the effects of mood on the structure of the...
TRANSCRIPT
T he E ffects of M ood on the S tructure
of the S elf-concept
D avid A . D eS teno and Peter Sa lovey
Y ale U nivers ity , N ew H aven , U S A
This ex pe rim ent e xplore d the in¯ uence of m ood on the organis ation of both
the se lf -concept and inform ation about a know n othe r. Multidim ensional
scal ing te chnique s w e re used to m ode l the struc ture of both repre sentati ons
he ld by indi v iduals expe rienc ing happy , sad, and neutral m oods . The se lf -
conc ept features of neutral m ood partic ipants w ere prim arily organis ed along
achie v em ent- and af® l iation-orie nte d dim ens ions . In contrast, the se lf -
conc epts of happy and sad partic ipants w ere le ss com ple x ; se lf- fe ature s
w ere prim arily organis ed w ith respe c t to a sim ple valenc e dim ens ion. In
all thre e m ood c onditions, indi v iduals ’ conc eptions of a know n othe r w ere
predom inantly org anis ed w ith respe c t to a gene ral valenc e dim ension; how -
ever, as w ith the representatio n of se l f, the pre sence of a happy or sad m ood
accentua ted the use of the valenc e dim ens ion for fe ature organis ation. The
im plic ations of th is m ode ll ing proc edure for investig ating se lf -concept
struc ture and the e ffe c ts of m ood on cogni tiv e organisation in gene ral are
dis cus sed.
INTRO DU CTION
Of all the representati ons in m em ory , those conce rning the se lf are am ong
the m ost im portant for dai ly func tioning . B e s ides prov iding a distinc t
pe rceptual and conceptual ide nti ty (Ne isse r, 19 92 ), the s e lf-concept
CO GNITIO N A ND E M OTIO N, 1 9 9 7 , 1 1 (4 ), 3 51 ± 3 7 2
Re que sts for re prints should be sent to e ithe r D av id A . DeS teno, w ho is now at the
Departm ent of Psy cholog y , O hio State Univ e rs ity , 1 8 8 5 Ne il A v enue , Colu m bus , OH
4 3 2 1 0 , US A or Pe ter S alov ey , D epartment of Psy cholog y , Yale U niv e rs i ty, P.O .B ox
2 0 8 2 0 5 , New Hav en, CT 0 6 5 2 0 ± 8 2 0 5 , US A .
W e w ould l ik e to thank W il li am J. M cGuire , M ahzarin R. B anaji , and A m y V ita le for the ir
com m ents on earli e r draf ts of this m anusc rip t. Thi s re searc h w as supported by a N ational
S c ie nce Foundation Graduate Fe l lo w ship to Dav id DeS teno and by NIH CA 4 21 0 1 , ACS
PB R-8 4 , NS F Pre s identia l Y oung Inv e s tig ator A w ard B NS -9 0 5 8 0 2 0 , and funding from the
MacA rthur Foundation Prog ram on Consc ious and Unconsc ious Mental Proce sse s to Pe ter
S alov ey . Portions of this pape r w ere pre se nted at the annual conv ention of the Am eric an
Psy cholog ic al S oc ie ty , W ashing ton, DC, July 1 9 94 , as ``Mood state in ¯ uence s se lf -c oncept
s truc ture ’ ’ .
Ó 1 9 9 7 Psy cholog y Pre ss , an im print of E rlb aum (U K) Tay lor & Franc i s Ltd
in¯ uence s m otiv ation (Higg ins, 1990 ; Markus & W urf, 198 7 ) and em otion
(Higg ins, 198 7 ; L inv il le , 1985 ; Segal , 19 88 ; S how ers & Kling , 19 96 ). It
not only guide s behav iour by prov iding inform ation conce rning de sired
goals and dreaded possibi l iti e s (Higg ins, 19 87 ; Markus & Nurius, 1 986 ),
but al so in¯ uence s af fec tiv e inte nsity (Linv il le , 1985 ) and ac ts , for som e ,
as a diathe sis for depress ion (B e ck, S te e r, & Epste in, 1 992 ; Higg ins, 19 90 ;
S egal, 1 988 ; S how ers, 199 2 ).
The se disparate e ffe c ts of the s e lf-concept are theorised to be m ediate d
throug h chronic inte r-indiv idual and te m porary intra- indiv idual al te rations
in the re lati v e ac c es s ibil i ti e s of diffe rent pie c es of se lf- inform ation
(Higg ins, 19 90 ; Kihlstrom & Klein, 1 994 ; M arkus & W urf, 1987 ). That
is , m otivation and em otion are thought to be greatly af fe c te d by one ’ s
currently ac tiv e se t of se lf -inform ation, the w orking se lf-concept (Markus
& W urf, 1 987 ). As m any hav e show n (e .g . Kle in & Loftus, 19 93 ;
Markus, 1977 ) , the conte nts of the se lf-concept are not stored random ly
in m em ory; rathe r, they are assoc iati v e ly linked features that com prise a
m ental representation (i.e . a concept) . C onsequently , the contents of the
w orking self-concept, and in turn, the re lativ e ac c e ss ibi l iti e s of nonac ti -
vate d se lf- information, are partly de term ined by the idiosync ratic organi-
sation, or as soc iation, of se lf- inform ation posse ssed by indiv iduals. That
is , the diffe rential probabil iti e s that c e rtain bits of se lf -inform ation w il l
ente r the w orking se lf-concept are som e func tion of the organisational
schem e , or struc ture , of eac h indiv idual ’ s concept of se lf (Markus &
W urf, 198 7 ); the ac tivation of c e rtain bits of s e lf-re le vant inform ation
should increase the acc e s s ibil i ti e s of highly assoc iate d othe r bits (c f .
Higg ins, V an Hook, & Dorfm an, 198 8 ). The re fore , an unders tanding of
the organisation of the s e lf-concept, in addition to sole ly its conte nts , is
fundam ental to inv e stigating its func tioning ; suc h know ledg e w ill al low
us to predic t al te rations in the re lati v e ac c e ss ibil i ti e s of ce rtain type s of
se lf- information to consc iousne ss , and the reby , m al leabil i ty in the phe -
nom enolog ical expe rience of se lf (c f . Markus & Kunda, 1986 ; McGuire
& McGuire , 1 988 ).
Linv i l le (198 5 , 1987 ) and S how ers (1 992 ) hav e succ e ssfully used m ulti -
dim ensional m ode ls of se lf-concept org an isation to predic t dy sphoria and
se lf-e ste em . In eac h of their m ode ls , the diffe rential assoc iations am ong
spec i ® c type s of se lf-fe atures hav e been show n to be re late d to the
expe rience of em otion. Importantly , this re lation holds even w hen control-
l ing for the valence of the features, the reby dem onstrating the unique
in¯ uence of se lf-fe ature organisation on the expe rience of em otion. How -
eve r, prev ious w ork exam ining the re lation be tw een se lf-concept struc ture
and m ood has been prim ari ly correlational ; m ood has not been m anipulate d
to e stabl ish ® rm ly the direction of causal ity . Indeed, as Show ers (1 992 ) has
note d, the inte rre lation of m ood and se lf-concept org an isation m ay repre -
352 DeS TEN O AN D S ALOV EY
sent bidirec tional causal iti e s ; cognitiv e organisation m ay be affe c te d by , as
w e ll as in¯ uence , affe c tiv e expe rience .
The purpose of the present expe rim ent is to exam ine the possibi l ity that
alte rations in affe c tiv e state m ay in¯ uence the organisation of the se lf-
concept, and the re fore , the m alleabi l ity of the experience of se lf . That is , as
the assoc iati v e inte rre lations am ong self-fe atures ¯ uc tuate , the c om position
of the spec i ® c se ts of features that becom e ac tive should al so diffe r as a
func tion of the se change s. In this expe rim ent, w e sugge st a te chnique for
m ode ll ing the organisation of se lf-re le vant features and then exam ine the
in¯ uence of happy and sad m ood on feature organisation.
Structure of the Self-concept
Many m ode ls hav e been sugge ste d to chart the conceptual org anisation of
se lf-features (Kle in & Loftus , 1 993 ; Markus & W urf, 1 987 ). Current
research sugg es ts that the se lf-concept is com prised of both sem antic and
episodic inform ation, only som e subse t of w hich is ac tiv e at any one tim e
(Kihlstrom & Kle in, 199 4 ). Importantly , assoc iations am ong the se se lf-
fe atu res m ust be organised in a m eaning ful w ay (c f. Medin, 19 89 ; S m ith,
1990 ); the assoc iativ e l inks am ong a set of trai ts and/or exem plars m us t
vary in som e syste m ati c fashion, or the concept of s e lf w ould not be
cohe rent. Indeed, this idea forms the bas is of w hat has been te rm ed the
se lf-sc hem a (Ke lly , 19 55 ; Markus , 1977 ; Markus & S m ith , 1981 ; Markus
& Zajonc , 1985 ).
As Tv ersky and his col le ag ue s hav e show n, the pe rce ive d sim ilari ty of
any tw o obje c ts is not ® x ed, but rathe r is a func tion of the dim ens ions used
for com parison (Gati & Tve rsky , 1 984 ; Tve rsky , 1 977 ). The re fore , as
Sm ith and Za rate (199 2 ) hav e argued, the as soc iations am ong exem plars
m ay v ary as a func tion of conte x t, m otivation, or soc ial know ledge . For
exam ple , w he the r a m ale A sian profe ssor is perce ived as m ore sim ilar to a
nonA sian, m ale profe ssor, or to a fem ale A s ian denti st, depends on the
diffe rential dim ension w e ights applied to the occupa tion ve rsus rac e
dim ens ions. W ithout such diffe rential w e ightings of dim e nsions, any
tw o obje c ts could be arbitrarily s im ilar (Murphy & Medin, 198 5 ). Thus,
in any concept, fe atures should be l inked along dim ensions that are
w e ighte d diffe rentially for im portance (Medin, 1989 ; Murphy & Medin,
1985 ). The exac t dim ens ions used, and the ir w e ig hts , de rive from dev el-
opm ental expe rience s and vary both inte rindiv idual ly and as a function of
situational cue ing (Medin, 19 89 ; Sm ith & Za rate , 1 992 ). Thus, m alle abi l ity
of the se lf-concept could be explained by the v aried use of c e rtain princ i-
ple s to bind toge the r pie c e s of se lf-know ledge in the w orking se lf-concept.
For ex am ple , the McGuires hav e show n that the conte nts of the w orking
se lf-concept obey a princ iple of distinc tiv ene ss (McGuire & McGuire ,
M O O D AN D S ELF-C O NC EPT 353
19 88 ). The re fore , as soc iations of se lf-fe atu res m ust be dynam ic , for the se t
of features that distinguish one in c e rtain env ironm ents change s in others
(McGuire, McGuire , & C heeve r, 198 6 ).
O ne organisational m ode l of the se lf-concept, then, m ay be thought of as
a se t of se lf- fe atures arrayed in an n -dim ensional spac e , w ith the distance s
am ong the ite m s be ing som e func tion of the ir le ve ls of association. More-
ov er, the diffe rent dim ens ions could vary in sal ience as a func tion of
dispositional or situational in¯ uence s, the reby al te ring the inte r-feature
distance s in the con® g uration. Such a m ode l w ould prov ide inform ation
regarding not only the com ple x ity of the se lf , but al so the re lation of eac h
feature both to the salient dim ensions of organisation and to eac h othe r.
Thus, the w orking se lf-concept w ould consist of a c e rtain se t of assoc iate d
(i .e . c lose in distance ) features in the con® guration; how ev er, as dim en-
sional salienc ie s change , the com pos ition of the se t of ac tiv e inform ation
w ill al so, due to the chang ing con® g ural positions of the se lf-fe atures. W e
be l ie ve that change s in m ood state m ay be one such situational variable
that is capable of in¯ uencing se lf-concept org anisation.
M ood In¯ uences on Cognitive Processes
Research atte sting to the in¯ ue nce of af fe ct on cognitiv e proce ss e s con-
tinue s to grow (C lore, S chw arz , & C onw ay , 1994 ; Forgas , 19 92 ; Nie -
denthal & Kitay am a, 19 94 ). In an ex te nsive rev iew of res earch
inve stigating the e ffe c ts of m ood on the se lf , S edikide s (199 2 , p. 302 )
conc luded that: `̀ . . . m ood has re l iab le e ffe c ts on atte ntion, m em ory,
judg m ents , expec tati ons, and behav iors regarding the se lf .’ ’ In addition,
S inge r and S alov ey (1988 ) sum m arised how the e ffe c ts of m ood on the
recal l of se lf-re le v ant m ate rial re ¯ e c t a m ood-cong ruent bias . Although
som e inconsis te nc ie s hav e been reported (Parrott & Sabini , 1990 ) , m ost
m ood research ® nds that indiv iduals ex pe rienc ing a happy or sad m ood
te nd to recall a proportionate ly highe r num ber of like -v alenced se lf-
attribute s, a ® nding that can be repl ic ate d w ith c l inically depressed indi-
v iduals (Harte r & Marold, 19 91 ; Matt, V a zquez , & Cam pbe l l , 19 92 ;
S alovey & S inge r, 1989 ) .
More re levant to the present issue , how eve r, is ev idence show ing that
m ood affe c ts the atte ntion g iv en to the hedonic qual itie s of inform ation
(e .g . Forgas & B ow er, 198 7 ; Halbe rstadt & Ne identhal , in press ; W egene r,
Pe tty , & Sm ith, 1 995 ) and stim ulus cate gorisation (May e r, Gaschke ,
B rav e rman, & Evans, 19 92 ; Murray , Sujan, Hirt, & S ujan, 199 0 ). If
m ood inc rease s the atte ntion indiv iduals g ive to the hedonic qual i tie s of
inform ation, then it fol low s that for purposes of de te rm ining pe rceived
sim ilarity , or association, am ong inform ation ite m s, the hedonic dim ens ion
w ill inc rease in im portance . In a conv inc ing dem onstration of th is e ffe c t in
354 DeS TEN O AN D S ALOV EY
the area of fac e perception, Halbe rstad t and Niedenthal ( in press) show ed
that indiv iduals ex pe riencing a happy or sad m ood ev idenced a greate r
re liance on the hedonic qual i ty of fac e s (i .e . the ir em otional express ions ) in
de term ining inte r-fac e sim ilaritie s than did indiv iduals not expe rienc ing a
he ighte ned m ood. This e ffe c t, m oreove r, w as repl ic ate d using a variety of
stim uli and m ood-induc tion procedures , the reby atte sting to its robus tne ss.
W e be lie ve that a sim ilar phenom enon m ay occur w ith respec t to the
featu res com pris ing the se lf-concept. More spec i ® c al ly , the sal ienc e of the
hedonic dim ens ion for organ isational purpose s m ay inc rease am ong indi-
v iduals expe rienc ing a he ig htened m ood s tate . Consequently , the assoc ia-
tion of se lf-features w ould be bas ed prim arily on the ir re spec tiv e hedonic
qual i tie s , as opposed to othe r m ore ® ne -g rained c rite ria. Such a situation
could hav e great consequence s for m ood regulation. For instance , i f one is
in a negative m ood, this m ode l w ould predic t an inc rease in the am ount of
l ike -valenced se lf- inform ation becom ing ac ce ss ible , regardles s of its re le -
vance to the current s i tuation; neg ative s e lf-e xem plars usual ly not asso-
c iate d in the w orking se lf-conc ept (e .g . fai l ing an exam and be ing to ld one
is unattrac tiv e ) m ay suddenly becom e linked based sole ly on the ir valence .
The Present Study
The present study w as de s igned to de te rm ine w he the r m ood in¯ uence s the
struc ture of the se lf-concept. To accom plish this goal , w e em ployed an
indiv idual diffe rence scal ing (INDSCAL) analy sis s im ilar to the one used
by Halbe rstadt and Niedenthal ( in press ) and S alovey (19 86 ). INDSCA L,
be ing a ty pe of m ultidim ensional scal ing (MDS), is de s ig ned to uncove r the
late nt dim ensions used to organis e a s et of stim uli . How eve r, as opposed to
tw o-w ay scal ing te chnique s, i t allow s direct com parisons betw een the
m ultidim ensional con® gurations of diffe rent expe rim ental g roups. More-
ove r, it produce s an n -dim ensional con® guration of stim uli array ed along
spec i ® c , diffe rential ly w e ighte d dim ensions. This con® guration prov ide s an
exce l lent analogue for the conceptual m ode l of se lf-concept org an isation
prev iously discusse d.
The MDS solutions (i .e . the n -dim ensional con ® gurations of de sc riptiv e
featu res ) w e re de rived from partic ipants ’ rating s of pe rsonal i ty trai ts and
phys ical attribute s, tw o im portant type s of inform ation c ontained in the
se lf-concept (McGuire , 1984 ; Prentice , 1 990 ). W e colle c te d indic e s of the
assoc iations of thes e te rms w ith respec t to the s e lf , not s im ply m eas ures of
the ir sem antic s im ilari ty . Partic ipants al so rate d the sam e se t of ite m s for
the ir de sc riptiv enes s of anothe r pe rson, then US Preside nt Georg e B ush.
The use of a president as a targ e t for trait judgem ents has been em ployed
succe ss fu lly in past res earc h (e .g . Keenan, Golding , & B row n, 199 2 ); both
a president’ s pe rsonali ty and appearance are som ew hat fam il iar to the
M O O D AN D S ELF-C O NC EPT 355
gene ral public . The George B ush task w as included for tw o purpose s. Firs t,
i f the con® gurations for se lf and othe r diffe red, as w e expec te d, w e could
be con® dent that the resulting organisational patte rns w e re not due sole ly to
the sem antic re lations of the te rms, but rathe r to the ir re lations in the
conte x t of the s e lf . S e cond, diffe rent con® gurations w ould sugge st that
the se lf m ay posse ss som e unique representational prope rtie s (se e Prentic e ,
19 90 ).
In this s tudy , w e com pared the MDS con® gurations of indiv iduals in
happy , sad, and neutral m oods. In ac cord w ith the ® ndings of Halbe rstadt
and Niedenthal ( in press) , w e expec te d that indiv iduals ex pe riencing a
happy or sad m ood state w ould re ly m ore on a g ene ralised hedonic
dim ension for se lf-fe ature org an isation than w ould those in the neutral
condition. In addition, w e expec te d that the George B ush MDS config ura-
tion w ould be les s com plex than that for the se lf (c f . Prentic e , 1 990 ), but
w ould show a sim ilar inc rease in the use of v alence in dete rm ining feature
org anisation in the presence of a he ig hte ned m ood state .
METHO D
Participants
S ix ty unde rgraduate s (2 3 m ale , 37 fem ale ) rec ruite d from the introduc tory
psychology subje c t pool and the unive rsi ty at large partic ipate d in this
study . All partic ipants w e re be tw een 17 and 23 years of ag e (M = 19).
Partic ipants rec ruite d through the introduc tory psychology subje ct pool
rec e ived c redit tow ard ful ® l ling course requirem ents ; partic ipants
rec ruited through unive rsi ty -w ide sol ic itations rece ived $5 .00 . Partic i -
pants w e re ass ig ned random ly to e ithe r happy (n = 20), sad (n = 20 ), or
neutral (n = 20) m ood-induc tion conditions.
M ood-induction Procedure
Film c l ips w e re use d to induce happy and sad m oods; in addition, a th ird
c l ip, de signed to hav e no apprec iab le in¯ uenc e on m ood, w as used as a
control condition. The se m ood-induc tion s tim uli w e re c reate d by editing
seg m ents of profe ss ional ly produced ® lm s into short and cohe rent c l ips of
8 ± 14 m inute s. The happy c lip cons iste d of seg m ents from Live in Wash ing -
ton , a pe rformance by com edian Dennis Mille r. The sad c lip cons is te d of
seg m ents depic ting the li fe events and death of a w om an w ith te rm inal
cance r; the se seg m ents w e re taken from the feature ® lm Term s o f Endear -
m en t. The neutral c l ip c onsiste d of segm ents depic ting busine ss transac -
tions draw n from the feature ® lm Th e Bo ost. Eac h c l ip has prev iously
356 DeS TEN O AN D S ALOV EY
produced stable and m oderate ly inte nse m oods in othe r expe rim ents in our
laboratory (e .g . Pal ® & Salovey , 19 93 ).
At the beg inning of the expe rim ental se s s ion, subje c ts w ere reque ste d
sim ply to w atch the ® lm c l ips; no m ood-inte nsify ing instruc tions w ere
prov ided. The cl ips w e re presente d on a large te lev is ion sc reen in a
darkened room . Im m ediate ly af te r v iew ing the c l ips, subje c ts com ple te d
a m ood m anipulation check and then began w ork on the othe r m easures
com pris ing the ex pe rim ent.
W e chose a ® lm m ethod of m ood induc tion in an e ffort to av oid direc t
engag em ent of partic ipants ’ se l f-concepts . If a m ood-induction procedure
that inv oked autobiographical m em orie s or presente d spec i ® c (albe it fal se )
evaluative information w ere used, i t could not be dete rm ined if any
subsequent se lf-concept m e as ures w e re reg istering chang e s due prim arily
to m ood or to cog nitiv e response s to sal ie nt s e lf-re le vant information.
Although ® lm c lips do not prec lude ``direc t’ ’ c ognitiv e e ffe c ts on the
se lf-concept, they se em le ss prone to causing such sy stem atic in¯ uence s
than se lf-focused m ood-induc tion procedure s (S alov ey & Rodin, 1985 ).
M easures
Mo od Ma n ip u la tion Check. In prev ious studie s inv olv ing happy and
sad m ood m anipulations , a short ye t re l iable m easure of m ood w as
obtained by using s ix ite m s prese nte d in direc tionally counte rbalanced
orde rs on 7 -point s cale s (e .g . Salovey , 1 992 ; Salovey & B irnbaum , 1989 ;
Salovey & S inge r, 1989 ). The six ite m s c om pris ing the m ood m anipulation
check in the present study w ere hap py, exh i la ra te d , sad , sa ti s ® ed , con te n t,
and d isappo in te d . Eac h ite m w as scored in the positiv e direc tion. Scores
w e re then sum m ed to produce a positiv e m ood index .
Partic ipants com ple te d three short answ er que stions (e .g . How m any
hours pe r w eek do you w atc h te lev is ion? ) be fore turning to the six ite m s of
the m ood m anipulation check. The se ite m s se rved to reduce the as soc iation
be tw een the ® lm cl ips and the m ood m anipulation m easure .
Desc rip tiv ene ss o f Se lf a nd G eorg e Bush Me asure s. These tw o m ea-
sures asked subje c ts to rate ite m s for the ir des c riptiv ene ss w ith respec t to
the se lf and to George B ush. The ite m s represente d a com bination of
pe rsonali ty trai ts (e .g . inte ll ig ent, dependable , ne rvous) and physical attri-
bute s (e .g . m uscular, fat, fe eble ). The pe rsonal i ty trai ts w e re draw n from an
ex tensive B ig Fiv e fac tor m ode l (John, 199 0 ); four high-loading traits (tw o
positiv e , tw o negativ e ) w ere s e le c te d from eac h fac tor. W e added 15 ite m s
that de sc ribe phys ical charac te ristic s , re sulting in a 35 -i te m list. Tw o
random ly sele c te d ite m orde rs w e re used.
M O O D AN D S ELF-C O NC EPT 357
Partic ipants indicate d the de sc riptiv ene ss of the ite m s w ith respec t to
se lf and to George B ush by plac ing a m ark on a line be low eac h ite m . The
l ine w as anchored on the le ft by ``does not describe m e [ B ush] at al l’ ’ and
on the right by ``de sc ribe s m e [B ush] ve ry w e l l’ ’ . W e scored the se m ea-
sures by assigning a subje c t’ s spatial plac em ent of a m ark on the l ine a
corresponding num erical equiv alent rang ing f rom one to ten.
Bipo la r Rating Sca le s . In orde r to aid in dim ension inte rpre tati on, w e
col le c te d norm ative rating s of the 35 de sc riptiv e ite m s on a num ber of 8 -
point bipolar scales (s ee Kruskal & W ish, 1 978 ) from diffe rent s e ts of
partic ipants . Eac h scale asked how charac te ristic eac h ite m w as of a c e rtain
type of pe rson. The bipolar scales w hich w e ex pec te d to be of re lev ance for
the pre sent study w ere: charac te ristic of a high ac hiev ing person, charac -
te ris tic of a soc ial pe rson, charac te ris tic of a sm al l /large person (i .e . body
shape ), and charac te ristic of a fem ale /m ale (i .e . g ender-re le vance ). In
addition, rating s of the ove ral l de sirabi l ity of eac h de sc riptiv e ite m w ere
obtained. The se scales w e re se le c te d bas ed upon othe r research exam ining
the organisation of pe rsonal i ty features (e .g . B latt & B lass , 1992 ; Cantor,
19 94 ; DeS te no, 199 6 ; McA dam s, 1 985 ; Rosenbe rg , Ne lson, & V ive ka-
nanthan, 1 968 ).
Procedure
O ne to four indiv iduals partic ipate d in each se s sion. They w ere s eate d in
private booths. O n arrival , they w ere inform ed that they w ould be asked to
v iew a short v ideo c l ip and com ple te a batte ry of que stionnaire s . A fte r
consent w as obtained, the expe rim ent began w ith the show ing of the ® lm
c l ip. At the c l ip ’ s conclus ion, the expe rim ente r instruc te d the partic ipants
to beg in w orking on the batte ry of que stionnaire s and then le ft the room so
as not to in¯ uence the ir m ood s tate s . W hen the partic ipants ® nished the
ques tionnaire batte ry , they brought it to the expe rim ente r in a separate
room and w ere debrie fed. Subje c ts alw ay s com ple te d the que stionnaire s in
the sam e se quence : the ® l le r i te m s, the m ood m anipulation check, the 35 -
ite m desc riptiv ene ss of s e lf m e as ure , and the 35 - ite m desc riptiv ene ss of
George B ush m easure .
Data Analysis
In orde r to ex am ine the organisation of se lf-re le vant inform ation and to
inve stigate the pos sibil i ty of af fe c tiv e in¯ uence s on it, w e subje c te d the
data to an INDSCAL analy s is . Multidim ens ional scal ing atte m pts to reveal
the late nt dim ensions that charac te rise the interre lations am ong stim uli. It
produce s n -dim ensional con® gurations that spatial ly represent the struc -
358 DeS TEN O AN D S ALOV EY
ture , or organisational schem e , of the stim ulus se t (he re , the 35 pe rsonal i ty /
phys ical attribute s), the reby prov iding a g lim pse of how indiv iduals cog ni-
tiv e ly organ ise s e lf-re lev ant inform ation. The con® guration, and its under-
ly ing dim ensions, m ust then be inte rpre te d in a m eaning ful w ay .
In the p resen tstudy ,partic ipan tsra tedeach o f th e 35 item s fo r sim ila rity to
self. U n lik e ra ting each item fo r its s im ilarity based on a un id im ensiona l
cr iter ion (e .g . th e co lour red ), ind iv id uals m ade sim ilarity judgem en ts w ith
resp ect to a m u ltid im ensiona lattitudeob ject, th e se lf-concep t.T he refo re,th e
resu lting con ® gu rationsh ou ld no t recover th e spec i ® c d im ension `̀ l ik e se lf ’ ’
(o r ``redness ’’ ), bu t ratherrecover th e d im ension su sed to eva luate th e m u lti-
fa ceted self-concep t (c f. G o ld sto ne,1994 ). M o re im portan tly ,how ever, th e
p rox im ities shou ld no t re¯ ect s im p le a ssocia tion s based upon the sem an tic
re lation sam ong item s, bu t ra th errevea l th eir in terre la tion sw ith respect to the
self.
Multidim ens ional s caling (MDS ) require s prox im ity m atric e s as input.
The re fore , w e chose to use Pearson corre lations am ong the ite m s, a pro® le
s im ilari ty index (Kruskal & W ish, 1978 ), as our prox im ity m easure .
Additional ly , as MDS procedures require the prox im ity data to be ente red
in the form of diss im ilari tie s , w e subtrac te d the inte rcorre lations am ong the
35 se lf and B ush ite m s from one and used the resulting m atrice s as input.
For both the se lf and Georg e B ush analy se s , w e ente red a diss im ilarity
m atrix for each m ood group. The resulting INDS C AL con® guration, the
group con® guration, is an n -dim ens ional m ap based on the entire se t of
m atrice s . Group diffe rence s in three -w ay sc aling solutions are re ¯ e c te d by
dim ens ional w e ights that indicate the im portance , or sal ienc e , eac h g roup
attac hed to each dim ension. To produce the con® guration of a spec i ® c
m ood g roup, the ove ral l con ® guration is stre tched and/or shrunk along
spec i ® c dim ensions by a fac tor of the square root of the corresponding
w e ights . Consequently , the dis tances be tw een points in the con® guration
change , im ply ing an analogous change in the pe rce ived sim ilari tie s of the
corresponding stim ulus ite m s. The bipolar rating scale s prov ided em piric al
information used to inte rpre t the dim ens ions of the resulting con® gurations.
All subsequent analy se s w e re aim ed at charac te ris ing the diffe rence s in the
organisation of se lf- and othe r-struc ture am ong the three m ood groups.
RESU LTS
M ood M anipulation Check
A one -w ay analy s is of v ariance conduc te d on the m ood m anipulation check
reveale d a signi ® cant ef fe c t of m ood induc tion condition [ F (2 ,57 ) = 28 .80 ,
P < .00 01 ] . Subsequent analy se s em ploy ing Tukey ’ s HSD m ultiple
M O O D AN D S ELF-C O NC EPT 359
com parison te st ( a = .01 ) con® rmed that eac h of the three g roups of
partic ipants reported re l iably diffe rent le ve ls of positiv e af fe c t: partic ipants
in the happy m ood group reported the hig he st positiv e af fe c t (M = 31 .95 ,
S D = 4 .67 ), fol low ed by partic ipants in the neutral m ood g roup (M = 23 .90 ,
S D = 6 .83 ), and partic ipants in the sad m ood group (M = 18 .45 , S D = 5 .26 ).
Scaling Analysis for the Self-solution
Eac h m ood group’ s diss im ilari ty m atrix w as ente red into the A LSCAL
m ultidim ens ional scal ing algorithm , and four separate three -w ay nonm etric
solutions w ere com pute d. The tw o- throug h ® v e -dim ensional configura-
tions ac counte d for 41 .0 % , 51 .1 % , 55 .4% , and 57 .9% of the variance ,
re spec tiv e ly . W e used the am ount of explained v ariance and dim ens ion
inte rpre tab il i ty as c rite ria for se le c ting the be st solution. C onsequently , w e
se le c te d the three -dim ensional solution for furthe r analy sis .
Figure 1 pres ents the 1 3 2 dim ension c ross -se c tional v iew of this
con® guration for eas ie r exam ination.1
In interpre ting this solution, i t is
im portant to note that the Euc l idian dis tance be tw een any tw o points in
the con® guration is an index of the ir pe rce ived sim ilarity and that this
con® guration is the ac ross -m ood condition g roup spac e ; eac h m ood
group produce s a unique con® g uration due to its diffe rential dim ens ion
w e ig hts .
Structural Organisation of the Self-concept
B e fore exam ining diffe rential dim ens ion usage am ong the m ood g roups, i t
w as ® rst ne c e ssary to identi fy the dim e nsions of the group spac e. B ased on
v isual inspec tion of the solution and on othe r MDS research ex am ining the
struc ture of person de sc riptors (e .g . DeS te no, 199 6 ; R osenbe rg e t al .,
19 68 ), w e fe lt that four poss ible labe ls for the three dim ensions m ight
be : gene ralised valence , achieve m ent-re levance, af ® liation-re levance , and
physical s iz e . Multiple reg ress ion analy se s w e re em ployed to evaluate
em piric al ly the ® t of the se labe ls ; be ta-coe f ® c ients w e re used as c rite ria
for de te rm ining dim ension identi ® c ation (se e Kruskal & W ish, 1978 ).
Initial ly , w e w ished to de te rm ine if the ® rst dim ension of the solution
represente d g ene ral valence or a m ore distinct organ isational c rite rion; as
prev iously note d, othe r w ork has found the ® rst tw o dim ensions of s im ilar
con® gurations to represent ac hievem e nt- and af ® l iation-oriente d them es.
360 DeS TEN O AN D S ALOV EY
1B ecause only the ® rs t tw o dim ens io ns of the solution are of prim ary in tere s t, only the
dim e ns io n 1 3 dim ension 2 c ross -se c tional v ie w is dis play ed. The full se t of thre e -dim en-
s ional coordin ate s are av ail able from the ® rs t author.
Regres sing the gene ral de sirabi li ty rating s of eac h featu re onto its dim en-
sion 1 , dim ension 2 , and dim ension 3 coordinate s revealed that v alence
w as alm ost equally predic te d by the ® rs t tw o dim ensions but show ed no
re lation to dim ension 3 ( b dim1 = 2 .63 , P < .00 1 , b dim2 = 2 .66 , P < .0 01 ,
b dim3 = 2 .02 , n.s., R2
= .91 ). Consequently , w e nex t exam ined the
poss ibi l i ty that dim ensions 1 and 2 repres ente d af ® l iation- and/or ac hieve -
m ent-oriente d c rite ria. How eve r, as one w ould expec t, the ac hievem e nt and
af ® l iation attribute rating s w ere m ode rate ly correlate d (se e DeS te no, 1996 ;
Rosenbe rg e t al ., 19 68 ); c e rtain attribute s are as indicativ e of succ e ss as
they are of soc iab il i ty . The re fore , in orde r to prov ide c lear labe ls for the se
tw o dim ensions , w e reg ress ed the features’ dim ens ion 1 and dim ens ion 2
coordinate s on to the ir ac hievem ent and af ® l iation rating s. W e chose to
treat the features ’ ac hie vem ent and af ® l iation rating s as the independent
variable s in the reg ress ion m ode ls in orde r to partial eac h for the othe r and,
the reby , allow m ore prec ise e stim ate s of the unique contribution of the se
tw o re late d variable s .
M O O D AN D S ELF-C O NC EPT 361
FIG . 1 D im ension 1 3 dim ens ion 2 c ro ss - se c tion al v ie w o f the IND SC AL se l f- con cep t so lu tion
de riv ed fro m the h app y, sad , an d n eutral m ood grou ps.
This s e condary analy s is rev ealed that, as expec te d, dim ensions 1 and 2
organ ised th e fe atu res w ith respect to af ® liat ion -and ach ievem en t-re levan ce,
re spec tiv e ly . Features ’ dim ens ion 1 coordinate s w e re predic te d re l iab ly by
the ir af ® l iation-re levance ( b ach = .0 3 , n.s., b aff = 2 .6 0 , P < .02 , R2
= .33 );
dim ension 2 coordinate s show ed the oppos ite patte rn ( b ach = 2 .47 , P < .02 ,
b aff = 2 .35 , n.s ., R2
= .60 ) . A s one can see from the param e te r e stim ate s, the
true be s t- ® t ac hievem ent and af ® l iation line s w ould not be orthogonal, and,
as note d, th is m ake s s ense . INDSCA L dim ensions, how eve r, are not rota-
table . None the le ss , the re g res s ion analy se s con® rm that the con® g uration
dim ensions do ac t as ac c eptable prox ie s for the se tw o oblique dim ensions .2
D im ension3 w as th e p rim arypred ic to rof body size ( b dim1 = 2 .27 , P < .05 ,
b dim2 = .2 0 , n.s., b dim3 = .6 5 , P < .001 , R2
= .55 ). It ac te d to ex plain residual
variation due to the inc lus ion of the physical attribute fe atures. It is
im portant to note , how eve r, that the se features w ere al so inte g rally re late d
to the othe r tw o dim ens ions, but, as one w ould ex pec t, som e res idual
variation rem ained afte r ac counting for the se re lations to the ® rs t tw o
dim ensions. This variation s im ply re fe rred to body siz e as devoid from
any type of evaluation; dim ens ion 3 w as not rel iably relate d to the gene ral
de s irabi l ity rating s of the features. Thus , in ac cord w ith prev ious research,
w e found that the assoc iations of se lf-fe atures in the se lf-concept are
de te rm ined w ith respec t to tw o prim ary organisational c rite ria: ac hie ve -
m ent-re levance and af® l iation-re lev ance .
M ood Effects on Self-concept Organisation
In be g inning to exam ine the dif fe rence s am ong the three m ood group
con® gurations, w e notic ed that the re w as a large disparity in the ® t of
the g roup con ® guration to the indiv idual m ood group con® gurations. More
spec i ® c ally , the g roup spac e prov ided an ex ce l lent ® t for the neutral
g roup’ s con® guration; i t ac counte d for 71 .7% of its variance . How eve r,
i t prov ided a poorer ® t for the happy and sad m ood group con ® gurations,
explaining 49 .7% and 3 1 .9% of the ir variance s, respec tiv e ly . Conse -
quently , the g roup spac e did not represent the three indiv idual configura-
tions equally . Rathe r, the ove ral l spac e w as m ost s im ilar to the neutral
g roup’ s con ® guration, but not as repres entativ e of the happy and sad
362 DeS TEN O AN D S ALOV EY
2S im ila r inte rpre tations also re sulted from ex am in ing the corre latio ns of the dim ens ion
coordinate s w ith the attribute s ’ partia le d achie v em e nt and af ® lia tion rating s ; attrib utes’
ac hie v em ent rating s w ere partial ed for the ir af ® li ation-re l ev ance and v ic e v e rsa. A s
ex pec ted, dim ens ion 1 corre lated re li ably w ith the attribute s ’ re s iduali se d af ® l ia t ion-re le -
v ance (r = 2 .3 8 , P = .0 2 ), and dim ens ion 2 corre la ted w ith the attribu tes ’ re s idualis e d
ac hie v em ent-re le v anc e (r = 2 .3 0 , P = .0 8 ). In both case s , the corre la tions of the attrib ute co-
ordin ates w i th the noncorre sponding re s iduali sed rating s w ere far from re l iable .
groups ’ con ® gurations. A disparity in ® t of th is s ize sugge sts one of tw o
situations . Eithe r the happy and sad m ood group m atric e s contained highe r
lev els of e rror variance as com pared w ith the neutral g roup’ s m atrix , or the
indiv iduals in the se tw o groups re lied m ore heav ily on dim ensions not used
by indiv iduals in the neutral g roup (Arabie , Carrol l , & DeS arbo, 19 87 ; se e
also C arrol l , 1 972 ). The fac t that the re w as no sim ilar disparity in the ® t
indic es am ong the diffe rent m ood groups for the Georg e B ush INDS CA L
solution (to be discus se d late r) sugg e ste d that e rror v ariance w as not the
cause . The re fore , w e dec ided to inve s tigate the possibi li ty that happy and
sad partic ipants util ised one or m ore dim ension(s ) not used by partic ipants
in the neutral m ood g roup.
W e conduc te d a se cond INDSCA L analy sis using only the happy and
sad group m atrice s . This procedure rem oved the ove rriding in¯ uence of the
neutral g roup partic ipants on the resulting group con ® guration, the reby
allow ing a c le are r exam ination of the solution produced as a result of
he ighte ned aff ec tiv e s tate s . W e exam ined tw o-, three -, and four-dim en-
sional solutions. The pe rcentag e s of explained variance for the se solutions
w e re 43% , 52% , and 5 6% , respec tiv e ly . B ased on the am ount of explained
variance and inte rpretabi li ty , w e se le c te d the three -dim ens ional solution
for furthe r analy sis .
W e ag ain em ployed m ultiple reg ress ion tec hnique s to inte rpre t the
dim ens ions em piric ally . As can be se en in Table 1 , dim ens ion 1 appeared
to represent the gene ral valence or hedonic tone of the featu res; it w as the
be st predictor of achieve m ent- and af ® liation-re levance , as w e ll as of basic
de sirabi li ty . Dim ension 2 w as the prim ary predic tor of body shape ( b dim1 =
2 .34 , P < .05 , b dim2 = .45 , P < .001 , b dim3 = 2 .1 7 , n.s ., R2
= .3 3 ), and
dim ens ion 3 rel iably predic te d g ende r-re levance ( b dim1 = .08 , n.s ., b dim2 =
.19 , n.s., b dim3 = .48 , P < .0 1 , R2
= .91 ).
In orde r to index the diffe rential le v e ls of im portance plac ed on the
valence dim ens ion ve rsus the othe r tw o, w e ex am ined the w e ight ratios of
the dim ensions for both groups.3
A s can be se en in Fig . 2 , the v alence
dim ens ion w as a m ore sal ient organisational c rite rion than e ithe r body
shape or g ende r-re levanc e. Thus , the presence of a he ig htened m ood state
resulted in the em ergence of a gene ral ise d valence dim ension as the
prim ary organisational c rite rion for features of the s e lf-concept. Rathe r
M O O D AN D S ELF-C O NC EPT 363
3Indiv id ual IND SCAL w e ig hts cannot be com pare d di re c tly am ong g roups because each
m ood g roup’ s di s s im il arity m atrix is norm ali sed separate ly by the INDS CA L alg orithm
(M acCallu m , 1 9 7 7 ). The re fore , as M acCall um (1 9 7 7 ) sug ge sts , intrag roup w e ig ht ratios
are use d as a m easure of dim ension im portance for be twee n-g roup com pari sons . For
ex am ple , the w e ig ht ratio d im ens io n 1 /dim ens io n 2 is use d as a m easure of the im portance
of dim e ns ion 1 v e rsus dim ens ion 2 . It is al so im portant to note that the re is no ag re em ent on a
procedure to tes t the s tatis tic a l s ig ni ® c ance of w e ig h t dif fe re nc e s .
than bas ing featural assoc iations upon the m ore ® ne -g rained c rite ria of
ac hievem e nt- and af ® l iation-re levance , tw o broad organisational c rite ria
usually em ployed for struc turing se lf-re le vant inform ation (DeS te no, 19 96 ;
Rosenbe rg e t al ., 1968 ), indiv iduals ex pe rienc ing a positiv e or negativ e
m ood used the m ore bas ic dim ens ion of gene ral valence to de te rm ine the
re lations am ong the ir se lf-f eatures.
Structural Organisation of Inform ation Concerninga Know n O ther (George Bush)
W e follow ed a sim ilar analy sis procedure for the George B ush feature
rating s. W e e xam ined the 2 - through 5 -dim ensional solutions ; the pe rc en-
tag e s of explained variance w ere 46% , 50 % , 54% , and 55% , respec tiv e ly .
B ased on the am ount of explained variance and interpretabi l ity , w e
se le c te d the three -dim ensional solution for furthe r analy sis . Figure 3 pre -
sents the 1 3 2 cross-se c tional v iew of this con® guration.4
The group con® g uration show ed no disparitie s w ith respec t to its deg ree
of ® t w ith eac h of the three indiv idual m ood g roup con® gurations; the
pe rcentag e s of explained variance for the happy , sad, and neutral g roup
con® gurations w ere 50 .6 % , 5 2 .1% , and 48 .3% , respec tiv e ly . The re fore ,
364 DeS TEN O AN D S ALOV EY
TAB LE 1
Regression Analyses for D im ension 1
Identi ® ca tion o f the Happy and S ad M ood
G roup Con ® gura tion
Pred ic tor b Mo d e l R2
D es ira b i li ty 0 .8 5
Dim ens ion 1 0 .7 1 * * *
Dim ens ion 2 0 .5 5 * * *
Dim ens ion 3 2 0 .0 8
Ac hie v em en t-re l e va n ce 0 .6 6
Dim ens ion 1 0 .6 4 * * *
Dim ens ion 2 0 .4 0 * * *
Dim ens ion 3 2 0 .2 4 *
Af® li a tio n -re le va nc e 0 .8 2
Dim ens ion 1 0 .6 6 * * *
Dim ens ion 2 0 .4 9 * * *
Dim ens ion 3 2 0 .3 2 * * *
* P < .05 , * * P < .0 1 , * * * P < .0 01 .
4A s noted pre v ious ly , the ful l se t of thre e -dim e nsional coordin ates i s av ail able from the
® rs t author.
unlike the se lf-concept solution, it se em ed probable that partic ipants in
eac h m ood g roup used the sam e princ ipal dim ensions in organis ing infor-
m ation about George B ush.
W e ag ain em ployed m ultiple reg ress ion analy se s for dim ension iden-
ti ® c ation. A s opposed to the base l ine se lf-concept con ® guration, dim ension
1 represente d gene ral de sirabi l ity , or vale nce ( b dim1 = 2 .73 , P < .0 01 ,
b dim2 = .35 , P < .01 , b dim3 = 2 .12 , n.s., R2
= .82 ), not ac hie vem ent- or
af ® l iation-re levance . This ® nding supporte d our predic tion that inform ation
M O O D AN D S ELF-C O NC EPT 365
FIG . 2 W eig ht ratio s o f d im e nsion im po rtanc e fo r the s e lf -c on cep t so lu tion de riv ed fro m the
h ap py and sad m o od g rou ps. A w e ig ht ratio of 1 im p lie s an equ al w e ig htin g of th e d im ens ion s.
W eig h t ratios g re ate r th an 1 ind ic ate greater im portan ce of th e d im en sio n in th e nu merato r; ratios
le ss th an 1 in dic ate greate r im p ortan ce o f th e dim en sio n in the d en om inato r.
contained in the se lf-concept m ay be organised diffe rently than inform ation
representing othe r indiv iduals . B ody shape w as predic te d by both dim en-
sions 1 and 2 ( b dim1 = 2 .55 , P < .00 1 , b dim2 = 2 .44 , P < .01 , b dim3 = .11 ,
n.s ., R2
= .48 ). W e labe lled dim ens ion 2 as body shape ; in the Georg e
B ush solution, th is dim ension doe s not sim ply consis t of re s idual s iz e
inform ation, but also is re late d to de sirabi l ity . Finally , w e labe l led
dim ension 3 as g ende r-re lev ance ( b dim1 = 2 .12 , n.s., b dim2 = .27 , n.s .,
b dim3 = .56 , P < .0 01 , R2
= .35 ).
In orde r to exam ine the e ffe c t of m ood on the use of the valence
dim ension for organisation, w e ag ain com pared intrag roup w e ight ratios
(se e Fig . 4 ). Partic ipants in the neutral m ood g roup show ed a re lativ e ly
equivalent use of al l three dim ensions. Partic ipants in both the happy and
sad m ood groups em phas ised the valence dim ens ion m ore than e ither the
body shape or gende r dim ensions . This patte rn is s im ilar to the one found
in the happy and sad m ood group se lf-concept solutions and supported our
366 DeS TEN O AN D S ALOV EY
FIG . 3 D im ens ion 1 3 d im ens ion 2 c ross -s e c tion al v iew of th e IN DS CA L G eorge B u sh so lu tion
d eriv ed f ro m the h app y, s ad , an d n eutral m ood g rou ps.
predic tion that m ood cause s a greate r re liance on hedonic information for
cognitiv e organisation. Inte resting ly , the em phas is on the v alence dim en-
sion, as com pared to the othe r tw o, w as of a greate r m ag nitude in the
Ge orge B ush solution than in the se lf-concept solution, indicating that the
representati ons of other indiv iduals m ay be m ore in¯ uenc ed by m ood state
than is that of the se lf .
M O O D AN D S ELF-C O NC EPT 367
FIG . 4 W eig ht ratio s of dim en sio ns fo r th e G eorg e B ush solution de rived fro m th e hap py, sad,
and neu tra l m oo d gro ups. A w e ig h t ratio o f 1 im p lie s an eq ual w e ig htin g o f the d im ens ion s. W eig h t
ratio s g re ate r th an 1 ind ic ate g reate r im po rtanc e o f th e d im ens io n in the nu merator; ratios le ss th an
1 ind ic ate g reate r im po rtanc e o f the d im ens io n in th e deno min ator.
DISCUSSION
This experim ent prov ide s support for our tw o initial hypothe se s. First, the
struc ture of the se lf-concept appears to diffe r from that of know n othe rs.
That is , in ac cord w ith the v iew s of m any pe rsonal i ty theorists (e .g . B latt &
B las s, 19 92 ; Cantor, 1994 ; McA dam s, 19 85 ) and ® ndings of prev ious trai t
struc ture inv e stigations (e .g . DeS te no, 19 96 ; Rosenbe rg e t al ., 19 68 ), w e
found that se lf-re le vant inform ation w as organised along the tw o prim ary
dim ensions of achievem ent- and af ® l iation- re levance . As soc iations am ong
the features of a know n other, then US President George B ush in this case ,
w e re prim arily based on a m ore sim pli ® e d c rite rion, gene ral ised v alence .
This ® nding al so indicate s that the re ported MDS con® gurations do not
sim ply represent the sem antic inte rre lations am ong the featu res , but that the
resulting con® gurations are de rived from feature judg em ents w ith respec t
to spec i ® c concepts . In prov iding a fram ew ork for fe ature assocations, the
dim ensions m ay be thought of as de riv ing from schem as (Markus & Zajonc ,
19 85 ) or theorie s (Me din, 1989 ), both of w hich direc t atte ntion to spec i ® c
type s of information. The se ® ndings , how eve r, do not de ® ni tiv e ly show that
the representations of know n othe rs is alw ay s le ss com plex than that of the
se lf ; as Prentic e (19 90 ) has show n, fam iliari ty w ith the know n othe r is an
im portant m ode rator. The leve ls of c om plex ity , and dim ensions used for
conc ept organisation, w il l no doubt diffe r for pe rson concepts as one m ove s
along a g radient of the fam il iari ty of the se indiv iduals .
More im portantly , how eve r, our c entral predic tion conce rning the
e ffe c ts of he ighte ned m ood state s on the structures of the s e concepts w as
con® rmed. Althoug h indiv iduals in the control condition (i .e . neutral
m ood) util ised af® l iation- and achievem ent-relevance dim ens ions to de te r-
m ine the associations am ong the features of the ir se lf-concepts , indiv iduals
expe rienc ing a he ighte ned m ood state s im ply used g ene ral valence as an
org anis ing princ iple . Thus, m uch as happy and sad indiv iduals hav e been
show n to use sim ple hedonic information for the c ate gorisation of fac e s to
a g re ate r degree than indiv iduals in a m ore neutral m ood (Halbe rstadt &
Niedenthal , in press) , our ® ndings sugg es t that the sam e organisational
e ffe c t m ay occur w ith features com pris ing pe rson concepts .
A s predic te d, the e ffe c t of m ood on cognitiv e organisation w as sim ilar
ac ross conce pts of se lf and othe rs, indicating a g ene ral e ffe c t of m ood on
conc ept s truc ture . A dditional ly , as the re liance on hedonic inform ation w as
m ore pronounced in the repres entati on of the know n othe r, the s e ® ndings
sugge st that the in¯ uence of af fe c t on organisation m ay be g reate r for le ss
c e rtain or le ss fam il iar inform ation. Indeed, S edikides (1995 ) has show n
that al te rations in m ood state af fe c t pe riphe ral information in the se lf-
conc ept to a m uch large r deg ree than central inform ation (i .e . core featu res
of the se lf) .
368 DeS TEN O AN D S ALOV EY
Althoug h c lear and intrig uing , the ® nding s of the current expe rim ent
m ust be inte rpre te d in the l ight of tw o principal l im itations. First, the se lf-
concept m ode ls pre sented he re are ag gregated representations; they are
gene ral is ations de rived from the unique se lf-conce pts of m any partic i -
pants . The ir dim ensional struc ture s and al te rations, how ev e r, re ¯ e c t, in
all probabil i ty , c ognitiv e phenom ena that are com m on to eac h of us and,
the re fore , are quite te l ling in the im plications they sugge st for em otional
in¯ uence s on the dynam ic org an isation of s e lf-re le vant information. Sec -
ond, the MDS analy sis technique he re em ployed rel ied on the expl ic it
rating s of features to de te rm ine the ir struc tural inte rre lation. Implic i t
m easures of org anisation prom ise to prov ide inte res ting alte rnativ e w in-
dow s into the structure of the se lf-concept by index ing m ore prec ise ly
featu re assoc iations in m em ory . A lthough initial w ork em ploy ing im plic i t
technique s to inve stigate se lf-concept struc ture has supported the use of
ac hie vem ent and af ® liation c riteria in feature organ isation (DeS teno,
1996 ), the se te chnique s hav e not ye t been used to inve stigate the influence
of m ood on concept struc ture .
None the le ss , the ® nding s presente d he re prov ide initial e v idence that
change s in affe c tiv e state s m ay al ter the s tructure of the s e lf-concept
and, consequently , that the re lation be tw een se lf-concept org an isation
and affe c tiv e ex pe rience is bidirec tional . Just as inc rease s in the asso-
c iations am ong like -valenced se lf-fe atures hav e been show n to result in
inte nsi ® e d af fe c tiv e ex pe rience s (Show ers, 199 2 ), the results of the
present study sugg e st that he ighte ned affec tiv e expe rience s result in a
reorganisation of se lf-fe atu res bas ed prim arily upon valence . That is , in
the presence of a happy or sad m ood state , indiv iduals ’ se l f-fe atures
com e to be grouped by v alence as oppose d to othe r c rite ria (e .g .
ac hie vem ent-re lev ance ).
Such dynam ic assoc iations am ong se lf-fe atures m ay m ediate the m al le -
abi li ty of the w orking self-concept. A s inte r- fe atural assoc iations change ,
the com pos ition of the se ts of se lf-fe atu res that are ac tiv e , and, the re fore ,
the re lati v e ac ce ss ibil i ti e s of c e rtain othe r s e lf-fe atures, m ay ¯ uctuate ,
re sulting in diffe rent phenom enolog ical expe rience s of s e lf . S uch v aried
organisational patte rns m ay be im portant to m ood regulation; depressed
indiv iduals , for exam ple , ev idence he ighte ned ac ce ss ibil i ti e s for al l nega-
tiv e se lf- information (Segal , 198 8 ), sug ge sting the use of v alence as an
organisational schem e. W e be l ie ve , the re fore , that the study of the structure
of the se lf-concept, as opposed to sole ly its conte nt, prom ise s to prov ide
im portant insights into both the func tioning of th is m ental repre sentati on
and its links to m otivation and em otion.
M anusc ript re c e iv ed 2 9 S eptem ber 1 9 9 5
Re v is ed m anusc ript re c e iv ed 1 2 Nov em ber 1 9 9 6
M O O D AN D S ELF-C O NC EPT 369
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