the elusive divide between interpretation an

8/18/2019 The Elusive Divide Between Interpretation An

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s#rutin6 in order to #o e into o+eration; . Coreo'er, t%e #ourts are re uired to >ta?e a##ount of> t%e #ase la*of an international #ourt t%e &7t - in order to #arr6 out t%is tas?; 10

"lt%oug% a degree of #onsensus exists on t%e i +ortan#e and no'elt6 of se#tion lit us test> 1 of legiti ate :udi#ial de#ision a?ing under t%e u an -ig%ts "#t de+ends on*%ere and %o* (if at all) one #an dra* a oundar6 et*een inter+retation and legislation a atter *%i#% %asre#ei'ed re ar?a l6 little a#ade i# anal6sis; $%e ai of t%is arti#le is to fill in t%at anal6ti#al ga+ 6addressing t*o related issues; $%e first is to exa ine, as a general t%eoreti#al atter, t%e extent to *%i#% it is+ossi le to distinguis% et*een >inter+retation> on t%e one %and and >legislation> on t%e ot%er; !n t%is +a+er, !argue t%at t%e a#ti'it6 of inter+retation in'ol'es, rat%er t%an es#%e*s, *udicial la* a?ing; o*e'er, t%is la*

a?ing a ilit6 is distinguis%ed fro legislative la* a?ing e#ause it is u#% ore li ited in s#o+e andeffe#t t%an t%e latter; 9%ilst :udi#ial la* a?ing is a##e+ted %ere as an ine'ita le +art of t%e :udi#ial fun#tion,t%e li its of t%is fun#tion are nonet%eless ?e6 to its legiti ate exer#ise, as *ell as eing ?e6 to understandingt%e true i +ort of t%e distin#tion et*een inter+retation and legislation; =ollo*ing on fro t%is t%eoreti#al

anal6sis, ! *ill exa ine t%e +e#uliarities of t%e inter+retati'e o ligation under se#tion < of t%e -", *it%+arti#ular fo#us on *%ere t%e senior :udi#iar6 %as lo#ated t%e oundar6 et*een (legiti ate) inter+retationand (illegiti ate) legislation under t%e "#t;

Before a++roa#%ing t%ese tas?s, one distin#ti'e as+e#t of :udi#ial inter+retation under t%e u an -ig%ts "#tneeds to e entioned at t%e outset; $%is is t%e fa#t t%at t%e -" re uires :udges to ans*er not one utt%ree different inter+retati'e uestions; $%e first is >%o* s%ould t%e6 inter+ret t%e Fse#tion < i +erati'eF >, 1@ i;e; %o* s%ould t%e #ourts understand t%e guidelines for inter+retation +ro'ided 6 Parlia ent in se#tion <Se#ond, >%o* s%ould t%e #ourts use se#tion < to inter+ret ot%er (+ri ar6 and se#ondar6) legislation >; =inall6,>%o* s%ould t%e :udges inter+ret t%e 7on'ention rig%ts t%e sel'es >; 1A Of #ourse, in +ra#ti#e t%ese t%ree

uestions *ill e #losel6 related and interlin?ed; $%e *a6 in *%i#% :udges inter+ret se#tion < deter ines, in+art, %o* t%e6 *ill use t%at se#tion to inter+ret ot%er legislation; Si ilarl6, *%et%er it is >+ossi le> underse#tion < to >read and gi'e effe#t> to ordinar6 legislation in a *a6 *%i#% is #o +ati le *it% 7on'ention rig%ts,de+ends on %o* :udges inter+ret t%ose su stanti'e rig%ts and t%e rele'ant Stras ourg #ase la*;

$%e t%eoreti#al #%ara#terisation of legal inter+retation +ro'ided in t%is +a+er is general enoug% to #a+tureso e #ore features of >legal inter+retation>, regardless of *%et%er t%e inter+retati'e in uir6 is fo#used onse#tion


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sin#e t%e +ri ar6 fo#us of t%e re#ent #ase la* %as een on inter+reting se#tion < and %o* it a++lies to t%einter+retation of ot%er legislation, it is t%at line of inter+retati'e in uir6 *%i#% *ill e t%e +ri ar6 fo#us %ere;

2, $nter%retation: -reli'inar. nal.sis

!f t%e inter+retation/legislation distin#tion is to +ro'ide genuine guidan#e to :udges in future #ases, or e ui+ usto assess t%e legiti a#6 of :udi#ial de#isions arising under t%e "#t, *e need to get a #learer sense of *%at isin'ol'ed in t%e a#ti'it6 of >inter+retation> in order to distinguis% it fro >legislation>; So, t%e tas? %ere is to+ro'ide a general #%ara#terisation of so e of t%e #ore features of legal inter+retation; 1

9e #an egin 6 noting t%e follo*ing #o on+la#e and un#ontro'ersial #lai s a out t%e inter+retati'ea#ti'it6; =irst, *%en :udges >inter+ret> a legislati'e +ro'ision, t%eir ai is to esta lis% t%e eaning of t%at legal+ro'ision; 1. Se#ond, :udges #annot si +l6 +resent t%eir #on#lusion a out *%at t%e +ro'ision eans as t%eirinter+retation of t%e legislation; $%eir #on#lusion is si +l6 t%e out#o e or u+s%ot of an inter+retation rat%ert%an an inter+retation itself; $o #onstitute an inter+retation, :udges ust +ro'ide reasons su++orting t%atout#o e *%i#% s%o* *%6 t%e6 elie'e it to e #orre#t; 9e a6 #all t%e reasons su++orting t%e inter+reti'e#on#lusion >:ustif6ing reasons>; 20 $%ese are t%e reasons *%i#% %el+ us understand t%e inter+retation a :udge%as ado+ted and %is/%er :ustifi#ation for it; $%ird, :udi#ial inter+retation generates t%e out#o e of a #ase

litigated efore t%e ; Judges do not inter+ret la*s +urel6 out of intelle#tual interest; $%eir tas? is to find out*%at is legall6 re uired, in order to de#ide t%e fate of t%e litigants *%o %a'e roug%t a #ase to #ourt; $%us,

:udi#ial inter+retations are instru ental to, and +ro'ide reasons for, t%e out#o e of t%e #ase; So, t%ere is ani +ortant relations%i+ et*een t%e :ustif6ing reasons and t%e eaning of t%e legislation t%e reasons *%i#%#onstitute t%e inter+retation ust de+end on t%e #ontent of t%e legislati'e +ro'ision under #onsideration; !not%er *ords, t%e reasons for an inter+retation ust e generated 6 t%e ter s of t%e legislation einginter+reted;

$%e uestion *%i#% no* arises is >*%at does it ean to sa6 t%at a legislati'e +ro'ision generates or re8uires a +arti#ular inter+retation >; !n order to ans*er t%is

0 ford 1 Legal Studies 2334- 24 2-5 26( at 27+

uestion, it a6 %el+ to loo? at so e of t%e +ro'isions of t%e u an -ig%ts "#t itself and t%e t6+i#al legaluestions arising under t%e ; =or exa +le, "rti#le @(1) of t%e atta#%ed S#%edule to t%e -" +ro'ides t%at

>e'er6one is entitled to a fair and +u li# %earing *it%in a reasona le ti e 6 an inde+endent and i +artialtri unal esta lis%ed 6 la*>; " uestion t%en arose in a ra+e trial *%et%er legislation arring t%e ad issi ilit6of e'iden#e as to a +rior #onsensual sexual relations%i+ *it% t%e defendant 'iolated %is rig%t to a fair trial; 21 Si ilarl6, "rti#le 2(1) +ro'ides t%at >&'er6one>s rig%t to life s%all e +rote#ted 6 la*;> Judges *ere t%en as?edto de#ide *%et%er t%is rig%t to life in#luded a rig%t to self deter ination, entitling a ter inall6 ill +atient to#o it sui#ide *it% assistan#e; 22 Coreo'er, in an6 of t%e #ases under t%e -", :udges %a'e %ad to de#ide*%et%er reading *ords or o ligations into legislation falls *it%in t%e tas? of >reading and gi'ing effe#t to>legislation in a 7on'ention #o +ati le *a6 under se#tion life> in t%e di#tionar6; 8or #an an6 disagree ent a out *%at "rti#le 2 +ro'ides e sol'ed 6 refle#tingex#lusi'el6 on t%e eaning of t%is *ord; $%e reason for t%is is t%at *%en :udges disagree a out t%e


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re uire ents of "rti#le 2, t%e6 do not differ in t%eir 'ie* a out t%e literal eanings of >life> rat%er, t%e6 differin t%eir oral 'ie*s 24 a out *%at t%e rig%t to life entails; Si ilarl6, *%en :udges disagree a out *%et%er it is>+ossi le> to render a legislati'e +ro'ision 7on'ention #o +ati le under se#tion dee+ eaning>, 2 na el6, t%at *%i#% #annot eattained 6 +urel6 linguisti# eans;

$%is leads on to a furt%er +oint a out inter+retation, na el6, t%at t%e dee+ eaning of a legislati'e +ro'isionis t6+i#all6 not o 'ious; 2@ !n ot%er *ords, it is un#lear, on t%e asis of t%e *ords of t%e legislati'e +ro'isionsalone, *%at t%ose +ro'isions entail for t%e legal dis+ute at %and; $%e tas? of t%e inter+reting :udge is toredress t%is, i;e; to a?e #lear so et%ing *%i#% is not #lear on t%e fa#e of t%e legislation; Can6 legalt%eorists %a'e suggested t%at in su#% #ases, t%e legislation is >indeter inate>; 2A $%at is to sa6, t%e legislati'e+ro'ision +ro'ides no +arti#ular solution or no single rig%t ans*er to t%e uestion of %o* t%e #ourt s%ouldde#ide; $%e legislati'e ter s t%e sel'es do not deter ine t%e ans*er to t%e legal uestion *%et%er a rig%t toself deter ination is entailed 6 t%e rig%t to life; $%is 'ie* see s to e su++orted 6 Lord Bing%a of7orn%ill *%en %e stated in Brown v Stott 2 t%at >t%e language of t%e 7on'ention is so general t%at so ei +li#ation of ter s is ne#essar6, and t%e #ase la* of t%e &uro+ean 7ourt s%o*s t%at t%e #ourt %as een*illing to i +l6 ter s into t%e 7on'ention *%en it %as :udged ne#essar6 or +lainl6 rig%t to do so>; 2. !t follo*st%at t%e eaning of legislati'e +ro'isions is not #ontained *it%in t%e text of t%ose +ro'isions, *aiting to e>dis#o'ered> 6 t%e inter+reting :udge; $%e :ustif6ing reasons, *%i#% #onstitute t%e inter+retation, *illne#essaril6 e dra*n (in +art) fro e'aluations not #ontained *it%in t%e legislation; "s -onald *or?in +utsit, t%e :ustifi#ation for t%e de#ision #annot e found >*it%in t%e four #orners> of t%e legislation itself and > ust

e defended as +rin#i+les of +oliti#al oralit6>; de#lare> t%e la*, rat%er t%an add to it resonates *it% t%e #lassi#al +i#ture of t%e

:udi#ial fun#tion *%ere 6 t%e :udge>s tas? to a++l6 t%e la* to t%e fa#ts, rat%er t%an #reate ne* la*;

9%ile t%e #lassi#al i age %as a #onsidera le %old on our intuitions a out t%e +ro+er fun#tion of :udges and#ontains so e trut%, as a general #%ara#terisation of *%at :udges do *%en t%e6 ad:udi#ate legal dis+utes, itis se'erel6 isleading; !n t%e #ontext of our dis#ussion %ere, it #annot e re#on#iled *it% t%e legalindeter ina#6 e'ident in t%e u an -ig%ts "#t; !n so e #ases +resented for resolution under t%e "#t, t%eonl6 legal ans*er a :udge #ould si +l6 >de#lare> is t%at t%e "#t

0 ford 1 Legal Studies 2334- 24 2-5 26( at 276

is indeter inate on t%e atter; So, for exa +le, t%e #ourt #ould si +l6 de#lare t%at it is un#lear on t%e fa#e of "rti#le 2, *%et%er it in#ludes t%e #lai ed rig%t to self deter ination or not; "rti#le 2 does not 6ield a#on#lusi'e ans*er one *a6 or t%e ot%er; o*e'er, assu ing t%at t%e +arties %a'e locus standi , :udges areo liged to resol'e t%e #ase de#laration>; $%e6 areo liged to go furt%er and engage in t%e enter+rise of inter+reting t%at arti#le, and t%e rele'ant legislationalleged to e in 'iolation of it; $%e reasons #onstituting t%is enter+rise *ill e dra*n fro e'aluati'e#onsiderations *%i#% ust e added to t%e text 6 t%e inter+reting :udge in order to elu#idate its eaning;

/, $nter%retation and E aluation


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!f t%e eaning of t%e +ro'ision is not #ontained in t%e "#t, *aiting to e >dis#o'ered> and >de#lared> 6 :udges,t%en *e need to ?no* *%at sort of e'aluations :udges rel6 on in a?ing t%eir de#isions; $%ere are t*osenses in *%i#% inter+retations under t%e u an -ig%ts "#t largel6 #onsist in, and are dri'en 6, e'aluati'e

:udge ents; $%e first is *%at *e ig%t #all an inter"retative evaluation , t%e se#ond is a su$stantiveevaluation. Inter"retative evaluation engages t%e :udge>s 'ie*s a out t%e extent and li its of inter+retation

itself; 5nder t%e u an -ig%ts "#t, t%is is largel6 a atter of understanding se#tion +ossi le> in o taining a 7on'ention #o +ati le inter+retation; Su$stantiveevaluation refers to t%e ?ind of e'aluation +ertinent to t%e inter+retation of %u an rig%ts guarantees, su#% ast%e 7on'ention rig%ts atta#%ed to t%e u an -ig%ts "#t; fairness>, >legalit6>,>+ri'a#6> or >freedo >; $%e ter s of t%ese guarantees eit%er dire#tl6 in#or+orate oral +re#e+ts


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o*e'er, #onsiderations of #ontinuit6, sta ilit6 and aut%orit6 of la* are not t%e onl6 rele'ant ones in legalinter+retation; Judges are also under a dut6 to arri'e at a :ust de#ision for t%e +arties in t%e instant #ase; $%isis *%6 e uit6 %as an ines#a+a le role in t%e inter+retation of la*s t%e a++li#ation of general rules or+rin#i+les to s+e#ifi# #ases s%ould e ediated 6 e uit6, in order to ensure t%at no in:usti#e results frot%eir a++li#ation; 4 Parlia ent so eti es ena#ts statutes in road, e'aluati'e ter s for +re#isel6 t%is reason,

na el6, in order to allo* t%e #ourts to a++l6 it in +arti#ular #ases; $%is +ro'ides a (sta le) legal fra e*or?,ut allo*s t%e #ourts to ensure t%at it is :ustl6 a++lied in t%e #ir#u stan#es of different #ases;

$%e 'alues of e uita le a++li#ation of t%e la* and legal de'elo+ ent are e'ident in t%ose #ases under t%e-" *%i#% %a'e gone do*n t%e inno'ati'e rat%er t%an #onser'ati'e road; $%us, in R v # t%e #ourts *ere

as?ed to #onsider *%et%er t%e ex#lusion of e'iden#e of +re'ious (#onsensual) sexual relations et*een t%edefendant and #o +lainant under se#tion 41 of t%e Hout% Justi#e and 7ri inal &'iden#e "#t 1...#ontra'ened t%e defendant>s rig%t to a fair trial;

0 ford 1 Legal Studies 2334- 24 2-5 26( at 27(

"lt%oug% it *as agreed t%at allo*ing su#% e'iden#e to e ad itted *ould re uire so e straining of t%eordinar6 eaning of t%e *ords, Lord 7l6de #o ented t%at

!f a #ase o##urred *%ere t%e e'iden#e of t%e #o +lainant>s sexual e%a'iour *as rele'ant and i +ortant for t%edefen#e to a?e good a #ase of #onsent, t%en it see s to e t%at t%e language *ould %a'e to e strained in order toavoid the in*ustice to the accused of e cluding fro! a full and "ro"er "resentation of his defence ;4@

So, *%ile Lord 7l6de *as a*are of t%e disad'antages of >straining t%e language>, %e #onsidered t%e reasonsin fa'our of inno'ating t%e la* (na el6, t%e re uire ent of doing :usti#e to t%e +arties to t%e dis+ute) to %a'ea stronger for#e in t%e #ir#u stan#es of t%at #ase; $%e :udi#ial dile a in R v # exe +lifies t%e tension

et*een t%e 'alues underl6ing legal #onser'atis (na el6 aut%orit6, #ontinuit6 and sta ilit6) on t%e one%and, and legal inno'ation on t%e ot%er (:ust a++li#ation of t%e la* and legal de'elo+ ent); Judges %a'e adut6 to #onsider and alan#e t%ese t*o sets of 'alues (*%i#% a6 so eti es e in tension *it% ea#% ot%er),and gi'e t%e a++ro+riate *eig%t in a##ordan#e *it% t%e #ir#u stan#es of e'er6 #ase;

!t is +er%a+s *ort% noting t%at an6 :udges *%o o+t for an inno'ati'e rat%er t%an #onser'ati'e inter+retation

do so *%ilst si ultaneousl6 e +%asising t%e fa#t t%at t%e resulting inter+retation #o +orts *it% t%e 'alues oflegal aut%orit6 and #ontinuit6 to so e degree; 4A $%us, in t%e sa e #ase, Lord Ste6n #a e to t%e sa e#on#lusion as Lord 7l6de on t%e fa#ts, ut e +%asised t%at %is #on#lusion *as full6 endorsed 6 t%e *ordsof t%e -" and t%e intention of Parlia ent

in a##ordan#e *it% t%e *ill of Parlia ent as refle#ted in se#tion < it *ill so eti es e ne#essar6 to ado+t aninter+retation *%i#% linguisti#all6 a6 a++ear strained ;;; "fter all, it is realisti# to +ro#eed on t%e asis t%at t%elegislature *ould not, if alerted to t%e +ro le , %a'e *is%ed to den6 t%e rig%t to an a##used to +ut for*ard a full and#o +lete defen#e 6 ad'an#ing trul6 +ro ati'e aterial; 4

&xa +les of :udi#ial relian#e on t%is t6+e of #ounterfa#tual suggestion (i;e; t%at Parlia ent *ould %a'eintended t%e 7on'ention #o +ati le out#o e if t%e6 %ad dire#ted t%eir inds to it, or een a*are of t%e#ir#u stan#es of t%is #ase et#;) are not diffi#ult to find in t%e -" #ase la*; 4. $%e6 s%o* t%at e'en *%en

:udges engage in inno'ati'e de#ision a?ing, t%e6 are still #on#erned to +reser'e t%e 'alues of #ontinuit6,aut%orit6 and sta ilit6 to t%e greatest degree +ossi le; 0


9%ere a degree of re#on#iliation et*een t%e 'alues underl6ing #onser'ation and inno'ation is +ossi le, or*%ere it is +ossi le to fa'our one *%ilst #ausing no su stantial in#ursion on t%e ot%er, it is legiti ate for

:udges to +oint to t%is and use it in su++ort of t%eir de#ision;


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3, The !istin*tion "et#een Judi*ial La# 'a ing and Legislation

So far, it %as een argued t%at legal inter+retation under t%e u an -ig%ts "#t t6+i#all6 in'ol'es a ixture ofla* a++l6ing and la* #reating; $%e uestion no* is %o* t%is anal6sis ears on t%e oti'ating uestion of t%e

arti#le, na el6, >*%at does it ean to sa6 t%at :udges ad:udi#ating under t%e u an -ig%ts "#t s%ouldinter+ret rat%er t%an legislate >; !t %as t*o i +ortant #onse uen#es;

=irst, it i +lies t%at if *%at is eant 6 t%is state ent is t%at :udges s%ould si +l6 a++l6 existing la*, rat%ert%an #reate ne* la*, it is an i +ossi le re#o endation; $%e ter s of t%e u an -ig%ts "#t areindeter inate and t%us re uire t%e exer#ise of :udi#ial dis#retion to fles% out t%e fra e*or? set out 6Parlia ent in t%ose +ro'isions; Judi#ial #reati'it6 is a ne#essar6 +art of t%at dis#retionar6 +o*er; o*e'er,not onl6 is t%e a'oidan#e of t%is t6+e of #reati'it6 i +ossi le, it is also undesira le; "n atte +t to a++l6existing la* as it is in e'er6 #ase *ould lead to +rofoundl6 un:ust results; One #annot %a'e general rules t%ea++li#ation of *%i#% *ill not o##asionall6 lead to in:usti#e, if not itigated 6 e uita le #onsiderations;Coreo'er, it *ould under ine t%e +ur+ose of fra ing %u an rig%ts guarantees in road, general ter s,na el6, to +ro'ide a sta le fra e*or? for t%e +rote#tion of %u an rig%ts *%ilst si ultaneousl6 fa#ilitating t%egradual legal de'elo+ ent of t%e la* and its e uita le a++li#ation in different and so eti es unforeseea le#ir#u stan#es; So, *%ate'er it eans to sa6 t%at :udges s%ould >inter+ret rat%er t%an legislate>, it #annot

ean t%at :udges s%ould a'oid legal #reati'it6 altoget%er; $%is is neit%er +ossi le nor desira le;Se#ond, if t%e di#%oto 6 et*een inter+retation and legislation de+ends on eing a le to distinguis%

et*een la* a++l6ing and la* a?ing in +arti#ular #ases, its usefulness is dou tful; ue to t%eindeter ina#6 of t%e +ro'isions of t%e u an -ig%ts "#t *it% regard to an6 of t%e dis+utes arising under it,t%e line et*een a++li#ation of t%e la* and its de'elo+ ent *ill e diffi#ult if not i +ossi le to dis#ern in ost#ases; 1 9%ile t%e t*o a#ti'ities are #on#e+tuall6 distin#t, in +ra#ti#e t%e6 are #losel6 inter*o'en in :udi#ialinter+retations, es+e#iall6 in #ases *%ere t%e ter s under inter+retation are indeter inate; !n ost #ases,t%e line et*een a++l6ing t%e la* and #reating ne* la* *ill e i +er#e+ti le or lurred;

$%e ?e6 to a etter understanding of t%e +rin#i+le t%at :udges s%ould >inter+ret not legislate> is t%e fa#t t%at t%e>inter+retation/legislation> slogan does not

0 ford 1 Legal Studies 2334- 24 2-5 26( at 29'

refer to :udi#ial la* a?ing ut to legislation ; So alt%oug% t%e :udi#ial la* a?ing fun#tion is full6a#?no*ledged %ere, it is nonet%eless a ore li ited a#ti'it6 t%an legislation, i;e; t%e legislati'e a ilit6 ofele#ted re+resentati'es; 2 $%ese li itations are t%e ?e6 to understanding t%e inter+retation/legislationdi#%oto 6;

"s it %as een +resented t%us far, inter+retation is an e'aluati'e and #reati'e a#ti'it6 *%i#% in'ol'es t%ealan#ing of 'alues su#% as #ontinuit6 and sta ilit6 on t%e one %and, and e uit6 and legal de'elo+ ent on

t%e ot%er; =ro t%is, it see s +lausi le to suggest t%at an6 of t%e #onsiderations in :udi#ial de#isions areexa#tl6 t%ose *%i#% a legislator ust #onsider *%en ena#ting ne* legislation; o*e'er, one #ru#ialdifferen#e et*een legislation and :udi#ial la* a?ing under t%e -" is t%at *%en :udges a?e la*, t%e6

ust do so 6 *a6 of inter+reti'e reasoning; $%is eans t%at t%e6 #annot a++roa#% a legal uestion in a+urel6 for*ard loo?ing *a6; $%e6 are also o liged to loo? a#? at and ta?e a##ount of t%e +re existing legalfra e*or?s and standards set out 6 Parlia ent and +re'ious :udges; $%e inter+retati'e tas? ust ta?e+la#e *it%in t%ose oundaries; "s Lord Bing%a of 7orn%ill +ut it in Brown v Stott *it% referen#e tointer+retation of t%e text of t%e 7on'ention <

!n inter+reting t%e 7on'ention, it is generall6 to e assu ed t%at t%e +arties D*%o signed t%e 7on'entionE %a'e in#ludedt%e ter s *%i#% t%e6 *is%ed to in#lude and on *%i#% t%e6 *ere a le to agree, o itting ot%er ter s *%i#% t%e6 did not*is% to in#lude or on *%i#% t%e6 *ere not a le to agree; $%us +arti#ular regard ust e %ad and relian#e +la#ed on t%eex+ress ter s of t%e 7on'ention, *%i#% define t%e rig%ts and freedo s *%i#% t%e #ontra#ting +arties %a'e underta?ento se#ure


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Legislators, on t%e ot%er %and, are entitled to a?e la* si +l6 on t%e asis t%at t%e6 t%in? it to e desira leor enefi#ial and are entitled to #reate ne* fra e*or?s or radi#all6 alter existing ones; Judges are#onstrained 6 t%e *ording and +rin#i+les as laid do*n 6 Parlia ent and s%ould a?e t%eir de#isions *it%int%e fra e*or? set out 6 t%e ; 9%ile :udges #an loo? for*ard to*ards +ossi le refor , t%e6 are nonet%elesso liged to also loo? a#?*ard at t%e ter s of t%e legislation under s#rutin6, as *ell as t%e existen#e and

i +ort of existing +re#edents; Cu#% of :udi#ial la* a?ing o##urs 6 *a6 of filling in ga+s in t%e existinglegislati'e fra e*or?, resol'ing legal dis+utes t%roug% t%e a++li#ation of general legislati'e +ro'isions to+arti#ular #ir#u stan#es; $%e a it of legislati'e la* a?ing is not so #ir#u s#ri ed;

Coreo'er, legislators #an de#ide to refor a *%ole area of t%e la* in a root and ran#% fas%ion; Su#% radi#aland road ranging refor is generall6 not o+en to :udges; $%is is +artl6 due to t%e *a6 in *%i#% t%e6 #o e to

a?e t%eir de#isions, and +artl6 due to li its of t%eir ex+ertise; !n #ontrast to legislators, *%o %a'e al ostunrestri#ted #%oi#e in t%e areas of t%e la* t%e6 #an #%ange or


i +ro'e, it is not o+en to :udges to ta#?le an6 legal area t%e6 *is% t%e6 are li ited in t%e de#isions t%e6 #ana?e 6 t%e 'agaries of litigation; &'en *%en a #ase #o es efore t%e , t%e issues are +resented in t%e

for of a i'alent dis+ute on a +arti#ular as+e#t of t%e la*; $%e6 are #onfined to resol'ing t%at +arti#ularissue; !f t%e6 stra6 e6ond t%ose #onfines, t%eir +ronoun#e ents a6 e o$iter and t%erefore not inding onfuture #ourts; -arel6 does a #ase en#o +ass an entire area of la*, or allo* for +ossi le radi#al refor of t%atarea; 4 $%e fa#t t%at :udges ust o+erate *it%in existing legal stru#tures and #an onl6 a?e la* on a #ase

6 #ase asis in res+onse to t%e a##idents of litigation a?es it diffi#ult for t%e to +ro'ide a lue+rint ofrefor for an entire area of t%e la*; So :udges +ossess t%e +o*er to engage in +artial and +ie#e eal refor ,if at all, i;e; refor in one as+e#t of t%e a++li#ation of t%e la*; $%e6 do t%is 6 extending existing do#trines,ad:usting t%e to #%anging #ir#u stan#es or introdu#ing s all alterations to a 'oid an in:usti#e in t%eira++li#ation *%i#% a6 not %a'e een en'isaged 6 t%e legislator;

$%e fa#t t%at t%e :udi#ial la* a?ing +o*er is an in#re ental rat%er t%an radi#al one, +la#es li its on t%ea ilit6 and *illingness of :udges to refor t%e la*; $%is is due, in +art, to t%e s%ort#o ings of +artial or+ie#e eal legal #%ange, na el6, t%at it ig%t #ause dis#ordan#e or #onfusion in t%e area of la* #on#erned;$%is *orr6 for ed t%e asis of t%e ouse of Lords de#ision in Bellinger v Bellinger @ *%ere t%e #ourt de#lined

to inter+ret se#tion 11 (#) of t%e Catri onial 7auses "#t 1.A< to in#lude single sex arriages *%en one oft%e +arties %as undergone a gender reassign ent; Gi'ing t%e leading :udge ent in t%e #ase, Lord 8i#%ollsex+lained t%at

$%e re#ognition of gender reassign ent for t%e +ur+oses of arriage is +art of a *ider +ro le *%i#% s%ould e#onsidered as a *%ole and not dealt *it% in a +ie#e eal fas%ion; $%ere s%ould e a #lear, #o%erent +oli#6; $%e de#isionregarding re#ognition of gender reassign ent for t%e +ur+ose of arriage #annot sensi l6 e ade in isolation fro ade#ision on t%e li?e +ro le in ot%er areas *%ere a distin#tion is dra*n et*een +eo+le on t%e asis of gender; $%eseareas in#lude edu#ation, #%ild #are, o##u+ational ualifi#ations, #ri inal la*; A

$%erefore, it *as +refera le to lea'e t%e issue to e refor ed 6 Parlia ent so t%at it #an e done in a#o +re%ensi'e fas%ion, rat%er t%an 6 eans of +ie#e eal, in#re ental ste+s;

"not%er #onstraint on :udi#ial la* a?ing is #ontained in t%e +re#edents of t%e %ig%er #ourts; Of #ourse, e'en

in a s6ste t%at o+erates t%e +ra#ti#e of stare 0 ford 1 Legal Studies 2334- 24 2-5 26( at 29+

decisis , :udges *ill e allo*ed to o'errule or de+art fro or odif6 (distinguis%) a +re'ious de#ision;o*e'er, it is nonet%eless #lear t%at rele'ant +re#edent is one of t%e ?e6 #onsiderations *%i#% :udges ( ut

not legislators) ust ta?e into a##ount *%en a?ing a :udi#ial de#ision; $%e6 are o liged to gi'e serious#onsideration to a rele'ant +re#edent, e'en if t%e6 *is% to ulti atel6 o'errule it; !f t%e6 #%oose t%e o+tion ofo'erruling, t%is ust e su++orted 6 good reason and strong :ustifi#ation;


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o*e'er, if a++arent in#o +ati ilit6 exists, t%en a furt%er inter+retati'e dut6 under se#tion < is engaged;Judges are t%en instru#ted to see if it is >+ossi le>, des+ite a++earan#es, to read and gi'e effe#t to t%elegislation in a *a6 *%i#% is nonet%eless #o +ati le *it% 7on'ention rig%ts; 9e #an #all t%is t%etransfor!ative inter"retation , na el6 an inter+retation *%i#% %as as its goal t%e a#%ie'e ent of 7on'ention#o +ati ilit6; "s Lord o+e +ut it in R v # >7o +ati ilit6 *it% 7on'ention rig%ts is t%e sole guiding +rin#i+le

Dof se#tion outer li its> @A of t%is road instru#tion lie; 9e *ill no* turn to exa ine t%esesuggestions, anal6sing in +arti#ular *%ere t%ese li its #oin#ide *it%, or ex#eed t%e oundar6 et*eeninter+retation and legislation;

+, Judi*ial $nter%retations: Ex%ress and $'%lied Li'its of the -ossi"le

9e #an egin *it% a +oint of :udi#ial #onsensus; $%is is t%at a >+ossi le> eaning of legislation is notne#essaril6 its ordinar6 eaning; So, in :e$ilene , Lord 7oo?e of $%orndon *as +re+ared to a##e+t aninter+retation as a +ossi le eaning, @ e'en t%oug% %e agreed t%at >su#% is not t%e natural and ordinar6

eaning of Dt%e rele'ant se#tionE>; @. Si ilarl6, t%e a:orit6 in La!$ert *ere +re+ared to gi'e t%e legislati'e+ro'ision under s#rutin6 a eaning *%i#% *as >not t%e ost o 'ious *a6 to read Dt%e se#tionE>; A0 "lt%oug% >onits ordinar6 and natural eaning> t%e se#tion 'iolated "rti#le @(2) of t%e 7on'ention, t%is did not +re'ent t%e

:udges fro finding a +ossi le 7on'ention #o +ati le eaning; A1

" se#ond un#ontro'ersial +oint is t%at t%e sear#% for a >+ossi le> eaning is not unli ited; A2 !n deter iningt%e li its of t%e >+ossi le>, t%e :udi#iar6 %a'e stressed re+eatedl6 t%at #o +ati ilit6 #annot e a#%ie'ed 6

:udi#ial #reati'it6 if to do so


*ould #ontradi#t t%e ex+ress eaning of t%e i +ugned legislation; !n R v # , Lord o+e en#a+sulated t%isouter li it in t%e follo*ing *a6

7o +ati ilit6 #an onl6 e a#%ie'ed as far as t%is is +ossi le; Plainl6 t%is *ill not e +ossi le if t%e legislation #ontains+ro'isions *%i#% ex+ressl6 #ontradi#t t%e eaning *%i#% t%e ena#t ent *ould %a'e to e gi'en to a?e it

#o +ati le; A<

So, *%ere t%ere is an outrig%t #ontradi#tion et*een t%e *ords ena#ted 6 Parlia ent and t%e ter s of t%e7on'ention rig%ts, t%en :udges #annot >read or gi'e effe#t> to t%ose ter s in a *a6 *%i#% resol'es t%at#ontradi#tion; Going against t%e ex+ress *ords of t%e statute *ould go e6ond :udi#ial inter+retation andenter t%e real of :udi#ial legislation;

$%is +osition is endorsed 6 all :udges *it%out ex#e+tion; Core #ontro'ersial %o*e'er is *%et%er ex+ress#ontradi#tion in t%e ter s of t%e legislation is t%e onl6 li it on a >+ossi le> inter+retation under se#tion


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+arti#ular, t%e uestion arises *%et%er it *ould e +ossi le *%ere t%e 7on'ention *as not #ontra'ened inex+ress ter s, ut rat%er 6 t%e legislation>s ne#essar6 i +li#ations; 7ould su#% an in#o +ati ilit6 *it% t%e7on'ention e res#ued 6 t%e no'el inter+retati'e de'i#e of se#tion <

Lord Ste6n>s #o ents in R v # see to +ro'ide a +ositi'e ans*er to t%is uestion, sin#e t%e6 su++ort t%e'ie* t%at t%e onl6 li it on :udi#ial #reati'it6 under se#tion < is #lear in#o +ati ilit6 in ter s; !n t%at #ase, %e

egan %is anal6sis of se#tion < 6 +ointing out t%at, *%en drafting t%e -", Parlia ent s+e#ifi#all6 re:e#tedt%e 8e* Iealand legislati'e odel *%ere 6 :udges ust find a >reasona le inter+retation> and de#ided infa'our of t%e u#% roader #ategor6 of >+ossi le inter+retation>; A4 =urt%er ore, %e noted t%e state ents oft%e Lord 7%an#ellor in ansard t%at it s%ould e >+ossi le> for t%e #ourts to find a 7on'ention #o +ati leinter+retation >in .. +er #ent of t%e #ases t%at *ill arise>, A and t%at t%e de#laration of in#o +ati ilit6 underse#tion 4 is a easure of last resort; !t follo*ed, a##ording to Lord Ste6n, t%at se#tion < allo*s :udges too##asionall6 >ado+t an inter+retation *%i#% linguisti#all6 a6 a++ear strained> A@

D" de#laration of in#o +ati ilit6E ust e a'oided unless it is +lainl6 i +ossi le to do so; !f a clear li itation on7on'ention rig%ts is stated in ter!s , su#% an i +ossi ilit6 *ill arise; AA

$%is see s to suggest (indeed see s to e +%asise) t%at se#tion < #an and s%ould e used to find a

7on'ention #o +ati le reading, unless t%e ex+ress ter s of t%e legislation are in#o +ati le *it% it;A


$%is +osition see s to e in tension *it% Lord Ste6n>s ore re#ent #o ents in R v Secretary of State, e "arte #nderson ;A. !n t%at #ase, Lord Ste6n stated t%at >Se#tion 1

So it no* see s t%at Lord Ste6n a##e+ts a ore li ited reading of %is #o ents in R v # t%an %e see ed toendorse at t%at ti e; 9%et%er t%is #onstitutes a s%ift in general +osition, or a +rag ati# s%ift due to t%edifferent #ir#u stan#es of R v # and #nderson , is diffi#ult to sa6; "s stated in #nderson , Lord Ste6n>s +ositionno* a++ears to e in line *it% t%at of Lord o+e *%o is +lainl6 of t%e 'ie* (*%i#% %e stated #learl6 ot% in Rv # and La!$ert ) t%at a se#tion < inter+retation of +ri ar6 legislation *ould e i +ossi le, not onl6 in t%e#ase of ex+ress in#o +ati ilit6, ut also *%ere it exists 6 >ne#essar6 i +li#ation>; 2

8eit%er Lord o+e nor Lord Ste6n %a'e gi'en an6 indi#ation *%at t%e6 ean 6 t%is +%rase in t%e #ontext ofse#tion ne#essar6 i +li#ation> ust ean so et%ing different fro t%e ordinar6 or generali +li#ations of legislation; Se#tion < #learl6 allo*s :udges to go against t%e >ordinar6 eaning> or >natural

eaning> of a legislati'e +ro'ision and transfor it into a 7on'ention #o +ati le one; "lt%oug% t%e6 #annot#ontradi#t t%e ex+ress *ords or #%ange t%e to suit a 7on'ention #o +ati le result, t%e6 are allo*ed to#%ange t%e i +li#ation of t%ose ter s; So, if it is i +lied (t%oug% not ex+ressl6 stated in t%e legislati'e+ro'ision) t%at > urden of +roof> refers to a legal rat%er t%an e'identiar6 urden of +roof, t%en :udges areentitled under se#tion < to s+e#if6 t%at it s%ould e inter+reted to refer to an e'identiar6 urden in order toa#%ie'e #o +ati ilit6 *it% 7on'ention rig%ts, as *as in fa#t su++orted ot% 6 Lord o+e and Lord Ste6n*%en t%at issue arose in t%e La!$ert #ase; $%e a ilit6 to #%ange *%at is i +lied 6 t%e ex+ress ter s is dueto t%e fa#t t%at to engage se#tion < in t%e first +la#e, t%ere %as to e a +ri a fa#ie or a++arent in#o +ati ilit6;$%is *ill nor all6 e t%e #ase *%ere t%e i +li#ations of general legislati'e +ro'isions are su#% t%at t%e6'iolate t%e 7on'ention; $o den6 t%e :udi#ial a ilit6 to #%ange i +lied eaning *ould under ine t%e *%ole+oint of se#tion


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not stated in ter s; $%e #ir#u stan#es of t%e #nderson #ase ig%t +ro'ide an exa +le of a +ro'ision *%ose>ne#essar6 i +li#ations> 'iolated t%e 7on'ention, and *as not su :e#ted to t%e transfor!ative inter"retation under se#tion ne#essar6 i +li#ations> see s to a##ord *it% Lord Ste6n>s ot%er #o ents in+re'ious #ases, as *ell as %is +ra#ti#e of e +lo6ing se#tion < in a #reati'e *a6; e #onsiders t%e narro*ingdo*n or addition 6 extension of t%e ex+ress ter s of legislation (#ontrar6 to i +lied eaning) to e +art and+ar#el of t%e inter+retati'e o ligation under se#tion read in> to arri'e at a #o +ati le +ro'ision; .

$o su arise t%e +reli inar6 :udi#ial +osition on se#tion < outlined %ere, *e a6 dra* t%e follo*ing


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#on#lusions, *%i#% see to e endorsed 6 t%e senior :udi#iar6; 7ontradi#ting t%e ex+ress *ords of t%e+ro'ision or re *riting t%e so t%at t%e6 state t%e o++osite of *%at t%e6 originall6 stated in'ol'es legislation;7%anging its i +lied eaning, and ado+ting a eaning *%i#% is different fro its >ordinar6 and natural

eaning> is +art of t%e inter+retati'e tas? under se#tion s tas? is to distinguis% et*eenlegislation and inter+retation, and #onfine itself to t%e latter; 9e #annot #reate a *%oll6 different s#%e e so as to+ro'ide an a##e+ta le alternati'e eans of i igration #ontrol; $%at ust e for Parlia ent itself; .1

So, *%ile it is +ossi le for :udges to >read in> a *ord or +%rase *%i#% #ould gi'e a +arti#ular +ro'ision a7on'ention #o +ati le eaning, t%e6 #annot effe#ti'el6 >re *rite> .2 t%e *%ole statute; !n Roth , t%einter+retation soug%t 6 t%e #lai ants *ould so su 'ert t%e interlin?ed ter s and +ur+ose of t%e statute t%att%e :udge #ould not res#ue t%e in#o +ati ilit6 6 t%e insertion of a *ord or

0 ford 1 Legal Studies 2334- 24 2-5 26( at 2)'


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+%rase in one +arti#ular +ro'ision; $o >re#reate> t%e s#%e e ane* *ould in'ol'e t%e te#%ni ue of legislationrat%er t%an t%at of inter+retation and t%erefore s%ould e left to t%e legislati'e do ain;

$%e dangers in%erent in +artial :udi#ial refor *ere also raised in Re S , Re ; ,.<

*%ere Lord 8i#%olls adeso e general state ents a out t%e oundar6 et*een inter+retation and legislation .4

a eaning *%i#% de+arts su stantiall6 fro a funda ental feature of an "#t of Parlia ent is li?el6 to %a'e #rossed t%eoundar6 et*een inter+retation and a end ent; $%is is es+e#iall6 so *%ere t%e de+arture %as i +ortant +ra#ti#al

re+er#ussions *%i#% t%e #ourt is not e ui++ed to e'aluate; !n su#% a #ase, t%e o'erall #ontextual setting a6 lea'e nos#o+e for rendering t%e statutor6 +ro'ision 7on'ention #o +liant 6 legiti ate use of t%e +ro#ess of inter+retation; $%e

oundar6 line a6 e #rossed e'en t%oug% a li itation on 7on'ention rig%ts is not stated in ex+ress ter s; .

!n t%at #ase, %e refused to follo* t%e transfor!ative inter"retation +ro+osed 6 t%e #lai ants, sin#e it *entagainst t%e >#ardinal +rin#i+le> of t%e i +ugned "#t; &'en t%oug% %e t%oug%t t%ere *as a >+ressing need fort%e Go'ern ent to attend to t%e serious +ra#ti#al and legal +ro le s identified 6 t%e 7ourt of "++eal>, .@ %efelt t%at t%is refor #ould not e roug%t a out 6 :udi#ial inter+retation under se#tion s #o ents in


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*ord or +%rase *%i#%, if gi'en its ordinar6 eaning *ould ot%er*ise e in#o +ati le; 100

e added t%at :udges s%ould e as #areful as +arlia entar6 drafts en

!t oug%t to e +ossi le for an6 *ords t%at need to e su stituted to e fitted in to t%e statute as if t%e6 %ad een insertedt%ere 6 a end ent; !f t%is #annot e done *it%out doing su#% 'iolen#e to t%e statute as to a?e it unintelligi le orun*or?a le, t%e use of t%is te#%ni ue *ill not e +ossi le; !t *ill t%en e ne#essar6 to lea'e it to Parlia ent to a endt%e statute and to resort instead to t%e a?ing of t%e de#laration of in#o +ati ilit6; 101

7learl6, %is first state ent t%at :udges s%ould e #areful and +re#ise a out *%i#% +art of a legislati'e+ro'ision is in#o +ati le *it% t%e 7on'ention is sound ad'i#e to :udges o+erating under t%e u an -ig%ts,in order to ini ise an6 legal un#ertaint6 *%i#% a6 arise as a result of a transfor!ative inter"retation ;102 isse#ond state ent on t%e te#%ni ue of >reading in> *ords or +%rases to legislation a?es it see re ar?a l6li?e t%e +ro#ess of legislati'e a end ent; "fter all, t%ese *ords s%ould e read in >as if t%e6 %ad eeninserted t%ere 6 a end ent>, and t%e6 s%ould do so *it% t%e +re#ision and #larit6 of a +arlia entar6drafts an;

0 ford 1 Legal Studies 2334- 24 2-5 26( at 2)+

9e are +resented %ere *it% t*o see ingl6 #ontradi#tor6 state ents; On t%e one %and, *e are told t%at :udges s%ould not a end legislation t%at is t%e ex#lusi'e do ain of Parlia ent; On t%e ot%er, *e are toldt%at :udges s%ould a#t li?e +arlia entar6 drafts en *%o s%ould insert *ords >as if t%e6 %ad een insertedt%ere 6 a end ent>; o* (if at all) are t%e t*o to e re#on#iled

$%e first +oint to ear in ind *%en atte +ting t%is re#on#iliation follo*s fro t%e t%eoreti#al anal6sis offeredin t%e first +art of t%is arti#le; Just as :udges a?e la*, t%e6 also ne#essaril6 #%ange la*, i +ro'ing so e ofits as+e#ts, #orre#ting its fla*s or s%ort#o ings, u+dating it so t%at it #an e a++lied in a :ust anner to#onte +orar6 +ro le s and issues; Judi#ial la* a?ing in'ol'es :udi#ial #%ange of t%e la* and t%is a++liesas u#% to la* ade t%roug% t%e inter+retation of statutes, as it does to t%e #o on la*; 10< o*e'er, *%en

:udges inter+ret statutes, t%e6 are not entitled to #%ange t%e *ording of t%e legislation and su stitute t%eir

o*n; "n6 #%ange, i +ro'e ent or de'elo+ ent t%e6 *is% to #arr6 out ust e done *it%in t%e fra e*or? oft%e existing legislation and t%e6 #annot #%ange t%e ter s of t%e legislation itself; $%e *ord >a end ent> isnor all6 reser'ed for t%e latter a#ti'it6, i;e; #%ange in t%e *ording of t%e +ro'ision in order to i +ro'e it orre#tif6 so e s%ort#o ing; So, t%e traditional oundar6 et*een :udi#ial de'elo+ ent of t%e la* andlegislati'e a end ent, is t%at t%e for er in'ol'es legal #%ange (often #%ange in legal do#trine) *it%in t%e

oundaries of t%e legislati'e +ro'isions, *%ereas t%e latter in'ol'es legal #%ange of t%e legislati'e +ro'isionst%e sel'es;

$%e uestion *%i#% no* arises is *%et%er t%is traditional oundar6 is #rossed in t%e #ourse of so e of t%etransfor!ative inter"retations under se#tion < of t%e -"; 9e %a'e seen t%at :udges #annot #arr6 out t%eirdut6 under se#tion < *it%out #%anging t%e ordinar6 eaning of legislation to a 7on'ention #o +ati le

eaning; $o t%is end, t%e :udi#iar6 %a'e dee ed it >+ossi le> to read do*n #lauses so t%at t%e6 %a'e anarro*er a++li#ation, or to >read in> *ords or #larifi#ations to a?e t%e +ro'ision 7on'ention #o +ati le; $%islatter a#ti'it6 is t%e sa e as t%ose t6+es of legislati'e a end ent *%i#% #%ange a statute 6 inserting a *ord

or +%rase; So it see s t%at se#tion < aut%orises a for of :udi#ial a end ent of statutor6 aterial; "t t%e'er6 least, *e #an sa6 t%at t%e line et*een :udi#ial de'elo+ ent of t%e la* and >a end ent> in t%etraditional legislati'e sense, is lurred under t%e "#t;

!t is *ort% noting %o*e'er t%at *%en su#% >a end ents> are #arried out 6 :udges, t%e6 do not %a'e t%esa e status as a legislati'e a end ent; !n ot%er *ords, t%e legal #%ange is not t%ere 6 >ena#ted> into t%elegislation ne'er to e #%anged again until Parlia ent de#rees; -at%er, it is +art of t%e :udi#ial ela oration oft%e la*, and as su#% is su :e#t to re'ision and #%ange in future #ases; 7learl6, su#% re'ision #ould onl6 e#arried out if t%ere *ere strong reasons to

0 ford 1 Legal Studies 2334- 24 2-5 26( at 2)4


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do so in t%e #ir#u stan#es of a ne* #ase; 104 o*e'er, t%e re'isa ilit6 of t%e transfor ati'e inter+retationunder se#tion < is a signifi#ant differen#e et*een it and t%e +ro#ess of legislati'e a end ent; 10 $%edifferen#e +ertains to t%e status of t%e legal #%ange rat%er t%an t%e a#ti'it6 itself;

"s it is no* understood 6 t%e :udi#iar6, se#tion < aut%orises a li ited for of :udi#ial a end ent oflegislation; $%is fa#t see s to e a#?no*ledged in t%e :udge ent of Lord o+e in La!$ert , *%ere %ee +%asises t%at :udges ust #arr6 out t%at tas? *it% due #aution and +re#ision, e'er indful of :udi#ialli itations; !f t%e legislation #an e rendered 7on'ention #o +ati le 6 t%e insertion of a *ord or +%rase in adis#rete legislati'e +ro'ision, t%en t%is is legiti ate under se#tion read in> *ords or +%rases to legislation, t%e6 ust al*a6s e

indful of t%e existing legislati'e fra e*or? and t%e li its of t%eir a ilit6 to #arr6 out la* refor ; 9ords ustonl6 e >read in> to ena#ted legislation if it is done in t%e s+irit of :udi#ial #aution ad'o#ated 6 Lord o+e;

11, on*lusion

Parlia ent %as gi'en :udges i ense and *eig%t6 res+onsi ilit6 under t%e -" sin#e t%e6 are t%e +ri ar6ar iters of *%at is >+ossi le> under se#tion inter+ret rat%er t%an legislate> %as een a +ro inent and re#urrentfeature of t%e :udi#ial ex+lanation of *%at se#tion < re uires, and is so eti es used to suggest t%e li itednature of t%e for er in #ontrast to t%e latter; 10@ !t *as argued %ere t%at alt%oug% t%e a#t of inter+reting *asindeed ore li ited t%an t%e legislati'e tas?, t%e distin#tion et*een t%e s%ould not e ta?en to den6 t%ene#essaril6 #reati'e and e'aluati'e as+e#ts of :udi#ial inter+retation; Coreo'er, t%is slogan s%ould not eta?en to ean t%at :udges s%ould ne'er a?e la*, sin#e su#% an instru#tion *ould e ot% futile and

undesira le; -at%er, t%e distin#tion et*een inter+retation and0 ford 1 Legal Studies 2334- 24 2-5 26( at 2)6

legislation s%ould e understood as an instru#tion to a?e la* in a #autious anner, *it%in t%e li its +la#edu+on :udges; !n ot%er *ords, it is a *arning a out t%e dangers of engaging in a t6+e of la* refor to *%i#%

:udges are ill suited; o*e'er, it s%ould not under+la6 t%e #reati'e +ossi ilities of inter+retation *%i#% are, ifan6t%ing, en%an#ed rat%er t%an di inis%ed 6 t%e introdu#tion of t%e u an -ig%ts "#t;

$%e anal6sis of inter+retation +resented %ere %as one furt%er #onse uen#e for t%e e erging :uris+ruden#eunder t%e -"; $%is is t%at t%e fa iliar :udi#ial de#laration t%at t%eir tas? is to >inter+ret not legislate> gi'es usno indi#ation of how t%e6 *ill or s%ould inter+ret; $%e tas? of >inter+reting> legislation under se#tion < re uires

:udges to engage in inter+retati'e and su stanti'e e'aluations, in#luding t%e need to alan#e t%e 'alues ofsta ilit6 and #ontinuit6 on t%e one %and, and t%e 'alues of e uit6 and legal de'elo+ ent on t%e ot%er; 9%eret%is alan#e is to e stru#? in an6 indi'idual #ase is neit%er deter ined nor illu inated 6 t%e si +lede#laration t%at :udges are inter+reting; !n order to address t%e furt%er uestion of legiti a#6, ore :udi#ialex+lanation is re uired; "s is e'ident fro t%e existing #ase la* under t%e -", >inter+retation> en#o +assesa road range of :udi#ial a++roa#%es to t%e tas?, *%i#% range fro t%e %ig%l6 #autious and deferential, to t%e%ig%l6 inno'ati'e and a#ti'ist; !t is onl6 if t%e inno'ation is so radi#al and *ide ranging, so e6ond t%e t6+i#alex+ertise of t%e :udi#ial od6, t%at it deser'es t%e la el of >legislation>; $%is is an extre e outer li it *%i#%lea'es a road range of :udi#ial la* a?ing *it%in its ex+ansi'e territor6;


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1 ereafter referred to as >t%e "#t> or > -">;

2 7onor Geart6 >-e#on#iling Parlia entar6 e o#ra#6 and u an -ig%ts> (2002) L=R 24 at 2 1 >9e s%ould note t%at t%e#ourts %a'e een in'ited 6 Parlia ent to exer#ise t%is ne* #onstitutional +o*er; $%e6 %a'e neit%er assu ed it nor s uggled itinto t%e la* #a ouflaged as a long standing +rin#i+le of inter+retation>;

< International /rans"ort Roth >!$& v Secretary of State for &o!e De"art!ent D2002E -L- stri#tl6 o iter>, see


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:udi#ial la* a?ing +o*er is often under+la6ed, see e;g; 7onor Geart6, >$ort La* and t%e -"> in $; 7a + ell, 3; &*ing and ";$o ?ins (eds), Sce"tical ?ssays on &u!an Rights (2001) at 24, a o'e n 1 at 1AA;

41 Lord !r'ine %as referred to t%is as t%e #%allenge for t%e #ourts to >*or? out *%ere t%e #orre#t alan#e lies et*een t%ese#o +eting i +erati'es of a#ti'is and restraint>, a o'e n < at < 4;

42 >9%6 !nter+ret >, a o'e n 1@ at < Aff;

4< -aM, ?thics in the :usti#e> onl6 arise *%en t%e :udge de#ides to inno'ate or refor existingla*; $%e 'alues of %a'ing a sta le fra e*or? of la*s and #ontinuit6 in legal do#trine are also as+e#ts of *%at :usti#e re uires;$%e +oint is si +l6 t%at t%e6 are not t%e onl6 'alues;

4@ R v # D2002E 1 "7 4 , +ara .A (e +%asis added);

4A !n fa#t, :udges *ill often #%oose to resol'e a #ase in t%e *a6 *%i#% in'ol'es least legal #%ange (for t%e reasons of #ontinuit6and aut%orit6 outlined a o'e), see e;g; ;e$$ v ?M0 #ir Cargo U:- Ltd o 2- D1.. E !7- 1021 and #o entar6 6 Curra6

unt, a o'e n A at 120; unt also notes t%at it is a >#lassi# #o on la*6ers> te#%ni ue> to stress >t%e essential #ontinuit6et*een *%at %as gone efore and *%at is eing +ro+osed>, i id at 1@A;

4 R v # , +ara @A;

4. See, e;g; R v 0ffen D2001E 2 "ll &- 1 4, +ara .. ( "er Lord 9oolf)K R v Secretary of State for the &o!e De"art!ent, e "arte Si!!s D2000E 2 "7 11 at 12. ( "er Lord Ste6n);

0 "not%er reason for su#% state ents is t%at :udges use t%e to under+la6 or e'en dis#lai t%eir #reati'e, la* a?ing+o*ers, see art, /he Conce"t of Law (2nd edn, 1..4) at 1< @;

1 See -aM, /he #uthority of Law at 20 K -i#%ard 7la6ton > e'elo+ing Prin#i+les for u an -ig%ts> D2002E ?&RLR 1A@ at1 1;

2 =or an outline of so e of t%e li its on :udi#ial freedo to a?e ne* la*, see Lord !r'ine, a o'e n


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#ause *ider so#ietal #%ange; o*e'er, su#% de#isions tend to ta?e +la#e against t%e general a#?dro+ of in#re ental :udi#ialla* a?ing; =or ore detailed #onsideration of t%e role of su#% land ar? de#isions in t%e a##ount of in#re ental :udi#ial la*

a?ing ad'an#ed %ere, see "; 3a'anag% >$%e !dea of a Li'ing 7onstitution> (200 (200Judi#ial

eferen#e under t%e u an -ig%ts "#t> (2002) @ MLR .;

@1 Para A0 A1;

@2 $%is +oint t%at t%eir +o*ers under t%e u an -ig%ts "#t ex#eed t%e +o*ers +rior to its ena#t ent is a +oint of *ides+read#onsensus, see e;g; Lord 8i#%olls, in Re S , Re ; , +ara 4 K Lord Ste6n in R v # , +ara 44K Broo?e L;J; in >oode v Martin D2001E1 "&- @20, +ara < ;

@< Re S , Re ; , "er Lord 8i#%olls, +ara +ro le of t%e "ri!a facie ex#essi'einroad on t%e rig%t to a fair trial>, +ara 4< (e +%asis added);

@ ! id at +ara 10 ;

@@ =or t%e +oint t%at :udi#ial de#ision a?ing s%ould #onsist in t%e negati'e tas? of esta lis%ing an in#o +ati ilit6 rat%er t%ant%e +ositi'e tas? of #%anging t%e la* or filling in a legal ga+, see -o ert a%l, De!ocracy and its Critics (1. .) at 1 .;

@A Lord 8i#%olls, Re S , Re ; , +ara < , 40;

@ $%e rele'ant legislation in t%at #ase *as se#tion 1@" of t%e Pre'ention of $erroris ($e +orar6 Pro'isions) "#t 1. .;

@. R v D


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A< R v # , +ara 10 K see also Lord o+e in La!$ert , +ara A.K Lord P%illi+s of 9ort% Catra'ers in R &- v London orth and?ast Region Mental &ealth Review /ri$unal D2000E B 1 at 10;

A4 R v # , +ara 44;

A 7ited in +ara 44;

A@ ! id;

AA ! id (%is o*n e +%asis);

A $%is reading of Lord Ste6n is olstered 6 t%e fa#t t%at in a?ing t%is +oint, %e #ited Lord off ann in e "arte Si!!s t%att%e #ourts #ould resort to a s 4 de#laration of in#o +ati ilit6 >in t%ose unusual #ases in *%i#% legislati'e infringe ent offunda ental %u an rig%ts is so #learl6 ex+ressed as not to 6ield to t%e +rin#i+le of legalit6> at 1e'identiar6> efore >+roof> in order to re o'e a 7on'ention in#o +ati ilit6;

A La!$ert , +ara 1 (follo*ing Lord -odger in Brown v Stott );

! id;

. ! id +ara 4;

.0 R v Shayler D200


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; Judge ade la*, on t%e ot%er %and, is less *ell a le to satisf6 t%e

re uire ent of legal #ertaint6 due to its #onstant and gradual de'elo+ ent and re'isa ilit6 on a #ase to #ase asis;

10< =or an exa ination of t%e +ossi ilities of legal #%ange t%roug% t%e inter+reti'e +ro#ess, see 3a'anag%, i id at @A .;

104 Su#% reasons *ould in#lude so e of t%e e uita le #onsiderations outlined a o'e, as *ell as t%e need for legalde'elo+ ent;

10 !n fa#t, situations a6 arise *%ere Parlia ent *ould e *ell ad'ised to re+la#e transfor!ative inter"retations *it%legislati'e a end ents in order to satisf6 t%e 'alues of legal #ertaint6 and +redi#ta ilit6 *%i#% Lord o+e rig%tl6 attri utes toena#ted legislation;

10@ See, e;g; Lord o+e *%o de#lared in R v # , +ara 10 , t%at s < is > only a rule of inter+retation; !t does not entitle t%e :udgesto a#t as legislators>De +%asis addedE;


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the elusive divide between interpretation an

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