the evolution of high energy neutrino telescopescsspier/www/talks/history-of-nutel.pdf · the...
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Moisej Markov Bruno Pontecorvo
M.Markov,1960: „We propose to install detectors deep in a lake or in the sea and to determine the direction of charged particles with the helpof Cherenkov radiation“ Proc. 1960 ICHEP, Rochester, p. 578.
Central interest: cross sections, W-mass… one of the main motivations for Reines‘ South Africa detector, the Kolar Gold Field Detector (India) and the Baksan scintillation detector. Early sixties: doesthe neutrino cross section saturate beyond 1 GeV (i.e. one would never measureatm. neutrinos with energies higher than a few GeV). The question was relaxed in the mid seventies:
First measurement of atmosphericneutrinos
Beside several ideas like e.g.H. Uberall and C. Cowan, 1965 CERN Conf. on Experimental Neutrino Physics, p. 231– Downward looking PM observing a
10 m thick water target, „possibly in ocean or a lake“
V. Bogatyrev, Yad.Fiz 13 (1971) 336– Three detectors each 107 tons of distilled
water a several km depth, widely spacedSN triangulation
in 1965 detection of nearlyhorizontal atmospheric neutrinosby F. Reines in a South African Gold mine.
DUMAND
1973 ICRC, Reines, Learned, Shapiro, Zatsepin, Miyake: a deep water detector to clarify puzzles in muon depth-intensitycurvesPuzzles faded away, but there remained the awareness that such a detector could also work as neutrino detectorThe name: DUMAND (Deep Underwater Muon And Neutrino Detector), proposed by Fred Reines1975: First DUMAND Workshop in Washington State CollegeDUMAND Steering Committee, chaied by F.Reines, J. Learned, . A.Roberts
See also: A.Roberts: The birth of high-energy neutrinoastronomy: a personal history of the DUMAND project,Rev. Mod. Phys. 64 (1992) 259.
ν
μ
Principle and capabilities
Angular resolution of 1° possible
astrononomy
Energy resolution formuons is 50% at best, for 1 km tracklength
The DUMAND Workshops
An unbelievable source of basic ideas(including crazy ones which are sometimes the most exciting)
1976 Honolulu1978 Scripps1979 Khabarovsk/Baikal1978 HonoluluPlus dedicated workshops on deployment, acousticdetection, signal procressing and oceanengineering
Which physics?
UNDINE: UNderwater Detection of Interstellar Neutrino Emission– i.e. Supernova too rarely to optimize an ocean detector for it ( IMB)
ATHENE: ATmospheric High-Energy Neutrino Experiment– Better with underground experiments
UNICORN: UNderwater Interstellar COsmic Ray Neutrinos– The high energy option– preferred option, but: how large are the fluxes ?– think as big as possible !
A. Roberts:
1978: 1.26 km³22,698 OMs
1980: 0.60 km³6,615 OMs
1982: 0.015 km³756 OMs
1988: 0.002 km³
216 OMs
DUMAND-II
DUMAND-II (The Octagon)
9 strings216 OMs100 diameter, 240 m heightDepth of bottom: 4.8 kmLowest OM 100 m abovebottom
Point sources, DUMAND-II (0.002 km³) expectations in the eighties !!!
Note: in 1989, the only proven TeV γ source was the Crab SNR!With these assumptions, a km³ detector would have discovered 5-50 (worst scenario) up to several ten thousand events (best scenario) per source
Technology boostsOptical fibers with < 12 dbattenuation over 40-km lengthand data rates of hundreds of MBaud (Nobel prize 2009!)
Appearance of 16“ Hamamatsu PMT
Appearance of 14“ „smart“ Philips PMT
JOMJapanese Optical Module
EOMEuropean Optical Module
1987: The SPS
1982-87: a series of 14 cruises, with two lost strings1987: success !– depth-intensity curve– angular distributions– attenuation lenght (47±22 m)
„Short Prototype String“
DUMAND after the SPS:
1989: HEPAP supports DUMAND-II1990: DOE allocates funds for DUMAND-IIFurther financial cuts TRIAD (3 strings)1993: shore cable laidDecember 1993: deployment of first string and connection to junction box. Failure after severalhours1995: DUMAND project is terminated
RussiaVery active during early DUMAND workshops(Chudakov, Berezinsky, Bezrukov, Zhelesnykh, Petrukhin)Kicked out of DUMAND after Russian Afghanistan invasionA. Roberts:
1980: Chudakov proposes exploration of Lake Baikal as possible site for a neutrino telescope1981: start of site investigations at Lake Baikal (Domogatksy, Bezrukov)
Exploration of Atlantic, Black Sea, Indian Ocean, Pacific and Mediterranean sites (Zheleznyk, Petrukhin)
A. Roberts: „Communication among these groups is not very good“
The Lake BAIKAL experiment
G. Domogatsky
Bezrukov, Domogatsky, Berezinsky, Zatsepin
Largest fresh water reservoir in the worldDeepest Lake (1.7 km)1981: first site explorations & R&DChoosen site 3.6 km from shore, 1.3 km depth
Lake Baikal: the eighties
1984: first stationary string– Muon flux measurement
1986: second stationary string(Girlyanda 86)– Limits on GUT
magnetic monopolesAll that with 15-cm flat-window PMT FEU-49
Development of a Russiansmart phototube (Quasar)
Towards NT-2001988: Germany joins
1989/90: design of NT-200
1993 + 1994: NT-36 - 18 channels at 3 strings- first underwater array- first 2 neutrino candidates
1995: NT-72- 38 channels at 4 strings
1996: NT-96- 48 channels at 4 strings- clear neutrinos
1998: NT-200- 96 channels at 8 strings
4-string stage (1996)
J. Learned:„Congratulations for winningthe 3-string race!“(Baikal vs Dumand vs AMANDA)
NT200 results
Atmospheric neutrinos
WIMP searchDiffuse neutrino fluxes
Skymap
GRB coincidencesMagnetic monopoles
396 ν candidates
Amanda 4 years
Baikal 5 years
NT200+
NT200
3600 m
1366
m
140 mNT200+
- upgrade 2005/06- 4 times better sensitivity thanNT200 for PeV cascades
- basic cell for km3 scale detector
construction1993-1998
For searches of diffuse neutrino fluxes, the small NT200 could compete with the much larger Amanda by monitoring
a large volume below the detector. NT200+ fences this volume.
Gigaton Volume Detector, GVD
Sacrifice low energies (muon threshold ~ 10 TeV)Protoype strings being testedModular clusters, stepwise installation > 2012~ 2000 optical modules (conventional PMs)
12 clusters of strings
NT1000: top view
R ~ 60 m
L~ 350
m
All other deep water/ice detector projects startedaround 1990 or later.
In the eighties /early nineties, shallow detectorshave been proposed but never built.
On the other hand, deep underground detectorsreached their full blossom:- solar neutrinos- supernova neutrinos- limits on proton decay- first hints to neutrino oscillations- sky maps
Shallow detector projects
Advantages: easy access, less challenging environmentDisadvantages: huge background, not expandable
GRANDE– Shallow water, Lake, Arkansas, H. Sobel (Irvine)
LENA– Artificial water pool, Gran Sasso, M.Koshiba
SINGAO– Resistive Plate Chambers, Italy/UK
Swedish lakes– Early nineties, before Sweden joined Amanda
Underground Detectors
KGF
Baksan
FREJUS
Soudan
IMB
KamiokandeSuperkamiokande
MACRO
e.g. MACRO, 1356 upgoing muons
~ 1000 m²
Neu
trin
o os
cilla
tions
, pro
ton
deca
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icit
of s
olar
neu
trino
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eeK
ai Z
uber
‘sta
lk)
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icit
of a
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pher
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utrin
osas
func
tion
of d
ista
nce
and
ener
gy
Stri
ngen
t lim
its o
n pr
oton
life
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θ 12
= 33
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= 45
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< 9º
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0: re
visi
ting
the
expe
ctat
ions
Und
ergr
ound
det
ecto
rs, 1
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m²,
only
fory
oung
Sup
erno
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in o
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est
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uper
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rem
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bser
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uper
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rem
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eed
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-Bah
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odel
was
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rrec
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fact
orof
20
in 2
005.
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ice
optio
n
1988
: Pom
eran
tzw
orks
hop,
NS
F S
cien
ce a
nd T
echn
olog
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ente
r for
the
S
outh
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e (A
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ugge
sts
to F
. Hal
zen
radi
odet
ectio
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ne
utrin
os in
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arct
ic ic
e
1989
: atte
mpt
of W
estp
hala
nd L
owde
rto
mea
sure
ice
trans
pare
ncy
in e
xist
ing
bore
hole
s
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89,
ICR
C, A
dela
ide:
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ide
to p
ropo
se A
man
da (B
. Pric
e,
D. L
owde
r, S
. Bar
wic
k, B
. Mor
se, F
. Hal
zen,
A. W
atso
n)
1990
: Mor
se e
t al.
depl
oy P
MTs
in G
reen
land
ice
F. H
alze
n
Sou
th P
ole
1991
/91
first
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lPM
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orpt
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93/9
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astr
opha
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ght b
etw
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gs 2
0 m
aw
ay!
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c in
stea
d of
100
nse
c)
40 m
Am
anda
B4
1995
: DE
SY
and
Sto
ckho
lm b
uild
~ 10
0 m
odul
es, 8
6 de
ploy
edin
the
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on95
/96
at 1
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epth
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DE
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cre
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TAR
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ince
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M3N
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TAR
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nctio
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arch
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ay 20
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Rec
omm
enda
tions
KM
3NeT
2001
/02:
Hig
h E
nerg
y N
eutri
no A
stro
phys
ics
Pan
el–
Hig
h ph
ysic
sin
tere
st–
Nee
dkm
³ sca
le–
Nee
dbo
thhe
mis
pher
es–
No
mor
eth
an1
Nor
ther
n de
tect
or–
Tim
ely
form
atio
nof
Nor
ther
n he
mis
pher
ede
epw
ater
dete
ctor
isen
cour
aged
2008
: ApP
EC
–Th
e pr
iorit
y pr
ojec
t for
hig
h en
ergy
neu
trino
ast
rono
my
is K
M3N
eT.
–E
ncou
rage
d by
the
sign
ifica
nt te
chni
cal p
rogr
ess
of re
cent
yea
rs, t
he s
uppo
rt fo
r wor
king
tow
ards
KM
3NeT
is c
onfir
med
. –
Res
ourc
es fo
r a M
edite
rrane
an d
etec
tor s
houl
d be
poo
led
into
a s
ingl
e op
timis
ed d
esig
n fo
r a la
rge
rese
arch
infra
stru
ctur
e, w
ith in
stal
latio
n st
artin
g in
20
12.
–Th
e se
nsiti
vity
of K
M3N
eT m
ust s
ubst
antia
lly e
xcee
d th
at o
f all
exis
ting
neut
rino
dete
ctor
s in
clud
ing
IceC
ube.
KM
3NeT
Mar 2012
Des
ign
deci
sion
Con
stru
ctio
n
2013
2017
2011
Dat
a ta
king
2015
2 km
Site
S
ize
Con
figur
atio
nTe
chno
logy
Dep
loym
ent