclusions: ................................................................................................................................................ 20

Acknowledgments: ..................................................................................................................................... 21

Works Cited ................................................................................................................................................. 21

Lessons learned: .......................................................................................................................................... 22

Summary:

During the 1960’s, large concentrations of Rooster Tailed Conch (Lobatus Gallus) were reportedly

observed in a small bay on the north-west coast of the island of Marie Galante. However, the current

status, distribution and population structure of rooster tailed conch in this bay have not been scientifically

recorded.

This report describes the results of the Flag 117 expedition to the island of Marie Galante in the French

West Indies, conducted from 6 to 11 March 2015. The principal objective of this survey was to assess the

biological environment-specifically current conch distribution, abundance and population structures. Our

findings appear to be consistent with conch population trends in the Bahamas and other Caribbean

islands. The results of our survey indicate that today Rooster Tailed and Queen conch populations are

largely absent with marginal mean densities of only 1 dead adults per ha observed.

Our team also conducted reconnaissance dives to investigate reports of a shipwreck. During our pre-

disturbance survey, we did not observe any exposed cultural material. Our team did identify what could

be ballast rock as well as a buried mound. Based on our research, this bay was active with maritime

activity during the 17th -19th century and the historical record provides a record of no less than 29

hurricanes which could have led to a shipwreck. Further investigations using non-invasive remote sensing

equipment is recommended to determine if cultural material exists at this site.

Expedition Members & Areas of Responsibility:

Figure 2: The field team: Bernard Van Den Bussche, J.T. Kuhlman, Jason Paterniti, and Ivan Brannan

Logistics: Given the logistical challenges of obtaining supplies and support on Marie Galante itself, “Bolero” a

Fountaine Pajot, Lipari 41, catamaran was chartered out of Guadeloupe. Air tanks, food and water

supplies were also sourced in Guadeloupe. This vessel served as our transportation to the target site and

acted as our dive, work and sleeping platform. Its tender with a 5hp engine was used to tow divers for

observations over the survey site.

Team member Nationality Role

Bernard Van Den Bussche France Skipper R/V "Bolero"

Douglas Inglis, TM'13 USA SfM Technician

Ivan Brannan, MN'15 USA Diver, Team Photographer

J.B. Pellitier, AECOM USA Senior Nautical Archaeologist & Remote Sensing Specialist

J.T. Kulhman USA Diver

Jason Paterniti, FN'10 USA Diver

Figure 3: Approaching Marie Galante from sea. Photo Ivan Brannan.

Research Aims: Our goal in collecting data on conch populations was to better inform economic, social, and ecological decisions regarding conserving marine habitat and populations.

Project Objectives:1 Quantify and compare the density, abundance and population structure of queen conch (Strombis Gigas) and rooster tail conch (Lobatus Gallus)2 in the waters around Marie Galante against personal observations of this habitat from the 1960’s.

Rooster Tail Conch from Klein Queen Conch (Chenu, n.d.)

2 The rooster tailed conch was previously classified: Strombus Gallus Linn. Morris noted that Lobatus Gallus was

relatively uncommon throughout its range of S. Florida to West Indies as far back as the 1940’s. (Morris, 1947)

Project Methods: Our study was modelled using methods modified and adapted from studies made by Stoner in the

Bahamas and Schlochtern in the coastal waters around St Eustatius. Conch distribution and abundance,

population structure, were determined by towed diver surveys. The study covered a 15 ha area comprised

of different habitats and depths up to 5m.

Figure 4: Survey Vessel Bolero over the site. Photo Ivan Brannan

Survey Protocol A radial grid format was established using GE pro. Each radial grid overlapped the 6 contiguous circles. Radial searches conducted in clockwise direction with divers located at 3 and 9 meters. At each search area divers recorded:

Depth (m)

Substrate,(sand, rubble, rock)

dominate species (algae, sargassum, sea grass, coral)

coverage of dominant species %

Concreted limestone Seagrass example of Sand habitat

Figure 5: Search Grid

While our survey area was limited, challenging conditions impacted our ability to collect data. We had

expected calm seas but in fact experienced 20+ knot winds and 1- 1.5 meter waves in the bay making

work difficult. After the second day we had to abandon radial searches due to the weather. Poor visibility

also made efforts to conduct towed snorkel searches challenging. We switched to tank dive tows to get

close to the bottom but this rapidly depleted our limit supply of tanks carried from Guadeloupe.

Towed Diver Abundance & Density Survey

Figure 6: Ivan and Bernard on the dingy recording data from transects

Transects lines were been established in Google Earth Pro™ and transferred to handheld Garmin 78. Each transect runs 100m 90° to 270°. On site we established 100m transects spaced 5 meters apart. Once control points were established by a buoy marker at the end of each transect, towed divers were dragged between the control points taking observations every 10 meters on Mylar clipboards. Within each grid divers recorded:

Species type

Population structure (juvenile, intermediate, adult, dead)

Lip flared / not flared

Lip thickness (mm) using tape measurer. "A"= flared lip, "I"= >10 cm but no flared lip, "J" = <10 cm 1-2 years old (Allan W Stoner, 2014)

Shell length (cm) using small Vernier caliper

Results: Hunting for conch (Lambis in local French) is controlled, informants tell us lambis is available year round. Divers illegally hunt all the time using tanks in depths of 15 meters as there are none left in shallow areas around Guadeloupe or Marie Galante. Our findings were consistent with these reports:

We did find Queen Conch shells on shore used by locals for decoration and one restaurant along the beach proudly offered “lambis” on their painted sign on the wall. As to queen or rooster tail conch in the bay it was a different story. We did not find a single live conch in the bay.

Discussion:

After much lobbying from Caribbean governments, the US NMFS at NOAA decided in 2014 that conch

were not "threatened or endangered" in the Caribbean. This conclusion was based harvest levels which

remained stable despite data showing low densities that preclude reproduction. It is possible that harvest

levels remain stable because fisherman are harvesting juveniles. Low abundance, harvesting of juveniles

is occurring all over the Caribbean region. Our findings appear to be in line with reports from other

islands and are a cause of concern.

In the Bahamas, conch conservation outreach efforts include looking at shell middens (piles of harvested

shells on shore) with school kids and talking about the life history of conch and the laws related to

harvest. These groups are trying to work on both ends of the spectrum - from school kids and grass roots

to high level politicians. (Stoner, 2015).

Method Sum of Queen Conch

JUV DEAD

Sum of Queen

Conch Adult Dead

Sum of Queen

Conch ADULT

Sum of Fighting

conch

Sum of Flamingo

Tongue

Sum of Rooster Tail

Conch DEAD

Snorkeling 3 5 1 1 1

Towed Diver 17

Grand Total 20 5 1 1 1

Part 2. Investigation of reported Cultural Material related to a shipwreck

Introduction: In the 1960’s a sports diver travelled from Guadeloupe to Marie Galante looking for diving spots. The diver

reported discovering two cannon and an anchor at a depth of five meters approximately 25 meters from

the shore. The cannon measured approximately 8-10 feet long 20 feet apart. The anchor was located

approximately 40 feet to the east with an exposed fluke in vertical attitude 3 feet long. In 2015, this bay

remains sparsely inhabited and there are no known other accounts of a wreck being discovered here.

Figure 7: JT Kuhlman approaching the bay where he found reportedly discovered two cannon and an anchor over 45 years ago. Picture Ivan Brannan.

Project Objectives3:

The objective of the reconnaissance expedition was to search, relocate and survey the remains of a

possible wreck. Our primary research questions were:

When did the ship wreck?

What was the type and size of the vessel?

How was it constructed?

How was it loaded?

What technologies are present on the vessel?

Can the vessel be tied to the historical record?

What is the extent of any previous salvage contemporary or modern?

How did the vessel wreck?4

A secondary objective was to test and refine methodologies for collecting data from the field to develop

near real time 3D models of underwater artifacts and sites for site exploration and research applications.

History of the Island: The island of Marie Galante was originally called "Aichi" by the Carib Indians and "Touloukaera" by the

Arawaks. The European record of the island of Marie Galante first dates to 1493 when it was identified by

Christopher Columbus during his second voyage. He arrived at the place called Anse Ballet in Grand-Bourg

on November 3, 1493. Columbus named the Island after his flagship, Maria Galanda. On November 8,

1648, Governor Houel organized the settlement of the first French colonists, they were about fifty men

near the site of Vieux-Fort in Saint Louis. In 1649, Jacques de Boisseret bought the island from the French

Company of the Islands of America. The first settlers of the island reportedly settled around the lake

formed by the estuary of the river now called “old fort” which empties in the Bay that is the subject of our

survey. In 1653, sailors from Martinique reportedly landed on the island and raped local women. In

retaliation, the local Indians massacred the settlers in Vieux Fort. In 1660, at Basse-Terre Chateau, a peace

treaty was signed between the Carib Indians and the French and British who authorized them to settle on

the islands of Dominica and Saint Vincent. The Island was plundered by both the Dutch in 16765, and by

the British in 1690 and 1691. These raids, which gave way to the destruction of the mills, the refineries

and the depopulation of the Island. (Anon.)

3 Project Policy on the collection or Sale of Artifacts: The expedition adhered to the policies established by the Explorers Club: “Marine Archaeology Policy Guidelines” and the Institute of Nautical Archaeology (INA) regarding the protection of underwater cultural heritage. 4 From (Malcom, 1996) 5 Reportedly by Admiral Binkes Fleet which was lost in 1677 and which is the subject of our 2012-2015 Flag 117 expeditions in Tobago.

Captain Kidd

In 1689 Captain Kidd and his ship the Blessed William raided Marie Galante destroying the islands only

town. (Baker, 2002)

The British again took possession of the island in 1792. In 1794 Marie Galante gained independence and

separated itself from the royalist government of Guadeloupe. Slavery which was first abolished in 1794

and reinstated in 1802, finally came to an end in 1848.

Site Description

The island of Marie Galante lies in the outer islands of the Lesser Antilles approximately 20 nm east of

Guadeloupe. Marie Galante is part of what is called the Limestone Antilles, which are islands that are

almost exclusively built-up by a series of limestone deposits. These include Anguilla, Barbuda, Grande

Terre, and Marie Galante. The geology of this group of islands is composed of built up limestone, as well

isolated outcrops of underlying igneous rock, volcanic debris or tuffs. (Knippenberg, 1983, p. 153). The

geology of the island indicates that its

composition is limestone (coralline) with

pyroclastic materials (welded ash and pumice),

along with some surface flows. The tuff is hot

semi melted lava that is ejected from a volcanic

vent and falls to the earth were the ejected

material’s heat builds and the margins of each

particle melts into the adjacent particle’s

margin. This is why it is known as welded

tuffs. The tuff usually has angular clasts

(individual rocks) of different composition

ranging from native bedrock (fractured and

caught up in the eruption), to small fragments of

pumice and obsidian. Tuffs can vary in color and textures, but the usual is a grayish light color with fine

ash fragments deposited in layers for each eruption, and due to the heat, banding and minor flow lines

between eruption layer if there was sufficient latent heat and melting. Welded tuffs are relatively hard

materials in the initial cooling phase but as a result of the softer pumice and poorly welded sections

intercalated, tuffs can be eroded and water worn quickly in active surf zones. (Pelliter, 2015). This geology

makes identification of possible submerged cultural material such as ballast rock difficult.

Chain Island Igneous and intrusive rock

Carbonaceous sedimentary rock

References

Lesser Antilles Outer Arc

Marie Galante

Tuff coral Limestone Andreieff et al. 1983

(Knippenberg, 1983)

Figure 9: View of the bay looking south. Photo Ivan Brannan

Key features of the Bay:

A fresh water lake to the east of the site was open to the bay at some point producing

sedimentation flow. This river was diverted in last 100 years.

Ferrous components likely to be found from the settlement both in Bay and in lake

Site located in a bay which appears to be protected from prevailing east winds

A bay on the leeward side near a source of fresh water in the Caribbean would be a popular

anchorage for a 100-250 ton vessel which would carry a bower anchor with a 4-6ft spread.

Wind and waves

As we found on our expedition weather from the N N/E can produce difficult conditions in this bay.

Modern sailing vessels prefer to anchor in a more protected bay to the south.

Current

We observed evidence of significant scouring in the search area and there is a noticeable current running

through the search area at times. If the guns and anchor that were reported in the 1960’s are still there,

they may be covered. Other remains of the wreck if it is there at all, will be buried but the guns and anchor

should provide a good temporal range. (Hutchings, 2015)

Hurricanes

If low pressure systems circulate counter clock wise, the NW side of island could be exposed to hurricane

winds.

We have not been able to identify any historical record of any wrecks for this bay. However we do have

we have at least 28 documented hurricanes hitting Guadeloupe /MG in a 200 year period between 1656

and 1865 causing damage to property and or vessel loss. See Appendix 1 for more information

Methods:

The team ran parallel to shore transects (dark orange). We ran perpendicular towed diver transects (light

orange) when we found what could be ballast rocks (it was impossible to keep the dingy on a heading in

the wind and waves). During this survey divers observed what appear to be ballast like rocks. By the time

we finished recording the rock site we did not have the time to continue running perpendicular transects

further east which is inshore and approaching the mouth of the river (360 meters east of the “ballast site”)

so it is very possible we would have found more similar type rocks. We were unable to complete a survey

of the “near shore” zone all down the beach so we should not draw any conclusions about this being the

only location of these types of rocks.

Figure 10: Search pattern for cultural material

Project Results & Outcomes:

The few “ballast” rocks we observed were jumbled in no obvious typical mound pattern. It is possible

that a ballast pile composed of large and small rock could have been disturbed in this high energy

environment with larger rocks ending up congregating together in deep depression like where we found.

Based on our direct observations of the geology of the cliffs in and around the Bay we did not observe

similar rocks anywhere else in the bay. However, due to time constraints we did not explore inland from

this site so cannot comment on whether more of these rocks are located to the east.

Figure 11: Underlying Google Earth from May 2014 image collect.

Besides the conditions which reduced visibility underwater to 2 meters at times it was difficult to get an

idea of extent of the potential extent of a site as we had limited time and remaining air. We conducted

radial searches around the rocks to 15 meters.

Figure 12: Stone from the site temporarily brought to the surface of analysis and recording.

Structure from Motion

SfM is a process which combines a series of two dimensional image sequences into a three dimensional

visualization model. The process entails taking two-dimensional photographs of an object or site from

multiple angles and then tracking and aligning features in the photos (such as corner points) to 'stitch

together' and reconstruct the object digitally in 3D (Kastner, 2014)

Figure 13: SfM model of JTK site. Possible ballast stone. Note concreted or stone cannon shaped object in upper

right. Model Courtesy of Douglas Inglis, TM.

The “ballast stones”/natural tuff measure 42 cm, 34 cm, and 32 cm along their long diagonal (Inglis, 2015)

Sea Mound Possible Cannon?

During our search divers also identified a mound approximately 8-10 feet long located 5 to 7 meters from rocks. The mound has a height of 18 to 24 inches and was covered in seagrass.

Figure 14: The mound. Photo Ivan Brannan.

Test probing indicated organic material under seagrass to a depth of 2 inches. As we did not have a permit we did not conduct any invasive test probes or excavations.

Conclusions:

The bay has the characteristics which would attract early sailing vessels: a fresh water source in the

Caribbean is a rare thing to good for a mariner to pass up. In calm seas a bay on the western side of the

island would appear to be a safe anchorage, well protected against the prevailing eastern trade winds.

However, given the weather conditions we observed, this bay could have given early Mariners a false

sense of security. The force 5 winds we encountered during our survey demonstrated how an apparently

safe natural harbor could turn into a death trap for a vessel that had put into the bay to water and

provision but was caught in a storm only to be pushed up against the limestone rocks to the south.

In terms of possible cultural material findings, the rocks we observed could be part of the local geology

and not part of a ship’s ballast (unless of course mariners used local materials for ballast). They appear to

contain ash layers and minor banding associated with multiple ash falls and flow deformation. There are

several clearly defined black clasts that appear to be volcanic glass fragments and lighter clasts that are in

several bands or eruption events. If local, these stone likely originated in the tuff layers found along the

upland margin that separates the island’s highland and lowlands. They appear to be water rounded, and

this is originates with sitting in streams and slowly getting tumbled and eroded during high flows. Later,

these stones could have been exposed to wave action and further eroded and sorted by weight and

size (Pelliter, 2015).

It is also possible that the cannon and anchor which were visible 45 years ago are either buried under the

shifting sands of the bay or have been looted.

Based on the extremely dynamic environment, even if there was a ship wreck at this location there may

be little left today. From the perspective of an archaeological research potential, this site is unlikely to

contain significant archaeological material remains sufficient to justify the effort required to acquire the

information. However from a local cultural heritage perspective, actual ship wreck remains are not the

only factor to consider, the story of a wreck can create a connection to a place and it’s past. A submerged

cultural heritage site could also form the basis to create a marine protected area in this bay which could

be a direct action step toward creating a more sustainable marine environment for conch populations and

other marine life. Further investigations with noninvasive remote sensing equipment is recommended to

determine if any diagnostic cultural material remains buried in this bay.

Acknowledgments:

Dr. Allan Stoner for his guidance on best practices for population data collection methods and interpretation

JB Pelletier from AECOM for his advice and interpretation of local geology and site formation processes.

Works Cited Allan W Stoner, P., 2014. Survey of Queen Conch Populations and Reproductive Biology on the Little

Bahama Bank, Washington DC: Conch Community.

Anon., n.d. [Online]

Available at: https://www.bergbook.com/htdocs/woda/data/demo/descriptions/15502.htm


Available at: http://www.paysagesdeguadeloupe.com/index.php/component/content/category/50-le-

grand-ensemble-paysager-de-marie-galante


Available at: http://translate.google.com/translate?hl=en&sl=fr&u=http://guadeloupe.vtt.pagesperso-

orange.fr/parcours/fiche13.html&prev=search


Available at: http://www.ot-mariegalante.com/histoire-en.php

Baker, C., 2002. Absolutism and scientific revolution, 1600-1720. Westport: Greenwood Press.

Berg, n.d. [Online]

Available at: https://www.bergbook.com/htdocs/woda/data/demo/descriptions/15502.htm

Chenoweth, M., 2006. A Re-assessment of Historical Atlantic Basin Tropical Cyclone Activity, 1700-1855.

pp. 1-72.

Hutchings, N., 2015. personal correspondence [Interview] (9 feb 2015).

Kastner, D. R., 2014. s.l.:University of San Diego.

Knippenberg, S., 1983. Stone Artefact Production and Exchange among the Lesser Antilles. 1st ed.

Cambridge: Canmbridge University Press.

Malcom, C., 1996. St. John's Bahamas Shipwreck Project, Key West: Mel Fischer Maritime Heritage

Society, Inc..

Millás, J. C., 1968. Hurricanes of the Caribbean and adjacent regions, 1492-1800,. Miami: : Academy of

the Arts and Sciences of the Americas, OCLC 339427.

Morris, P. A., 1947. A field Guide To Shells of the Atlantic and Gulf Coasts and the West Indies. 3rd ed.

Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.

Naughton, P., 2014. [Interview] ( June 2014).

Pelliter, J., 2015. personal correspondence [Interview] (6 2 2015).

Schlochtern, L. M. z., 2014. Population status and reproductive biology of queen conch (lobatus gigas) in

the coastal waters around St Eustatius, Wageningen: Aquacultural and Fisheries GroupWageningen

University.

Stoner, D. A., 2015. personal communications [Interview] (12 March 2015).

Lessons learned:

Need at least one more day to complete survey Task overloading on team and no margin for weather days

4.2424242423715

4

04

00

05

TYPELOCATION

GRID CODEDiver

DateDepth interval (m

)Transect Size (m

²)SUBSTRATE

HABITATCOVERAGE %

Queen Conch JUV DEAD

Queen Conch ADULT

Queen Conch Dead

Rooster Tail Conch DEAD

Fighting conch

Flamingo Tongue

LIONFISH

radialCB

H7JP

8/3/20153.9

335Sand

Sea grass2

1

radialCB

H7IB

8/3/20153.9

115Sand

Sea grass3

radialCB

E9JP

8/3/20153.6

335sand/coral

Sea grass3

radialCB

D9JP

8/3/20153.6

335coral

Sea grass2

1

radialCB

D8JP

8/3/20153.6

335sand/coral

Sea grass1

1

radialCB

D7JP

8/3/20153.6

335Sand

sand5

radialCB

c7JP

8/3/20153.6

335sand/coral

sand4

radialCB

E9IB

8/3/20153.6

115sand

Sea grass3

radialCB

D9IB

8/3/20153.6

115sand/coral

Sea grass2

radialCB

D8IB

8/3/20153.6

115sand

sand2

radialCB

D7IB

8/3/20153.6

115sand

sand2

radialCB

C7IB

8/3/20153.6

115sand

sand2

radialCB

f7JP

8/3/20154.2

335sand/coral

Sea grass1

radialCB

E7JP

8/3/20154.3

335coral

Sea grass1

1

radialCB

E8JP

8/3/20154.3

335coral

Sea grass1

3

radialCB

F8JP

8/3/20154.3

335coral

Sea grass2

radialCB

F7IB

8/3/20154.5

115sand

Sea grass4

radialCB

E7IB

8/3/20154.5

115sand

Sea grass3

radialCB

E8IB

8/3/20154.5

115coral

Sea grass3

33

radialCB

F8IB

8/3/20154.5

115sand

Sea grass4

radialCB

F3IB

9/3/20154.25

115sand

sand5

radialCB

F4IB

9/3/20154.25

115sand

sand4

radialCB

E4IB

9/3/20154.25

115sand

sand4

radialCB

F3JP

9/3/20154.25

335sand

sand4

radialCB

F4JP

9/3/20154.25

335sand

sand4

radialCB

E4JP

9/3/20154.25

335sand

sand4

3636420

05

11

1

TYPELOCATION

GRID CODEDiver

DateDepth interval (m

)Transect Size (m

²)SUBSTRATE

HABITATCOVERAGE %

Queen Conch JUV DEADQueen Conch ADULTQueen Conch Adult DeadRooster Tail Conch DEAD

Fighting conchFlam

ingo TongueLIONFISH

Snorkeling

JTK8/3/2015

21

1

SnorkelingJTK

9/3/20153

11

SnorkelingJTK

10/3/20152

Towed DiverIB

9/3/20155297

10

Towed DiverIB

10/3/201528885

4

Towed DiverJP

9/3/20152182

3

number year notes source

1 July 1656

2 4 August 1656 Jean-Baptiste Du Tertre reported on a fearful, tremendous hurricane that desolated Guadeloupe. It

destroyed most houses, killed all domestic animals, laid waste all plantations, wrecked every vessel at

anchor in the roadstead, and drowned most of their crews. [44][45][46][47][48]

Chronological history of the

West Indies. By Captain

Thomas Southey

3 22 Oct 1664 Massive crop damage; nearly caused famine wikipedia

4 14 August 1666 This storm struck Marie-Galante, Îles des Saintes, and the rest of Guadeloupe. It also struck Saint

Christopher (now Saint Kitts) and Martinique. English Admiral Francis Willoughby, 5th Baron

Willoughby of Parham, commanded a fleet of 17 sail and 2000 troops. The hurricane destroyed the

fleet and killed the admiral. At least two ship survived. During the Second Anglo-Dutch War,

Willoughby engaged in another expedition, sailing to the Dutch island of Tobago in July 1665. Finding

a force under the English privateer Robert Searle already looting the settlement there, he put a stop to

the destruction and installed a garrison of fifty men to maintain order. His last act on behalf of the

English crown came in July 1666 when, having learned of the recent French seizure of Saint Kitts, he

formed a relief force of two Royal Navy frigates, twelve other large vessels (including commandeered

merchant ships), a fire ship, and a ketch, bearing over 1,000 men. He planned to proceed north to

Nevis, Montserrat, and Antigua to gather further reinforcements before descending on the French.

Leaving Barbados on 28 July, his force prowled off Martinique and then Guadeloupe, where he sent a

frigate to assault the harbor and capture two merchant vessels on 4 August. This success could not be

exploited however as that night most of his force was destroyed by a strong hurricane, including the

flagship Hope, from which Willoughby did not emerge.

Millás, José

Carlos (1968), Hurricanes of

the Caribbean and adjacent

regions, 1492-1800 , Miami:

Academy of the Arts and

Sciences of the

Americas, OCLC 339427

5 3 August 1680 22 ships lost wikipedia

6 October 1695 wikipedia

7 5 Sept 1713 Chenoweth

8 13 August 1714 Chenoweth

9 1725 wikipedia

10 10 July 1733 Chenoweth


12 31 July 1765 martinique 33 ships lost, 6 ships lost in Guadeloupe Chenoweth

13 6 Oct 1766 Chenoweth


15 4 Sept 1776 On Guadeloupe, the hurricane killed 6,000 people, more than any known hurricane before it and currently

the seventh deadliest Atlantic hurricane on record.[30] The storm struck a large convoy of French and

Dutch merchant ships, sinking or running aground 60% of the vessels. The ships were transporting goods to

Europe.[31]

Chenoweth




19 July 1787 Chenoweth


21 27 july 1809 Chenoweth

22 Sept 1809 Chenoweth

23 25 august 1813 A powerful hurricane hit Dominica and Martinique beginning 25 August, causing 3000 deaths. The hurricane

moved south of Jamaica, bringing wind to the island on 28 August.



26 25 July 1825 Chenoweth



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