the effects of instruction on integrated science process skill achievement

JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN SCIENCE TEACHING VOL. 21, NO. 3, PP. 277-287 (1984)

THE EFFECTS OF INSTRUCTION ON INTEGRATED SCIENCE PROCESS

SKILL ACHIEVEMENT

MICHAEL J. PADILLA and JAMES R. OKEY

Science Education, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602

KATHRYN GARRARD

Pulaski County Schools, Hawkinsville, Georgia 31 036

Abstract

While the philosophical importance of the integrated science process skills is often unchal- lenged, there is a lack of research with middle and secondary school students to indicate when or how these skills might best be taught. In this study different patterns and amounts of instruction on planning experiments were used with sixth- and eighth-grade students. A model for generating integrated process skill lessons was used to produce all lessons. Treatment One involved a two-week introductory unit on integrated process skills, followed by one period-long process skill activity per week for 14 weeks. Treatment Two involved only the same two-week introductory unit. Treatment Three was a contrast group which received only content oriented instruction. Results showed that both sixth- and eighth-grade students can learn to use certain integrated process skills; growth was apparent in identifying variables and stating hypotheses. Differences generally favored treatment one over treatment three. No differences favoring any treatment were found for formal operational ability outcomes.

Members of the scientific community. . .agree that science, at its roots, is an active process, not facts or products, but the process of problem identification, experimenting, data interpretation, hypothesizing, and testing. (Renner, 1966)

To cope with and attempt to solve problems in a rapidly changing society, young people will need to develop science process skills and associated values to a greater extent than in the past. (NSTA, 1971)

As the above quotations attest, science process skills have been a major theoretical force in science education. Whether the argument is philosophical (e.g., scientists think that way) or practical (e.g., survival strategies for a changing world), the resolve is usually the same; science process skills need to be strongly emphasized in elementary, middle, and secondary science curricula and classrooms.

As defined by Science-A Process Approach (S-MA) (AAAS, 1 9 6 9 , the science process skills are supposed to be broadly transferrable, appropriate to many science disciplines, and re- flective of the true behavior of scientists. S-MA divided the 13 skills into two types-basic and

@ 1984 by the National Association for Research in Science Teaching Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. CCC 0022-4308/84/030277-11$04.00

218 PADILLA, OKEY, AND GARRARD

integrated. The basic science processes are observing, classifying, communicating, measuring, using space/time relations, using numbers, inferring, and predicting. These skills provide a foun- dation for learning the more complex integrated skills-controlling variables, interpreting data, formulating hypotheses, defining operationally, and experimenting.

Many science teachers assume that recently developed science curricula strongly emphasize process skills. However, while most of the curricula specially developed during the last 15-20 years stress basic process skills, relatively few have attempted to teach students the integrated process skills. (One notable exception besides S - M A is the Science Curriculum Improvement Study). In 1971, Herron investigated the curriculum materials produced by the Physical Science Study Curriculum (PSSC) and the Biological Sciences Curriculum Study (BSCS). He found that almost 75% of the lab activities in each program not only specified the problem and the procedures for students, but also gave them the answers. Only 4% of PSSC and 6% of BSCS activities asked the students to design procedures for solving a lab problem. Although a program such as the Intermediate Science Curriculum Study (ISCS) does appear to allow students to practice more of the integrated process skills, it too only rarely asks students to design and carry out an entire experiment. In recent years, with the increased popularity of texts and pro- grams that emphasize an even more traditional approach toward science, students have been getting even less experience with the integrated process skills. Yet without a good amount of practice, expectations of skill mastery are probably unreasonable.

The present study was designed in response to the apparent lack of integrated process skill activities in science curricula. The major purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of systematically integrating science process oriented lessons into an already existing middle school curriculum. In addition to process outcomes, the effect of the instruction on formal thinking abilities was also studied.

Related Research

Research on teaching integrated process skill abilities has taken many directions since the early 1960s. Some studies have investigated ways of enhancing student abilities with an individual process skill, Most typical of this emphasis is the work on hypothesis formation which has been effectively taught to children of late elementary age and up (Quinn & George, 1975; Pouler & Wright, 1980). Others have examined the effect of a specific curriculum on individual integrated process skills. At the elementary level, different studies have found that the Science Curriculum Improvement Study helps students to better identify variables (Allen, 1973), to better experiment and interpret data (Weber & Renner, 1972), and to better analyze experiments and name variables (Boyer & Linn, 1978). At the secondary level, studies of the impact of a curriculum on process skill ability have proven inconclusive (Stronck, 1971; Butzow & Sewell, 1972), perhaps because of the reasons pointed out by Herron (1971).

Only one study was found which tested the effect of adding process skill activities to a regular curriculum. Peterson (1 978) compared manipulative scientific inquiry training, which was similar to the training process of Suchman, to an Ausubelian type of verbal inquiry to a placebo group. All three groups experienced two Project Physics units. He found the Suchman- like and the Ausubel-like training superior to that of the placebo group. This indicates that the addition of specific integrated process skill activities to a standard curriculum can result in increased abilities.

In a study just completed, Padilla, Okey, and Dillashaw (1983) found a significant and high relationship between the integrated science process skills and formal operational abilities (r = 0.73). This result implies that the two sets of abilities have some strong commonalities. The most obvious is the fact that the integrated process skills deal with setting up, conducting, and

INTEGRATED SCIENCE PROCESS SKILLS 219

evaluating experiments, while the formal operational ability called identifying and controlling variables deals with similar abilities. This analysis leads to speculation that teaching science process skills might not only affect process skill abilities, but also enhance formal thinking abilities. Thus, a secondary purpose of this study was to investigate this possibility.

Method

Two sixth- and two eighth-grade teachers from a Clarke County, Georgia middle school were chosen for participation in the study, based on their reputations as effective science teachers. Each teacher had four classes with approximately 18-25 students in each class. The students represented a broad range of socio-economic levels and academic achievement. Classes in the district were formed to represent a balance in racial and academic attributes.

One of the four sections of students per teacher was randomly assigned to each of three treatments. The extra class was assigned to treatment one. The three treatments are briefly out- lined below:

Treatment One-Involved a two-week introductory unit emphasizing the designing and carrying out of experiments. Subsequent content units had approximately one period-long process skill activity per week integrated into the regular curriculum (n = 168).

Treatment Two-Involved only the same two-week introductory unit emphasizing experiments. Subsequent instruction was primarily content oriented with little process emphasis (n = 85).

Treatment Three-Was a control treatment receiving the same content oriented instruction as Treatment two but getting no direct process skill experience (n = 76).

Of the three instructional conditions described above, Treatment Two was the normal practice in this school. Integrated science process skills were heavily emphasized in a two-week block at the start of the year and then given only occasional attention. Treatment One represented increased attention to process skills. The process lessons, however, were not just stuck into the content units. They built on and were woven into the regular flow of concepts and topics. Treatment Three represented less of an emphasis on process skills than usual in this school because the concentrated two-week process unit was not taught. This condition thus represented a level of process skill instruction more typical of most middle school science curricula. All lessons were taught over a period of 14 weeks, from early September to mid- December. The teachers taught science about 50 minutes each day.

Most activities used in treatment One for teaching integrated process skills were developed from a model adapted from Padilla (1980) and Tobin and Capie (1980). The steps in the model are as follows:

(1) The teacher poses a question which can be investigated, e.g., “are some body parts more receptive to touch than others?”

(2) Students with the help of the teacher form several appropriate hypotheses, e.g., “fingertips are more sensitive to touch than are the palms of the hand or fore- arm.”

(3) Students identify variables, perhaps using brainstorming techniques. (4) The manipulated and responding variables are selected and operationally de-

fined. Still other variables need to be controlled. For example, students may decide that the ability to perceive the touch of a pencil lead is a good operational definition for the responding variable. Variables such as the instrument and force used t o touch the body parts need to be controlled.


(5) Students design the experiment and set up an appropriate table. That is, the number of trials for each body part and the order and conditions under which testing occurs must be specified. An appropriate data table should be discussed and designed by the students.

( 6 ) Groups of students conduct the experiment. While this is an important part of the activity, it does not overshadow the planning or data analysis portions,

(7) Students organize data onto a class chart and make generalizations. These generalizations may. take the form of conclusions or of new hypotheses.

About ten lessons for Treatment One in each grade were generated by examining the existing curriculum and taking advantage of process skill opportunities. For example, a lesson in which the textbook provided conclusions about temperatures on different planets was developed into an experiment on how temperature varies as the distance from a heat source increases. A list of the units in the local curriculum, the length of those units, and the process skill lesson topics for each grade level are contained in Figure 1. Individual lessons were written so that they not only taught integrated process skill abilities, but also reinforced content appropriate to the unit. The grade six curriculum for which the lessons were written focused on general science while the grade eight curriculum concentrated on earth science. Both curricula were locally developed and contained a mixture of manipulative, reading, and note-taking activities. The introductory two-week unit already in the curriculum followed the same model but emphasized no specific science content.

While most of the lessons followed the experimenting model, a few dealt with one specific skill-graphing. With sixth graders it was felt that several experiences of conducting an experiment were needed before graphing would make sense. Therefore, several such lessons were completed which used histograms instead of line graphs. Then a graphing lesson was done and was reinforced in subsequent experimenting activities. With eighth graders graphing was introduced in the first two lessons and practiced throughout.

The Tests

All subjects were pre- and posttested using the Test of Logical Thinking (TOLT) and the Test of Integrated Process Skills (TIPS). Previous studies had shown that each test was a reliable and valid instrument for measuring the intended abilities (Tobin & Capie, 1981; Dillashaw & Okey, 1980).

The Test of Integrated Process Skills (TIPS) (Dillashaw & Okey, 1980) is a 36-item, multiple-choice test for middle and secondary students. The items relate to five integrated process skills-hypothesizing, identifying variables, operationally defining, designing investiga- tions, and graphing and interpreting data. Items typically are posed in the context of a practical problem; all have four possible responses. The items in Figure 2 are characteristic of those on the test. Content for the items was drawn from all science areas so that the test favors no par- ticular science background. The reliability of the total test (Cronbach’s (Y = 0.89) was determined in a study with approximately 700 students in grades 7-12. Table 11 reports the reliabilities for the TIPS total test and all subtests in the present study. Content validity was determined by equating items with specific objectives by a panel of science educators. The test takes from 30 to 45 minutes to complete.

The Test of Logical Thinking (TOLT) (Tobin & Capie, 1981) is a ten-item test for students of middle school age and older. Two items relate to each of five modes of logical thinking- identifying and controlling variables, and proportional, correlational, probabilistic, and com- binational reasoning. Each of these modes has been well described by Inhelder and Piaget (1958).

INTEGRATED SCIENCE PROCESS SKILLS

Unit Topic

Grade 6

The Senses - sight The Senses - hearing

The Senses - touch The Senses - smell or taste

Properties of matter

Sound

Light

Heat

Grade 8

Universe and Space

Weather and atmosphere

Earth matter

Rocks and minerals

Earth History

Length of Unit ( a s ) Lesson Topic

1

1%

14

1

2

2

2

2

3

2%

2

28 1

-Sight-depth perception

-Hearing-boys vs. girls

-Touch-sensitivity to touch

-Smell-olfactory fatigue

-Data tables and graphing -Effect of the number of

coils on an electromagnet

-Lengths, virbrations and pitch

-Effect of object distance on image distance

-Water and melting time -Melting ice -Evaporation and surface area

-Heat from the sun -Graphing and interpreting

data

-Evaporation of water -Variations in temperature

at different heights -Observing and recording air

temperatures

-Effect of a dissolved substance on the boiling point

-Effect of heating on the temperature of an ice cube- water mixture

-Measuring the density of rock

-Weathering of rocks samples

2 -Radioactive half-life studies

Fig. 1. A list of the Process Skill lessons generated.

The test uses a unique double multiple-choice format. A problem is posed, and the student must first choose a correct answer from among five responses and then choose from among five reasons. To be correct, the student must choose both the right answer and the correct reason. This minimizes the effect of guessing and results in high reliabilities for the total test and subtests even though few items are used. Only the combinatorial reasoning items differ from this format. On these questions, students must actually list the possible combinations of several variables. The content of many of the items is similar to that used by Lawson (1978) and others. Figure 3 gives examples of items from TOLT.

The reliability (Chronbach’s a) of TOLT from previous studies with similar students was in the range of 0.80. Table I1 reports the reliabilities for TOLT total test and all subtests in the present study. The instrument was validated by correlating its items with performance on tasks presented using traditional Piagetian interviews with both college and high school students. A correlation of 0.80 was obtained (Tobin & Capie, 1981). This result, along with high predictive


Hypothesizing TIPS item

John cu t s grass fo r seven d i f f e ren t neighbors. Each week he makes the rounds with h i s lawn mower. The grass i s usua l ly d i f f e r e n t i n the lawns. I n some lawns i t is t a l l but not i n o thers . H e begins t o make hypotheses about the height of grass. Which of the fallowing is a s u i t a b l e hypothesis he could t e s t ?

1. Lawn mowing is more d i f f i c u l t when the weather is warm. 2 . The amount of f e r t i l i z e r a lawn rece ives i s important. 3. 4 . The more h i l l s there a r e in a lawn the harder it is t o cu t .

Lawns that receive more water have longer grass.

3 e r a t i o n a l l y Defining TIPS item

Students in a science c l a s s did an experiment. I n it they pointed a f lash- l i g h t a t a screen. They put the f l a sh l igh t a t d i f f e r e n t d i s tances from the screen. They then measured the s i z e of the l igh ted spot.

Which of t he following would be an appropr ia te measure of the s i z e of the l igh ted spot .

1. the diameter of the f l a s h l i g h t 2 . the s i z e of the b a t t e r i e s i n the f l a s h l i g h t . 3. the s i z e of the screen 4 . the rad ius of the spot on the screen.

Fig. 2. Two examples of items from the Test of Integrated Process Skills.

Proportional Reasoning TOLT item

Four la rge oranges a r e squeezed t o make s i x g l a s ses of j u i c e . How much ju i ce can be made from s i x oranges?

a . 7 g lasses b. 8 g lasses c . 9 g lasses d. 10 g lasses e . o ther

Reason

1.

2 . With more oranges, the d i f fe rence w i l l be l e s s . 3. The d i f fe rence in the numbers w i l l always be two. 4 .

5. There is no way of pred ic i tng .

The number of g lasses compared t o the number of oranges w i l l always be in the r a t i o 3 t o 2 .

With four oranges the d i f f e rence was 2 . would be two more.

With s i x oranges the d i f fe rence

Combinatorial Reasoning TOLT item

In a new Shopping Center, 4 s t o r e loca t ions a r e going to be opened on the ground l eve l .

A BARBER SHOP (B), a DISCOUNT STORE ( D ) , a GROCERY STORE (G) , and a COFFEE SHOP(C) want to move i n the re . Each one o f the s t o r e s can choose any one of four loca t ions . One way tha t the s t o r e s could occupy the 4 loca t ions is BDGC.

More spaces a r e provided on the Answer Sheet than you w i l l need.

L i s t a l l o the r poss ib le ways t h a t t h e s t o r e s can occupy the 4 loca t ions .

Fig. 3. Two examples of items from the Test of Logical Thinking.


validity obtained in other studies (Bradley, 1980; Yeany, Helseth, & Barstow, 1980), lends credence to TOLT as being a valid measure of formal reasoning ability.

Fidelity of Treatment

Each teacher was visited and an informal assessment completed on a minimum of two occa- sions (sixth-grade teachers were visited a third time). On each occasion the teachers were following the lesson provided for them by asking appropriate questions and getting a high degree of student involvement. On-task percents typically ranged above 80% during these lessons. Thus, it was concluded that the teachers involved carried out the treatments as planned.

ReSUltS

The mean pre- and posttest scores and standard deviations on the logical thinking (TOLT) and process skill (TIPS) measures are shown in Table I. All groups increased in process skills achievement and logical thinking ability over the weeks of treatment. The sixth graders' pretest scores were about seven points lower than those of the eighth graders in process skill achievement. Improvements from pre- to posttest varied from about three to almost six points on this variable. Eighth graders began about one point higher on logical thinking ability. Improvements by the different groups ranged from about one-third of a point to more than one point.

Separate one-way analyses of covariance were performed on each of the dependent variables by grade level. When the TIPS posttest scores were analyzed, the TIPS pretest scores were used as a covariate; the TOLT pretest was used as a covariant for TOLT posttest scores. General linear model procedures were used for all analyses. A 3 X 2 (treatment by grade level) analysis of covariance @retests as covariates) was originally planned but abandoned because the covariate was highly correlated with grade level.

TABLE I Mean Scores for All Groups on the Logical Thinking Test (TOLT) and

Test of Integrated Process Skills (TIPS)

G r a d e L e v e l

T r e a t m e n t T e s t six Eight Combined

P r e P o s t P r e P O 8 t P r e POS t

(1)

Two w e e k s TOLT' 1.15(1.49) 1.43(1.62) l.gE(2.30) 2.76(2.75) 1.58 2.04

Plus e x t e n d e d p r o c e s s TIPSb 12.14(5.30) 17.69(7.88) 18.77(6.92) 22.90(7.03) 15.19 20.29

( 2 )

Two w e e k s p r o c e s s TOLT l.OO(l.24) 1.40(2.11) 2.07(2.20) 2.74(2.87) 1.48 1.98

T I P S 11.36(4.60) 16.?5(6.85) 18.62(7.86) 21.35(8.53) 14.45 18.30

( 3)

N o process TOLT l.OO(1.14) 1.36(1.65) 2.32(2.22) 3.40C2.89) 1.68 2.29

T I P S 1D .82( 4.69) 15.07(5.97) 2D.65( b .90) 22.79(6.23) 15.62 18.56

aMaximum score is 10. bMaximum score is 36. CNumbers in parentheses are standard deviations.


No significant process skill (TIPS) differences were found among the three treatments for the sixth graders [F(2,178) = 1.50, p = 0.23 J . Among eighth graders there was a significant difference, however [F(2,143) = 5.95, p = 0.0031. Post hoc analysis using the Newman-Keuls method showed the extended process skill group (Treatment One) scores to be significantly higher than either the two-week process skill group (Treatment Two) (p < 0.10) or the control (Treatment Three) (p < 0.025).

On the ANCOVA with logical thinking (TOLT) as the dependent variable, no significant differences were found with either grade level. Scores from all groups in both grades increased from pre- to posttest but no differences due to treatment were found.

Closer analysis of the process skills and logical thinlung abilities was possible through examining specific skills and the degree to which the instruction influenced them. To accomplish this, the process skills test was divided into three subtests and the logical thinking test was divided into five subtests. Means and standard deviations for these subtests are contained in Table 11. The subtest scores were analyzed using a one way ANCOVA covarying on the appropriate pretest score. For both sixth- and eighth-grade subjects a significant difference due to treatment was obtained on the hypothesizing and identifying variables subtest [for sixth grade F(2,178) = 2.72, p = 0.068; for eighth grade F(2,148) = 6.49, p = 0.002]. Post hoc analysis using the Newman-Keuls method showed Treatment One higher than control among sixth graders (p < 0.10) and both Treatments One and Two higher than control for eighth graders (p < 0.10). No differences for either grade were found for the other two processes skills subtests, nor for any of the logical thinking subtests.

Additional analysis of the data was performed by calculating gains scores for both TIPS and TOLT tests and their subtests. These gain scores were then analyzed using 3 X 2 (treatment by grade level) analysis of variance procedures which confirmed the ANCOVA results reported above. In addition, no interaction effects were found.

Discussion

Results dealing with process skill outcomes were generally encouraging. It is apparent that middle school aged students can learn to use certain integrated process skills. This is heartening, especially considering the theoretical importance of integrated process skills in science education.

Yet there were no significant results on the two process skill subtests dealing with measuring and experimenting or graphing and interpreting data. This could be a function of the low reliabilities of both subtests (see Table 11). It is also quite probable that it is a function of the control group for some unknown reason, improving its abilities on these two subtests almost as much as the two special treatment groups.

It is not surprising that significant differences were found primarily on the hypothesizing and identifying variables subtest. When visited during the study, teachers were observed to spend the most time and energy on these planning activities, which precede the collection of data. Increased attention to an activity usually translates into a higher degree of mastery.

The important question, of course, is: Do the statistically significant process skill results have practical significance? This question can be answered by examining posttest mean scores. The enhanced process skill group scored about two points higher than the control group, or about 6% of the total score possible. The study lasted about one-third of the year. Under the assumption that the pattern would continue, the difference for a year would be about 18%. Altered performance of that magnitude is usually important. Yet the proportion of explained variance reported in this study is minimal. Only 3% of the eighth grade total process skill achievement was accounted for by treatment, and only 4% and 1%, respectively, of the sixth

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and eighth graders’ hypothesizing and identifying variables achievement was accounted for by treatment. More research is needed to shed light on this important question.

Logical thinking skills were also an important outcome variable in this study. They were not much affected in the time span of this work, however. Either process skill instruction is not a means of influencing growth in logical thinking or the period of time devoted to that pursuit must be extended before effects are evident. The correlation between process skill and logical thinking ability is strong and the abilities seem logically related. Yet affecting one ability appears to have little influence on the other over a 14-week period.

Perhaps the most important finding from this study relates to how process skills should be integrated into the curriculum. Brief units devoted to integrated science skills were somewhat less beneficial than extended periods of instruction. It appears that integrated science process skills cannot best be taught as brief topics in the same way as volcanoes or density. Instead, greater benefit to students seems t o result from integrating science content and process instruction over a longer period of time.

References

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Boyer, J., & Linn, M. Effectiveness of the Science Curriculum Improvement Study in teaching scientific literacy. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 1978, 15,209-21 9.

Bradley, C. The effects of imagery stimulation, visualization skill, and cognitive development level on science achievement of college students. Doctoral dissertation, University of Georgia, 1980.

Butzow, J., & Sewell. An investigation of Introductory Physical Scienceissuing the test of science process. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 1972, 9,267-270.

Dillashaw, F., & Okey, J. Test of the integrated science process skills for secondary science students. Science Education, 1980,64,601-608.

Herron, M. The nature of scientific inquiry. School Review, 1971,79, 171 -21 2. Inhelder, B., & Piaget, J. The growth of logical thinking from childhood to adolescence.

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National Science Teachers Association. NSTA position statement on school science educa-

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Paddla, M., Okey, J., & Dillashaw, F. The relationship between science process skill and formal thining abilities. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 1983, 20,239-246.

Peterson, K. Scientific inquiry training for high school students: Experimental evaluation of a model program. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 1978, 15, 153-159.

Pouler, C., & Wright, E. An analysis of the influence of reinforcement and knowledge of criteria on the ability of students to generate hypotheses. Journal of Research in Science Teach- ing, 1980,17,31-37.

Quinn, M., & George, K. Teaching hypothesis formation. Science Education, 1975, 59(3),

New York: Basic Books, 1958.

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Renner, J. A case for inquiry. Science and Children, 1966,430-33. Stronck, D. Comparative effects of three seventh grade science progams with different

Tobin, K., & Capie, W. Teaching process skills in the middle school. School Science and

Tobin, K., & Capie, W. The development and validation of a group test of logical thinking.

Weber, M., & Rener, J. How effective is the SCIS program? School Science and Mathe-

Yeany, R., Helseth, E., & Barstow, W. Interactive instructional videotapes, scholastic aptitude cognitive development, and locus of control as variables influencing science achievement. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the National Association for Research in Science Teaching, Boston, April 1980.

laboratory materials. Science Educution, 1971, 55, 125-130.

Mathematics, 1980,80, 590-600.

Educational and PsychologicalMeasurement, 1981,41,413-423.

V W ~ ~ C S , 1972, LXXII, 729-734.

Manuscript accepted April 12, 1983

the effects of instruction on integrated science process skill achievement

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