the effect of heat compression on mechanical behaviour and
TRANSCRIPT
i
THE EFFECT OF HEAT COMPRESSION ON MECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR AND
MOISTURE CONTENT OF PINEAPPLE LEAF FIBRE AND SUGARCANE
BAGASSE WASTE FOR PLATE DISPOSAL
SAIFUL DIN BIN SABDIN
A thesis submitted in
fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the
Degree of Master of Mechanical Engineering
FACULTY OF MECHANICAL AND MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING
UNIVERSITI TUN HUSSEIN ONN MALAYSIA
JUNE 2014
v
ABSTRACT
The waste from farming and industry could be reduced and used as raw materials in
construction to achieve sustainable technologies. This study focuses on the use of waste
products from the pineapple leaf and sugarcane bagasse as compounds in replacing
polystyrenes and others plastics glass in the manufacture of plate disposal. This platter is
made from pineapple leaf and sugarcane bagasse by six (6) series of mixtures with
different percentages namely series 1 (20% of pineapple leaf), series 2 (30% of
pineapple leaf) series 3 (40% of pineapple leaf), series 4 (60 % of pineapple leaf), series
5 (70% of pineapple leaf) and series of 6 (80% of pineapple leaf). Two (2) series is
N8T2 (80% of pineapple leaf and 20 % sugarcane bagasse waste) and N2T8 (20% of
pineapple leaf and 80% sugarcane bagasse waste) focusing on this study for furthermore
understanding the effect of replacing plate disposal from pineapple laef fiber and
sugarcane bagasse waste material. A platter hot press machine is built with variable
adjustment temperature on the surface of the mold according parameters required are
50°C, 100°C and 150°C. The effect of heat compression on physical and mechanical
behavior of the pineapple leave and sugarcane bagasse waste plate disposal was
evaluated. From observation and results showed the best roughness surface appearance
on N2T8.The Optimum percentage pineapple leaf and sugarcane bagasse waste is good
present at heat parameter 50°C for specimen N2T8. The best water absorption on
specimen series N8T2 because pineapple leaf potential to hydroscopic and water
resistance. It can be concluded that pineapple leaf and sugarcane bagasse waste have
potential raw material for strength and lightweight of paper disposal composition
applications.
vi
ABSTRAK
Sisa daripada pertanian dan industri dapat dikurangkan dan digunakan sebagai bahan
mentah dalam pembinaan untuk mencapai teknologi yang mampan. Kajian ini memberi
tumpuan kepada penggunaan bahan buangan dari daun nanas dan hampas tebu sebagai
komposisi sebatian kertas dalam menggantikan polistrine dan plastik dalam pembuatan
pinggan pakai buang. Pinggan pakai buang ini dibuat daripada daun nanas dan hampas
tebu dengan dijalankan oleh enam (6) siri campuran dengan peratusan yang berbeza, siri
1 (20% daun nanas), siri 2 (30% daun nanas) siri n3 (40% daun nanas), siri 4 (60% daun
nanas), siri 5 (70% daun nanas) dan siri 6 (80% daun nanas). Dua (2) siri N8T2 (80%
daun nanas dan 20 % hampas tebu) dan N2T8 (20% daun nanas dan 80 % hampas tebu)
dikaji bagi menilai kesan penggunaan pinggan pakai buang daripada daun nenas dan
hampas tebu. Pembuatan mesin acuan pinggan mesin telah dibina serta berkeupayaan
melaras suhu pada permukaan acuan pinggan mengikut parameter 50°C, 100°C dan
150°C. Kesan daripada suhu tersebut pada peratusan daun nanas yang berbeza dan
hampas tebu pada tegangan dan keserapan air diambil dan ditunjukkan perbandingan
pada sifat- sifat fizikal dan mekanikal pinggan kertas daun nanas dan hampas tebu di
analisa. Faktor kelembapan dan ketumpatan pada setiap spesimen dikira dan
dibandingkan untuk mendapatkan spesimen yang terbaik dalam pembuatan pinggan
kertas .Dari segi penglihatan mata kasar dan keputusan pada permukaan pinggan yang
terhasil mendapati specimen N2T8 adalah terbaik tahap kehalusannya. Peratusan
optimum penggantian daun nanas dan hampas tebu adalah terbaik pada parameter haba
50°C untuk spesimen N2T8. Penyerapan air terbaik pada spesimen N8T2 kerana potensi
daun nanas untuk hidrokopik iaitu memantulkan semula air. Ini boleh membuat
kesimpulan bahawa daun nanas dan hampas tebu mempunyai potensi dalam kekuatan
dan ringan untuk pembuatan pinggan kertas buangan.
vii
CONTENTS
TITLE i
DECLARATION ii
DEDICATION iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv
ABSTRACT v
ABSTRAK vi
LIST OF TABLES xi
LIST OF FIGURES xiii
LIST OF APPENDICS xvi
LIST OF SYMBOLS xvii
CHAPTER 1INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Problem statement 2
1.3 Objective of study 5
1.4 Scope of study 5
1.5 Significance of study 6
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 7
2.1 Introduction 7
2.2 Current trend of composite 10
2.3 Use of natural fibre in composite paper plate 11
viii
2.4 Characteritistic of natural fibre for paper plate 14
2.5 Advantages of using natural fibre in composite paper
Plate 15
2.6 Use of pineapple leaf fibers and sugarcane bagasse
waste in composite paper plate 17
2.7 Tensile properties of PALF composite 23
2.8 Impact propeties of PALF composite 26
2.9 Flexural properties of PALF composite 26
2.10 Heat compression 27
2.11 Compounding and compression molding of nature
fibers. 29
2.12 Using natural fiber for paper 30
2.12.1 Printing 30
2.12.2 Industry 30
2.12.3 Tissues 30
2.13 Characterestics of paper 31
CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY 32
3.1 Introduction 32
3.2 Flow chart study 33
3.3 Machine design 35
3.4 Material selection 36
3.4.1 PALF preparation 38
3.5 PALF and sugarcane bagasse waste peparation 40
ix
3.5.1 Selection PALF and sugarcane bagasse
specimen 44
3.6 Moisture content 46
3.7 Density 46
3.8 Water absorption test 47
3.9 Mechanical test 48
3.9.1 Tensile test 49
3.9.2 Tensile strength and strain relationship 51
3.9.3 Young’s modulus 52
3.9.4 Tensile ductility 52
3.9.5 Tear testing 53
3.9.6 Tear factor 54
3.10 Surface roughness testing 54
CHAPTER 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 56
4.1 Introduction 56
4.2 Physical properties of PALF 56
4.2.1 Effect of moisture content of PALF and
sugarcane bagasse waste 57
4.2.2 Bulk density 60
4.3 Water absorption 61
4.4 Effect of heat compression on mechanical
behaviour. 64
4.4.1 Tensile properties 64
x
4.4.2 Tearing properties 67
4.5 Surface roughness 69
4.6 Comparison between PALF and sugarcane bagasse
waste and others composite 70
4.7 The Optimum PALF and sugarcane bagasse waste
composition weightage 72
CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATION 74
5.1 Introduction 74
5.2 Conclusions 74
5.3 Recommendations for future work 76
REFERENCES 78
APPENDIX 84
xi
LIST OF TABLE
2.1 Advantages and disavdvantages of commercial
composite (Peter.,2002) 9
2.2 Mechanical and thermal properties of commercial
polyypropylene (Brydson.,1999) 9
2.3 The properties of pineapple leaf fibre and polypropylene
(RMN Arib et al., 2004). 14
2.4 Characteristic and mechanical fibre skin (b) leaves (I) and
seeds (S) 15
2.5 Advantages and disadvantages of natural fibre and glass fibre. 16
2.6 Physical and mechanical properties of PALF from SITRA
(Munirah Mohtar et al., 2007) 22
2.7 Effects of fibre length on tensile properties of PALF –
Reinforced Polyester Composites (fibre contetnt of 30 wt %)
(Munirah Mohktar et al.,2007) 24
2.8 Variation of tensile properties of PALF –reinforced polyester
composites as a function loading (fibre length 0f 30 mm)
(Munirah Mokhtar et al.,2007) 25
2.9 Improved adhesion of nature fibers 29
3.1 Parameter of PALF 39
3.2 PALF and sugarcane bagasse weighted composition 43
3.3 Specimen parameter for heat compression 45
3.4 Parameter mechanical test for specimen 49
4.1 Results on induction cooker for PALF 57
4.2 Results on moisture content composition PALF and sugarcane
bagasse waste 59
4.3 Results of water absorption after hot press 63
xii
4.4 Results on Young’s modulus for specimen 66
4.5 Results on elongation for specimen 66
4.6 Tearing Results 68
4.7 Results for surface roughness 70
4.8 Comparison of the physical and Mechanical properties of
(PALF +bagasse) and (PALF +PP). 71
xiii
LIST OF FIGURES
1.1 Demand for paper products (Mohd Asro, 2009). 4
2.1 Growth outlook for bio-based composites by application in
United States, 2000-2005 (Munirah Mohktar et al., 2007) 10
2.2 Classification of natural fiber from plant and animals 13
2.3 Structure of cellulose (shown top) and lignin (shown bottom):
basic constituents of fibers (L.T Drza et al., 2002) 14
2.4 Lamellae structure of cell walls of plants 17
2.5 Pineapple plant . 22
2.6 Sugarcane bagasse waste 23
2.7 Graph of effects of tensile strength and modulus for
melt-mixed composites (using Brabender Plasticoder) with
(a) Mixing time and (b) rotor speed. Both with fiber content
30 wt% (George et al., 1995) 25
2.8 Variation of flexural strength and flexural modulus with fiber
loading of PALF-polyester composites (Uma Devi et al., 1997) 27
2.9 Changes in tensile strength, modulus and work of fracture and
failure Strain of the C/SiC composites with heat treatment
temperatures from Room temperature to 1900°C
(Hui Meng et al.,2012) 28
2.10 The Morphologies of the fractured sections of C/SiC composites
before and after heat treatment. (Hui Meng et al.,2012) 28
3.1 Research methodology 34
3.2 Schematic of the composite consolidation 35
3.3 Heat and press machine 35
3.4 Process flow chart material selection (AHP) material
(SM Sapuan et al., 2011) 37
xiv
3.5 PALF cut to pieces 39
3.6 PALF put into mold 40
3.7 PALF and sugarcane bagasse waste 41
3.8 Flow chart pulp preparation 42
3.9 Water absorption test 43
3.10 Schematic preparation of pulp paper 44
3.11 Schematic preparation of specimen 45
3.12 Specification of Specimen. 45
3.13 Composition PALF and sugarcane bagasse waste 46
3.14 Schematic water absorption tester 47
3.15 Water absorption tester 48
3.16 Sheet Specimen 50
3.17 Number sample specimen 51
3.18 Tearing testing 54
3.19 Surface roughness test 55
4.1 Effect of time on PALF tensile strength and moisture content 57
4.2 Paper plate Size 58
4.3 Size of the specimen 58
4.4 Moisture content at specimen test 59
4.5 Effect of moisture content on PALF and bagasse composition 60
4.6 Effect of density PALF and bagasse composition 61
4.7 Specimen after hot press 62
4.8 Effect of water absorption on specimen after hot press 63
4.9 Effect of density on specimen after hot press 64
4.10 Effect of temperature on tensile strength 66
4.11 Effect of temperature on tearing strength 68
4.12 Effect of temperature of tearing factor 69
4.13 Surface of specimen 70
4.14 Effect of tensile strength and elongation at 100°C 72
4.15 The optimum effect of tensile and tearing on specimen 73
xv
4.16 The Effect of density on heat compression 73
xvi
LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix Title Pages
A Vitae 83
xvii
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS
TAPPI Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry
ASTM American Society for Testing Material
ISO International Standardization for Organization
PALF Pineapple Leaf Fiber
UTHM Universiti Tun Hussein Onn, Malaysia
AHP Analytic Hierarchy Process
A0 Cross Sectional Area
D0 Diameter
L0 Initial gage length
JIS Japanese Institute of Standard
DIN German Institute for Standardization
σ Stress
ɛ Strain
σTS Ultimate Tensile Strength
σfracture Fracture Strength
Pmax Maximum Force
ΔL Elongation
K Strength Coefficient
g Gram
m Meter
SEM Scanning Electron Microscope
FRP Fiber reinforced plastic
PP Polypropylene
MFI Melt flow index
MMA Methyl methacrylate
NVP N-vinyl pyrrolidone
xviii
PL Polymer Loading
LDPE Low density polyethylene
RTM Resin transfer molding
NaOH Sodium Hydroxide
BPO Benzoyl peroxide
DCP Dicumyl peroxide
NR Nature rubber
HAF High Abrasion Furnace
CuSO4 Cuprum sulfate
AN Acrylonitrile
KIO4 Pottasium Periodate
1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
Natural fibres have been used from centuries mostly in thermoplastic composite for
application in consumer goods, furniture, low cost housing, civil building and
transportation industry. Such natural fibres usually used in composite are pineapple
leaf, bamboo, kenaf, jute, sisal, hemp, flax, coir fibre, sugar cane and etc. Natural
fibres have been proven to offer an advantages such as low cost and low density
compared to glass fibres (Westman et al., 2010). Increasing awareness in
environment throughout the world has resulted in utilizing natural fibres as
reinforcements in composite industry as it offer as renewable resources. This study
more focuses to pineapple leaf fibres (PALF) and sugarcane bagasse waste
composite to industry paper plate for new material as it subject. It was a waste
product of pineapple and bagasse cultivation and can be obtained to industrial
purpose without additional cost.
Since 1904, paper plates have become a staple in almost every household.
The traditional plastic plate materials are reinforced by glass fibres very expensive
and harmful to the environmental. Packaging materials, including recycled paper,
have to comply with a basic set of criteria concerning safety. This means that
recycled paper, used in food packaging, should prevent the potential migration of
components, which can pose health risks. A large number of chemicals are used in
the paper recycling process, such as bleach, paper strengthening agents and inks.
During the last few years, several studies on the migration of these chemicals from
paper, board and plastics into foodstuff and food stimulants have been published
(Anderson and Castle, 2003, Jickells et al., 2005, Song et al., 2003, Song et al., 2000,
Sturaro et al., 2006, Nerìn et al., 2007, Begley et al., 2008, Pastorelli et al., 2008,
Triantafyllou et al., 2007, Maia et al., 2009, Maia et al., 2010, Sanches-Silva et al.,
2
2009 and Zülch and Piringer, 2010). Traditional paper plates are naturally
biodegradable and can be disposed of in the ordinary trash. There are a number of
advantages of using natural fibres in bio composites among which are:
(i) Glass fibre is relatively expensive to make
(ii) Natural fibre low cost, low density and low energy consumption (Munirah
Mohktar et al., 2007).
Over the past decade, cellulosic fillers have been of greater interest as they give
composites improved mechanical properties compared to those containing non-
fibrous fillers. In recent years, thermoplastic materials have been increasingly used
for various applications (Folkes, 1982).
Christopher Columbus was the one who introduced the pineapple in the
world. He found in the waters of pineapple Caribbean in November 1493 during his
second voyage in the waters. Since the pineapple has spread around the world and in
the 16th century pineapple was introduced in Malaysia by the Portuguese. Johor state
a major producer of pineapples in Malaysia with an area of 9,830 hectares 57% of
the acreage in Malaysia (Agriculture ministry 2010). On these days, it was popular
pineapple in the world with a variety of products on the market.
Plate disposal by pineapple leaves composite is one of the applications of
using natural materials. In recent years, there have been rapid growths in research of
using natural fibre in paper by using different natural fibres. Hence, the aim of this
present study is to investigate the suitability of using PALF and sugarcane bagasse
waste as a raw material in disposal plate to replace polystyrene and plastic glass. The
mechanical properties such as tensile and bending properties were also investigated.
1.2 Problem statement
In the past, most of the products plates in the market are made from polystyrene,
plastic glass and composite from wood based material. Even though polystyrene and
plastic glass provide effective sound absorption, lightweight, good insulation, non-
combustible and ease of installation, it also have a few disadvantage which can
irritate respiratory system, skin rashes, sore throat, dry irritated eyes, headache in
short term and with long term exposure it can cause long-term health damage such as
3
cancer. In addition, Polystyrene glass fibre have been found not degrade when
released that will result in environmentally pollution (Ishak et al., 2009).
Nowadays, there is increasing demand for using nature and waste materials in
composite industry for making low cost construction material. There are many
advantages of using natural material over traditional glass fibre such as acceptable as
good specific strengths and modulus, low density, low weight, good
biodegradability, reduced respiratory irritation and renewable resources. Therefore,
agriculture by-product was used as preferred options in product due to low cost. In
this study, PALF and sugarcane bagasse waste was introduced as alternatives of that
plate disposal.
On other hand, this material can provide the alternative paper for new
product. In everyday life, paper is the most important ingredient for use in printing,
packaging, storage and dissemination of information. However, technology is
growing by leaps and bounds, in the use of paper is so widespread these days and the
demand is increasing day by day. Figure 1.1 shows the demand of the growing paper
production and are expected to continue to increase in 2015 of 490 million tones.
This is due to the increase in world population and development education (Mohd
Asro, 2009).
Refer to this situation; various alternatives have been introduced to replace
the main source of wood in pulp and paper industry (Chao, 2000). Continued use of
wood as a raw material for paper production will result in the destruction of forests
and thus the possibility of limited timber supply crisis.
Natural fibre composites form a new class of materials which seem to have
good potential in the future as a substitute for wood based material in many
applications. However, lack of good interfacial adhesion and poor resistance to
moisture absorption makes the use of natural fibre composites less attractive. Various
fibre surface treatments like mercerization, isocyanate treatment, acrylation, latex
coating, permanagante treatment, acetylation, silane treatment and peroxide
treatment have been carried out which may result in improving composite properties.
Research on a cost effective modification of natural fibres is necessary since the
main attraction for today’s market of bio composites is the competitive cost of
natural fibre. Interfaces play an important role in the physical and mechanical
4
properties of composites. Reinforcing fibres are normally given surface treatments to
improve their compatibility with the polymer matrix.
In Malaysia, Pineapple Leaf not has been planted widely for various purposes
especially used in composite technology. Therefore, this study is looking for
utilizing the waste which is combination of PALF core and agent natural bagasse for
potentially replacing of existing plastic or polystyrene in disposal plate. Since the
study on suitability of PALF waste as a reinforcing material in composite layer and
treatments is very limited and the understanding need to be improved made this study
become important. As a result, these studies focus on determining the performance of
PALF waste and sugarcane bagasse in terms of tensile, tearing, water absorption and
surface roughness.
Figure 1.1: Demand of paper products (Mohd Asro, 2009).
5
1.3 Objectives of study
The objectives of this study are:
(i) To study the effect of variable heat compression on mechanical behaviour of
nature composite fibre PALF and sugarcane bagasse waste plate.
(ii) To determine the moisture content and density of composite nature fiber PALF
and sugarcane bagasse plate disposal.
(iii) To determine surface roughness of composite nature fibre PALF and
sugarcane bagasse waste plate using surface roughness machine.
1.4 Scope of study
The scope of this study focuses on experimental investigation on the influence of
replacing paper plate disposal from wood with waste from pineapple leaves and
sugarcane bagasse waste. In order to access the suitability of pineapple leave and
sugarcane bagasse waste in composite paper plate, it is important to investigate the
basic characteristics and properties of this material such as moisture content, density
and tensile properties of paper plate dispossal. The investigation include of
preparation of raw materials, heat and press machine and testing the samples. The
mechanical properties and fracture surface appearances of composite nature fibre
waste were first carried out. The scopes of research were:
(i) To design and fabricate the heat and press machine for plate disposal.
(ii) Material selection, PALF and sugarcane bagasse plate disposal with
composition percentage (20% PALF and 80% sugarcane bagasse waste) and
(80% PALF and 20% sugarcane bagasse waste)
(iii) Preparation of pulp with sodium hydroxide as ratio1:10
(iv) Preparation of specimen with different heat compression temperature 50°C,
100°C and 150°C
(v) To perform the physical properties (water absorption, density, moisture
content) and mechanical test is (tensile and tear test).
(vi) To measure the surface roughness.
All the test specimens were tested for physical and mechanical behaviour.
The physical properties tests include determining the moisture content and density of
6
plate. The mechanical behaviour test includes determining Modulus of Young’s of
specimen. All the tests were conducted in UTHM Laboratory at Faculty of
Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering. All data obtained were analyzed and
conclusions are made based on the results.
1.5 Significance of study
This research is important to give a further understanding on effect of replacing plate
disposal from wood with waste from PALF and sugarcane bagasse towards the
strength properties of composite treatment. There is rapidly increasing in demand of
using natural material in plastic industry and product development to concern with
environment and in order to achieve low value of Pineapple leaf waste.
Furthermore, PALF and sugarcane bagasse waste can be a potential as a
reinforcing material in order to give better strength performance of material such as
plate. Since the properties of waste from PALF its self is unknown and the utilizing
of PALF waste as a product is very limited, it made this study very important. It is
expected that by substituting the waste from PALF and sugarcane bagasse waste, it
can improve the strength of plate disposal and at the same time it will produce a
material with lower cost and eco-friendly product. Besides that, as the construction
industry grew and developed, the industry require reinforcing material to improve
performance into certain level of strength and stiffness as well as to reduce the cost
of production.
7
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
Last few decades, fibre reinforced composites have gained popularity due to
lightweight characteristics, low cost, available and also renewable compared to
others man-made fibres (Udoeyo et al., 2012). Nowadays, most of composites
technology for product development is utilizing natural fibres form as an interesting
option due to successful substitution of woody material in wood based panel
products. Composite is a combination of two or more materials which one of the
materials called as reinforcing materials. Each of the material has different
characteristic and properties in order to improve the performance of the resultant
composites (Youngquist et al., 1997)
The aim of composite paper technology is to produce a product with improve
in quality and performance characteristics and at the same time reduce the cost of
production. Modification of properties can be done by the physical combination of two
polymers or by the physical combination of a polymer with a non-polymeric
component. One type of the methods is through forming composite material.
Composites natural fibers are formed by combination of a polymer of some type
non-polymeric solid or by combination of some types of engineering materials.
Commonly, composites tend to have characteristics such as high strength; high
modulus; low density; and excellent resistance to fatigue, creep, creep rupture,
corrosion and wear (Youngquist et al., 1997). Table 2.1 lists some advantages and
disadvantages of composites.
In the paper composite for plate production process, it uses the primary
material of cellulose (DIN 6730, ISO 4046). Typically, cellulose used was derived
from wood, jute, and banana. In the process of producing fibers, pieces of wood that
have been formed will undergo a process called pulping (pulping process). The
8
resulting pulp is then processed into paper.Nowadays application of typical or
commercial composites still limited due to the economic factor. Since these
composites used fibre glass or other engineering material as the reinforcement, the
cost of raw materials and fabrication will be high. This is very obvious in industrial
field that required advance composite material, for instance aeronautic and marine
engineering.
According to Klaus Peter Mieck’s perspective (1999) reported in general,
polymeric composites are formed by combining fibres and polymer resin which
also known as fibre reinforced plastic (FRP). The term polymer refers as long chain
molecule that is composed of a large number of repeating units of identical
structure. This covalent bonding is formed via polymerization process and can have
shape of linear or even more complicated networking. Polymer can be divided into
two major groups based on their thermal processing behaviours: thermoset and
thermoplastic. Thermoplastic refers to polymer that can be melting processed by a
variety of methods, including extrusion and moulding. These include polyethylene,
polypropylene, polystyrene and polyvinyl chloride. On the other hand, thermoset
are polymer whose individual chains have been chemically linked by covalent
bonds during polymerization or by subsequent chemical or thermal treatment. Once
formed, the cross linked networks resist heat softening, creep and solvent attack.
Principle thermosets are epoxies, polyesters and formaldehyde-based resins.Judging
from the trade off between stable thermosets and recyclability of thermoplastic, the
main concern of this study is on thermoplastic.
Brydson (1999) reported the Polypropylene (PP) has been chosen as the
matrix of composite as it has low processing temperature (below 230°C) which
will not degrade the fibre. PP is one of the most successful commodity synthetic
polymers. In volume terms, PP takes the fourth place after polyester, polyamide and
acrylic fibres. It is widely used because of its low density (0.905 g/cm3), high
crystalline and also high stiffness and hardness. Table 2.2 is the properties of five
commercial materials by the same manufacturer which are of approximately the
same isotactic content but which differ in molecular weight. Increase in melt flow
index (MFI) means decrease in molecular weight. From the grade of matrix forming
PP has less effect on the tensile and flexural properties of the composites. Generally,
9
PP of fineness between 1.7-6.7 indexes with lengths of 40-60 mm is considered
suitable. Even PP obtained from recycling processes can also be used.
Table 2.1: Advantages and disadvantages of commercial composite (Peter, 2002)
Advantages Disadvantages
High strength- or stiffness- to-weight
ratio
Transverse properties may be weak
Tailorable properties: can tailor strength
or stiffness to be in the load direction
Matrix weakness, low toughness
Cost of raw materials and fabrication
Redundant load paths (fibre to fibre) Matrix subject to environmental degradation
Longer life (no corrosion), better fatigue
life
Difficult to attach
Lower manufacturing costs
Inherent damping
Increased (or decreased) thermal or
electrical conductivity
Analysis for physical properties and
mechanical properties difficult, analysis for
damping efficiency has not reached a
consensus.
Weight reduction Non-destructive testing tedious
Table 2.2: Mechanical and thermal properties of polypropylene (Brydson, 1999)
Property Test Method Homopolymer
Melt Flow Index (MFI) (a)
a
3.0 0.7 0.2
Tensile Strength (lb in-2) (b) 5000 4400 4200
(MN/m2) 34 30 29
Elongation at Break (%) (b) 350 115 175
Flexural Modulus (lb in-2) - 190000 170000 160000
(MN/m2) 1310 1170 1100
Brittleness Temperature (°C) I.CI. /ASTM D746 +15 0 0
Vicat Softening Point (°C) BS 2782 145-150 148 148
Rockwell hardness (R-scale) - 95 90 90
Impact Strength (ft lb) 10 25 34
(J) (c) 13.5 34 46
10
(i) Standard polyethylene grader: load 2.16kg at 230°C
(ii) Straining rate 18 in/min
(iii) Falling weight test on 14 in diameter moulded bowls at 20°C
2.2 Current trend of composite
In this new era of technology, availability of bio-based composites offer the
opportunity for environmental gains, reduced energy consumption, light weight,
insulation and sound absorption properties, reduction in volatile organic
emissions, and reduction in the dependence on petroleum based and forest
product based materials. The development of sustainable materials as an alternative
for petroleum based materials is being studied to decrease the dependence on oil
or petroleum. This also can reduce carbon dioxide emissions and to generate a more
economic opportunity for the agricultural sector globally. Figure 2.1 shows the
outlook of application of bio-based composites in United State of America. It is
forecasted that the introduction of bio-based composites will soon alter the
global trend of composite and serves as a better choice when selecting the
appropriate construction materials. (Munirah Mohktar et al., 2007)
Figure 2.1: Growth outlook for bio-based composites by application in United
State, 2000-2005 (Munirah Mohktar et al., 2007)
11
2.3 Use of natural fibre in composite paper plate
Fibre is a continuous material that is like hair which also can be in the form of matted
into sheets. Fibre can be classified into natural fibre and man-made or synthetic fibre.
Source of natural fibre are include plant and animal. Natural fibre from plant can be
classified into non-wood fibres and wood fibres. Natural fibre from plant considered
as a source of lignocelluloses fibres. Source of natural fibre from plant mostly used
include jute, flax, pineapple leaf, kenaf, bamboo, sisal, abaca, oil palm, rice husk,
coir, coconut and hemp (Westman et al., 2010). While natural fibre from animal
usually comprise of proteins, such as collagen, keratin and fibroin. Some examples of
animal fibres are silk, sinew, wool, catgut, mohair and alpaca.
According to Othman (1980) report natural fiber is a fiber derived from
natural sources. It is used as a key raw material in the textile industry. In general,
natural fiber obtained from plants, animals or minerals in the origin Plant fibers have
an element attached to the lignin and cellulose, such as cotton, hemp, jute, hemp and
sisal. The fibers of this type are taken in from the trunk. In addition, it is also taken
from the leaves like pineapple leaves. These fibers are widely used in paper making
and textile industries. Unlike wood fiber, it is the principal sources. Fiber from plants
is renewable and naturally biodegradable. Pulp is one of the main raw materials used
in paper making industry.
The density (g/cm3) of natural fibers (varies from -1.2-1.5) is much less than
that of E-glass (2.55) the specific strength of natural fibers is quite comparable to
glass fibers. The elastic modulus and specific modulus of natural fibers are
comparable or even superior to E-glass fibers ( L.T. Drzal et al. 2002).
There are several factors affecting fibre properties and one of the most
significant factors is the chemical properties. Rowell et al. (2000) has made a wide
coverage on the characterization and factors affecting fibre properties. They stated
that a high aspect ratio (length / width) is important in agro-based fibre (natural fibre)
composites as it gives an indication of possible strength properties. A few of vast
array of fibre structures that exist in the plant were shown in their work. Major
differences in structure such as density and cell wall thickness, did result in
differences in physical properties.
12
Rozman et al., (1999) studied on the use of coconut fibre and glass as
reinforcements in PP hybrid composites. The incorporation of both coconut fibre and
glass fibre into the PP matrix has resulted in the reduction of flexural, tensile and
impact strengths compared to unreinforced PP. This phenomenon appeared
because there is more incompatibility between the fibres and the PP matrix as well as
the irregularity in fibre size. As a result, the stress transfer in matrix is not efficient and
lead to lowering in the strength of the material. By increasing the fibre loading, the
tensile and flexural modular has been improved. The result also indicated that
more bio-fibres could be incorporated in hybrid composites, which would give the
same range of properties s the composites with higher loading of glass fibres.
The study by Mubarak and Idriss Ali (1999) was based on wood-plastic
composite (WPC). Low-grade wood (soft wood like kadom, simul and mango) was
reinforced by monomer of methyl methacrylate (MMA) to achieve the quality of
high-grade wood. The effect of additives like urea and N-vinyl pyrrolidone (NVP)
was also considered. Lastly the authors concluded that there has been a significant
amount of enhancement of polymer loading (PL) in the wood samples upon
incorporating additives into the bulk monomer MMA. The cros slink density has
increased significantly. Besides, MMA has improved the tensile strength, bending
strength and compression strength of low-grade wood.
Traditionally, natural fibres started to use to fulfil the basic requirements such
as clothing, ropes and textiles, fishing nets and later have been develop for domestic
use. Most of olden people used type of natural fibre depending on their availability.
Their accepted and satisfactory mechanical properties make them an attractive
alternative to glass fibre, asbestos and other manmade fibres that used for
manufacturing composites. Since natural fibre can be a potential to be used as a
replacement for traditional reinforcing material, a lot of work have been done by
researches on suitability of natural fibre in composite industry (Soraya et al., 2011).
In recent years, more attention were focused on using natural fibres especially
from plant species due to increasing awareness on environment and energy in order
to protect the environment and to conserve the environment. Successful utilization of
natural fibre especially from plant fibre in producing eco friendly materials causes
more utilization on natural fibre including waste from agriculture (Ganjian et al.,
2010).
13
Research on utilizing natural fibre in composite has been conducted since
1900’s, but much attention has been given last few decades. The usage of natural
fibre can be limited due to its major factor of low strength compared to glass fibre
and the water absorption of natural fibre from the air and direct contact from the
environment are high. However, the previous research shown that the specific
strength of natural fibre composite not much less than glass fibre composites
(Westman et al., 2010).
A report by Ganjian et al., (2010), by using suitable natural cellulose fibres,
more products can be produce with variety uses with new technology. This is based
on the type of fibre used, its ratio in the mix design, type and amount of additive
material used and also the method of manufacturing. Sometimes, natural fibre can be
also used in combination with other synthetic material in cement product in order to
improve the mechanical properties of the product.
Figure 2.2: Classification of natural fibre from plant and animal
Protein (ANIMAL FIBERS)
Silk & wool
Hardwood &
softwood
Flax, hemp,
jute, Kenaf,
Ramie
Pineapple,
sisal, Abaca,
banana,
palm, fique ,
henequen,
Cotton,
coconut,
Bamboo,
rice
Wood Stem/ Bast Leaf GrassFruit /seed
Lignocelluloses Fibres (PLANT)
14
Figure 2.3: Structure of cellulose (shown top) and lignin (shown bottom): basic
constituents of natural fibers (L.T. Drzal et al. 2002)
Table 2.3: The properties of pineapple leaf fibre and polypropylene (R.M.N
Arib et al., 2004):
2.4 Characteristics of natural fiber for paper plate
Each fiber has different physical properties from each other. This depends on the
position of the fiber in the plant and the fiber growth. It depends on the (strength or
modulus) divided by the specific gravity. The properties of this fiber is affected by
the micro fibril angle is in the fibers (Ahmad Iqbal, 2013).
Properties
Density
(g/cm3)
Tensile
Strength
(Mpa)
Young’s
modulus
(Mpa)
Elongation at
Break (%)
PALF 1.07 126.60 4405 2.2
PP 0.9 35.13 531.12 16
15
Table 2.4 Characteristics and mechanical fiber skin (b), leaves (I) and seeds (S):
(Ahmad Iqbal, 2013)
Natural
fibre
Density
(Kg/M3)
Tensile
Strength
(MPa)
Specific
strength
(MPa)
Modulus of
Elasticity
(GPa)
Specific
modulus
(GPa)
Angle
Microfibril
(Ө)
Flax(b) 1500 500-900 345-620 50-70 34-34-4848 5
hemp(b) 1500 310-750 210-510 30-60 20-41 6.2
Jute(b) 1500 200-450 140-320 20-55 14-39 8.1
Kenaf(b) 1200 295-1191 246-993 22-60 18-50 -
Banana (I) 1350 529-914 392-677 27-32 20-24 11-12
Pineapple
(I)1440 413-1627 287-1130 60-82 42-57 6-14
Sisal(I) 1450 80-840 55-580 9-22 6-15 10-22
cotton(s) 1550 300-700 194-492 6-10 4-6.5 20-30
fibre(s) 1150 106-175 92-152 6 5.2 39-49
2.5 Advantages of using natural fibre in composite paper plate
There are a number of advantages and disadvantages offered by using lignocelluloses
fibres in cement composites compared with traditional glass fibres such as low cost,
safe handling, biodegradability, ecological characteristic, minimize weight and
volume and low density. Some of disadvantages of using natural fibres are low
resistance to moisture content and quality changes due to seasons of growth (Terciu
et al., 2012). By using natural fibre, it can offer lightweight building components,
with excellent thermal and acoustic performance.
It has been proved to offer more environmental benefits such as reduce
dependency on non-renewable energy, lower pollutant emissions, enhanced energy
recovery, and end of life biodegradability of components. The most widely choice of
natural fibre in composite material is jute fibre based on Jute fibres have various
advantages such as high specific properties, low density, and good dimensional
stability with a low cost and produced eco friendly product and the most important it
is abundantly available. Jute has good mechanical properties, stiffness and strength in
composite made it suitable for used as building application and in construction
industry. Furthermore, there are many application of using natural fibre in
16
composites such application includes in building and construction industry; panels
for partition, wall, floor, window and door frames, roof tiles, pre fabricated
buildings, as furniture; chair, table, shower, bath units, electrical appliances, pipes,
transportation; automobile and railway coach interior, boat and etc (Soraya et al.,
2011).
There are three main components in the formation of plant fibers of cellulose,
and lignin semi cellulose. Cellulose is the main component and it is widely available
on the S2 in a lamellar structure of the cell walls of plants shows in figure 2.4.
Cellulose molecules have a high tendency to form intra-and intermolecular hydrogen
bonds and with the same aggregate in veins micro 'micro fibrils' (Fengel et al, 1989).
Semi cellulose component has two types of fine wood (Softwood) and wood hard
(hardwood). As a hydrophilic polymer, semi cellulose has a high capacity for water
absorption. Thus, the high content semi celulos will improve the flexibility of a fiber
(Richard et al, 2009). The working principle component lignin in plants is working to
help the movement of water. The presence of lignin can form a barrier that will
prevent water evaporation process while helping the movement of water into the
critical areas in the plants (Yahaya, 2012).
Table 2.5: Advantages and disadvantages of natural fibre and glass fibre
Natural Fibres Glass Fibres
Density Low Twice that of natural fibre
Cost LowLow, but higher than natural
fibre
Renewability Yes No
Recyclability Yes No
Energy consumption Low High
Distribution Wide Wide
CO2 neutral Yes No
Abrasion to machines No Yes
Health risk when inhaled No Yes
Disposal Biodegradable Not biodegradable
17
Figure 2.4: Lamellae structure of cell walls of plants
2.6 Use of pineapple leaf fibres and sugarcane bagasse waste in composite
paper plate
Agriculture is an important sector in Malaysian economy. Traditionally, agricultural
materials have been shipped away for processing, or disposed of postharvest.
Diversification of the industry is crucial in encouraging economic stability and
growth. Value-added processing would helps in agricultural diversification. PALF
the subject of the present study is a waste product of pineapple cultivation. Hence,
pineapple fibre can be obtained for industrial purposes without any additional cost.
PALF serving as reinforcement fibre in most of the plastic matrix has shown
its significant role as it is cheap, exhibiting superior properties when compared to
other natural fibre as well as encouraging agriculture based economy. PALF is multi-
cellular and lignocelluloses materials extracted from the leave of plant Ananas
cosomus belonging to the Bromeliaceous family by retting (separation of fabric
bundles from the cortex). PALF has a ribbon-like structure and is cemented
Secondary wall
inner layer S3
Secondary wall
outer layer S1
Intercellular
substance I
Secondary wall
middle layer S2
Primary wall P
18
together by lignin, pentose-like materials, which contribute to the strength of the
fibre (George et al., 2000). Figure 2.5 shows on the PALF is a multi cellular fibre
like other vegetable fibres. Their study also found that the cells in this fibre have
average diameter of about 10 µm and mean length of 4.5 mm with aspect ratio of
450. The thickness of the cell wall (8.3 µm) lies between sisal (12.8 µm) and banana
leaf fibre (1.2 µm). The excellent mechanical properties of PALF are associated
with this high cellulose and low micro febrile angel.
Pineapple -shaped leaves resemble long swords pointed at the tip, black and
green color on the edges of the leaves have spines that are very sharp. Normally,
pineapple leaf length between about 55 cm to 75 cm with a width of 3.1 cm to 5.3 cm
and thickness of 0.18 cm to 0:27 cm. The length and nature of pineapple leaf crops
depending on the distance and the sun factor. Sunlight is less able to produce a strong
and fine fiber (Praktino Hidayat , 2008) .
Pineapple leaf has two outer layers consisting of the top layer and bottom
layer. Between the top layer and the bottom layer, there is a lot of bonding or - strand
fiber strands bound to each other by a binder of gluten (Gummy substances) found in
the leaves. This binder will strengthen pineapple leaf during growth as pineapple
leaves have no midrib. The leaves are still green fresh pineapple will yield of
approximately 2.5 % to 3.5 % of pineapple leaf fiber (Praktino Hidayat, 2008).
Arib et al., (2004) have provided an overview of the development,
mechanical properties and uses of PALF reinforced polymer composites. Both
the thermosets and thermoplastic resins have been used as matrices for this
natural fibre. Short PALF are mostly used in the various researchers discussed. This
literature review concluded some future research that might draw PALF to a more
developed area. They proposed that the major study can focus on long PALF;
manufacturing such as autoclave moulding, vacuum bag moulding as well as
resin transfer moulding (RTM); possible uses of PALF composites and also the
study on properties can be further extended to creep, fatigue, physical and
electrical properties.
There are a lot of researches done on PALF and most of them reported that
incorporation of this fibre will further enhance the properties of the composite.
George et al. (1995) studied the short PALF reinforced Low-density polyethylene
(LDPE) composites. It stressed on mechanical properties of composite prepared by
19
two methods, namely the melt mixing and solution mixing. The influences of fibre
length, fibre loading and fibre orientation have also been evaluated. Besides, the
fibre breakage and damage during processing were analyzed from fibre distribution
curve and optical and scanning electron micrographs. As a summary, the best
optimum parameters for melt mixing are with mixing time of 6 min, rotor speed of
60 rpm and mixing temperature of 130°C while 6mm of fibre length is the most
suitable length to enhance good properties in solution mixing. In comparison of
these two preparation methods, melted-mixed composites showed lower properties
than solution-mixed composites due to the extensive fibre damage and breakage during
melt mixing. The recyclability and reprocess ability have also been reported.
Recyclability of the composites was found to be very good; its properties remain
constant up to third extrusion. This is beyond the marginally decrease of property
due to thermal effect and degradation of the fibre.
Uma Devi et al. (1997) investigated the mechanical behaviour of PALF
reinforced polyester composites as a function of fibre loading, fibre length, and fibre
surface modification. Tensile strength and modulus of this thermoset composite
were found to increase linearly with fibre content. The impact strength was also
found to follow the same trend. However in the case of flexural strength, there was a
levelling off beyond 30 wt % fibre content. A significant improvement in the
mechanical properties was observed when treated fibres were used to reinforce the
composite. The best improvement was observed in the study of silane A-172 treated
fibre composites. Uma Devi and his members summarized that the PALF reinforced
polyester composites exhibit superior mechanical properties when compared to other
natural fibre polyester composites.
The study of melt rheological behaviours of short PALF-LDPE was reported
by George et al. (1996a). The effect of fibre loading, fibre length and fibre treatment
in the rheology aspect was investigated. In general, the viscosity of PALF-LDPE
composite increased with fibre loading due to an increased hindrance to the flow. It
was also found that the viscosity of the flow decreases with increase of temperature
but not for treated fibre composite. Cross linking happens in composite at higher
temperature.
Works by George et al. (1996b) emphasized on the effect of fibre loading and
surface modification to thermo gravimetric and dynamic mechanical thermal
20
analysis of PALF-LDPE composite. At high temperature (350°C where
cellulose decomposes), PALF degrades before the LDPE matrix. However the
storage modulus E’increased with increase of fibre loading in dynamic mechanical
thermal analysis. It was also found that improved interaction exerted by the
chemical treatments makes the composition more mechanically and thermally stable
than the untreated fibre composite. By the way, dynamic module increased with
increasing frequency due to the reduced segmental mobility.
Research by George and his team (1998) shifted their interest of study on
PALF-LDPE to the effects of environment. The influence of water environment on
the sorption characteristics of PALF-LDPE was the main subject of their study. The
effects of fibre loading, temperature and chemical treatment on the sorption behaviour
were evaluated. There are four chemical treatment carried out for PALF fibre
which are alkali treatment (sodium hydroxide, NaOH), silane treatment (silane
A172), isocyanate (poly (methylene) poly (phenyl) isocyanate, PMPPIC) and
peroxide (benzoyl peroxide, BPO; dicumyl peroxide, DCP). Among these various
treatments, the degree of water absorption was observed to be increased in the order
PMPPIC < BPO < Silane < NaOH < DCP < Untreated. In other word, the interfacial
interaction increased in the order of Untreated < DCP < NaOH < Silane < BPO <
PMPPIC. Actually the fibre-matrix bonding becomes weak with increasing moisture
content, resulting in interfacial failure.
Short PALF is not just limits its function as reinforcement to thermoplastic or
thermoset but also to the extent of elastomeric natural rubber, (NR). Timir Baran
Bhattacharyya et al. (1986) investigated the effect of PALF on natural rubber with
respect to fibre-rubber adhesion; anisotropy in physical properties; processing
characteristic; ageing resistance; and comparative changes in physical properties and
processing characteristics between High Abrasion Furnace (HAF) carbon black
reinforced rubber. To conclude, they stated that the addition of PALF to NR
increased the shore hardness and decreased the elongation at break. Carbon black with
PALF reinforced NR composite gave high hardness, low elongation, moderate
tensile strength and moderate flex resistance.
In hybrid composite which consists of more than two materials, Mohanty et al.
(2000) focused on chemical modification of PALF with graft copolymerization of
acrylonitrile onto defatted PALF. The graft copolymerization of acrylonitrile (AN)
21
onto defatted PALF was studied using combination of cuprum sulfate (CuSO4) and
potassium period ate (KIO4) as an initiator in an aqueous medium. The effects of
these substances’concentration, time, and temperature, amount of some inorganic
salts and organic solvents on the graft yield were reported. In conclusion, the writers
stated that the combination of [Cu2+] ion and [IO4i] ion produced optimum grafting at
certain condition. Neither KIO4 nor CuSO4 alone can induce the polymerization of
AN to the PALF surface. All in all, grafting improves the thermal stability of PALF.
As a whole, a numbers of researchers agreed that PALF has improved the
properties of various composites. In the following sections, some major mechanical
properties will be elaborated, namely tensile, and flexural and impact properties.
Sugarcane bagasse is considered a non-biodegradable solid waste material.
Brazilian sugarcane industry generates a considerable amount of sugarcane bagasse
as that is estimated in about 2.5 million tons per year (Cordeiro, 2006). However,
Brazilian sugarcane industry is still booming, so that the levels of such sugarcane
bagasse ash waste are expected to continuously increase. Traditionally, Malaysia
sugarcane bagasse has been mainly disposed of as soil fertilizer .So that the
development of economically viable recycling technology for sugarcane bagasse
waste acquires a growing relevance.
Sugarcane bagasse ash waste can be characterized as a solid waste material,
rich in crystalline silica (Faria et al., 2010), being thus also likely to be used as
ceramic raw material. In fact, this waste has been used as an additive to cement,
concrete and mortar mixtures (Payá et al., 2002, Frias and Villar-Cocina,
2007 and Ganesan et al., 2007). In addition to this, ash wastes such as coal fly ash,
rice husk ash, and sunflower husk ash are also being used as raw materials for
ceramic products (Little et al., 2008, Rukzon and Chindaprasirt, 2008 and Quaranta
et al., 2011). The use of sugarcane bagasse ash waste for obtaining clay ceramics has
also been recently suggested (Borlini et al., 2005, Vieira et al., 2006 and Teixeira
et al., 2008).
22
Figure 2.5: Pineapple plant
Table 2.6: Physical and mechanical properties of PALF from SITRA (Munirah
Mohktar et al., 2007)
Properties Unit Value
Density g/cm3 1.526
Softening Point °C 104
Tensile Strength MPa 170
Young’s Modulus MPa 6260
Specific Modulus MPa 4070
Elongation at Break % 3
Moisture regain % 12
Leaf
Fruit
23
Figure 2.6: Sugarcane bagasse waste
2.7 Tensile properties of PALF composite
Tensile properties are some of the most widely tested properties of natural fibre
reinforced composites. Recently, investigation for the PALF reinforced composite’s
tensile properties have covered the effect of mixing condition for melt mixing,
condition for solution mixing, fibre length, fibre loading, chemical treatment, fibre
orientation, water absorption and weathering effect. Noteworthy studies of tensile
properties of PALF reinforced composites are Uma Devi et al. (1997), George et al.
(1995) and George et al. (1997).
Uma Devi et al. (1997) observed that there were changes in tensile properties
with fibre length and fibre loading of PALF in polyester composites. Table 2.7
shows that the most outstanding Young’s modulus achieved for PALF reinforced
polyester is at fibre length of 30 mm with value of 2290 MPa. The author believed
that the decrease in the strength of the fibres above a fibre length of 30 mm can be
explained as fibre entanglements occur above an optimum size of fibre. As for fibre
loading, Table 2.8 compares the tensile properties with the effect of fibre loading.
Basically, addition of fibre loading increased the Young’s modulus. Addition
of 40 wt % of fibre increased the modulus by 340 %. For tensile strength, as an
overall, the properties increased when the fibre loading increased. However the
addition of 10 wt % fibre showed a slight decrease in tensile strength. This is
attributed by the fact that small amount of fibre acts as flaws.
24
George et al. (1995) compared the properties exhibited by melt-mixing and
solution mixing methods to produce PALF-LDPE composites. From Figure 2.7(a), it
can be seen that when the mixing time is less; tensile strength and Young’s modulus
are decreasing because of the ineffective mixing and poor dispersion of the fibre in
LDPE. On the other hand, as mixing time increases, the tensile strength increases and
have the optimum mixing time of 6 minutes. The orientated composite exhibits
higher tensile properties as shown compared to the randomly oriented composite.
Figure 2.7(b) describes that as rotor speed is higher, the tensile properties increased.
However there is a level off at the peek point of 60 rpm. The increased rotor
speed to 80 rpm shows reduction in strength occurs due to the fibre breakage at
higher rotor speed.
Table 2.7 summarizes that pineapple- and sisal-fibre- filled composites have
comparable mechanical properties. In longitudinally oriented PALF-LDPE, the
addition of 10 wt % fibres causes an increase of about 92 % in tensile strength
for LDPE whereas in sisal composites the corresponding value cited 83 % only.
However sisal-LDPE has better Young’s Modulus value in comparison with PALF-
LDPE. Among these three composites, PALF-LDPE system appeared to have the
highest elongation at break values. Actually PALF-LDPE has indicated these
superior performances due to the high cellulose content.
Table 2.7: Effect of fibre length on tensile properties of PALF-reinforced polyester
composites (fibre content of 30 wt %) (Munirah Mohktar et al., 2007)
Fibre Content Young’s Modulus Tensile Strength Elongation at Break
(wt %) (MPa) (MPa) (%)
0 580 20.6 1.6
10 1770 17.1 1.3
20 1830 40.0 3.0
30 2290 52.9 3.6
40 2520 63.3 5.0
78
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