the essential role of interpretation in safeguarding cultural heritage

8/8/2019 The Essential Role of Interpretation in Safeguarding Cultural Heritage

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8th US/ICOMOS International Symposium

THE ESSENTIAL ROLE OF INTERPRETATION IN SAFEGUARDINGCULTURAL HERITAGE

Arlene K. FlemingCultural Resource SpecialistGreat Falls, Virginia, USA

May 2005

I. EXPANDING THE CONCEPT OF INTERPRETATION IN THE ICOMOS ENAMECHARTER

When we consider the interpretation of cultural heritage sites, our reference is commonly

a designated and protected area, open to visitors who need and deserve an explanation ofthe significance and meaning of the place. In this context, the challenge is to enhance thevisitors experience by providing an interesting, fair and objective account of the site andof its associated events and people. Given rapid and profound social, cultural andpolitical changes in our contemporary world, the task of interpreting cultural heritagesites is dynamic and challenging.

Recognizing the need to articulate standards and to provide guidance for this activity, theInternational Council on Monuments and Sites is preparing the ICOMOS Ename Charterfor the Interpretation of Cultural Heritage Sites. The third draft, issued in August 2004, ispresented for discussion by ICOMOS members, world-wide, and the subject is the themefor the eighth annual symposium convened by the U.S. Committee of ICOMOS, inCharleston, South Carolina.

The draft Charter defines interpretation as: the carefully planned public explanationor discussion of a cultural heritage site, encompassing its full significance, multiplemeanings and values.i The Charters preamble acknowledges that interpretation of themeaning of sites is an integral part of the conservation process and fundamental to thepositive conservation outcomes. It is further stated that the interpretation of culturalheritage sites can be contentious and should acknowledge conflicting perspectives. TheCharter aims to establish basic objectives and principles for interpreting sites in relationto authenticity, intellectual integrity, social responsibility and respect for culturalsignificance and context. Interpretation is considered to be a means of stimulating publicappreciation of cultural heritage sites as sources of learning and reflection about thepast, as well as valuable resources for sustainable community development andintercultural and intergenerational dialogue. Interpretation, as envisioned in the Charter,takes place at, or in the immediate vicinity of cultural heritage sites.

The opportunity to discuss and comment on the draft Ename Charter provides anoccasion to reflect on the concept, definition and process of cultural site interpretation as


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set forth in the document. The circumscribed definition of interpretation in the draftCharter assumes that the activity is limited to transmitting information about a designatedsite to a captive, passive audience. It ignores the fact that many heritage sites are notestablished reserves: they may be places not yet designated for protection, or placessubject to maintenance and continual modification by a variety of property owners.

Under such circumstances, interpretation involves the timely provision of information onheritage significance to individuals and groups whose decisions and actions maydetermine the very survival and adequate maintenance of a place. Providing just-in-time interpretive information to decision makers may be a more complex andchallenging task than preparing material for visitors to an established site, but for theconservation of heritage places, this is a significant function of interpretation.

If we define the interpretation of a place as an understanding of its value and meaning,we must acknowledge that any viewer will make an assessment based on his experience,information, values and objectives. Heritage sites throughout the world, threatened bydevelopment projects and armed conflict, are variously interpreted by people who may

not even be aware of any cultural significance, and who have their own differing, andoften competing, values and interests. We must consider what the various decisionmakers and interested parties actually see when they view a heritage site. How do theyinterpret the place considering their knowledge and objectives? How are variousinterpretations manifested? How do they affect decisions? What are the relative powerrelationships among the decision makers?

In such cases, heritage interpretation is not planned by the custodians of a place, but canbe provided with the objective of influencing decisions that will affect the existence orquality of a heritage site. The timely and effective participation of cultural resourceprofessionals may be decisive for satisfactory heritage conservation. What opportunitiesand means exist to provide interpretation under such circumstances?

Some answers will be found in the following four case studies, each illustrating thecritical role that timely interpretation can play in the designation, protection, conservationor reconstruction of cultural heritage places. The experiences recounted are from projectsplanned or financed in part by the World Bank. ii Although the examples differ markedlyin content, each illustrates the necessity of creating awareness through timely, targetedand effective interpretation, while appealing to the interests of all relevant decisionmakers. In the first case, a historic bridge at Mostar in Bosnia and Herzegovina, forcenturies a symbol of local pride and unity, was destroyed during ethnic conflict, andthen rebuilt with international support. Second, is the city of Asmara in Eritrea,constructed as an Italian colonial outpost, now requiring protection and conservation as asymbol of Eritrean pride and unity. Then there is the case of surviving historic structuresin Ningbo, China, which were saved, restored and given a place in the modern city. Andfinally, a story concerning the waterfalls of Bujagali on the Nile River in Uganda, hometo spirits worshiped by the local inhabitants and threatened by a proposed hydroelectricproject.


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II. THE BRIDGE AT MOSTAR IN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA: A Case Study

People throughout the world watched helplessly in November 1993, as cameras recordedthe collapse of the beautiful 16th century bridge at Mostar on the Neretva River, followingweeks of shelling by Croat forces. Although hundreds of heritage structures in Bosnia

and Herzegovina had been damaged or obliterated since the outbreak of civil war in1992, the destruction of this picturesque bridge captured the worlds attention. Forcenturies it had served as a passageway between western Mostar, a predominantlyCroatian enclave, and the eastern sector of the city, peopled mainly by Bosniaks. In itsdemise, the bridge, and the gaping hole that remained, became a symbol of the violentconflict between the two groups and the Serbs, as the former nation of Yugoslaviadisintegrated.

Cultural heritage, in the form of valued historic buildings and objects had become a targetin the series of Balkan conflicts of the 1990s, as one objective in the struggle overterritory was to erase all evidence of habitation by opposing groups. The deliberate acts

demonstrated that the combatants understood the meaning and value of cultural heritageand the powerful effects of its destruction. Although the intense civil conflict betweenSerbs, Croats and Muslims in Bosnia and Herzegovina from 1992 through 1995 wasoften characterized as an expression of ancient ethnic hatreds, it was a war based mainlyon 20th century experience and ideologies. The close proximity of historic Muslim,Christian and Jewish religious and civil structures, as well as intermarriage betweengroups, attest to previous centuries of harmonious relationships.

Mostar is strategically sited on the trade route between the Adriatic Sea and the Balkaninterior. The famous stone bridge, completed in 1566 by the ruling Ottoman Turks, wasan important link in this chain. Supplemented in subsequent years by modern bridgesbuilt for vehicular traffic, the Stari Most, or old footbridge, was treasured as an aestheticlandmark and a cultural symbol by the inhabitants of Mostar, the region, and travelersfrom abroad. The bridge had social and cultural significance as a meeting place, and thespot where young men proved their courage in special contests by diving into the icyNeretva River.

As the ethnic strife intensified during the early 1990s, the Croat military sought to severthis connection by destroying the bridge. As an edifice of the Ottoman Turkish period,the structure was viewed by Croatian nationalists as a Muslim icon and a tangibleimpediment to the objective of ethnic separation. A Croat fighter stated bluntly: It isnot enough to cleanse Mostar of the Muslims; the relics must also be destroyed. iii Aftermonths under siege, the bridge was finally completely demolished by Croatian gunnersafter two days of concentrated point blank attacks, recorded on videotape. Appeals bythe Government of Bosnia and Herzegovina to the United Nations Security Council,UNESCO and the Council of Europe for assistance in protecting the old city of Mostarand the bridge had been in vain. iv


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For many people, the bridge was a treasured icon, transcending ethnic conflict as asymbol of unity. One of the most eloquent expressions of mourning following thedestruction came from a Croatian journalist who wrote:

The bridge in all its beauty and grace was built to outlive us. Its identity was the

product of an individuals creativity and the collective experience. It transcendedour individual destiny. The death of a man is one of us; the bridge is all of us,forever.v

The demise of Stari Most received international media coverage, and almostimmediately, plans were underway for its reconstruction, beginning with the projectMostar 2004, conceived and widely promoted by the Bosnian architect, Amir Pacic.Detailed plans were available from restoration work during the 1980s, which had madeMostar an economically successful tourist destination. (Figure 1.)

Figure 1. Mostar Bridge under siege, 1993

Annual planning workshops, convened in Istanbul and Mostar, attracted an internationalgroup of architects and preservation experts. Governments and non-governmentalorganizations expressed interest in providing financial and technical support. Followingthe end of conflict and signing of the Dayton Accords in late 1995, the Government ofBosnia and Herzegovina requested a credit of US$ 4 million from the InternationalDevelopment Association of the World Bank to enable the Pilot Cultural HeritageProject. Co-financers included the Council of Europe Development Bank and thegovernments of Italy, the Netherlands, France, Croatia and Turkey, bringing the total toUS$ 15.5 million. Additional support, advice and technical assistance came fromUNESCO, the World Monuments Fund and the Aga Khan Trust for Culture.

The major objective of the World Banks Learning and Innovation Loan was to improvethe climate for reconciliation among peoples in Bosnia and Herzegovina throughrecognition and rehabilitation of the common cultural heritage. This was seen as a pre-condition for social and economic rehabilitation. The project investments included:


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reconstruction of the old bridge and its two flanking towers, and of selected culturalmonuments in the historic district of Mostar, as well as preservation of the old townshistoric character through small-scale upgrading of infrastructure, open spaces andfacades. A social assessment conducted prior to the project ascertained that the majorityof respondents in both the Bosniak and Croat sections of Mostar supported rebuilding the

bridge and restoring historic neighborhoods and monuments. A number of people wereinterested in participating by contributing their opinions, making donations andvolunteering to help. At the same time, they stressed the need for transparency andconsultation by the local government, for economic development, job creation andhousing, as the war had created a sharp drop in living standards and high unemployment.

The process of reconstructing Stari Most was broadcast worldwide by daily videotransmission on the Internet. Hundreds of international experts and local crafts peopleparticipated as stones from the same local quarry as those used in the original bridge wereput in place. On July 23, 2004 the new Old Bridge was dedicated in a spectacularceremony broadcast internationally. Dignitaries and preservations from many countries,

and over 2,000 participants from Bosnia and Herzegovina witnessed the resumption ofthe traditional diving contest from the 90-foot high central point of the bridges arch.Tourism is resuming in Mostar, bringing the hope of economic development, but allagree that restoration of the symbolic bridge, dramatic and remarkable anaccomplishment as it was, is only one step in the difficult process of healing the woundsof ethnic conflict in Mostar and the rest of the country. (Figure 2.)

Figure 2. Mostar Bridge reconstruction, 2004


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III. THE HISTORIC CITY OF ASMARA IN ERITREA: A Case Study

The Cultural Assets Rehabilitation Project in Eritrea began in 2001, as one in a smallportfolio of loans from the World Bank for conservation and economic use of culturalresources in its client countries. Eritrea is a new nation, having gained its independencefrom Ethiopia in 1993, following an armed struggle which began in the 1960s. It is intenton forging a national identity, by melding a multi-ethnic population. Although Eritrealacks significant natural resources, it has a rich cultural legacy, including the uniquecapital city, Asmara. This highland settlement is a rare ensemble of Rationalistarchitecture designed by Italian architects during the colonial occupation from the 1920sthrough the 1940s, and built by Italian and Eritrean craftsmen. Asmara is a source ofpride among Eritreans, of nostalgia for Italians who knew it during the colonial period,and a focus of interest for specialists in architectural history throughout the world.

(Figure 3.)

Figure 3. Fiat Tagliero service station, built in 1938, Asmara

The US$ 5 million credit from the World Banks International Development Association,provides support for several facets of cultural heritage, including archaeology, oralhistory, archival management and conservation of historic structures and sites.Approximately one half of the investment is dedicated to documenting, conserving andplanning for the protection of Asmaras historic center. The colonial city survivedlargely intact during the second half of the 20th century, due in part to preoccupation ofEritreans with the liberation movement and a lack of financial resources. Many of thecolonial structures are sorely in need of maintenance or restoration, and protecting the


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historic character of the city is essential in the face of current urban expansion. There isan urgent need to upgrade the infrastructure, including water, sewer and transportsystems, but such improvements are beyond the scope of the relatively small CulturalAssets Rehabilitation Project. (Figure 4.)

Figure 4. Renovated building houses the World Bank office in Eritrea.

The World Bank financing is in the form of a Learning and Innovation Loan, designed to

allow for developing and testing various means of integrating the conservation andmanagement of cultural assets into local and national economic development. In the caseof Asmara, this means considering the conservation challenges in relation to thelivelihoods and aspirations of the inhabitants, as well as preparing for domestic andforeign tourism. The project addresses several major challenges for conservation andconstructive development of Asmaras historic center. These include: establishing aplanning process and regulations for managing, conserving and presenting the historicarchitectural ensemble; setting standards and specifications for any new structures to bebuilt within the citys historic perimeter; stimulating private owners to conservestructures so as to preserve authenticity of the historic city; creating a cadre of skilledcraftspeople qualified to restore and maintain the colonial architecture; conserving

specific sites and structures in Asmara; and developing open spaces as public parks.

Planning required research, and during the first two years of the project consultantsmined archives in Asmara and Italy to thoroughly document the development of the city,as well as to locate architectural plans and ownership records for individual structures.The products of this research included the first detailed guidebook and map for historicAsmara, published locally, and a major study of the citys development and architecture, Asmara: Africas Secret Modernist City, published in 2003 in London, and distributed


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internationally. The documentation served the dual purposes of providing a firm basis forconservation and publicizing the existence of historic Asmara through interpretation of itsuniqueness, character and value. In 2004, UNESCOs World Heritage Centre convened aregional meeting in Asmara for the purpose of stimulating interest in Africa, and it islikely that Asmara will be nominated as a World Heritage Site.

In a heritage site with a diverse population and multiple property owners, interest inconservation depends to a considerable degree on personal aspirations of the inhabitantsand on their understanding and appreciation of the historic attributes of the place.Interpretation is thus a dynamic process reflecting many views and interests, bothpersonal and communal. Perceptions of a historic urban environment by its residentsstem from attitudes shaped by such factors as work, income, education, social position,age and gender. During the course of the Cultural Assets Rehabilitation Project, therewas an effort to determine how Asmara is viewed by several distinct groups including:officials and experts who oversee preservation, administration and urban development;the adult inhabitants, who belong to various social groups; school-age children

throughout Eritrea; and 20

th

century writers and poets.

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The architects and urban officials had divergent ideas on the development of Asmara, butagreed that historic preservation without modernization in this active city is not an option.Beyond that consensus, there were numerous ideas, including: construction of a newbusiness district outside of Asmara; planning for an integrated living and workingenvironment for all social classes within the historic city; and modernizing the Italiancolonial buildings while preserving their form and character. All stated that the urgenttask is to provide housing, urban infrastructure and modern facilities. It was suggestedthat preserving culture and the colonial urban character of Asmara extended to integratingits distinctive features into new construction outside the historic perimeter so as to createa unified city. These features would include Modernist or Rationalist elements of the1930s as well as Eritrean vernacular architecture.

Asmaras residents and property owners tended not to distinguish between preservationand modernization, but viewed the city as a locus for contemporary life rather than as anemblem of architecture or history. They unanimously opted for cleanliness, whichconnotes clean, well-maintained and equipped houses, streets, public facilities, stores andoffice buildings, as well as public safety. European architecture of the 1920s to 1940smay be familiar and pleasing, but the main preoccupation of citizens seemed to be qualityof life, including the basics of sewage facilities and water supply. Renovation of houses,cafes or bars in Asmara often has been inappropriate from the standpoint ofpreservationists. Thus it is clear that conserving the character of historic Asmara, willrequire public education for the inhabitants and instruction in the maintenance of historicstructures.

For the citys future, it is important to nurture in the young an appreciation andunderstanding of Asmaras historical and cultural value. To this end, the Cultural AssetsRehabilitation Project launched a national campaign to make students aware of thenecessity to conserve cultural heritage by maintaining the built environment. This was a


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collaborative effort with the Ministry of Education, supported by grants from the WorldBank Presidents fund and the governments of the United Kingdom and the Netherlands.During 2004, students in schools throughout the country were invited to expressappreciation for any example of the built environment in their communities by creatingpictures, essays or poems. Individual winners and each school with contest entrants

received a copy of the book, Asmara: Africas SecretModernist City and an illustratedsupplement summarizing the book in local languages.vii Over 500 students entered, andtheir interpretations express deep regard for a variety of historic and modern structures inAsmara and other Eritrean towns.

References to Asmara in literature have two common themes: the liberation war; and theindigenous peoples of native Asmaraviii. Texts from the war and the Eritrean Diasporatend to characterize Asmara as a symbol of peace, and to nurture the dream of returningto a liberated city, which connotes the good life in the past and future. The city isromanticized. Other works depict Asmara during the harsh conditions of the Ethiopianoccupation, emphasizing crowded conditions, poverty, incomplete families and anxiety

about the future.

IV. URBAN RENEWAL IN NINGBO, CHINA: A Case Study

Ningbo is among many cities in China where rapid modernization threatens preservationof cultural heritage. Located on the Bay of Hangzhou, in the coastal province ofZhejiang, Ningbo was one of the first places in China to be designated a CulturalHeritage Protected City of national importance. Settlement at the site dates back to the8

thcentury B.C. and today, the city contains cultural property built during the Tang,

Song, Ming and Qing Dynasties. Ningbo maintained active trade with Europeansbeginning in the 16

thcentury, became an official treaty port in 1843, and was named one

of Chinas 14 open cities for direct foreign investment in 1984.ix

Today, Ningbo is the second largest city in Zhejiang province, after Shanghai, with ametropolitan area population of over five million. It is a major transportation hub forrailways, roads, waterways and air traffic. The Master Plan for Ningbo, created in 1986,recognized that the development boom had left the old city center in need of upgradedhousing, transportation facilities, roads and basic services. Provisions for theseimprovements were included in the Ningbo Basic Urban Services Upgrading componentof the Zhejiang Multicities Development Project, financed in part by the World Bankduring the 1990s. The allocations within this component included US$ 35.3 million forcivil works; US$ 59.7 for demolition and resettlement; and an additional US$ 2.3 millionfor cultural heritage conservation.

At the outset, the project design did not provide for heritage conservation. Theproponents were entirely focused on civil works in the central city, which includedwidening eight principal roads, and constructing urban services within the road reserve,such as lighting, power cables, water and sewer works and landscaping. The project alsoprovided for demolishing structures not considered economically useful and for


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construction of modern housing for people who were to be moved from the old center ofthe city. The terms of reference for the engineering design were limited to transportationand traffic management objectives, and did not anticipate the impact of road widening onhistoric structures and neighborhoods.

But as planning progressed, the project staff realized that valuable historic propertylocated along the road alignments would be sacrificed. Despite the designation ofNingbo as a national Cultural Heritage Protected City; however, the city officials wereindifferent to the loss, maintaining that the threatened property was not more than 400years old, and thus not worthy of conservation.x In an effort to explain the value ofNingbos surviving heritage structures to the project proponents, a small team of Chineseand international historic conservation experts engaged by the project called on ZhuZixuan, an eminent Chinese professor from Tsinghua University in Beijing. He led thegroup in assessing the importance of the historic structures threatened by the project, andtogether they convinced the city officials that conservation was both feasible andadvantageous. With the recognition that urban modernization and historic conservation

were compatible objectives, a cultural heritage component was added to the project inorder to protect and utilize historic properties along the roadways.

The World Bank agreed to provide conservation specialists to work with city agenciesresponsible for infrastructure development and maintenance, particularly the PlanningBureau and the Institute of Preservation and Administration of Cultural Relics. Thechallenges included building political support and leadership; establishing inter-agencycoordination; enforcing laws and regulations regarding development; finding aneconomically viable use for restored historic structures; and working with the public tocreate awareness of their cultural heritage. In essence, the success of the conservationeffort would depend on how effectively information on the character and importance ofthe heritage could be presented to a variety of interest groups. This diverse audienceincluded: city administrators and developers interested in economic return on investment;local entrepreneurs looking for retail space; tourism agencies; and the population at large.

City officials, when convinced that their historic structures had value, acted asfacilitators. The Mayors office and the Ningbo Planning Bureau lent support by quicklyapproving adjustments to the original plans for road realignment, which allowed forrelocation or restoration of historic property. A Municipal Cultural Heritage ProtectionCommittee was established to serve as an inter-agency coordinating group. It includedthe heads of the Planning Department; Infrastructure Development Office; Engineeringand Public Utility Bureau; and the Institution of Preservation and Administration ofCultural Relics. At regular meetings, the Committee set priorities, approved plans,discussed issues relating to urban development and historic property, and consideredindividual projects that would affect cultural sites. Specialists and citizens groupsparticipated in the meetings. Thus, historic preservation became a shared objective inNingbo.

In China, there are national, provincial and municipal laws for protecting culturalheritage. Ningbo, as a nationally designated protected city, is subject to both local and


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national laws.xi However, in China, as in many other parts of the world, intensepressures for modernization and development often override preservation laws andregulations. The interest of Ningbos public authorities in cultural heritage conservationled to a more careful adherence to national and municipal laws for protection. In oneinstance, the Planning Bureau decided to revoke a previous agreement allowing real

estate developers free reign in building on a lake-front conservation area in order topreserve scenic and historic features and provide space for leisure activities. Developersin the Lake Yue area are now required to contribute toward general improvements,including construction of public areas and landscaping. (Figure 5.)

A fundamental concern in historic conservation is the practical consideration of economicfeasibility, which involves finding appropriate contemporary uses for structures. Amongseveral examples of restoration and adaptive re-use in Ningbo, is the Fan Center acomplex of shops selling books, antiques and art, located in an area of 15th century MingDynasty houses. Formerly a group of deteriorating buildings, with families crowded intounsanitary courtyards, this historic ensemble is typical of the traditional Chinese domesticarchitecture now being sacrificed to high-rise construction in numerous cities. In Ningbo,the historic structures were conserved and the families resettled into more modern and

spacious housing. The Jun Temple, which had been converted to a machine factory, thenused for shops, was restored to become part of a commercial complex containing a newdepartment store designed to blend with the historic temples exterior. The He ZhangHall, built on an island in Lake Yue during the Ming Dynasty, had deteriorated into apoorly maintained residence for municipal employees. Following resettlement of theoccupants, the building was restored to house the Ningbo Culture and Arts Association,its former quarters having been moved to the lake shore for use as a tea house. Attentionwas not limited to individual structures and small architectural ensembles, but also

Figure 5. Historic city center, Ningbo, China.


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focused on the urban fabric, including demarcation of conservation zones, provision forpedestrian links between such zones, and regulations for new structures to ensureharmonious design.

Public support was essential for the conservation activities. An educational campaign

accompanied the process of preserving historic structures and creating conservationareas. Through a variety of media, including brochures, audio visual materials, radio,scale models, dramatic presentations and special cultural heritage days, the PreservationInstitute stimulated interest and garnered public support. Specialists and the residents ofNingbo were invited to express their opinions on current conservation issues and specificplaces. This emphasis on public education by drawing attention to the cultural andhistoric significance of structures and the urban landscape has motivated citizens todemand more preservation work from the city and stimulated private groups to launchconservation projects. In turn, public interest encourages city officials to institutionalizea concerted approach to valuing, enhancing and maintaining the cultural heritage.Observing the results of historic preservation in the city, the Vice Mayor commented:

Ningbo has one of the richest cultural heritages in the country and we have aresponsibility to preserve this heritage for generations to come. By doing this weenrich the quality of life for our people, now and in the future.xii

V. THE PROPOSED DAM AT BUJAGALI FALLS IN UGANDA: A Case Study

As the Nile River flows north from Lake Victoria through land-locked Uganda, itdescends over 2,000 feet, providing considerable potential for generating hydroelectricpower. It is estimated that a mere five percent of Ugandas population has access toelectricity, and the quality and quantity of power are deemed a significant constraint onprivate investment necessary for the countrys development.xiii The World Bank Group,having financed two power projects in Uganda, was asked to finance a third, the BujagaliHydropower Project. This was be the largest private structural development project inEast Africa to date, including installation of a 200-megawat power plant at Bujagali Falls,on the Nile, construction of a 90-foot dam with a small reservoir, and approximately 100kilometers of transmission lines and substations.

The total cost was estimated at US$ 582 million. The International Finance Corporation(IFC), the arm of the World Bank Group supporting private investment in the developingworld, was to provide a partial risk guarantee for the project. Financing would comefrom the African Development Bank and from private investors, mainly the AESCorporation, a U.S.-based company, and the largest independent power producer in theworld. Its subsidiary in Uganda, the AES Nile Power (AESNP), designed the plans forthe dam and transmission lines, and during project preparation, provided anEnvironmental Impact Assessment (EIA), as required by the World Bank Group.

As its name implies, an EIA investigates the effects of a development project, focusingon physical and biological concerns such as the quality of soils, vegetation and air, as


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well as on the flora and fauna. The EIA also considers social matters, including the well-being of people in the area of a projects impact, and the effect on cultural heritage. EIAinvestigations have specific requirements for consultation with people who will beaffected by a project, so that their concerns are weighed fairly in final decisions regardingthe proposed development.

In July 2001, nearly five months before the Banks Board of Executive Directors wasdue to consider financial support for the Bujagali Hydropower Project, the InspectionPanel, a high-level oversight committee at the World Bank, received complaintsregarding the project from several non-governmental organizations in Uganda. Thedisaffected parties included the National Association of Professional Environmentalistsof Kampala (NAPE), and the Uganda Save Bujagali Crusade (SBC) among other localinstitutions and individuals. Complaints included claims of failures in the design,appraisal and implementation of the two previous hydropower projects financed by theWorld Bank, as well as in preparation for the Bujagali project. Regarding the latter, theclaimants maintained that the World Bank was not in compliance with several of its own

safeguard policies and procedures, including those for environmental assessment, naturalhabitats, safety of dams, involuntary resettlement, indigenous peoples, and culturalheritage.

Since 1986, the World Bank has had a policy designed to avoid destruction or damage tophysical cultural heritage in any project where it is involved.xiv This policy coversarchaeological and paleontological sites, architectural structures and ensembles, as wellas natural features with cultural or spiritual significance. The policy is generallyimplemented through the EIA, which requires consultation with peoples whose lives willbe affected by a development project. The complaint to the World Banks InspectionPanel, in regard to safeguarding cultural heritage, stated that the EIA and its consultationprocess did not give due consideration to the religious beliefs of the local Basoga people,who number 2.5 million and worship powerful spirits whom they believe inhabit thewaterfalls of Bujagali.xv The Basoga fear these spirits and maintain that disturbing themmay lead to havoc, including famine, sickness, death, and other hardships. Families havesmall altars in their houses, where on behalf of ancestors buried nearby, they appeal tothe spirits thought to inhabit rocks, trees and the waterfalls. A high priest, the Budhagali,is 39th in a succession of religious priests serving as the Basoga peoples intermediarywith the spirits. (Figure 6.)

The AESNP, claims that the Basoga were consulted during the EIA and gave assurancesthat the spirits could be moved to a new location provided that required rituals wereperformed. The EIA enumerates the projects Effects on Cultural Property as follows:inundation of household graves; inundation of dwelling sites of spirits, including thoseinhabiting the Bujagali rapids; and potential for construction employees to offend spirits.The EIA report concludes that any disturbances caused by the project and the relocationof the spirits would be minor and short term, and that the spirits inhabiting the BujagaliFalls could be moved to the Kalagali Falls on the Nile. The World Banks InspectionPanel found that the Government of Uganda had not given legally binding guarantees thatno construction would be undertaken at Kalagali in the future, and stipulated that such an


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assurance would be necessary in order to keep faith with the local population. For otherreasons, involving financing arrangements, the project is in abeyance as of mid-2005, butshould it be revived, the issue of the spirits will need to be addressed.

Figure 6. Bujagali Falls on the Nile River, Uganda

VI. CONCLUSIONS

The four case studies indicate the critical role of timely interpretation in the designation,

protection, conservation, restoration and reconstruction of cultural heritage structures andsites. The historic bridge at Mostar, in Bosnia and Herzegovina, was deliberatelydestroyed during ethnic conflict because of its symbolic and actual value as a unifyingedifice. Immediately following the destruction, proponents of heritage preservationsprung into action, providing a vision for reconstruction, educational workshops anddetailed architectural plans that helped to convince lenders, donors and technical expertsthat the project was feasible. The bridge, when destroyed, had received widespreadmedia attention as a ruined symbol of unity in a war-torn country. Investment inreconstruction was seen as a logical facet of the post-conflict healing and rebuildingprocess. Thus, in the case of Mostar, the interpretation that resulted in creation of thenew Old Bridge can be attributed to a combination of the international communications

media and dedicated, well-prepared and knowledgeable heritage professionals whoresponded quickly and effectively to stimulate financial and technical assistance. Therestored bridge stands as a testament to the centuries of multi-ethnic habitation in itslocality, the aspiration for reclaiming this harmony, and the importance of preservingprime examples of the historic built environment.

Asmara, the Italian colonial city, now the capital of Eritrea, survived intact during threedecades of the Eritreans armed struggle for independence from Ethiopia. The historic


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area now urgently requires planning for protection and appropriate maintenance in orderto conserve its character. Given the current expansion and growth of Asmara, culturalheritage experts in Eritrea recognized the need to educate municipal authorities, privateproperty owners and the general population as to the unique value of the historic city, andto demonstrate the principles and methods of heritage preservation. As the central district

of a vital, expanding modern city, the core of Asmara will never be a historic preserve. Itwill be an inhabited place, and maintaining its authenticity will depend on a combinationof municipal laws and regulations, public and private works, and care of historicstructures by their public or private owners. Careful planning is required to define therelationship between the heritage enclave in the central city and the fast growingperipheral neighborhoods. The future of historic Asmara thus depends on theeffectiveness of interpreting its character and value historical, social and economic toall whose decisions will affect its authentic survival.

A similar situation existed in Ningbo, China, where improvements in urban infrastructurethreatened the survival of historic buildings and community parklands until heritage

experts interceded by explaining the value of these attributes to municipal authorities,financial investors, developers and the public. Ningbo had undergone extensive urbanrenewal and development, hence the surviving historic structures do not form a cohesivetown, as in Asmara; they exist as isolated structures and small neighborhood enclaves, ofvarying age. Effective and timely intervention by cultural heritage experts with acompelling presentation regarding the historical, social and economic value of thetraditional architecture and urban parkland mobilized the municipality, investors,developers, merchants, tourism agencies and the public. A revised plan was created andimplemented, providing for restoration and adaptive re-use of several major landmarks,as well as for conservation and enhancement of the inner-city parks. Historicpreservation became a positive factor in urban modernization and a source of pride, as aresult of interpretation and persuasion by cultural heritage experts.

In Uganda, investors and proponents of a hydropower project at the Bujagali Falls, weremade aware of the religious significance of the site through the consultations with localinhabitants required by the Environmental Impact Assessment. The large project forgenerating electricity by constructing a dam and power plant had focused in the earlyplanning stages on technical aspects and the resettlement of peoples living in theimmediate vicinity. The discovery that the local Basoga people believe the rapids atBujagali are inhabited by spirits which have the power for drastic retribution if disturbed,caused the project proponents to take seriously this cultural and religious feature of thesite. Through negotiation with the Basoga, and their high priest, the Budhagali, it wasdeemed possible to conduct rituals necessary to facilitate relocation of the spirits toanother site of rapids on the Nile River, thus preserving religious and cultural practices.Involvement of the World Bank in the project required compliance with its policy forsafeguarding cultural property, and thus the cultural features of the Bujagali Falls had tobe respectfully considered and resolved with the local population as a precondition forproject approval.


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As illustrated in the four cases described, the responsibility for interpretation of heritagesites and structures by knowledgeable specialists is not confined to providing educationalinformation to visitors. In order to ensure survival, designation, conservation,appropriate use and appreciation of heritage places, interpretation must take place in atimely manner, under widely differing circumstances, and be directed at a variety of

audiences, including those whose decisions will have a significant effect on the heritage.Recognition of this broader function of interpretation has implications for culturalresource experts and historians. It requires attention to safeguarding heritage structuresand sites that are threatened during both conflict and development, and providing relevantinterpretive information about their value in terms understandable to the decision makerswhose actions have an impact on heritage resources. ICOMOS is taking a significant andvaluable step in issuing a charter on the interpretation of cultural heritage sites. Informulating the charter, the strategic use of interpretation should be given due attentionwith the goal of maximizing the survival, conservation and appreciation of the worldsheritage resources.

END NOTES

i ICOMOS Ename Charter for the Interpretation of Cultural Heritage Sites, Third Draft, (23 August 2004).www.enamecenter.org/pages/ICOMOS_Ename_Charter_(Draft3)_23-08.04.docii The author has served from 1997 to the present as a consultant to the World Bank on cultural resources.Information in this paper comes from documents in the public domain. Opinions and conclusions are thoseof the author.iii Arlene K. Fleming and George Kenney, organizers, A Symposium on Destruction and Rebuilding ofArchitectural Treasures in Bosnia and Herzegovenia, at the Conference Center of the Carnegie Endowmentfor International Peace,( May 2, 1994). www.kakarigi.net/manu/ceip2.htmiv Letter from the Government of Bosnia and Herzegovina to UNESCO and the Council of Europerequesting assistance for protection of historic monuments, including the Old Bridge at Mostar, (July1993).v Fleming and Kenney, op.cit.,. www.kakarigi.net/manu/ceip3.htmvi The Cultural Assets Rehabilitation Project,Asmara: A Guide to the Built Environment, Asmara, Eritrea(2003), pp. 68-73.vii The Cultural Assets Rehabilitation Project, Urban Awareness Campaign Project Summary, inconjunction with the Book for Schools Project, Asmara, Eritrea (2004).viii The Cultural Assets Rehabilitation Project, op.cit., p. 72.ix Katrinka Ebbe and Donald Hankey, Case Study:Ningbo, China. Cultural Heritage Conservation inUrban Upgrading, The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank,Washington, D.C., (1999), p. 4.xIbid., p. 7.xi

Ibid., p.9. Article 22 of the Constitution of the Peoples Republic of China (1882), states that: The stateprotects places of scenic and historical interest, valuable cultural monuments and treasures and otherimportant items of Chinas historical and cultural heritage.xiiIbid.xiii James Tumusiime, Power Struggle: Hydro challenges the Victoria Nile at Bujagali Falls, Worldview,Volume 15, Number 4 (October December 2002), p. 25.xiv Operational Policy Note (OPN) 11.03 Management of Cultural Property in Bank-financed Projects(1986).xv The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank,Accountability at theWorld Bank: The Inspection Panel 10 Years On, Washington, D.C. (2003), p. 84.
http://www.enamecenter.org/pages/ICOMOS_Ename_Charter_(Drafthttp://www.enamecenter.org/pages/ICOMOS_Ename_Charter_(Draft

the essential role of interpretation in safeguarding cultural heritage

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