THE ENGLISH LEXICON: THE ENGLISH LEXICON: FROM WORDS TO FROM WORDS TO

PHRASEOLOGYPHRASEOLOGYunit 4unit 4

MARIA TERESA PRATMARIA TERESA PRAT

TWO PARTSTWO PARTS

PART 1. Brainstorming PART 1. Brainstorming on lexison lexis

PART 2. The English PART 2. The English lexicon: general lexicon: general featuresfeatures

SOME OLD AND NEW SOME OLD AND NEW CONCEPTS AND TERMSCONCEPTS AND TERMS

WORD/WORD FORM/ LEXEMEWORD/WORD FORM/ LEXEMEGRAMMATICAL OR FUNCTIONAL GRAMMATICAL OR FUNCTIONAL

WORD / LEXICAL WORDWORD / LEXICAL WORDVOCABULARY/LEXIS/ THE LEXICONVOCABULARY/LEXIS/ THE LEXICONENTRY/HEADWORD/LEMMAENTRY/HEADWORD/LEMMALEXICOLOGY/LEXICOGRAPHYLEXICOLOGY/LEXICOGRAPHYPHRASEOLOGY (from proverbs, PHRASEOLOGY (from proverbs,

quotations and slogans to a wide quotations and slogans to a wide range of multi-word lexical patterns) range of multi-word lexical patterns)

(LEXICAL) SEMANTICS is the scientific (LEXICAL) SEMANTICS is the scientific study of (WORD) meaning study of (WORD) meaning

LEXIS IS DYNAMICLEXIS IS DYNAMICLEXIS IS RENEWED IN THREE MAIN WAYS: LEXIS IS RENEWED IN THREE MAIN WAYS:

1 The creation of completely new words (COINAGE) 1 The creation of completely new words (COINAGE) e.g. computing terms such as e.g. computing terms such as GoogleGoogle

2 The borrowing of words from other languages (LOANWORDS) 2 The borrowing of words from other languages (LOANWORDS) e.g. anglicisms in Italiane.g. anglicisms in Italian

3 WORD FORMATION PROCESSES internal to the language 3 WORD FORMATION PROCESSES internal to the language (DERIVATIONAL MORPHOLOGY) , e.g. prefixes, suffixes, (DERIVATIONAL MORPHOLOGY) , e.g. prefixes, suffixes, compounding, semantic shift.compounding, semantic shift.

- e.g. e.g. - Moral, Moral, aamoral, moral, imimmoral, moralmoral, moralityity

- LEXIS IS THE LEVEL OF LANGUAGE MOST RAPIDLY AND LEXIS IS THE LEVEL OF LANGUAGE MOST RAPIDLY AND DEEPLY AFFECTED BY SOCIAL, HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL DEEPLY AFFECTED BY SOCIAL, HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL CHANGECHANGE

MEANING IS COMPLEXMEANING IS COMPLEX

THE RELATIONSHIPTHE RELATIONSHIP

BETWEEN BETWEEN

“ “THINGS” AND THINGS” AND “WORDS”“WORDS”

OBSERVING THE RELATIONSHIP OBSERVING THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN “THINGS” AND BETWEEN “THINGS” AND

“WORDS”“WORDS”1.1. MIAGOLARE MIAGOLARE TO MEW/TO MIAOW TO MEW/TO MIAOW 2.2. CHICCHIRICHI CHICCHIRICHI COCK-A-DOODLE-DOCOCK-A-DOODLE-DO1.1. ACQUAACQUA WATER/WASSER/EAU/….WATER/WASSER/EAU/….

SOME WORDS IMITATE NATURAL SOME WORDS IMITATE NATURAL SOUNDS (ONOMATOPOEIC) BUT SOUNDS (ONOMATOPOEIC) BUT MOST WORDS HAVE AN ARBITRARY MOST WORDS HAVE AN ARBITRARY CONNECTION WITH “THINGS” CONNECTION WITH “THINGS”

DEFINING WORD DEFINING WORD MEANING MEANING

WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE IS ..WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE IS ..

1.1. ……a famous English playwright of the 16th centurya famous English playwright of the 16th century2.2. … … the greatest playwright of all timesthe greatest playwright of all times3.3. …….the author of Hamlet, Romeo and Juliet and .the author of Hamlet, Romeo and Juliet and

many other tragedies and comedies many other tragedies and comedies 4.4. ……the father of the British theatrethe father of the British theatre5.5. … … a writer of the Modern English perioda writer of the Modern English period6.6. ……my favourite dramatistmy favourite dramatist etc. etc.

WORDS REFER TO, OR DENOTE, ENTITIES IN THE WORDS REFER TO, OR DENOTE, ENTITIES IN THE WORLD, BUT THIS RELATIONSHIP (REFERENCE) WORLD, BUT THIS RELATIONSHIP (REFERENCE) CAN BE EXPRESSED IN DIFFERENT WAYSCAN BE EXPRESSED IN DIFFERENT WAYS

Defining the adjective Defining the adjective “honest”“honest”

A person who is honest does not tell lies, cheat A person who is honest does not tell lies, cheat people or violate the lawpeople or violate the law

A person who is honest always tells the truth, A person who is honest always tells the truth, respects other people, obeys the law and pays respects other people, obeys the law and pays taxestaxes

Someone who is honest can always be trustedSomeone who is honest can always be trustedSomeone who is honest does not hide things Someone who is honest does not hide things

from youfrom youSomeone who is honest can be trusted with Someone who is honest can be trusted with

valuables and moneyvaluables and money etc. etc. etc. etc.

THE MEANING OF WORDS CAN BE THE MEANING OF WORDS CAN BE CULTURALLY CONDITIONEDCULTURALLY CONDITIONED

Defining the noun “bird”Defining the noun “bird”A bird is…A bird is…

An animal with the body covered in/with feathers, with two An animal with the body covered in/with feathers, with two wings and a beak, which is able to fly. Female birds lay eggswings and a beak, which is able to fly. Female birds lay eggs

An animal with feathers, two legs and two wings, which is An animal with feathers, two legs and two wings, which is able to fly.able to fly.

BUT WHAT ABOUT PENGUINS AND OSTRICHS?BUT WHAT ABOUT PENGUINS AND OSTRICHS?

We conceive a general image, a We conceive a general image, a mental PROTOTYPE based on our mental PROTOTYPE based on our experience and containing the most experience and containing the most distinctive characteristics of the distinctive characteristics of the class. Some members are less central class. Some members are less central than others.than others.

““BUTTERFLY”BUTTERFLY”

Butterflies live only one dayButterflies live only one day She is a butterfly when she She is a butterfly when she

dancesdances

WORDS DENOTE OBJECTS AND WORDS DENOTE OBJECTS AND CONCEPTS , BUT MAY HAVE CONCEPTS , BUT MAY HAVE EMOTIONAL OR STYLISTIC EMOTIONAL OR STYLISTIC CONNOTATIONSCONNOTATIONS

DIFFERENT TYPES OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF LEXEMELEXEME

1. 1. The computerThe computer is an electronic machine which is used for storing, is an electronic machine which is used for storing, organizing and finding different types of informationorganizing and finding different types of information

SOME WORDS HAVE ONLY ONE REFERENT OR MEANING SOME WORDS HAVE ONLY ONE REFERENT OR MEANING (MONOREFERENTIAL)(MONOREFERENTIAL)

2a A violent 2a A violent storm storm broke outbroke out2b It was only 2b It was only a storm in a tea cupa storm in a tea cup2c His speech provoked 2c His speech provoked a storm of criticisma storm of criticismSOME WORDS HAVE SEVERAL RELATED MEANINGS (POLYSEMOUS)SOME WORDS HAVE SEVERAL RELATED MEANINGS (POLYSEMOUS)

3a. I was walking along 3a. I was walking along the bankthe bank of the river Cam of the river Cam3b. I used to work at 3b. I used to work at the Royal Bank of Scotlandthe Royal Bank of Scotland3c 3c The nearest bankThe nearest bank is in Gower street is in Gower street SOME WORDS HAVE DIFFERENT UNRELATED MEANINGS SOME WORDS HAVE DIFFERENT UNRELATED MEANINGS

( HOMONYMS)( HOMONYMS)

THE NATURE OF LEXEMES AFFECTS THE THE NATURE OF LEXEMES AFFECTS THE ORGANISATION OF LEMMAS IN ORGANISATION OF LEMMAS IN DICTIONARIESDICTIONARIES

Semantic links between Semantic links between wordswords

1 1 Freedom and libertyFreedom and liberty (NEAR)-SYNONYMY(NEAR)-SYNONYMY2.2. Black or white; fast or slow; brother or Black or white; fast or slow; brother or

sister; married or singlesister; married or single ANTONYMY (or COMPLEMENTARITY)ANTONYMY (or COMPLEMENTARITY)3. 3. flowers, roses, daffodils, violets, tulips, flowers, roses, daffodils, violets, tulips,

daisiesdaisies HYPERONYMY (SUPERORDINATES) HYPERONYMY (SUPERORDINATES)

and HYPONYMY ( SUBORDINATES)and HYPONYMY ( SUBORDINATES)4. 4. To cook, roast, simmer, fry, bake, boil, To cook, roast, simmer, fry, bake, boil,

barbecue…barbecue… SEMANTIC FIELD SEMANTIC FIELD

Discuss the following Discuss the following examplesexamples

1. I would like to win a post-graduate scholarship 1. I would like to win a post-graduate scholarship to do research (not * to make research)to do research (not * to make research)

2. How do you do? 2. How do you do? 3. The ups and downs of life ( not * the downs and 3. The ups and downs of life ( not * the downs and

ups)ups)4. The early bird catches the worm ( not * the 4. The early bird catches the worm ( not * the

early cat catches the mouse)early cat catches the mouse)5. Torrential/heavy rain in Bangladesh ( not * 5. Torrential/heavy rain in Bangladesh ( not *

strong rain) strong rain) 6. He has spilled the beans ( not * spilled the 6. He has spilled the beans ( not * spilled the

peas)peas)

“ “WORDS KEEP COMPANY WITH OTHER WORDS KEEP COMPANY WITH OTHER WORDS” AND TEND TO CO-OCCUR IN WORDS” AND TEND TO CO-OCCUR IN PREFERRED OR FIXED COLLOCATIONS.PREFERRED OR FIXED COLLOCATIONS.

To sum up, lexis …To sum up, lexis … is dynamic is dynamic refers to the external world refers to the external world refers to mental concepts refers to mental concepts has emotional and stylistic has emotional and stylistic

connotations connotations has one or several referents and has one or several referents and

meanings meanings relates to other words in the language relates to other words in the language may co-occur with other words in may co-occur with other words in

fixed or semi-fixed patterns. fixed or semi-fixed patterns.

WHAT DOES KNOWING A WHAT DOES KNOWING A WORD MEAN?WORD MEAN?

Part IIPart II

THE THE ENGLISH ENGLISH

LEXICON LEXICON

How many words are there How many words are there in English? in English?

It is not easy to count them It is not easy to count them and there area different and there area different ways of doing it :ways of doing it :

1.1. DictionariesDictionaries

2.2. Electronic corporaElectronic corpora

3.3. Speakers’ competenceSpeakers’ competence

S. JOHNSON’S S. JOHNSON’S DICTIONARY (1755), DICTIONARY (1755), about about

42,000 entries42,000 entries LEXICO’GRAPHER. LEXICO’GRAPHER.

n.s. [? n.s. [? lixicographelixicographe, , French.] A writer of French.] A writer of dictionories; a dictionories; a harmless drudge, that harmless drudge, that busies himself in busies himself in tracing the original, tracing the original, and detailing the and detailing the signification of words.signification of words.

Commentators and Commentators and lexicographerslexicographers acquainted acquainted with the Syriac language, with the Syriac language, have given these hints in have given these hints in their writings on scripture. their writings on scripture. Watt’s Improvement of the Watt’s Improvement of the Mind.Mind.

THE OXFORD ENGLISH DICTIONARY ON THE OXFORD ENGLISH DICTIONARY ON

HISTORICAL PRINCIPLES, OEDHISTORICAL PRINCIPLES, OED The 20 volume 1989 editionThe 20 volume 1989 edition

OED FeaturesOED Features The project started in the second The project started in the second

half of the 19th centuryhalf of the 19th century It covers English since the 14th It covers English since the 14th

centurycentury The second print edition in 20 The second print edition in 20

volumes + 4 additions has volumes + 4 additions has 616,500 616,500 headwords and derived words and headwords and derived words and phrasesphrases

A CdROM and an online version, A CdROM and an online version, which is regularly updated, are also which is regularly updated, are also available ( but not in our library!)available ( but not in our library!)

OED: a selection from the OED: a selection from the entry for entry for

“spaghetti” “spaghetti” [It., pl. of spaghetto thin string, twine.]      1. a. A variety of pasta made in long thin

strings. Occas., a dish of spaghetti. 18881888 MRS. BEETON Bk. Househ. Managem.Bk. Househ. Managem. §2952 Maccheroni, or §2952 Maccheroni, or

Spaghetti, a smaller kind of macaroni,..generally follows the soupSpaghetti, a smaller kind of macaroni,..generally follows the soup. .         2.2. An Italian: usu. contemptuous. An Italian: usu. contemptuous. slang.slang. 19311931 ‘D. STIFF’ Milk & Honey RouteMilk & Honey Route iii. 38 Italian hobos are equally iii. 38 Italian hobos are equally

rare. They are the ‘wops’ or ‘spaghettis’.rare. They are the ‘wops’ or ‘spaghettis’.         3.3. Complex roadways forming a multi-level Complex roadways forming a multi-level

junction, esp. on a motorway. junction, esp. on a motorway. colloqcolloq 19661966 GuardianGuardian 4 June 14/2 Details of one of the 4 June 14/2 Details of one of the

biggest pieces of motorway spaghetti so far biggest pieces of motorway spaghetti so far designed in Britain were published... designed in Britain were published...

MERRIAM-WEBSTER’S :MERRIAM-WEBSTER’S :the American counterpart the American counterpart

to OEDto OED

The Webster’s The Webster’s

It covers American English since It covers American English since the 18th centurythe 18th century

Its 1963 edition contains Its 1963 edition contains c. c. 114,000 word families114,000 word families (a (a headword accompanied by its headword accompanied by its inflected and derived forms)inflected and derived forms)

It is regularly updated. There are It is regularly updated. There are several print editions and an several print editions and an online edition, which is freely online edition, which is freely availableavailable

OTHER TYPES OF OTHER TYPES OF DICTIONARYDICTIONARY

in SIZE (college dictionaries, desk in SIZE (college dictionaries, desk dictionaries, pocket dictionaries)dictionaries, pocket dictionaries)

in ADDRESSEES for EFL learners (from in ADDRESSEES for EFL learners (from 60,000 to 80,000 entries), or for native 60,000 to 80,000 entries), or for native speakers speakers

in CONTENTS ( general or specialised, in CONTENTS ( general or specialised, varieties of English) varieties of English)

in NUMBER OF LANGUAGES in NUMBER OF LANGUAGES ( monolingual, bilingual, multilingual) ( monolingual, bilingual, multilingual)

In FORMAT ( paper, CD-ROM, online)In FORMAT ( paper, CD-ROM, online)

THE COLLINS COBUILD Learner’s THE COLLINS COBUILD Learner’s

DictionaryDictionary Monolingual general Monolingual general

Learners’ Dictionaries Learners’ Dictionaries usually contain:usually contain:

1.1. Spelling variantsSpelling variants2.2. IPAIPA p phonetic transcriptionhonetic transcription3.3. Grammatical and syntactic Grammatical and syntactic

informationinformation4.4. Information on frequencyInformation on frequency5.5. Definitions of various Definitions of various

sensessenses6.6. Examples of usageExamples of usage7.7. Sense relations, e.g. Sense relations, e.g.

antonymyantonymy8.8. Register labels (e.g Register labels (e.g

formal, slang)formal, slang)9.9. Frequent lexical Frequent lexical

collocationscollocations10.10. Usage notesUsage notes11.11. Typical learner errors Typical learner errors 12.12. Use of colours, symbols Use of colours, symbols

and figuresand figures13.13. Special sectionsSpecial sections

ELECTRONIC CORPORAELECTRONIC CORPORA

Corpora are collections of text in Corpora are collections of text in electronic form that are meant to electronic form that are meant to represent a language, or a register represent a language, or a register of it. of it.

Several corpora are available for Several corpora are available for English that can be analysed though English that can be analysed though specific software in terms of specific software in terms of frequency and use of words in frequency and use of words in context.context.

e.g. The British National Corpus e.g. The British National Corpus (BNC)(BNC)

WHAT ARE THE MOST WHAT ARE THE MOST FREQUENTLY USED WORDS IN FREQUENTLY USED WORDS IN

ENGLISH ?ENGLISH ?From” The British From” The British

National Corpus, BNC”National Corpus, BNC”

1.1. the determiner the determiner 2.2. of preposition of preposition 3.3. and conjunction and conjunction 4.4. a determiner a determiner 5.5. in preposition in preposition 6.6. to infinitive to infinitive 7.7. it pronoun it pronoun 8.8. is verb is verb 9.9. to preposition to preposition 10.10. was verb was verb

11.11. I pronoun I pronoun 12.12. for preposition for preposition 13.13. that conjunction that conjunction 14.14. you pronoun you pronoun 15.15. he pronoun he pronoun 16.16. be verb be verb 17.17. with preposition with preposition 18.18. on preposition on preposition 19.19. at preposition at preposition 20.20. by preposition by preposition

GRAMMATICAL WORDS GRAMMATICAL WORDS ARE THE MOST ARE THE MOST FREQUENTLY USEDFREQUENTLY USED

FREQUENCY OF LEXICAL FREQUENCY OF LEXICAL WORDS ( based on the WORDS ( based on the

BNC)BNC) The 10 most frequent nouns are: The 10 most frequent nouns are:

time, year, people, way, man, day, time, year, people, way, man, day, thing, child, Mr, government.thing, child, Mr, government.

The most commonly mentioned The most commonly mentioned animal is theanimal is the horse horse, closely , closely followed by followed by dogdog

The 10 most frequent adjectives The 10 most frequent adjectives are: are: other, good, new, old, great, other, good, new, old, great, high, small, different, large, high, small, different, large, local. local.

The most frequently mentioned The most frequently mentioned colours are colours are black, white, red and black, white, red and greengreen . The order coincides with . The order coincides with the hierarchy of colours which the hierarchy of colours which scholars have observed in many scholars have observed in many languages.languages.

The top ten frequency adverbs The top ten frequency adverbs are: are: never, always, often, ever, never, always, often, ever, sometimes, usually, once, sometimes, usually, once, generally, hardly, no longer generally, hardly, no longer

rarer nouns are: rarer nouns are: fax, fax, ribbon, ant, colitis, wheat, ribbon, ant, colitis, wheat, spelling, holly, monarch, spelling, holly, monarch, voltage, moralevoltage, morale

Rarer adjectives ; Rarer adjectives ; rude, rude, faithful, ministerial, faithful, ministerial, innovative, controlled, innovative, controlled, conceptual, unwilling, conceptual, unwilling, civic, meaningful civic, meaningful disturbingdisturbing

HOW MANY WORDS DO HOW MANY WORDS DO NATIVE SPEAKERS OF NATIVE SPEAKERS OF

ENGLISH KNOW?ENGLISH KNOW?It depends on variables such as age and It depends on variables such as age and

education and use (receptive or productive): education and use (receptive or productive):

According to researchAccording to research A two-year old child: very limited vocabulary A two-year old child: very limited vocabulary

but growing at great speedbut growing at great speed An English university student : 20,000 word An English university student : 20,000 word

familiesfamilies An adult educated speaker : 50,000 lexemesAn adult educated speaker : 50,000 lexemes

CHECK YOUR KNOWLEDGE OF ITALIAN:CHECK YOUR KNOWLEDGE OF ITALIAN:““CERULEO” ,“CETACEI” ,“OTITE”CERULEO” ,“CETACEI” ,“OTITE”““ILLUMINISMO”ILLUMINISMO”

The mixed nature of PDE The mixed nature of PDE lexis: Germanic versus lexis: Germanic versus

romance wordsromance words- a core (c. 40%) of high-frequency - a core (c. 40%) of high-frequency

Germanic words usually short and used Germanic words usually short and used to refer to common “things”, actions and to refer to common “things”, actions and concepts (e.g. concepts (e.g. man, woman, day, child, man, woman, day, child, bread, to go, to get, phrasal verbs)bread, to go, to get, phrasal verbs)

and and - a wider component (c. 60%), of less - a wider component (c. 60%), of less

frequent words of classical or romance frequent words of classical or romance origin usually longer and used in origin usually longer and used in specialised or formal contexts (e.g. specialised or formal contexts (e.g. encyclopaedia, tonsillectomy, parliament, encyclopaedia, tonsillectomy, parliament, infrastructure)infrastructure)

GERMANIC /ROMANCE GERMANIC /ROMANCE NEAR-SYNONYMSNEAR-SYNONYMS

Discover e.g. Columbus discovered a new continentDiscover e.g. Columbus discovered a new continent Find out e.g. Her parents found out that she had a Find out e.g. Her parents found out that she had a

boyfriend boyfriend

Continue e.g. The treatment has to be continued for Continue e.g. The treatment has to be continued for 4 weeks4 weeks

Go on e.g. We can’t go on like this any longerGo on e.g. We can’t go on like this any longer

Pig / cow = Pig / cow = the living animal the living animal Pork/ beef = Pork/ beef = the meat you eatthe meat you eat

regal, royal e.g. royal family, regal powersregal, royal e.g. royal family, regal powers Kingly e.g. kingly mannerKingly e.g. kingly manner

““GOOD” AND “FALSE GOOD” AND “FALSE FRIENDS” WITH ITALIANFRIENDS” WITH ITALIAN

Similarity may help at timesSimilarity may help at times

e.g. e.g. problem, result, company, problem, result, company, million, communitymillion, community

Similarity may be misleading at Similarity may be misleading at other times, other times,

e.g. e.g. actually, eventually, actually, eventually, argument, factory, educated, argument, factory, educated, lecture, library, magazine, major, lecture, library, magazine, major, agendaagenda

English loans in Italian and English loans in Italian and other European languagesother European languages

From a “borrowing language” English has From a “borrowing language” English has become a “donor language”. Why? become a “donor language”. Why?

In present-day Italian there are many In present-day Italian there are many different types of anglicisms and people different types of anglicisms and people have different attitudes to this phenomenon. have different attitudes to this phenomenon. What is happening in other languages?What is happening in other languages?

Comment on the following anglicisms in Comment on the following anglicisms in Italian. Do they have an Italian counterpart? Italian. Do they have an Italian counterpart?

film, mission, management, welfare, film, mission, management, welfare, governance, briefing, week-end, pub, governance, briefing, week-end, pub, scannerizzare /”scannare”, mouse, scannerizzare /”scannare”, mouse, computer, talk-show, report, devolution, computer, talk-show, report, devolution, boom, impeachment, ghostwriterboom, impeachment, ghostwriter

Variation in EnglishVariation in English

1. USER-RELATED VARIATION1. USER-RELATED VARIATION e.g. geographical area (GB, USA etc), e.g. geographical area (GB, USA etc),

age, educationage, education2. USE-RELATED VARIATION, or REGISTER 2. USE-RELATED VARIATION, or REGISTER

MODELMODEL 2.1. what is talked about (FIELD or 2.1. what is talked about (FIELD or

TOPIC)TOPIC) 2.2. the MEDIUM used ( e.g. spoken 2.2. the MEDIUM used ( e.g. spoken

/written, electronic language)/written, electronic language) 2.3. the relationship between 2.3. the relationship between

speakers/writers , e.g. formal, informal speakers/writers , e.g. formal, informal (PERSONAL TENOR) (PERSONAL TENOR)

Some lexical differences Some lexical differences between BrE and AmEbetween BrE and AmE

1. He lives in a lovely 1. He lives in a lovely apartmenapartment in New Yorkt in New YorkAmE /AmE /flat flat BrEBrE

22. The . The autumn autumn term will start in Septemberterm will start in SeptemberBr.E / Br.E / fallfall AmEAmE

3. Where can I find a 3. Where can I find a gas gas station?station?AmE /AmE /petrol petrol (BrE)(BrE)

4. 11/9/20014. 11/9/2001Br E / Br E / 9/11/20019/11/2001 AmE AmE

Register variationRegister variation

1.1 Tonsillectomy is needed1.1 Tonsillectomy is needed1.2. Doctor “ I have to remove/to take your 1.2. Doctor “ I have to remove/to take your

tonsils outtonsils out

2.1 Influenza 2.1 Influenza A/H1N1 broke out in Mexico A/H1N1 broke out in Mexico last yearlast year

2.2. Swine flu broke out in Mexico last year2.2. Swine flu broke out in Mexico last year

3.1 These are my children3.1 These are my children3.2 These are my kids3.2 These are my kids3.3. This is my offspring3.3. This is my offspring

CORE / BASIC CORE / BASIC VOCABULARYVOCABULARY

Choose the most neutral and Choose the most neutral and general lexeme to refer to general lexeme to refer to someone “who has very little fat someone “who has very little fat on his/her body”and, with the on his/her body”and, with the help of dictionaries, identify the help of dictionaries, identify the differences in meaning: differences in meaning:

emaciated, skinny, slender, lean, emaciated, skinny, slender, lean, slim, thinslim, thin

WORD FORMATION WORD FORMATION PROCESSESPROCESSES

1. COMPOUNDING, or COMPOUNDS 1. COMPOUNDING, or COMPOUNDS two or more free lexemes join to form a new meaning e.g. two or more free lexemes join to form a new meaning e.g. schoolday, schoolday, day school ( not a boarding school) day school ( not a boarding school) 2. AFFIXATION2. AFFIXATION one or more bound derivational lexemes are added to a free morpheme one or more bound derivational lexemes are added to a free morpheme

either at the beginning or at the end e.g. either at the beginning or at the end e.g. e-mail, childish, childhoode-mail, childish, childhood3. CONVERSION OR ZERO DERIVATION3. CONVERSION OR ZERO DERIVATION a change of word class without a change in form e.g. a change of word class without a change in form e.g. ground ground (noun)/(noun)/

to groundto ground (verb) (verb) 4. ACRONYM OR INITIALISM 4. ACRONYM OR INITIALISM the initial letters of a complex expression e.g. the initial letters of a complex expression e.g. AIDS = Acquired AIDS = Acquired

Immuno Deficiency SyndromeImmuno Deficiency Syndrome5. CLIPPING 5. CLIPPING cutting the beginning and/or the end of a lexeme e.g. cutting the beginning and/or the end of a lexeme e.g. Flu/ influenzaFlu/ influenza

6. BLENDING or BLENDS 6. BLENDING or BLENDS the merging of two long words into one e.g. the merging of two long words into one e.g. glocal = global+localglocal = global+local7. SEMANTIC CHANGE or SHIFT 7. SEMANTIC CHANGE or SHIFT the change of meaning of existing lexemesthe change of meaning of existing lexemes “ “to zap”to zap” from from “moving quickly“moving quickly” to” to “ keeping changing TV programmes “ keeping changing TV programmes

with a remote control”with a remote control”

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON SOME OBSERVATIONS ON COMPOUNDSCOMPOUNDS

11. a ‘blackbird. a ‘blackbird / / a ‘black ‘birda ‘black ‘bird un merlo / un uccello nero un merlo / un uccello nero compounds versus noun phrases compounds versus noun phrases 2.2. Bedroom / paperback / African-American Bedroom / paperback / African-American endocentric, exocentric , copulative compoundsendocentric, exocentric , copulative compounds3.3. mother-in-law, forget-me-not, state-of –the art, mother-in-law, forget-me-not, state-of –the art,

sell-by-datesell-by-date multi-word compoundsmulti-word compounds4 green tea, a checklist, user-friendly4 green tea, a checklist, user-friendly different ways of writing compounds: two different ways of writing compounds: two

words, one word, with a hyphenwords, one word, with a hyphen5. green card, user-friendly, handout ( v and n)5. green card, user-friendly, handout ( v and n) nouns, adjectives, verbsnouns, adjectives, verbs

Observe the differences Observe the differences between English and Italian between English and Italian

compoundscompounds1. 1. Green tea Green tea Tè verdeTè verde2. 2. TrademarkTrademarkMarchio di fabbricaMarchio di fabbrica3. 3. Zero toleranceZero toleranceTolleranza zeroTolleranza zero4. 4. Coffee breakCoffee breakPausa caffèPausa caffè

SOME PREFIXES AND SOME PREFIXES AND SUFFIXESSUFFIXES

Unhappy, incompleteUnhappy, incompleteImmorality, non-moralityImmorality, non-moralityMaltreat, miscalculateMaltreat, miscalculatePro-Obama, antiwarPro-Obama, antiwarPostmodern, recyclePostmodern, recycleBilingual, polyglotBilingual, polyglotMultitask, multifunctional…Multitask, multifunctional…

PREFIXES ARE USUALLY CLASS-PREFIXES ARE USUALLY CLASS-MAINTAINING AND AFFECT MAINTAINING AND AFFECT MEANING IN MANY WAYS MEANING IN MANY WAYS ( e.g. opposite, pejorative, ( e.g. opposite, pejorative, attitude, time). THEY CANBE attitude, time). THEY CANBE MORE OR LESS PRODUCTIVEMORE OR LESS PRODUCTIVE

Trainer, reader (nouns)Trainer, reader (nouns)Trainee, absenteeTrainee, absenteeFormation, pollutionFormation, pollutionSocialism, liberalismSocialism, liberalismKindness, happinessKindness, happinessReliable, eligible (adjectives)Reliable, eligible (adjectives)Faithful, beautifulFaithful, beautifulUseless, carelessUseless, carelessSpecialize/se, advertise (verbs)Specialize/se, advertise (verbs)Honestly, carefully (adverbs)Honestly, carefully (adverbs)……....

SUFFIXES FORM NOUNS, SUFFIXES FORM NOUNS, ADJECTIVES, VERBS ADJECTIVES, VERBS AND ADVERBS, AND AND ADVERBS, AND ARE USUALLY CLASS-ARE USUALLY CLASS-CHANGING. CHANGING. THEY THEY CANBE MORE OR LESS CANBE MORE OR LESS PRODUCTIVEPRODUCTIVE

SOME OLD AND NEW SOME OLD AND NEW AFFIXESAFFIXES

Ecology, Psychology, morphology, biology…Ecology, Psychology, morphology, biology…Europhile, Europhobe, Eurocrats…Europhile, Europhobe, Eurocrats…MANY PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES ARE OF CLASSICAL MANY PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES ARE OF CLASSICAL ORIGIN (NEO-CLASSICAL AFFIXES)ORIGIN (NEO-CLASSICAL AFFIXES)

Cartergate, Camillagate, Katrinagate, SexgateCartergate, Camillagate, Katrinagate, Sexgate-GATE from the Watergate scandal involving the -GATE from the Watergate scandal involving the

American president R. Nixon in the 1970s American president R. Nixon in the 1970s SOME NEW SUFFIXES ARE LINKED TO RECENT SOME NEW SUFFIXES ARE LINKED TO RECENT

TRENDS AND EVENTSTRENDS AND EVENTS

CONVERSION, OR ZERO CONVERSION, OR ZERO DERIVATIONDERIVATION

Bottle (noun) /to bottle (verb)Bottle (noun) /to bottle (verb)

To download (verb) / download (noun)To download (verb) / download (noun)

Dry (adjective) to dry (verb)Dry (adjective) to dry (verb)

Round: adjective, preposition, adverb, Round: adjective, preposition, adverb, noun, verbnoun, verb

VERY COMMON PROCESS IN PDE VERY COMMON PROCESS IN PDE BECAUSE OF THE REDUCTION OF BECAUSE OF THE REDUCTION OF MORPHOLOGICAL PHENOMENAMORPHOLOGICAL PHENOMENA

READ AND RECOGNIZE THE FOLLOWING READ AND RECOGNIZE THE FOLLOWING ACRONYMS OR INITIALISMSACRONYMS OR INITIALISMS

ITITInformation TechnologyInformation TechnologyWWW WWW World Wide WebWorld Wide WebBBC BBC British Broadcasting CorporationBritish Broadcasting CorporationIRAIRAIrish Republican ArmyIrish Republican ArmyVIPVIPVery Important PersonVery Important PersonRAMRAMRandom Access MemoryRandom Access MemoryNATO NATO North Atlantic Treaty OrganizationNorth Atlantic Treaty Organization

ACRONYMS ARE READ AS WORDS. IN INITIALISMS EACH LETTER ACRONYMS ARE READ AS WORDS. IN INITIALISMS EACH LETTER IS READ INDEPENDENTLYIS READ INDEPENDENTLY

PHRASEOLOGICAL PHRASEOLOGICAL PHENOMENAPHENOMENA

According to the linguist John Sinclair, there According to the linguist John Sinclair, there are two different principles in languageare two different principles in language

- the OPEN-CHOICE PRINCIPLE refers to the OPEN-CHOICE PRINCIPLE refers to predictable grammatical rules predictable grammatical rules

e.g. e.g. John loves MaryJohn loves Mary the IDIOM PRINCIPLE refers to fixed or semi-the IDIOM PRINCIPLE refers to fixed or semi-

fixed expressions that are made of more than fixed expressions that are made of more than one word but constitute a semantic unitone word but constitute a semantic unit

e.g. I’m dead tired (e.g. I’m dead tired (stanco morto)stanco morto) He was dead drunk ( He was dead drunk ( ubriaco fradicioubriaco fradicio) ) but not *I am dead intelligent but not *I am dead intelligent

Types of “prefabricated Types of “prefabricated language”language”

SOCIAL ROUTINES ( OR PRAGMATIC IDIOMS)SOCIAL ROUTINES ( OR PRAGMATIC IDIOMS) e.g. I’m looking forward to hearing from you, Can I help you?e.g. I’m looking forward to hearing from you, Can I help you?DISCOURSE ORGANISERSDISCOURSE ORGANISERS e.g. in other words, to sum up, for example, e.g.( exempli gratia), e.g. in other words, to sum up, for example, e.g.( exempli gratia),

.i.e (id est).i.e (id est)IDIOMS IDIOMS e.g. to beat about the bush, too many coooks spoil the brothe.g. to beat about the bush, too many coooks spoil the brothBINOMIALSBINOMIALS e.g. to and fro, pros and cons, bed and breakfast, bag and e.g. to and fro, pros and cons, bed and breakfast, bag and

baggagebaggagePROVERBSPROVERBS e.g A friend in need is a friend indeed, Garbage in. garbage oute.g A friend in need is a friend indeed, Garbage in. garbage out SIMILESIMILE e.g. e.g. As ugly as sin, as happy as a lark, As ugly as sin, as happy as a lark, SLOGANS AND FAMOUS QUOTATIONSSLOGANS AND FAMOUS QUOTATIONS e.g e.g Ask not what your country can do for you but what you can Ask not what your country can do for you but what you can

do for your country ( J. F. Kennedy) do for your country ( J. F. Kennedy) Yes, we can (B. Obama)Yes, we can (B. Obama)

From more transparent to From more transparent to opaque idiomatic opaque idiomatic

expressionsexpressions1.1. to see the light at the end of the to see the light at the end of the

tunneltunnel

2.2. to give someone the green lightto give someone the green light

3.3. white winewhite wine

4.4. white liewhite lie

5.5. it’s not cricketit’s not cricket

6.6. to go Dutchto go Dutch

LEXICAL COLLOCATIONS: A PERVASIVE LEXICAL COLLOCATIONS: A PERVASIVE FEATURE OF ENGLISH AND A MAJOR FEATURE OF ENGLISH AND A MAJOR

DIFFICULTY FOR LEARNERSDIFFICULTY FOR LEARNERS

Fammi un Fammi un favore!favore!

Do me a favourDo me a favour

Fammi una Fammi una tortatorta

Make me a Make me a cakecake

Un edificio umidoUn edificio umido

A damp buildingA damp building

Un clima molto Un clima molto caldo e umidocaldo e umido

A hot and humid A hot and humid climateclimate

Occhi umidiOcchi umidi

Moist eyes Moist eyes (see concordances p. 215-(see concordances p. 215-

217)217)

From fixed (“frozen”) to From fixed (“frozen”) to restricted lexical restricted lexical

collocationscollocations1. He shrugged his shoulders1. He shrugged his shoulders He nodded his head (i.e. up and down)He nodded his head (i.e. up and down) He shook his head ( i.e. from side to He shook his head ( i.e. from side to

side) side) He shook his finger He shook his finger (* he shrugged his finger)(* he shrugged his finger)2.2. He is growing a beard He is growing a beard He is growing vegetablesHe is growing vegetables *He is growing his children by himself*He is growing his children by himself (He is bringing up his children)(He is bringing up his children)

CORPORA AVAILABLE CORPORA AVAILABLE ON THE WEBON THE WEB

- Sketchengine, - Sketchengine, http://sketchengine.co.uk

YOU CAN REGISTER FOR A FREE 30-DAY YOU CAN REGISTER FOR A FREE 30-DAY TRIAL PERIODTRIAL PERIOD

- Mark Davis’s web site - Mark Davis’s web site http://corpus.byu.edu (Brigham Young University, USA)(Brigham Young University, USA)

FREEFREE

A lexical collocation is…A lexical collocation is…

……when two lexemes belonging to two when two lexemes belonging to two different word classes tend to co-different word classes tend to co-occur for reasons other than occur for reasons other than grammatical onesgrammatical ones

e.g. e.g. to take up/start/pursue a careerto take up/start/pursue a career

* to make career* to make career

Some major open Some major open questionsquestions

1. Eskimos have many words to refer to 1. Eskimos have many words to refer to different types of snow. What does different types of snow. What does it mean?it mean?

2. Is there a strict link between the 2. Is there a strict link between the character of a language and the character of a language and the spirit of a nationspirit of a nation

( W. von Humboldt 1767-1835)?( W. von Humboldt 1767-1835)?3. Does a language determine its 3. Does a language determine its

speakers’ world view (Sapir and speakers’ world view (Sapir and Whorf’s cultural relativism, 20th Whorf’s cultural relativism, 20th century)? century)?

WORDS REFLECT CHANGE WORDS REFLECT CHANGE IN SOCIETYIN SOCIETY

HI-FI, TRANSISTOR, VIEDOTAPEHI-FI, TRANSISTOR, VIEDOTAPE(in the 1950s)(in the 1950s)

GREEN / GLOBAL WARMING /CHAIRPERSONGREEN / GLOBAL WARMING /CHAIRPERSON(in the 1970s)(in the 1970s)

WEBSITE/ WORLD WIDE WEBWEBSITE/ WORLD WIDE WEB(in the 1990s)(in the 1990s)

SUBPRIME (LOAN)SUBPRIME (LOAN)(2008)(2008)

The language of war The language of war in the 20th centuryin the 20th century

WAR-RELATED EXPRESSIONSWAR-RELATED EXPRESSIONSGenocideGenocideNuclear weapons (nuke)Nuclear weapons (nuke)Ethnic cleansing Ethnic cleansing Bloody Tuesday / Nine Eleven/September ElevenBloody Tuesday / Nine Eleven/September ElevenGround ZeroGround ZeroWEAPONS: WEAPONS: b-52, Patriot Missiles, Tomahawk Missilesb-52, Patriot Missiles, Tomahawk MissilesEUPHEMISTIC and BUREAUCRATIC EXPRESSIONSEUPHEMISTIC and BUREAUCRATIC EXPRESSIONSCollateral damageCollateral damage(Civilian casualties)(Civilian casualties)Body bagsBody bags(The bodies of the dead soldiers in the Vietnam war)(The bodies of the dead soldiers in the Vietnam war)Friendly fireFriendly fire(Shots fired accidentally) (Shots fired accidentally) KIAKIA(Killed in Action)(Killed in Action)MIA MIA (Missed in Action)(Missed in Action)WIAWIA(Wounded in Action)(Wounded in Action)

Computing: a rapidly Computing: a rapidly developing terminologydeveloping terminology

1. 1. program, window, menu, mouse, address, program, window, menu, mouse, address, disk, bug, spamdisk, bug, spam

WORDS BORROWED FROM GENERAL WORDS BORROWED FROM GENERAL LANGUAGE AND ACQUIRING A LANGUAGE AND ACQUIRING A SPECIALISED MEANINGSPECIALISED MEANING

2. 2. floppy disk, hard disk, blog (from web+log), floppy disk, hard disk, blog (from web+log), modem ( from modulator+demodulator), modem ( from modulator+demodulator), download, search engine, to googledownload, search engine, to google

WORD FORMATION PROCESSESWORD FORMATION PROCESSES3. 3. CD-ROM (Compact Disk Read Only Memory), CD-ROM (Compact Disk Read Only Memory),

FAQ ( Frequently Asked Questions)FAQ ( Frequently Asked Questions) ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

Political correctness: Political correctness: some taboo areassome taboo areas

1. Negro (nigger), black, Afro-American, African-American1. Negro (nigger), black, Afro-American, African-American2. Mr, Mrs, Miss, Ms 2. Mr, Mrs, Miss, Ms 3. Chairman, chairwoman, chairperson, chair3. Chairman, chairwoman, chairperson, chair4. Lawyer, lady lawyer, woman lawyer, my lawyer Ms Brown4. Lawyer, lady lawyer, woman lawyer, my lawyer Ms Brown5. Husband and wife, accompanying person, spouse, partner5. Husband and wife, accompanying person, spouse, partner6. Disabled, handicapped, differently able6. Disabled, handicapped, differently able

TO BE POLITICALLY CORRECT MEANS TO REFER TO TO BE POLITICALLY CORRECT MEANS TO REFER TO DIFFERENT ETHNIC AND SOCIAL GROUPS IN AN DIFFERENT ETHNIC AND SOCIAL GROUPS IN AN ACCEPTED WAY. THE MOST SENSITIVE AREAS ARE ACCEPTED WAY. THE MOST SENSITIVE AREAS ARE RACE, GENDER, RELIGION, HUMAN BODY AND DEATH. RACE, GENDER, RELIGION, HUMAN BODY AND DEATH. THE DEBATE STARTED IN THE USA IN THE 1970Ss AND THE DEBATE STARTED IN THE USA IN THE 1970Ss AND PEOPLE PEOPLE

HAVE DIFFERENT REACTIONS TO IT.HAVE DIFFERENT REACTIONS TO IT.

The future of English lexisThe future of English lexis

PDE lexis will accept considerable PDE lexis will accept considerable geographical variation (e.g. geographical variation (e.g. AmE , BrE, Indian English) AmE , BrE, Indian English)

but but will be shared by global will be shared by global

communities of scientists, communities of scientists, professional people and Internet professional people and Internet Users (English as a Lingua Users (English as a Lingua Franca)Franca)

Activity 1Activity 1

1. What is a lexical collocation? Give some 1. What is a lexical collocation? Give some examples for English and show why lexical examples for English and show why lexical collocations are difficult for foreign learnerscollocations are difficult for foreign learners

A lexical collocation is when two lexemes that A lexical collocation is when two lexemes that belong to two different word classes tend to co-belong to two different word classes tend to co-occur for reasons other than grammatical ones. occur for reasons other than grammatical ones. They are difficult for foreign learners because They are difficult for foreign learners because they may be different from what they they may be different from what they instinctively do in their mother tongue. instinctively do in their mother tongue.

e.g. fare un favore = to do a favour, fare una e.g. fare un favore = to do a favour, fare una torta = to make a cake, fare un errore= to make torta = to make a cake, fare un errore= to make a mistake a mistake