The English Resultative as The English Resultative as a Family of Constructionsa Family of Constructions

Goldberg & Jackendoff (2004)Goldberg & Jackendoff (2004)LING 7420 10/12/06LING 7420 10/12/06

1. A Constructional View of 1. A Constructional View of GrammarGrammar The constructional viewThe constructional view

a)a) There is a cline of grammatical There is a cline of grammatical phenomena. phenomena.

b)b) Everything on this cline is to be Everything on this cline is to be stated in a common format. stated in a common format. There is no principled divide There is no principled divide between ‘lexicon’ and ‘rules.’between ‘lexicon’ and ‘rules.’

c)c) At the phrasal level, pieces of At the phrasal level, pieces of meaning are captured by meaning are captured by constructions.constructions.

A Constructional View of A Constructional View of GrammarGrammar

Differs from traditional lexicalist Differs from traditional lexicalist approachesapproaches Does not emphasize the role of Does not emphasize the role of

words (lexical heads) in words (lexical heads) in determining phrasal patternsdetermining phrasal patterns

Expands the notion of the lexicon Expands the notion of the lexicon to include phrasal patternsto include phrasal patterns

Examples of ConstructionsExamples of Constructions

Idiosyncratic Garden-variety

…and everything in between!

Constructions are like idiomsConstructions are like idioms

Listed in the lexicon withListed in the lexicon with Syntactic structureSyntactic structure MeaningMeaning Partial phonologyPartial phonology

May have argument positionsMay have argument positions ““Twistin’ the Twistin’ the nightnight away.” away.”

‘‘night’ night’ obj. of ‘twist’ obj. of ‘twist’ ““Fred watered the plants Fred watered the plants flatflat.”.”

‘‘flat’ flat’ arg of ‘water’ arg of ‘water’

????????????

What are diagnostics for argument What are diagnostics for argument positions of constructions?positions of constructions? In “Fred watered the plants flat,” how do In “Fred watered the plants flat,” how do

we know that “flat” is in an “argument we know that “flat” is in an “argument position?position?

““In the transitive resultative construction In the transitive resultative construction (NP VP NP AP), the AP is an argument (NP VP NP AP), the AP is an argument position of the costruction…” = circular position of the costruction…” = circular logic?logic?

The VP in constructionsThe VP in constructions

Verb + construction = Verb + construction = complement structurecomplement structure

……but,…how? but,…how? Verbs across languages Verbs across languages

(Narasimhan, 1998)(Narasimhan, 1998) Similar semantic implicationsSimilar semantic implications Similar aspectual propertiesSimilar aspectual properties Similar discourse contextsSimilar discourse contexts DIFFERENT constructionsDIFFERENT constructions

Costs of constructionsCosts of constructions

Need to admit meaningful Need to admit meaningful constructions as items stored in constructions as items stored in the lexiconthe lexicon

Need to abandon the rigid view Need to abandon the rigid view that the verb alone determines that the verb alone determines the complement structure of its the complement structure of its VPVP

Evidence for constructionsEvidence for constructions(it’s not just an arbitrary explanation for one (it’s not just an arbitrary explanation for one syntactic phenomenon)syntactic phenomenon)

General principles of syntactic General principles of syntactic and argument structure cannot and argument structure cannot account for all meaningsaccount for all meanings

Aspects of constructions are Aspects of constructions are rare cross-linguisticallyrare cross-linguistically

2. Dimensions of Variations in 2. Dimensions of Variations in ResultativesResultatives A A familyfamily of constructions of constructions

Sharing important properties but Sharing important properties but differing in specificsdiffering in specifics

Family resemblances of the sort Family resemblances of the sort found in nonlinguistic categoriesfound in nonlinguistic categories

1.1. Establish a taxonomyEstablish a taxonomy2.2. State which properties are State which properties are

from the constructionfrom the construction3.3. Pick out the differencesPick out the differences

TerminologyTerminology

Resultative Phrase (RP)Resultative Phrase (RP) AP or PPAP or PP Occupies the normal position of a Occupies the normal position of a

verbal argumentverbal argument Differ from depictive or “current Differ from depictive or “current

state” phrasesstate” phrases Resultative: “Herman hammered the Resultative: “Herman hammered the

metal flat.”metal flat.” Depicitive: “She handed him the Depicitive: “She handed him the

towel wet.”towel wet.”

????????????

ResultativesResultatives Argument phrasesArgument phrases State is dependent State is dependent

upon the action of upon the action of the main verbthe main verb

Designates a resultDesignates a result

Diagnostics, please!Diagnostics, please!

DepictivesDepictives Clear adjunctsClear adjuncts Do not Do not

designate designate states states contingent on contingent on the actionthe action

Do not Do not designate designate resultsresults

Taxonomy of resultativesTaxonomy of resultatives

Intransitive Intransitive NP VP RPNP VP RP TransitiveTransitive NP VP NP RPNP VP NP RP Selected (d.o. selected by verb)Selected (d.o. selected by verb) Unselected (d.o. not selected by Unselected (d.o. not selected by

verb)verb) Fake reflexives (reflexive obj. Fake reflexives (reflexive obj.

cannot alternate with other NPs)cannot alternate with other NPs)

Pop Quiz!Pop Quiz!

He drank himself He drank himself to a frenzy.to a frenzy.

He stepped onto He stepped onto the stage in a the stage in a Liberace-inspired Liberace-inspired jacket made of jacket made of audio-cassette audio-cassette tape and lulled me tape and lulled me into a false sense into a false sense of securityof security

Get your butt over Get your butt over here now!here now!

The scallops have The scallops have shrunk tight. shrunk tight.

The vaccinated The vaccinated chased the chased the unvaccinated to unvaccinated to treatment.treatment.

She snogged him She snogged him senseless.senseless.

Sudoku, the puzzle Sudoku, the puzzle that drives that drives everybody crazy.everybody crazy.

Property vs. SpatialProperty vs. Spatial

RP expresses a property RP expresses a property AP (and some PPs-- “into pieces”)AP (and some PPs-- “into pieces”)

RP expresses a spatial RP expresses a spatial configurationconfiguration PP (and a few APs-- “free,” PP (and a few APs-- “free,”

“clear”)“clear”)

????????????

He jumped clear of the traffic.He jumped clear of the traffic. AP spatial resultativeAP spatial resultative

He drove me home.He drove me home. Resultative?Resultative? If so, what is “home”?If so, what is “home”?

Host of the RPHost of the RP

NP who undergoes a change, NP who undergoes a change, with the endpoint being with the endpoint being expressed by the RPexpressed by the RP

UsuallyUsually Transitive: Transitive: objectobject host host

He hammered He hammered the metalthe metal flat. flat. Intransitive: Intransitive: subjectsubject host host

The pondThe pond froze solid. froze solid.

Unusual HostsUnusual Hosts

Transitive SubjectTransitive Subject ““newly emerged in the literature”newly emerged in the literature” Demonstrates independent Demonstrates independent

dimension of variation (not dimension of variation (not dependent upon transitivity)dependent upon transitivity)

BillBill followed the road into the followed the road into the forest.forest.

All examples provided are spatial All examples provided are spatial resultativesresultatives

Unusual HostsUnusual Hosts

Implicit (nonsubject) hostImplicit (nonsubject) host Verbs of bodily/substance Verbs of bodily/substance

emission, ingestionemission, ingestion Entity of motion is not overtly Entity of motion is not overtly

expressedexpressed Deleted cognate object?Deleted cognate object?

He coughed into the sink.He coughed into the sink. She screamed into the phone.She screamed into the phone.

Summary of independent Summary of independent dimensions of resultativesdimensions of resultatives RP = AP vs RP = PPRP = AP vs RP = PP RP = property vs. RP = spatialRP = property vs. RP = spatial Intransitive vs. TrasitiveIntransitive vs. Trasitive

Within transitive: selected vs. Within transitive: selected vs. unselectedunselected Within unselected: normal vs. fake Within unselected: normal vs. fake

reflexivereflexive

Choice of host Choice of host (subject/object/implicit)(subject/object/implicit)

3. The Semantics of the 3. The Semantics of the ResultativeResultative

Two separable eventsTwo separable events Verbal subeventVerbal subevent Constructional subeventConstructional subevent

More than just conjunction…More than just conjunction………the subevents are relatedthe subevents are related• MEANSMEANS• RESULT RESULT • INSTANCEINSTANCE

The Semantics of the The Semantics of the ResultativeResultative

The semantic argument The semantic argument structure of the constructional structure of the constructional subevent determines the subevent determines the syntactic argument structure of syntactic argument structure of the sentence by general the sentence by general principles of argument linking.principles of argument linking.

……(however you want to link it)(however you want to link it)

Resultative Verbs vs. Resultative Verbs vs. Resultative ConstructionsResultative Constructions Inherently resultative verbs (verbal Inherently resultative verbs (verbal

resultatives*) have resultatives*) have broader or broader or narrowernarrower selectional properties than selectional properties than the general constructionthe general construction ““make”: allows NPs and APs (broader)make”: allows NPs and APs (broader) ““drive”: only allows APs and PPs drive”: only allows APs and PPs

referring to demented mental states referring to demented mental states (narrower)(narrower)

*verbal resultatives cannot be paraphrased as *verbal resultatives cannot be paraphrased as two subeventstwo subevents

Property vs. Path ResultativesProperty vs. Path Resultatives

Property: host attains the Property: host attains the property expressed by the RPproperty expressed by the RP

Path: host traverses the path Path: host traverses the path expressed by the RPexpressed by the RP Follow-type and spit-type Follow-type and spit-type

examples discussed later… examples discussed later…

Noncausative vs. CausativeNoncausative vs. Causative

GenerallyGenerally Intransitive = NoncausativeIntransitive = Noncausative Transitive = CausativeTransitive = Causative

Can be property or path, AP or Can be property or path, AP or PPPP

Sound-emission and Sound-emission and disappearance resultativesdisappearance resultatives Same syntactic form as (16b), but Same syntactic form as (16b), but

not licensednot licensed Relationship between verbal and Relationship between verbal and

constructional subevents is that the constructional subevents is that the verbal event is a RESULT of the verbal event is a RESULT of the constructional (sound/disappearance constructional (sound/disappearance is a result of motion)is a result of motion)

Selectional restrictions: Selectional restrictions: disappearance verbs and the way-disappearance verbs and the way-constructionconstruction

In summary (so far)In summary (so far)

Distinct subconstructions with Distinct subconstructions with Similar syntax, arg structure, Similar syntax, arg structure,

subeventssubevents Unique selectional restrictionsUnique selectional restrictions

Subconstructions form a familySubconstructions form a family

4. Aspectual Properties4. Aspectual Properties

Telic (“end-bounded”)Telic (“end-bounded”) Atelic (“non-end-bounded”)Atelic (“non-end-bounded”) StativeStative

So you think resultatives are So you think resultatives are invariably telic, huh?invariably telic, huh?

Atelic resultativesAtelic resultatives

Property resultatives (AP)Property resultatives (AP) Non-end-bounded change of stateNon-end-bounded change of state ““A-er and A-er”A-er and A-er” ““ever A-er” ever A-er”

Path resultatives (PP)Path resultatives (PP) Non-end-bounded spatial PPsNon-end-bounded spatial PPs Diagnostic: “…for hours”Diagnostic: “…for hours”

Stative ResultativesStative Resultatives

Indistinguishable from path in Indistinguishable from path in both syntactic and arg-structure both syntactic and arg-structure propertiesproperties

Extension interpretation of Extension interpretation of motion, or of maintenance of motion, or of maintenance of shape shape

Causation does not involve Causation does not involve change, but forced maintenance change, but forced maintenance of stateof state

Temporal Relation of Temporal Relation of SubeventsSubevents To do “X by MEANS of Y” you To do “X by MEANS of Y” you

have to do X first!have to do X first! Constructional subevent cannot Constructional subevent cannot

precede the verbal subeventprecede the verbal subevent Verbal event is…Verbal event is…

Concurrent withConcurrent with Overlapping withOverlapping with Entirely precedingEntirely preceding

……the constructional subeventthe constructional subevent

Temporal Delay?????Temporal Delay?????

(32) Sam sang enthusiastically (32) Sam sang enthusiastically during the class play. He woke during the class play. He woke up hoarse the next day and up hoarse the next day and said, “Well, I guess I’ve sung said, “Well, I guess I’ve sung myself hoarse.” (Rappaport, myself hoarse.” (Rappaport, Hovav & Levin 2001:775)Hovav & Levin 2001:775)

With all unselected objects?With all unselected objects? Is it really a delay?Is it really a delay?

Temporal RelationsTemporal Relations

Relation between subevents Relation between subevents determined by:determined by: Semantic relationSemantic relation Pragmatic world knowledgePragmatic world knowledge Tendency to interpret monoclausal Tendency to interpret monoclausal

events as cotemporalevents as cotemporal

5. World Knowledge5. World Knowledge

Fake reflexives--should they Fake reflexives--should they really be grammatically really be grammatically separated from other separated from other resultatives?resultatives?

No. Because they just make No. Because they just make sense.sense.

(hmmm…thoughts?)(hmmm…thoughts?)

6. How arguments are shared6. How arguments are shared

How do we relate the verb args How do we relate the verb args to the construction args?to the construction args?

FARFAR All args must be realizedAll args must be realized Syntactic positions can be sharedSyntactic positions can be shared

Diagnostic: an arg is necessary Diagnostic: an arg is necessary in the active, simple past tensein the active, simple past tense

How arguments are sharedHow arguments are shared

Shared arguments have the Shared arguments have the same thematic rolessame thematic roles

Args with the same thematic Args with the same thematic role share the same syntactic role share the same syntactic positionposition

Optionally transitive/Intransitive Optionally transitive/Intransitive verbs allow a constructional arg verbs allow a constructional arg to overrideto override

Pop Quiz, the sequel!Pop Quiz, the sequel!

Map the verbal and Map the verbal and constructional arguments for the constructional arguments for the examples from the first ‘pop examples from the first ‘pop quiz.’quiz.’

The Semantic Coherence The Semantic Coherence PrinciplePrinciple

Only semantically compatible Only semantically compatible roles (rV and rC) can be roles (rV and rC) can be combinedcombined

““Close enough”Close enough” If rV can be construed as an If rV can be construed as an

instance of rC, they can be unifiedinstance of rC, they can be unified

Variability predicted Variability predicted

Potentially affected items can be Potentially affected items can be construed as patientsconstrued as patients

Events may be things that happen to Events may be things that happen to us or things that we dous or things that we do

Intransitive spatial resultatives vary Intransitive spatial resultatives vary with the animacy of the subjectwith the animacy of the subject

Transitive spatial resultatives need Transitive spatial resultatives need “instigator” subjects“instigator” subjects

7. Extending the Analysis7. Extending the Analysis

FollowFollow-type verbs-type verbs Transitive verbsTransitive verbs Subject hostSubject host Two types:Two types:

Motion determined by objectMotion determined by object Transitive noncausative spatial Transitive noncausative spatial

resultativesresultatives Obj = vehicleObj = vehicle Obj = path of motionObj = path of motion

Extending the AnalysisExtending the Analysis

Dancing mazurkas!Dancing mazurkas! Verb + object = complex predicateVerb + object = complex predicate

Can’t be passivizedCan’t be passivized Referential objects yield ill-formed Referential objects yield ill-formed

sentencessentences

Extending the AnalysisExtending the Analysis

SpitSpit cases cases Seem to violate FARSeem to violate FAR Implicit entities in motionImplicit entities in motion

Specified path--PP further delineates Specified path--PP further delineates the paththe path

Bodily emissionBodily emission Highly inferable theme arguments Highly inferable theme arguments

need not be overtly exressedneed not be overtly exressed

??? Thoughts ?????? Thoughts ???

8. Productivity8. Productivity

Spatial resultativesSpatial resultatives Totally productiveTotally productive Constraints posed by meaning of Constraints posed by meaning of

constructionconstruction Any spatial PP that can be a path Any spatial PP that can be a path

can be an RPcan be an RP Telic/atelicTelic/atelic Complex/simpleComplex/simple Goal-directed/source-directedGoal-directed/source-directed

ProductivityProductivity

Property resultativesProperty resultatives Some lexical resultatives are Some lexical resultatives are

productive, allow for a range of productive, allow for a range of predicatespredicates

Some lexical resultatives are more Some lexical resultatives are more constrainedconstrained

Productivity of APs depends on Productivity of APs depends on the lexical resultativethe lexical resultative

ProductivityProductivity

IdiomsIdioms A wide variety of examples…A wide variety of examples…

Generalizations about APsGeneralizations about APs More productive = delineated stateMore productive = delineated state Gradable APs = less productiveGradable APs = less productive

Restriction on PPsRestriction on PPs PPs with acceptable PPs with acceptable

corresponding APs cannot be corresponding APs cannot be RPsRPs

In SummaryIn Summary

“…“…the grammar contains the the grammar contains the property resultative as an property resultative as an overarching generalization, but overarching generalization, but particular subclasses, particular subclasses, constrained in all sorts of constrained in all sorts of different ways, are learned different ways, are learned indivdually.”indivdually.”