-HWHITNEY LIBRARY,HARVARDUNIVERSITYTHE GIFT OFJ. D. WHITNEY,Sturgis Hooper ProfessorMUSEUM OF OOMPAEATIVE ZOOLOGY.y\bV\ irtftwvOtA.B YTHESAMEA UTHOR.LECTURES ON THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.First Series, fourth edition, revised and enlarged. Onevol. crown8vo, halfcalf,$5;cloth,$3.00.THEORIGINANDHISTORYOF THEENGLISHLanguage, andofthe EarlyLiterature it Embodies. Onevol. crown8vo, halfcalf,$5;cloth,$3.00.Sent,post-paid, onreceiptofpricebythePublishers.SCRIBNER,ARMSTRONG&> CO.,654Broadway,NewYork.THE EARTHMODIFIEDBY HUMANACTION.ANEW EDITIONOF MAN ANDNATURE.BYGEORGE P. MAKSH." Not all the winds, and storms, and earthquakes, and seas, and seasons of the world,havedonesomuch to revolutionize the earth as Man, the power of an endlesslife, hasdonesincethedayhecameforth upon it, and received dominion over it."H.Bushnell,SermononthePowerof anEndlessLife.NEW TOiJK:SCRIBNER, ARMSTRONG&CO., No. G54 BROADWAY.IS 74.'EnteredaccordingtoActofCongress, inthe3-ear1874, bySCRIBNEB,ARMSTRONG&CO.,Inthe Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.John F. Trow& Son,PRINTERS AND HOOKB1NDERS,905 to213Rtist TwelfthStreet,NewYork.PREFACETOTHEFIRST EDITION.Theobjectof the presentvolume is : to indicate the char-acterand,approximately,theextent of the changes producedbyhuman action in the physical conditions of the globe weinhabit; topointoutthedangersofimprudenceandtheneces-sityof cautionin all operationswhich,on a large scale, inter-ferewiththespontaneousarrangements of the organic or theinorganicworld; to suggestthepossibilityandtheimportanceof therestoration of disturbedharmoniesandthematerialim-provementof wasteandexhausted regions;and,incidentally,toillustrate thedoctrinethatmanis, in bothkindand degree,apowerof ahigherorderthananyof theotherformsof ani-matedlife, which,likehim,arenourished at thetable ofboun-teousnature.Intherudeststagesof life,mandepends upon spontaneousanimal and vegetable growth for food and clothing, and hisconsumptionof suchproductsconsequentlydiminishesthenu-merical abundance of the species which serve his uses. Atmoreadvancedperiods,heprotectsand propagates certain esiv PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.culent vegetables and certain fowls and quadrupeds, and, atthe same time,wars upon rival organisms which prey uponthese objectsof hiscareorobstructtheincreaseof their num-bers. Hencetheactionof manupontheorganic world tendstoderangeits originalbalances,andwhileit reduces the num-hersofsomespecies,orevenextirpatesthemaltogether,it mul-tiplies otherformsofanimalandvegetablelife.Theextensionof agriculturalandpastoralindustry involvesanenlargementof the sphere of man's domain,by encroach-mentupontheforestswhichoncecoveredthegreaterpartoftheearth'ssurfaceotherwiseadaptedto his occupation. Thefell-ing of the woods has been attended with momentous conse-quencestothe drainageof the soil, to the external configura-tion of its surface,and probably, also, to local climate;andtheimportanceof humanlife as atransforming power is, per-haps,moreclearlydemonstrablein theinfluencemanhas thusexerteduponsuperficialgeographythaninanyother result ofhismaterial effort.Landswonfromthewoods must be both drained and irri-gated;river-banks and maritime coasts must be secured 1 > vmeansof artificial bulwarksagainstinundationby inland andbyoceanfloods ; andthe needs of commerce require the im-provementof natural and the construction of artificial chan-nels of navigation. Thusmanis compelledtoextendovertheunstablewaterstheempirehe had alreadyfounded upon thesolid land.The upheaval of the bed of seas and the movements ofwaterandof windexpose vastdepositsof sand,which occupyPREFACE TO THE FIEST EDITION. Vspacerequiredfortheconvenience of man,and often,by thedriftingoftheirparticles,overwhelmthefieldsofhumanindus-trywithinvasionsasdisastrous as the incursionsof the ocean.Ontheotherhand,onmanycoasts, sand-hillsboth protect theshores from erosion by the waves and currents,and sheltervaluable grounds from blasting sea-winds. Man, therefore,mustsometimes resist, sometimes promote,the formation andgrowthof dunes,and subject the barren and Hying sands tothesameobedience tohiswilltowhichhe has reduced otherformsofterrestrial surface.Besides these old and comparatively familiar methods ofmaterialimprovement,modernambitionaspires toyetgranderachievementsin the conquest of physical nature,andprojectsaremeditatedwhichquiteeclipsethe boldest enterprises hith-erto undertakenforthemodificationofgeographicalsurface.The natural character of the various fields where humanindustryhaseffectedrevolutions so important,and where themultiplyingpopulationandtheimpoverished resources of theglobedemandnew triumphs of mind over matter,suggests acorrespondingdivisionof thegeneralsubject,andI have con-formedthedistributionof theseveraltopicstothe chronologi-calsuccession in which man must be supposed to have ex-tended his sway over the different provinces of his materialkingdom. I have,then, in the introductory chapter, stated,inacomprehensiveway,the general effects and the prospec-tive consequences of human action upon the earth's surfaceand the life which peoples it. This chapter is followed byfourothersinwhich I havetracedthehistoryof man'sindus-VI PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.try as exerted upon Animal and Yegetable Life, upon theWoods,upon the"Waters,and upon the Sands; and to theseIhaveaddedaconcludingchapteruponMan.It is perhaps superfluous to add,what indeed sufficientlyappearsuponeverypageof thevolume,thatI address myselfnot toprofessed physicists,but to the general intelligence ofobservingandthinkingmen; andthatmypurposeis rathertomakepracticalsuggestionsthan toindulgeintheoreticalspecu-lationsmoreproperlysuitedtoa different class from that forwhichIwrite.GEOKGEP. MAESH.December1, 1863.PKEFACETOTHEPKESENTEDITION".In preparing for the press an Italian translation of thiswork,publishedat Florencein1S70,Imade numerous correc-tionsinthestatementof both facts and opinions; I incorpo-ratedintothetext and introducedin notes alarge amountofnewdataandotherillustrativematter; Iattemptedtoimprovethemethodbydifferentlyarrangingmanyof theminor subdi-visionsofthechapters; andIsuppressedafewpassageswhichseemedto mesuperfluous.Inthepresentedition,whichis basedonthe Italian transla-tion, I have mademanyfurther corrections and changes ofarrangementof theoriginal matter; I have rewritten a con-siderableportionof thework,andhavemade,inthe text andinnotes,numerousandimportantadditions,founded partly onobservationsof myown,partly on those of other students ofPhysical Geography,and though my general conclusions re-main substantiallythe sameas those I first announced,yet IthinkImayclaimto have given greater completeness and amoreconsequentandlogicalformtothewholeargument.Till PREFACE TO THE PRESENT EDITION.Since the publication of the original edition, Mr. EliseeReclus, inthesecondvolumeof hisadmirablework,LaTerre(Paris,1868),lately made accessible to English-reading stu-dents,hastreated, in ageneralway,the subject I have under-takento discuss. Hehas,however, occupiedhimself with theconservative and restorative, ratherthanwith the destructive,effects of humanindustry,andhehasdrawnan attractive andencouragingpictureof the ameliorating influencesof the ac-tionofman,andofthecompensationsbywhichhe,consciouslyorunconsciously,makesamendsforthedeteriorationwhich hehas produced in the medium he inhabits. The labors ofMr.Reclus,therefore,though aiming at a much higher andwiderscope than I have had in view,are, in this particularpoint, acomplement to myown. I earnestlyrecommend theworkofthis able writertotheattentionof myreaders.GEOEGEP.MARSH.Rome,May1, 1873.BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LISTOFWORKSCONSULTED IN THEPREPARATIONOF TIIIS VOLUME.Amersfoordt, J. P. Het Ilaarlemmermeer, Oorsprong, Gescbiedenis,Droogmaking. Haarlem, 1857. 8vo.Andresen, C. 0. OmKlitformationen og Klittens Behandling og Besty-relse. Kjtibenbavn, 1861. Svo.Annali di Agricoltura, Industria e Commercio. Pubblicati per cura delMinisterod'Agricoltura, Industria e Commercio. Fasci-v. Torino,1862-'3. 8vo.Arago,F. Extractsfrom, inBecquerel,DesClimats.Arriani, Opera. Lipsise, 1856. 2 vols. 12mo.Asbjornsen,P. Chr. Om Skovene og om et ordnet Skovbrug i Norge.Christiania,1855. 12mo.AusderNatur. Die neuestenEntdeckr.ngen aufdemGebieteder Natur-wissenscbaften. Leipzig, variousyears. 20vols. 8vo.Ave-Lallemant, K. C. B. DieBenutzungderPalmenamAmazonenstrominderOekonomiederIndier. Hamburg, 1861. 18mo.Babinet. EtudesetLecturessurles Sciencesd'Observation. Paris, 1855-1863. 7 vols. 18mo.Baer,von. KaspiscbeStudien. St. Petersburg, 1855-1859. 8vo.Barth,Heinrich. WanderungendurcbdieKiistenla'nderdesMittelmeeres.V. i. Berlin, 1849. Svo.Barth, J. B. OmSkovenei deresForboldtilNationalceconomien. Chris-tiania,1857. 8vo.Bavde,J. J. LesC6tesdela Mancbe,Revue des Deiu Mondes, 15 Jan-vier, 1859.Baumgarten. Notice sur les Rivieres de la Lombardie; inAnnales desPontset Chausse\.>s, 1847, lersemestre,pp.129-199.Beckwith, Lieut. Repcrtin PacificRailroadReport,vol. ii.XBIBLIOGRAPHICAL LIST OF WOKKS CONSULTED.Becquercl. DesClimatsetdel'Influencequ'exercentlesSolsbois6setnon-boises. Paris, 1853. 8vo.ElementsdePhysique Terrestreet de Meteorologie. Paris, 1847.8vo.Belgramd. Del'InfluencedesForetssurl'ecoulementdes EauxPluviales;inAnnalesdesPontset Chauss6es, 1854, lersemestre,pp. 1, 27.Berg, Edmundvon. Das Verdrangen der Laubwalder im NordlichenDeutschlande durch die Fichte und die Kiefer. Darmstadt, 1844.8vo.Bcrgsoe, A.F. Greve Ch. Ditlev Frederik EeventlovsVirksomhed somKongens Embedsmand og Statens Borger. Ejobenhavn, 1837. 2vols. 8vo.Berlepscli,H. DieAlpeninNatur-undLebensbildern. Leipzig,1862. Svo.BiancM, Celestino. Compendiodi GeografiaFisicaSpecialedltalia. Ap-pendicealiatraduzioneItaliana dcllaGeog.-FisicadiMariaSomerville.Firenze, 1861. (2d vol. oftranslation.)B'tgelow, John. LesEtatsUnisd'Ameriqueen1863. Paris, 1863. Svo.Blalce, With. P. Eeportsin Pacific RailroadReport, vols, ii andv.Blanqui. Memoiresurles PopulationsdesHantesAlpes; inMernoiresdel'AcademiedesSciencesMoralesetPolitiques, 1843.Voyageen Bulgarie. Paris, 1843. 12mo.Precis Elementaired'EconomiePolitique,suivi duResurn6del'His-toireduCommerceetdel'Industrie. Paris, 1857. 12mo.Boitel, Amedee. Miseenvaleurdes Terres pauvres par le Pin Maritime.2d edition. Paris, 1857. Svo.Bonnem&re,Eugene. Histoire des Paysans depuis la fin dn MoyenAgejusqu'anosjours. Paris, 1856. 2 vols. 8vo.Boltger, C. DasMittelmeer. Leipzig, 1859.Bouasingault, J. B. Economie Rurale considereddans ses Rapportsavccla Cliimio, la Physique, et la Meteorologie. 2d edition. Paris. 1851.2 vols. Svo.Bremontier, A". T. MemoiresurlesDunes; inAnnalesdesPontsetChans-sees, 1833, lersemestre,pp.145, 223.Brincken, J. von den. Ansichten uber die Bewaldung der Steppen deaEuropseischenRussland. Braunschweig,1854. 4to.Biittner, J. G. Zur Physikalischen Geographic; in Berghaus, Geo-graphischesJahrbuoh,No. iv, 1852, pp.9-19.Caimi, Pietro. Cenni sulla Importanza e Ooltr.ra dei Boschi. Milano,1857. Svo.Cantcgril, andothers. Extracts in Comptes Rendusal'AcademiedesSci-ences. Paris, 1861.Ocutellani. Dell' immediate influenza delle Selve sul corso delle acque.Torino, 1818, 1819. 2vols. 4tO.BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LIST OF WOKKS CONSULTED. XICensusof theUnitedStatesfor I860. PreliminaryEeporton,Washington.]1862. 8vo. ICerini, Giuseppe. Dell' Impianto e Conservazione dei Bosclii. Milano,11844. 8vo. IChampion,Maurice. Les Inondations en France depuis le VIme Sieciojusqu'a,nos jours. Paris, 1858, 1862. Vols, i-iv, 8vo.Chateauxieux,F.Lullinde. Lettressurl'ltalie. Secondeedition, Geneve,1834. 8vo.Chevandier. Extracts in Comptes Eendus a l'Academie des Sciences.Juillet-Decembre, 1844. Paris.Clare,Jules. Etudessurl'EconomieForestiere. Paris, 1862. 12mo.LaForetdeFontaiuebleau;EevuedesDeuxMondes, 1 Mai, 1863.Cooper, J. G. TheForestsandTreesof NorthernAmerica; in EeportoftheCommissionerofPatentsforthe year 1860, pp.416 445.Cotta, Bernhard. DeutschlandsBoden. Leipzig, 1858. 2 vols. 8vo.VorwortzuParamelle'sQuellenkunde. SeeParamelle.DieAlpen. Leipzig, 1851. Svo.Coultas,Harland. "WhatmayheLearnedfroma Tree. NewYork,1860.Svo.Courier, Paul-Louis. CEuvresCompletes. Bruxelles, 1833. 8vo.Dana,JamesD. ManualofGeology. Philadelphia,1863. 8vo.Delamarre, L. G. Historique de la Creation d'une Eichesse Millionaireparlaculture desPins. Paris, 1827. 8vo.D.Hericourt, A.F. Les Inondations et le livre de M. Valles; AnnalesForestieres, December, 1857, pp.310, 321. Paris.Diggelen, B. P. G. van. Groote Werken in Nederland. Zwolle, 1855.Svo.Dumas,M.J. LaSciencedesFontaines. 2meedition, Paris,1857. Svo.Duniont,Aristide. DesTravauxPublicsdans leurs Eapportsavecl'Agri-culture. Paris, 1847. Svo.Dwight, Timothy. TravelsinNewEnglandand NewYork. NewHaven,1821. 4vols. Svo.Emerson, GeorgeB. A EeportontbeTreesandShrubsgrowingnaturallyinMassachusetts. Boston, 1850. Svo.Emory, Wm.H., Col. EeportofCommissionersoftheUnitedStates andMexicanBoundarySurvey, vol. i, 1857.Escourrou-Miliago,A. L'ltalie a propos de l'Exposition Universelle deParis. Paris, 1856. 8vo.Evelyn,John. Silva; or, aDiscourse of ForestTrees. WithNotesbyA.Hunter. York, 1786. 2 vols. 4to.Terra, a Philosophical Discourse ofEarth. York, 1786. 4to. invol. ii of Silva.Feraud-Giraud,L.J. D. PolicedesBois,DefrichementsetEeboisementsXll BIBLIOGKArniCAT, LIST OF WORKS CONSULTED.Commentairepratiquesurlesloispromulgueeseu1859et1860. Paria^1861. 8vo.Ferrcwa, Francesco. Descrizionedell'Etna. Palermo, 1818. 8vo.Feuillide, C. de. I/AlgerieFrancaise. Paris, 1856. 8vo.Figuier,Louis. L'AnneeScientifiqueetIndnstrielle. Paris,1862-'3. 12mo.FinnbogaSagabinsrama. Kaupmannahdfn,1812. 4to.Foissac, P. Meteorologie mit Riicksicht auf die Lehre vorn Kosmos,DeutschvonA.H.Emsmann. Leipzig, 1859. 8vo.ForcJthammer, G. GeognostischeStudienam Meeres-Ufer; in LeonhardundBronn's NeuesJahrbuchfurMineralogie,Geognosie,Geologie,etc.Jahrgang, 1841, pp.1-38.Fossombroni, Vittorio. MemorieIdraulico-StoricliesopralaVal-di-Chiana.Montepulciano, 3zaedizione, 1835. 8vo.Fraas, C. KlimaundPflanzenweltin derZeit. Landsliut, 1847. 8vo.Frist,Paolo. Del Mododiregolare i Fiumiei Torrenti. Lucca,1762. 4to.Fuller, Thomas. TheHistoryoftheWorthiesof England. London,1662.Folio.Gilliss,J. M., Capt. UnitedStatesNavalAstronomicalExpeditionto theSouthern Hemisphere. Washington, 1855. 2 vols. 4to.Giorgini. Paperby;in Salvaguoli-Marchetti,RapportosulBonificamentodelleMaremme,App. v.GirardetParent-Duchatelet. Rapport sur lesPuitsforesdits Artesiens;AnnalesdesPontset Ohaussees, 1833, 2mesemestre, 313-344.Graham,J. B., Lieut.- Col. ALunarTidalWave in the NorthAmericanLakesdemonstrated. Cambridge, 1861. 8vo.pamphlet. Alsoin vol.xiv, Proc.Am.Ass. forAdv.of Sciencefor 1860.Hahluyt,Richard. ThePrincipalNavigations,Voyages,&c,of theEng-lish Nation. London,1598-'9. 3 vols, folio.Harrison, W. An Historical! Description of the Hand ofBritaine; inHolinshed'sChronicles. Reprintof1807, vol. i.Hartwig, G. DasLebendesMeeres. Frankfurt, 1857. 8vo.LTaxthausen,Augustvon. Transkaukasia. Leipzig, 1856. 2 vols. 8vo.Llenry, Prof. Joseph. PaperonMeteorologyin its connectionwithAgri-culture;in UnitedStatesPatentOfficeReportfor1857, pp.419-550.Hcrschel, SirJ. F. W. PhysicalGeography. Edinburgh,1861. 12mo.Heyer, Gustav. DasYerhaltender WaldbaumegegenLichtundSchatten.Erlangen, 1852. 8vo.Hohenstein,Adolph. DerWaldsammtdessenwichtigem Einfluss auf daaKlima, &c. Wieu, 1860. 8vo.Humboldt,Alexandervon. Ansichten derNatur. DritteAusgabe, Stutt-gartandTubingen, 1849. 2 vols. 12mo.JIummel, Karl. Phy.sischeGeographic Graz, 1855. 8vo.Hunter,A. NotestoEvelyn, Silva,andTerra. York,1786. SeeEvelyn.BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LIST OF WOEKS CONSULTED. XlllJaciui,Stefano. LaProprietyFondiariaele PopolazioniagricoleinLorn-bardia. MilanoeVerona,1857. 8vo.Joinville. Histoire de Saint-Louis. Nouvelle Collection des Menioireapourserviral'HistoiredeFrance,parMichaudetPoujoulat. Tomei.Paris, 1836. 8vo.Josselyn,John. NewEnglandParities. London, 1672. 12roo.Knorr,E.A. Studienliberdie Buchen-Wirthschaft. Nordhausen, 1863.8vo.Kohl, J. G. Alpenreisen. DresdenundLeipzig, 1849. 3 vols. 8vo.DieMarschenund Inseln der Herzogtbumer Schleswig und Hol-stein. DresdenundLeipzig, 1846. 3 vols. 8vo.Kramer, Gustav. DerFuciner-See. Berlin, 1839. 4to.Krause, G. G. A. DerDiinenbau aufdenOstsee-KiistenVest-Preussena.1850. 8vo.Kremer,Alfredvon. iEgypten,ForscbungenliberLand und Volk. Leip-zig, 1863. 2 vols. Svo.Kriegk, G.L. ScbriftenzurallgemeinenErdkunde. Leipzig,1840. 8vo.Ladoucette, J. C. F. Histoire, Topograpbie, Antiquites, Usages,DialectesdesHautesAlpes. Secondeedition, 1834. 1 vol. Svo.andAtlas.Lcestadius, LarsLevi. OinMojligbetenocbFordelen af allmannaTJppod-lingari Lappraarken. Stockholm, 1824. 12mo.L&stadius, Petrus. Journal for forsta aret af bans Tjenstgoring sasomMissionaire i Lappraarken. Stockholm,1831. 8vo.Fortsattning af Journalen ofver Missions-Rt_sor i Lappmarken.Stockhohn, 1833. 8vo.Lampridius. VitaElagabaliin Script.Hist., August.Landgrebe,Georg. Naturgeschichteder Vulcane. Gotba,1855. 2vols.8vo.Laurent, Ch. MemoiressurleSabaraOriental au point devuedesPuitsArtesiens. Paris, 1859. 8vo.pamphlet. Also, inMemdela Soc. desIngenieurs Civils, andtheBulletindela Soc.GeologiquedeFrance.Laval. MemoiresurlesDunesduGolfedeGascogne; inAnnalesdesPontsetChaussees, 1847,2mesemestre,pp.218-268.Lavergne,M.L. de. Economie Rurale de la France,depuis 1789. 2meEdition, Paris, 1861. 12mo.LeAlpicbecingonol'ltalia. Parteler, vol. ler. Torino, 1845. 8vo.Lefort. NoticeburlestravauxdeFixationdesDunes; inAnnalesdesPontsetChaussees, 1831, 2mesemestre,pp.320-332.Lenormant. Note relative a l'Execution d'un Puita Artesien en Egyptesousla XVIIImDynastie; AcademiedesInscriptionsetBelles-Lettres,12 Novembre,1852.LiberAlbus: TbeWhiteBookoftheCityof London. London,1861. 4to.Loft-its, W. K. Travels and Researches in Chaldnea and Susiana. NewYork,1857. Svo.XIV BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LIST OF WOEES CONSULTED.Lonibardini. CenniIdrografisulla Lombardia; Intornoal Sistema Idraulicodel P6; epitomizedby BaumgarteninAnnalesdesPontsetChaussees.1847, lersemestre,pp. 129, 199; and in Dumont,Des TravauxPub-lics,pp.268, 335.Sui progetti intesi adestendere l'irrigazione dellaPiannradelP6.Politecnico. Gennajo,1863,pp.5-50.Lorentz. CoursElementairedeCulturedes Bois, complete et publie parA.Parade,4meedition. ParisetNancy, 18G0. 8vo.Lyell, Sir Charles. Tbe Geological Evidence oftbe Antiquity ofMan.London,1863. 8vo. PrinciplesofGeology. NewYork, 1862. 8vo.Mardigny,M.de. MemoiresurlesInondationsdesRivieresdeTArdeche.Paris, 1860. 8vo.Marschand,A. UeberdieEntwaldungderGebirge. Bern, 1S49. 12mo.pamphlet.Martineau. EndeavorsaftertbeChristianLife. Boston, 1858.Martins. KevuedesDeuxMondes, Avril, 1863.Maury,M.F. TbePhysicalGeographyoftheSea. Tenthedition. Lon-don, 1861. 8vo.Medlicott,Dr. Observationsof, quotedfromLondonAthenajum, 1863.Meguscher, Francesco. Memorie sulla migliore maniera per rimettere iBoschidellaLombardia, etc. Milano, 1859. 8vo.Mejdell, Th. OmForanstaltningertil Behandlingaf NorgesSkove. Chris-tiania, 1858. 8vo.Mella. Delle InondazionidelMellanellanottedel 14al 15Agosto, 1850.Brescia, 1851. 8vo.Meyer,J. Physikder Schweiz. Leipzig, 1S54. 8vo.Michelet, J. L'Insecte,4meedition. Paris, 1860. 12mo.L'Oiseau,7meedition. Paris, 1861. 12mo.Monestier-Savignat,A. Etude sur los Phenomenes,1'AmenagementotlaLegislationdes Eauxaupoint de vuedesInondations. Paris,1858. Svo.Montluisant. Note sur les Dessechements, les Endiguements et les Irri-gations; inAnnalesdesPonts et Cbaussees, 1833, 2me semestre,pp.281-294.Morozzi, Ferdinando. Dello Stato Antico e Moderno del Fiume Arno.Firenze, 1762. 4to.Midler,K. DasBuchderPflanzemvclt. Leipzig, 1857. 2 vols. 12mo.Kangis, Guillanmede. Extractsfrom,inNouvelieCollectiondesMemoirespourservirparMichaudetPoujoulat. Vol. i. Paris. 1836.Nanquctte, Henri. Cours d'Anienagcment des Fonts. Paris et Nancy,1860. 8vo.Neicherry,Dr. Reportin PacificRailroadReport, vol. vi.Niebelunge-Lied,Der. Abdruck derriandschrii'tvonJosephvonLassberg.Leipzig, 1840. Folio.BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LIST OF WORKS CONSULTED. XVJSfiel. L'AgriculturedesEtatsSardes. Turin, 1857. 8vo.PacificRailroadReport. Reports of ExplorationsandSurveysforaRail-roadRoutetothe Pacific. Washington,variousyears. 12 vols.4to.Palissy, Bernard. (Euvres Completes, avec des Notes, etc., par Paul-AntoineCap. Paris, 1844. 12rao.Parade,A. SeeLorentz.Paramelle,Able. Quellenkunde,Lehrevon der Bildung und AuffindungderQuellen; miteinemVorwortvonB.Cotta. Leipzig, 1850. 12mo.Parish, Dr. LifeofDr.EleazerWheelock. 8vo.Parry, C. G. Reportin UnitedStatesand Mexican BoundarySurvey,vol. i.Parthey, G. WandernngendurchSicilienunddieLevante. Berlin,1834.2vols. 12mo.Piper,R. U. TheTreesof America. Boston, 1858, Nos.i-iv. 4to.Pliaii, HistoriaXaturalis, ed. Hardouin. Paris, 1723. 3vols,folio.Pom,Antonio. ViagedeEspafia. Madrid, 1788, etc. 18vols. 12mo.Quatrefages,A.de. Souvenirsd'unXaturaliste. Paris,1854. 2vols.12mo.Reclus, Elisee. LeLittoral delaFrance; RevuedesDeuxMondes,15De-cembre, 1802.Rentzsch, Hermann. Der WaldimHaushalt der Natur und derYolks-wirthschaft. Leipzig, 1802. 8vo.Ribbe, Charlesde. LaProvenceau pointdevuedesBois, desTorrentsetdesInondations. Paris, 1857. 8vo.Ridolfi, Cosimo. LezioniOrali. Firenze, 1802. 2vols. 8vo.Bitter, Carl. Einleitung zur allgemeinen vergleichenden GeographicBerlin, 185S. 8vo.Die Erdkunde im Verhiiltniss zur Natur und zur Geschichte desMenschen. Berlin, variousyears. 19 vols. 8vo.Rosa, G. LeCondizionide' boschi,de'fiumie de' torrentinellaprovinciadiBergamo. Politecnico, Dicembre,1801, pp. 000, 021.StndiisuiBoschi. Politecnico,Maggio,1802, pp. 232, 238.Rossmdssler, G. A. Der"Wald. LeipzigundHeidelberg, 1803. 8vo.Roth,J. DerVesuvunddieLmgebungvonNeapel. Berlin, 1857. 8vo.Rozet,M. Moyensde forcer les Torrents des Montagnes de rendre unepartiedusol qu'ilsravagent. Paris, 1850. 8vo.pamphlet.Salvagnoli-lfarchetti,Antonio. MemorioEconomico-StatistichesulleMa-remmeToscane. Firenze, 1840. 8vo.RaccoltadiDocumenti sulBonificamentodelleMaremmeToscane.Firenze, 1801. 8vo.Rapporto sul Bonificamento delle Maremme Toscane. Firenze,1859. 8vo.Rapporto sulleOperazioni Idrauliche ed Economiche eseguite nel1859-00 nelleMaremmeToscane. Firenze,1800. 8vo.XVI BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LIST OF WOKKS CONSULTED.Sandys, George. ARelation of a Journey begunAn.Dom.1610. London, 1627. Folio.Schaclit, IT. Les Arbres, Etudes sur leur Structure et leurVegetation,traduitparE. Morren. BruxellesetLeipzig, 1862. 8vo.Schleiden,M.J. DieLandengevonSues. Leipzig, 1858. 8vo.DiePtlanzeundibrLeben. Leipzig, 1 848. 8vo.Schulert, W.von. Resa genom Sverige, Norrige, Lappland, etc. Stock-bolm, 1823. 3 vols. 8vo.Seneca, L. A. OperaOmniaquae supersunt, exrec. Rukkopf.Aug.Tauri-norum, 1831. 6 vols. 8vo.Simonde,J.E.L. Tableaudel'AgricultureToscane. Geneve,1801. 8vo.Smith,Br. William. ADictionaryof theBible. London, I860. 3vols.8vo.ADictionary of Greek and Roman Geography. London, 1854,1857. 2vols. 8vo.Smith,John. HistorieofVirginia. London, 1624. Folio.Somerville, Mary. Physical Geography. Fifth edition. London, 1862.12mo.Springer,JohnS. Forest-LifeandForest-Trees. New York,1851. 12mo.Stanley, Dr. Lectures on the History of the Jewish Church. London,1863. 8vo.Staring, W.IT. DeBodemvanNederland. Haarlem, 1856. 2vole. 8vo.VoormaalsenThans. Haarlem, 1S58. 8vo.Stevens, Gov. ReportinPacificRailroadReport, vol. xii.Strain, Lieut. I. G. Darien Exploring Expedition, by J. T. Headley, inHarper'sMagazine. NewYork,March, April, andMay,1855.Streffl.eur, Y. LeberdieNaturund dieWirkungenderWildbache. Sitz.Ber.derM.1ST. TV. ClassederKaiserl. Akad.derWis. February,1852,viii,p.248.Strom,hr. OmSkogarnasVard ocbSkotsel. F/psala, 1853. Pamphlet.Surell, Alexandre. Etude sur les Torrents des Hautes Alpes. Paris,1844. 4to.Tartini,Ferdinando. MemoriesulBonificamentodelle MaremmeToscane.Firenze, 1838. Folio.ThomasandBaldwin. Gazetteer. Philadelphia, 1855. 1vol.8vo.Thompson, Z. HistoryofVermont, Natural, Civil, and Statistical. Bur.lington, 1842. 8vo.AppendixtoHistoryofVermont. Burlington, 1853. 8vo.Titcomb, Timothy. LessonsinLife. NewYork, 1861. 12mo.Trradwell, Br. Observationsof, quotedfromReport ofCommissionerofPatents.Troy,Paul. EtudesurleReboisementdes Montagnes. ParisetToulouse,1861. 8vo.pamphlet.BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LIST OF WORKS CONSULTED. XV 11Tschudi, Fried/rich von. Ueber die Landwirthschaftliche Bedeutung derVogel. St. Gallen, 1854. 12mo.Tschudi,J. J. von. TravelsinPeru. NewYork, 1848. 8vo.Yalles, M. F. Etudes sur les Inondations, leurs causes et leurs effete.Paris, 185T. 8vo.Valvasor,JohannWeichard. DieEhredes HerzogthumsCrain. Laybach,1689. 4vols, folio.VanLennep. ExtractsfromJournal of, intheMissionaryHerald.Vaupell,Chr. BogensIndvandringideDanskeSkove. Kjobenhavn,1857.8vo.DeNordsjoellandskeSkovmoser. Kjobenhavn,1851. 4to. pamphlet.Venema, G.A. OverhetDalenvande Noordelijke KuststrekenvanonsLand. Groningen, 1854. 8vo.Villa, Antonio Giovanni Batt. Necessity dei Boschi nella Lombardia.Milano, 1850. 4to.Viollet, J. B. TheoriedesPuitsArtesiens. Paris, 1840. 8vo.Waltershavsen, W. Sartorius von. Ueber den Sicilianischen AckerbauGottingen, 1863.Webster,Noah. ACollection ofPapers on Political, Literary,andMoralSubjects. NewYork, 1843. 8vo.Wessely, Joseph. Die Oesterreichischen xMpenliinder und ihre Forste.Wien, 1853. 2 vols. 8vo.Wetzstein, J. G. Eeiseberichttiber Hauran und die Trachonen. Berlin,1860. 8vo.Wild, Albert. DieNiederlande. Leipzig, 1862. 2 vols. 8vo.Wilhelm, Gastav. Der Boden und dasAYasser. Wien, 1861. 8vo.Williams,Br. Historyof Vermont. 2 vols. 8vo.Witttcer, W. G. DiePhysikalischeGeographic Leipzig, 1855. 8vo.Young,Arthur. VoyagesenFrance, pendantles annees1787, 1788, 1789,precedeed'uneintroductionparLavergne. Paris,1860. 2vols. 12mo..Voyages en Italie et en Espague,pendant les annees1787, 1789.Paris, 1860. 1 vol. 12mo.TABLE OF CONTENTS.CHAPTER I.INTRODUCTORY.PAGENatural Advantages of the Territory of the RomanEmpirePhysicalDecayofthatTerritoryCauses of the DecayReactionof ManonNatureObservation of NatureUncertainty of Our HistoricalKnowledge of Ancient ClimatesUncertainty of Modern Meteoro-logyStability of NatureFormation of BogsNatural Condi-tionsFavorable to Geographical ChangeDestructivenessofManHuman and Brute Action ComparedLimits of HumanPowerImportance of PhysicalConservation and RestorationUncertaintyastoEffects of HumanAction 1CHAPTER II.TRANSFER, MODIFICATION, AND EXTIRPATION OF VEGETABLE AND OFANIMAL SPECD3S.ModernGeographytakesAccount of Organic LifeGeographicalImpor-tanceofPlantsOrigin of DomesticVegetablesTransferof Vege-tableLifeObjectsof Modern CommerceForeign Plants,howIn-troducedVegetable Power of AccommodationAgricultural Pro-ducts of the United StatesUsefulAmericanPlantsGrowninEu-ropeExtirpation of VegetablesAnimal Life as a Geological andGeographical AgencyOrigin andTransferof DomesticQuadrupedsExtirpationofWildQuadrupedsLargeMarineAnimalsRelativelyUnimportant in GeographyIntroduction and Breeding of FishDestructionofFishGeographical ImportanceofBirdsIntroductionof BirdsDestruction of BirdsUtilityandDestructionof ReptilesUtilityofInsectsandWormsInjurytotheForestbyInsectsIn-troductionofInsectsDestructionof InsectsMinuteOrganisms ... 56XX TABLE OF CONTENTS.CHAPTER III.THE "WOODS.PAGETheHabitableEarthOriginally WoodedGeneralMeteorologicalInfluenceof the ForestElectrical Action of TreesChemical Influence ofWoodsTrees as Protection against Malaria^Trees as Shelter toGround to the LeewardInfluence of the Forest as Inorganic onTemperatureThermometrical Action of Trees as OrganicTotalInfluenceoftheForestonTemperatureInfluenceof ForestsasIn-organicon HumidityofAirand EarthInfluenceasOrganicBalanceofConflictingInfluencesInfluenceofWoods onPrecipitationTotalClimaticActionoftheForestInfluence of the ForestonHumidityof SoilThe Forest in WinterSummer Rain, Importance ofIn-fluenceoftheForestonthe FlowofSpringsInfluenceoftheForeston Inundations andTorrentsDestructiveActionofTorrentsFloodsof the ArdecheExcavation by TorrentsExtinctionof TorrentsCrushingForceofTorrentsTransporting PowerofWaterThePoand its DepositsMountain SlidesForest as Protection againstAvalanchesMinor Uses of the ForestSmall Forest Plants andVitalityof SeedsLocusts do not BreedinForestsGeneralFunc-tionsofForestGeneralConsequencesofDestructionofDuePropor-tionofWoodlandProportion ofWoodlandin EuropeanCountriesForests of Great BritainForests of FranceForests of ItalyForests of GermanyForests of United StatesAmerican ForestTreesEuropeanandAmericanForestTreesComparedTheForestdoes not furnishFoodfor ManFirstRemovalof theForestPrin-cipalCausesofDestructionofForestDestruction andProtectionofForests by GovernmentsRoyal Forests and Game-lawsEffectsofthe French RevolutionIncreased Demand forLumberEffectsofBurning ForestFloating of TimberRestoration of the ForestEconomy of the ForestForest LegislationPlantation of Forestsin AmericaFinancial Results of Forest PlantationsInstabilityofAmericanLife 148CHAPTER IV.THE WATERS.LandArtificially Wonfromthe WatersGreat Worksof MaterialImprove-mentDrainingofLincolnshire FensIncursions of the Sea intheNetherlandsOriginofSea-dikesGain andLossof Landin theNeth-erlandsMarineDeposits ontheCoast of NetherlandsDraining ofLakeof HaarlemDrainingoftheZuiderzeeGeographicalEffectsofTABLE OF CONTENTS. XXIPAGEImprovementsinthe NetherlandsAncientHydraulic WorksDrain-ing of Lake Celano byPrinceTorloniaIncidentalConsequencesofDraining LakesDraining of MarshesAgricultural DrainingMeteor-ologicalEffectsofDrainingGeographicalEffectsof DrainingGeo-graphicalEffectsofAqueductsandCanalsAntiquityofIrrigationIrrigationinPalestine, India,andEgyptIrrigation inEuropeMe-teorologicalEffectsofIrrigationWaterwithdrawn from Rivers forIrrigationInjurious Effects of Rice-cultureSalts Deposited byWaterofIrrigationSubterranean WatersArtesian WellsArtificialSpringsEconomizing PrecipitationInundationsinFranceBasinsof ReceptionDiversion of RiversGlacier LakesRiver Embank-mentsOtherRemediesagainstInundationsDikesoftheNileDe-posits of Tuscan RiversImprovements in TuscanMaremmaIm-provementsinValdiChianaCoastof theNetherlands 398CHAPTEK V.THE SANDS.OriginofSandSandnowCarriedtotheSeaBeach Sands of NorthernAfricaSandsofEgyptSandDunesandSandPlainsCoastDunesSand BanksCharacter of Dune SandInterior Structure ofDunesGeologicalImportanceof DunesDunesonAmericanCoastsDunes of Western EuropeAge, Character, and Permanence ofDunesDunes as a Barrier against theSeaEncroachmentsoftheSeaLiimfjordCoasts of Schleswig-Holstein, Netherlands, andFranceMovement of DunesControl of Dunes by ManInlandDunesInlandSandPlains 545CHAPTERVI.GREAT PROJECTS OF PHYSICAL CHANGE ACCOMPLISHED OR PROPOSEDBY MAN.CuttingofIsthmusesCanalofSuezMaritimeCanalsinGreeceCanalsto DeadSeaCanalstoLibyan DesertMaritime Canals in EuropeCape CodCanalChangesinCaspianDiversionof theNileDiver-sionof the RhineImprovements in North AmericanHydrographySoil below RockCovering Rockwith Earth Desert ValleysEffects of MiningDuponchel's Plans of ImprovementAction ofManontheWeatherResistancetoGreatNaturalForcesIncidentalEffectsofHumanActionNothingSmallinNature G09THEEARTHAS MODIFIED BYHUMANACTIONCHAPTERI.INTRODUCTORY.NaturalAdvantagesoftheTerritoryof the KomanEmpire. PhysicalDecayofthatTerritory.Causesofthe Decay.Reactionof ManonNature.Observation of Nature.Uncertainty of Our Historical KnowledgeofAncient Climates. Uncertainty of Modern Meteorology. Stability ofNature.Formationof Bogs. Natural Conditions FavorabletoGeogra-phical Change.Destructiveness of Man. Human and Brute ActionCompared.Limitsof Human Power.Importanceof Physical Conser-vationandRestoration. UncertaintyastoEffectsofHumanAction.NaturalAdvantagesofthe Territoryofthe RomanEmpire.TheRomanEmpire,attheperiodof its greatestexpansion,comprised the regions of the earth most distinguished by ahappycombinationof physicalconditions. Theprovincesbor-deringontheprincipaland the secondarybasinsof theMedi-terraneanenjoyedinhealthfulnessandequabilityofclimate, infertilityof soil, in varietyof vegetable andmineralproducts,andinnatural facilities for thetransportationanddistributionofexchangeable commodities,advantageswhichhavenotbeenpossessed in anyequal degree byany territoryof like extentinthe OldWorldortheNew. Theabundanceofthelandandof thewaters adequatelysupplied everymaterialwant,minis-teredliberallyto everysensuousenjoyment. Gold andsilver,indeed,were notfound in the profusionwinch has provedsobanefultotheindustryof landsricherinveinsoftheprecious2 THE ROMAN EiHTRE.metals; but mines and river beds yielded them in the sparemeasuremostfavorableto stability of valuein themediumofexchange, and, consequently, to the regularityof commercialtransactions. The ornaments of the barbaric pride of theEast, the pearl, the ruby, the sapphire, and the diamondthoughnotunknownto theluxuryofapeoplewhoseconquestsand whose wealth commanded whatever the habitable worldcould contribute to augment the material splendor of theirsocial lifewerescarcelynativeto the territoryoftheempire;butthe comparative rarityofthese gems inEurope,at some-what earlier periods,was,perhaps,thevery circumstance thatledthecunningartistsof classic antiquitytoenrichsofterstoneswithengravings,whichinvest thecommononyxandcornelianwith aworth surpassing, in cultivated eyes,the lustre of themostbrilliant orientaljewels.Of thesemanifold blessings thetemperatureof the air, thedistribution of the rains, the relative dispositionof land andwater, the plentyof the sea, the compositionof the soil, andtherawmaterialof the primitive arts,were whollygratuitousgifts. Yet the spontaneous nature of Europe, of "WesternAsia, ofLibya,neitherfednorclothedthe civilizedinhabitantsof those provinces. The luxuriant harvests of cereals thatwavedoneveryfieldfromthe shoresoftheRhinetothebanksoftheNile,thevines that festoonedthe hillsidesof Syria,ofItalyandof Greece,the olives of Spain,the fruitsof thegar-densof the Hesperides, the domestic quadrupeds and fowlsknownin ancientruralhusbandryall thesewereoriginal pro-ductsof foreignclimes, naturalized innewhomes, andgradu-allyennobledbytheartofman,whilecenturiesofperseveringlaborwere expelling thewild vegetation,andfitting the earthfortheproductionof moregenerous growths. Everyloafwaseateninthe sweatof thebrow. All must be earned bytoil.Buttoil wasnowhereelserewardedbysogenerouswages;fornowherewouldagivenamountof intelligent laborproducesoabundant,and, at thesametime,sovaried returnsof thegoodthingsof material existence.PHYSICAL DECAY OF ROMAN EMPIRE.PhysicalDecayofthe TerritoryoftheRomanEnvpire.Ifwecomparethe present physical condition of the coun-tries of whichIamspeaking,withthedescriptionsthatancienthistorians and geographers have given of their fertilityandgeneralcapabilityof ministering to humanuses,weshall findthatmorethanone-halftheirwholeextentnot excluding theprovinces most celebrated for the profusion and variety oftheir spontaneous and their cultivated products, and for thewealthandsocialadvancement of their inhabitantsis eitherdeserted bycivilized man and surrendered tohopeless desola-lation,or at least greatlyreduced in both productivenessandpopulation. Vast forests have disappeared from mountainspurs and ridges; the vegetable earth accumulated beneaththetrees bythedecayof leavesandfallen trunks,the soil ofthealpinepastureswhichskirtedandindented thewoods,andthemould of the upland fields, are washed away; meadows,once fertilized byirrigation, are waste and unproductive be-cause the cisterns and reservoirs that supplied the ancientcanalsarebroken,orthespringsthatfedthemdriedup; riversfamousinhistoryandsonghaveshrunk to humble brooklets;the willows that ornamented and protected the bank's of thelesserwatercourses are gone,and the rivulets have ceased toexist asperennialcurrents,because the little water that findsitswayintotheiroldchannelsis evaporatedbythedroughtsofsummer,or absorbed bythe parched earth before it reachesthelowlands; thebedsof thebrookshavewidened into broadexpansesof pebbles and gravel,overwhich,thoughinthehotseason passed dryshod, in winter sealike torrents thunder;theentrancesof navigablestreamsareobstructedbysandbars;andharbors,oncemartsof anextensivecommerce,areshoaledbythe deposits of the rivers at whose mouths theylie ; theelevationofthebedsof estuaries,and theconsequentlydimin-ishedvelocity andincreasedlateralspreadofthestreamswhichflowintothem,haveconvertedthousandsofleaguesofshallow4 THYSICAL DECAY OF ROMAN EMPIRE.sea and fertile lowland into unproductive andmiasmaticmo-rasses.Besides the direct testimony of history to the ancient fer-tilityofthenowexhaustedregionstowhichIreferNorthernAfrica,thegreaterArabianpeninsula, Syria,Mesopotamia,Ar-meniaandmanyotherprovincesofAsiaMinor,Greece, Sicily,andpartsof evenItalyand Spainthe multitude and extentofyetremainingarchitecturalruins, and of decayedworks ofinternal improvement,showthat atformerepochsadensepop-ulation inhabited those nowlonely districts. Such a popula-tion couldhavebeensustainedonlybyaproductivenessofsoilofwhichwe at present discover but slender traces; and theabundance derived from that fertility serves to explain howlargearmies,likethoseofthe ancientPersians,andoftheCru-saders and the Tartarsinlaterages, could,without an organ-ized commissariat,secure adequate supplies in long marchesthrough territories which, in our times,would scarcely affordforageforasingleregiment.It appears then, that the fairest and fruitfulest provincesof theRomanEmpire,preciselythatportion of terrestrial sur-face, in short,which,about the commencement of the Chris-tian era, was endowed with the greatest superiority of soil,climate,and position, which had been carried to the highestpitch of physical improvement,andwhich thus combinedthenatural and artificial conditions best fitting it forthehabita-tionandenjoymentofadenseandhighlyrefinedandcultivatedpopulation,arenowcompletelyexhausted of their fertility, orsodiminishedinproductiveness,as,withtheexceptionofa fewfavored oases that have escaped the general ruin, to be nolongercapableofaffordingsustenanceto civilized man. If totli is realmofdesolation we add the now wasted andsolitarysoils ofPersiaandtheremoterEastthatoncefed theirmillionswithmilkandhoney,weshall seethat a territorylarger thanall Europe,theabundanceofwhichsustained inbygonecentu-riesapopulationscarcelyinferior to thatofthewholeChristianworld at the presentday,has been entirelywithdrawn fromCAUSES OF PHYSICAL DECAY. 5humanuse, or, at best, is thinlyinhabitedbytribestoo few innumbers,too poor in superfluous products,and too little ad-vancedin cultureandthesocial arts,tocontributeanything tothegeneralmoralormaterial interests of the great common-wealthofman.CausesofthisDecay.Thedecayoftheseonceflourishing countries is partly due,nodoubt, to thatclass ofgeologicalcauseswhoseactionwecanneitherresist nor guide,and partlyalso tothedirect violenceofhostilehumanforce;but it is, in afar greater proportion,eitherthe result of man's ignorantdisregard of the laws ofnature,oranincidental consequence of warand of civil andecclesiasticaltyrannyandmisrule. Nextto ignoranceoftheselaws, theprimitivesource, thecausacausarum,oftheactsandneglectswrhichhaveblastedwithsterilityandphysicaldecrepi-tudethenoblest halfoftheempireoftheCcesars,is,first, thebru-tal andexhaustingdespotismwhich Romeherself exercisedoverherconqueredkingdoms,andevenover her Italian territory;then, the host of temporal and spiritual tyrannieswhichsheleftasherdyingcurseto allherwidedominion,andwhich,insome form of violence or of fraud, still brood over almostevery soil subdued by the Roman legions.* Man cannot*Inthe MiddleAges,feudalism, andanominal Christianity,whosecorrup-tionshad converted themostbeneficentof religionsintothemostbanefulofsuperstitions, perpetuated every abuse of Romantyranny, and addednewoppressionsandnewmethodsof extortion tothose invented byolderdespot-isms. The burdens in question fell most heavilyontheprovincesthat hadbeenlongestcolonized bytheLatinrace, andthesearetheportionsof Europewhich have suffered the greatest physicaldegradation. "Feudalism," saysBlanqui, "was a concentration of scourges. The peasant, stripped of theinheritanceof hisfathers, became the property of inflexible, ignorant, indo-lentmasters;hewasobligedtotravelfiftyleagueswiththeircartswhenevertheyrequiredit; helaboredforthemthreedaysintheweek,andsurrenderedto them half the product of his earnings during the otherthree;withouttheirconsenthecouldnotchangehis residence, or marry. Andwhy,indeed,should he wish to marry,whenhe could scarcely save enough tomaintainb CAUSES OF PHYSICAL DECAY.struggle atonceagainsthumanoppressionand tlie destructiveforcesof inorganicnature. When both arecombined againsthim,he succumbs afterashorter or longer struggle,and thefieldshehaswon from the primeval wood relapse into theiroriginal state of wild and luxuriant, but unprofitable forestgrowth,orfall intothatofadryandbarren wilderness.himself? TheAbbot Alcuin had twenty thousand slaves, called serfs, whowereforeverattachedtothesoil. Thisis thegreatcauseof therapiddepop-ulationobservedintheMiddleAges, andof theprodigiousmultitudeofmon-asteries which sprang up on every side. It was doubtless arelief tosuchmiserable mentofindinthecloistersaretreat fromoppression;but the humanrace never suffered a more cruel outrage, industry never received a woundbetter calculated to plunge theworld again into thedarknessof the rudestantiquity. It sufficesto saythatthepredictionoftheapproachingendoftheworld,industriouslyspread bytherapaciousmoniesatthistime,wasreceivedwithoutterror."Resumecle VHistoiredu Commerce, p.156.Theabbeyof Saint-Germain-des-Pres, which, in thetimeof Charlemagne,had possessed a million of acres, was, down to the Revolution, still sowealthy,thatthepersonalincomeoftheabbot was300,000livres. Theabbeyof Saint-Denis was nearly as rich as that of Saint-Germain-des-Pres.Layergne,EconomicBuraledela France, p.104.PaulLouisCourierquotesfromLaBruyerethefollowingstrikingpictureoftheconditionof theFrench peasantryin his time :"Oneseescertaindark,livid, naked, sunburnt, wild animals, male and female, scattered over thecountryandattachedtothesoil, whichtheyrootandturn overwith indomi-table perseverance. They have, as it were, an articulate voice, and whenthey rise to their feet, they showa human face. They are, in fact, men;theycreepatnightintodens,wheretheyliveonblackbread,water,androots.They spare other men the labor of ploughing, sowing, andharvesting, andtherefore deserve somesmallshareof thebreadthey havegrown.""Theseare his ownwords," adds Courier, "and he is speaking of the fortunatepeasants, of thosewhohadworkandbread, andtheywerethen the few."Petition ala ChambredesDeputespourIta ViUageoisqueFen empecTudanser.Arthur Young, who travelled in France from 1787 to 1789,gives, in thetwenty-firstchapter ofhis Travels, afrightful accountofthe burdens!'theruralpopulation evenatthatlate period. Besidesthe regulargovernnui'tnltaxes, and a multitude of heavy fines imposed for trifling offences, heenumeratesaboutthirtyseignorialrights, thevery originandnatureofsomeofwhich are nowunknown,while those of some others arc asrepulsive tohumanity and morality, as the worst abuses ever practised by heathendespotism. ButYoung underrates the number of these oppressive impo-sitions. MoreaudeJonnes, ahigher authority, assertsthat inabrief exam-CAUSES OF PHYSICAL DECAY.7Romeimposed onthe products of agriculturallabor in therural districtstaxeswhichthe sale of the entireharvest wouldscarcely discharge; she drained them of their population bymilitary conscription; she impoverished the jjeasantry byforced and unpaid labor on public works; she hamperedindustry and both foreign and internal commerce by absurdrestrictions and unwise regulations.* Hence, large tracts oflandwereleftuncultivated,oraltogetherdeserted,andexposedto all thedestructiveforceswhich actwithsuchenergyonthesurfaceofthe earthwhenit is deprivedofthoseprotectionsbywhich nature originally guarded it, and for which, in well-orderedhusbandry, humaningenuityhascontrivedmoreorlessefficientsubstitutes.f Similarabuseshavetendedtoperpetuateand extendthese evils in later ages,andit is butrecentlythat,even in the most populous parts of Europe, public attentionination he had discovered upwards of three hundred distinct rights of thefeudatoryoverthepersonorthepropertyofhisvassal. SeeEtat Eaonomiqueet Social de la France, Paris, 1870, p. 339. Most of these, indeed, had beencommutedformoneypayments,andwereleviedonthepeasantryas pecuniaryimpostsforthebenefitofprelatesandlaylords, who, byvirtue oftheirnobil-ity, wereexemptfromtaxation. Thecollectionofthetaxeswasenforcedwithunrelentingseverity. Ouoneoccasion, inthereignofLouisXIV., thetroopssentoutagainsttherecreantpeasants made morethan3,000prisoners,of whom400 were condemnedto the galleys forlife, and anumberso large thatthegovernment didnotdare todisclose it, werehung ontrees orbroken onthewheel.Moreatjde Jonnes,EtatEaonomiqueet SocialdelaFrance,p. 420.Whocanwonder atthe hostility of the Frenchplebeianclasses towardsthearistocracy inthedaysoftheRevolution?*Commerce,in common withallgainfuloccupationsexceptagriculture,wasdespisedby the Romans,andthe exercise of it was forbiddentothe higherranks. Cicero, however, admits that though retail trade, which could onlyprosperbylyingandknavery, wascontemptible, yetwholesalecommercewasnot altogether to be condemned, and might even be laudable, provided themerchantretired early fromtrade andinvestedhisgains infarmlands.DeOjfteiis, lib. i., 42.fThe temporarydepoprdationof an exhaustedsoilmaybe, insome cases,a physical, though, like fallows in agriculture, a dear-bought advantage.Underfavorable circumstances, the withdrawalof manandhisflocks allowsthe earth to clothe itself again with forests, and in a few generations torecoverits ancientproductiveness. IntheMiddle Ages, worn-outfieldswere8 REACTION OF MAN ON NATURE.hasbeen half awakenedto the necessity of restoringthe dis-turbedharmoniesofnature,whosewell-balanced influences aresopropitiousto allherorganicoffspring,andofrepayingtoourgreat mother the debt which the prodigality and the thrift-lessnessof formergenerationshave imposedupontheirsucces-sorsthusfulfillingthe command of religionand ofpracticalwisdom,tousethis worldasnotabasing it.Reactionof ManonNature.The revolutions of the seasons, with their alternations oftemperature andof length of dayand night,the climates ofdifferent zones,and the generalconditions andmovements oftheatmosphereandthe seas,depend uponcauses forthemostpartcosmical, and,of course, whollybeyondourcontrol. Theelevation, configuration, and composition of thegreat massesof terrestrial surface,and the relative extent and distributionof land and water, are determined by geological influencesequallyremote from our jurisdiction. It would hence seemthatthe physicaladaptationof differentportionsof the earthtotheuseandenjoymentof manis amatterso strictlybelong-ingtomightier than human powers,thatwe can onlyacceptgeographical natureaswefindher, and be contentwithsuchsoilsandsuchskies asshespontaneouslyoffers.But it is certain that manhasreacted uponorganizedandinorganicnature,and therebymodified,if notdetermined,thematerialstructureof his earthlyhome. Themeasure of thatreaction manifestly constitutes a veryimportantelementin theappreciationof therelationsbetweenmindandmatter, aswellas in thediscussion of manypurely physical problems. Butthough the subject has been incidentally touched upon bydepopulated, in many partsof the Continent, by civil and ecclesiasticaltyrannies,which insisted onthe surrender of the half of aloaf already toosmall to sustain its producer. Thu.? abandoned, these lands often relapsedinto the forest state, and, some centuries later, were again brought undercultivationwithrenovatedfertility.REACTION OF MAN ON NATURE. 9manygeographers,andtreatedwithmuch fulnessof detail inregardto certain limited fieldsof humaneffortand to certainspecific effects of human action, it hasnot, as a whole, sofaras1 know, beenmadematterof special observation,or of his-torical research,byanyscientific inquirer. Indeed,until theinfluence of geographical conditions upon human life wasrecognizedasadistinct branch ofphilosophical investigation,therewasnomotiveforthepursuitof such speculations; anditwas desirable to inquire how far wehave,or can, becomethe architects of our own abiding place, only when it wasknown howthemode of ourphysical, moral,and intellectualbeingis affected bythe character of the home whichProvi-dencehas appointed, andwe have fashioned,forour materialhabitation.*It is still tooearlytoattempt scientificmethodin discussingthis problem,noris ourpresent store of thenecessary factsbyanymeans complete enough towarrantme in promising anyapproachto fulnessof statementrespectingthem. Systematicobservation in relation to this subject has hardly yet begun,andthescattered datawhichhavechanced toberecordedhavenever been collected. It has now no place in the generalscheme of physical science, and is matter of suggestion andspeculation only, not of established and positive conclusion.Atpresent, then, all that I canhope isto exciteaninterest ina topic of much economical importance, by pointing out thedirections and illustrating the modes in which human actionhas been, or maybe, most injurious or most beneficial in itsinfluenceuponthephysical conditions of theearthweinhabit.We cannot alwaysdistinguish betweenthe results of man'saction and the effects of purelygeologicalor eosmical causes.Thedestructionoftheforests,thedrainageoflakesandmarsh-es, andtheoperationsofruralhusbandryandindustrial arthave*GodsAlmagtwenktevandentroon,Enschiepelkvolkeenlandterwoon:Hiervestte Zij eengxondgebied,DatZij ons zelvensckeppenMet.10 INFLUENCE OF HUMAN ACTION.unquestionablytended to produce great changesin thehygro-metric, thermometric, electric, and chemical condition of theatmosphere,thoughwearenotyetabletomeasuretheforceofthe different elements of disturbance, or to sayhowfar theyhave been neutralised byeachother,orbystill obscurer influ-ences;andit is equallycertainthatthemyriadformsofanimalandvegetable life,whichcoveredtheearthwhen manfirst en-tered upon the theatre of a nature whose harmonies he wasdestinedtoderange,have been,throughhisinterference,greatlychangedin numericalproportion,sometimesmuchmodified informandproduct,andsometimesentirely extirpated.** Manhasnotonlysubvertedthenaturalnumericalrelationsofwildaswellasdomesticquadrupeds, fish, birds, reptiles, insects, and commonplants, andevenof stillhumblertribesof animalandvegetable life, but he has effectedintheforms,habits, nutrimentandproductsof theorganismswhichministertohiswantsandhispleasures,changeswhich,morethananyothermanifesta-tionof humanenergy, resembletheexerciseof acreative power. Evenwildanimals havebeen compelled byhim, through the destruction of plantsandinsects which furnished their proper aliment, to resorttofood belonging toa different kingdom of nature. Thus a NewZealand bird, originally gran-ivorousandinsectivorous,hasbecomecarnivorous,fromthe wantofitsnaturalsupplies, andnowtears the fleecesfromthebacks of the sheep, in ordertofeedontheirlivingflesh.All these changes have exercised more or lessdirect or indirectactionontheinorganic surfaceof theglobe; andthehistoryof thegeographical revo-lutionsthusproducedwouldfurnishamplematerialforavolume.Themodification of organic speciesbydomestication is a branch of philo-sophic inquirywhichwemayalmost sayhas been created byDarwin; butthegeographicalresultsofthesemodificationsdonotappeartohaveyetbeenmadeasubjectofscientificinvestigation.Idonotknowthatthefollowing passagefromPlinyhaseverbeencited inconnectionwiththeDarwiniantheories,butit isworthareference:"Butbeholdaverystrangeand newfashion of them[cucumbers] inCam-pane, for there you shall haveabundance of themcomeup in forme of aQuince. And as I hearesay,oneofthemchauncedsotogrowfirst ataveryventure; but afterwardsfromtheseedof itcameawholerace andprogerrieof the like, whichtherefore theycall Melopopones, asamanwouldsay, theQuince-pompions or cucumbers."Pliny, JSTat. Hist., Holland's translation,bookxix., c. 5.Theword cucumis used in the original of this passage embracesmanyofthecucurbitaceaj,butthecontextshowsthatit heremeansthecucumber.OBSERVATION OF NATURE. 11The physical revolutions thuswroughtbymanhavenotin-deed all been destructive tohumaninterests,andtheheaviestblowshehasinflicteduponnaturehave not beenwhollywith-out their compensations. Soils to which no nutritiousvege-tablewas indigenous,countrieswhich once brought forth butthefewest products suitedfor the sustenance andcomfortofmanwhile the severity of their climates createdandstimu-latedthe greatest number and themostimperiousurgencyofphysicalwantssurfaces themostruggedandintractable,andleast blessed with natural facilities of communication, havebeenbroughtinmoderntimesto yield and distribute all thatsuppliesthematerial necessities, all that contributestothesen-suous enjoyments and conveniences of civilized life. TheScythia,the Thule,the Britain,the Germany,and the Gaulwhich the Romanwriters describe in such forbidding terms,have been brought almost to rival the native luxurianceandeasilywonplentyof Southern Italy; and,whilethefountainsof oil and wine that refreshed old Greece and Syria andNorthernAfrica have almost ceased to How,and thesoils ofthose fairlandsareturned to thirstyand inhospitable deserts,thehyperborean regionsof Europe have learned to conquer,orrathercompensate,the rigorsof climate,and haveattainedto amaterialwealthandvarietyof product that,withall theirnatural advantages, the granaries of the ancient world canhardlybesaidtohaveenjoyed.ObservationofNature.Inthesepagesit is myaimtostimulate,not to satisfy, curi-osity, andit isnopartof myobjecttosave myreadersthelaborofobservationorofthought. Forlaboris life,andDeathliveswherepowerlivesunused.*Selfis theschoolmasterwhoselessonsarebestworthhiswages;and since thesubjectIamconsidering hasnot yet become a*VersesaddressedbyG. C. to SirWalterRaleigh.Haeluyt,i., p. 668.12 OBSERVATION OF NATURE.branchofformal instruction,thosewhom it mayinterest can,fortunately,havenopedagogue but themselves. Tothenatu-ral philosopher,thedescriptive poet,the painter, thesculptor,andindeedeveryearnest observer,the power most importantto cultivate, and,atthesametime,hardestto acquire, is thatofseeing what is beforehim. Sight is afaculty; seeing, an art.The eye is a physicalbutnotaself-acting apparatus,and ingeneral it seesonlywhat it seeks. Like a mirror,it reflectsobjectspresentedto it; butit maybeas insensibleasamirror,andnot consciouslyperceivewhatit reflects."Ithas beenmaintained by highauthority, that the naturalacutenessof oursensuous faculties cannot be heightened byuse,andhence,thattheminutestdetailsof the image formedontheretinaareas perfect in the most untrained as in themost thoroughlydisciplined organ. This may bequestioned,andit is agreedonall hands that the power of multifariousperception and rapid discrimination may be immensely in-creased bywell-directed practice.f This exercise of the eye*I troer, atSynetsSandserlagt i Oiet,MensdettekunerRedskab. SynetstronimerFraSjajlensDyb, ogOietsfineNerverGaaeudfraHjernenshemmeligeYserksted.HenrikHertz, KongRene'sBatter, sc. ii.Inthematerialeye, youthink, sightlodgeth!Theeyeis butanorgan. SeeingstreamethFromthesoul'sinmostdepths. ThefineperceptiveNervespringethfromthebrain'smysteriousworkshop.fSkillinmarksmanship,whetherwithfirearmsorwithotherprojectilewea-pons,dependsmore uponthetrainingoftheeyethanis generallysupposed,andI haveoftenfoundparticularlygood shotstopossessanalmosttelescopicvision.Intheordinaryuseoftherifle, thebarrelisguidedbytheeye, but there aresportsmenwhofirewiththebuttofthegun at thehip. In this case, as intheuseofthe sling, thelasso, andthebolas,inhurling the knife (see Dabi-KET, Lectures, vii.,p. 84), inthrowingtheboomerang,thejavelin, orastone,andintheemploymentof theblowpipe and the bow, themovementsof thehandandaimareguided bythatmysterioussympathywhichexists betweentheeyeandtheunseeingorgansofthebody."Some men wonderwhye, incastingaman'seye atthemarke,the handOBSERVATION OF NATURE. 13Idesiretopromote,and,next tomoral and religious doctrine,Iknownomoreimportantpracticallessons in this earthlylifeofourswhich,to thewiseman,is aschoolfrom thecradletothe gravethanthoserelatingtotheemploymentof thesenseofvisioninthestudyofnature.Thepursuitofphysicalgeography,embracingactualobserva-tionofterrestrialsurface,affordsto theeyethebestgeneraltrain-ingthatisaccessibletoall. Themajorityofevencultivatedmenhavenotthetime and means of acquiring anythingbeyond averysuperficialacquaintancewithanybranchofphysicalknow-ledge. Natural sciencehasbecomesovastlyextended,its re-cordedfactsandits unansweredquestionsso immenselymulti-plied, thateverystrictlyscientificmanmustbeaspecialist, andconfine the researchesof awhole lifewithin a comparativelynarrowcircle. ThestudyI amrecommending,in theviewIpro-should go streighte. Surelyif he consideredthenature of aman'seye hewould not wonder at it: forthisIam certaine of, that no servaunttohismaister,nochildeto his father, is soobedient, aseveryjoynte and peece ofthebodyeistodowhatsover the eye biddes."RogerAscham, Toxophilus,Eookii.InshootingthetortoisesoftheAmazonand its tributaries, the Indiansuseanarrowwithalong twine andafloat attached to it. Ave-Lallemant (Di-eBenutzungderPalmen am Amasone?istrom,p. 32)thusdescribestheirmodeofaiming: "Asthearrow,ifaimeddirectlyatthefloatingtortoise,wouldstrikeit atasmallangleand glancefrom its flatandwetshell, thearchershave apeculiarmethod of shooting. Theyare able to calculateexactlytheir ownmusculareffort, thevelocityofthestream, thedistanceand size of the tor-toise, andtheyshootthearrowdirectly upintothe air, sothat it falls almostverticallyupontheshellofthetortoise,andsticksinit." Analogouscalcula-tionsif suchphysico-mental operations can properlybesocalledaremadeintheuseofothermissiles; fornoprojectile fliesinaright line to its mark.Buttheexacttrainingoftheeyelies at the bottomof themall, andmarks-manshipdepends almostwhollyupon the power of that organ,whosedirec-tions the blind muscles implicitly follow. Savages accustomed only totheuse of the bow become good shots with firearms afterverylittle practice.It is perhaps not out of place to observe here that our English word aimcomesfromtheLatinastimo,Icalculateorestimate. SeeWedgwood'sDic-tionaryofEnglishEtymology,andthe note to the Americanedition, underAim.Anotherproofof thecontrol of the limbs bytheeyehasbeenobserved in14 MEASUREMENT OF MAn's INFLUENCE.pose to takeof it, is yet inthat imperfectlydeveloped statewhichallows its votariesto occupythemselveswithbroad andgeneralviewsattainablebyeverypersonofculture,andit doesnotnowrequireaknowledgeofspecial detailswhichonlyyearsof applicationcan master. It maybe profitablypursued byall; andeverytraveller,everyloverofruralscenery,everyagri-culturist, whowillwisely usethegiftofsight, may addvaluablecontributionstothe common stock of knowledgeona subjectwhich,asIhopetoconvince my readers, thoughlongneglected,and now inartificiallypresented, is not only averyimportantbutaveryinterestingfieldofinquiry.MeasurementofMali'sInfluence.The exact measurement of the geographical and climaticchangeshithertoeffectedby manis impracticable,andwe pos-sess, in relation to them, the means of only qualitative, notquantitativeanalysis. Thefactofsuchrevolutionsisestablisheddeaf-and-dumbschools, andotherswherepupils are first taught to write onlarge slates or blackboards. The writing is in large characters, the smallletters being an inchormore high. Theyare formed withchalkoraslatepencil firmlygrasped in thefingers, andbyappropriatemotionsofthewrist,elbow, andshoulder, notof the finger joints. Nevertheless,when a pen isputintothehandof a pupil thustaught, his handwriting,thoughproducedbyatotallydifferentsetof musclesand muscularmovements,is identical incharacterwiththatwhichhehaspractisedontheblackboard.Foraveryremarkableaccountof therestoration of vision impaired fromage, by judicious training, see Lessons in Life, by Timothy Titcomb,les-sonxi.Ithasbeenmuchdoubtedwhethertheartistsof the classic agespossessedamore perfect sight than those of modern times, orwhether, in executingtheir minute mosaics and gem engravings, they used magnifiers. GlassesgroundconvexhavebeenfoundatPompeii,buttheyaretoorudelyfashionedandtooimperfectlypolishedtohavebeenofanypracticaluseforopticalpur-poses. But thoughtheancient artists mayhave had a microscopicvision,theirastronomers cannot have hadatelescopic powerof sight; fortheydidnotdiscoverthesatellitesofJupiter,whichare oftenseenwiththenakedeyeatOormeeah,in Persia, and sometimes, asIcantestifybypersonal observa-tion, atCairo.CONCLUSIONS ON ANCIENT CLIMATES.15partly byhistorical evidence,partly by analogicaldeduction fromeffectsproduced,inourowntime,byoperationssimilarinchar-acter to thosewhich must have taken place in more or lessremote ages of human action. Both sources of informationarealike defectiveinprecision; the latter, forgeneral reasonstooobvious to require specification ; the former, because thefacts towhich it bearstestimonyoccurred before the habit orthemeansof rigorouslyscientific observationuponanybranchof physical research, and especially upon climatic changes,existed.UncertaintyofourHistorical ConclusionsonAncientClimates.Theinventionof measuresof heatandofatmosphericmois-ture, pressure,andprecipitation, is extremelyrecent. Hence,ancient physicists haveleft us nothermometricor barometricrecords,no tables of the fall, evaporation,and flowof waters,andevenno accurate mapsofcoastlinesandthecourseofrivers.Theirnoticesofthesephenomenaarealmostwhollyconfinedtoexcessiveandexceptionalinstancesof highorof lowtempera-tures, extraordinaryfalls of rainand snow,and unusualfloodsordroughts. Our knowledge of the meteorological conditionof the earth, atanyperiod morethantwocenturiesbeforeourown time, is derived from these imperfect details, from thevaguestatementsof ancient historians and geographers in re-gard to thevolumeof riversand the relative extentof forestandcultivatedland, from theindications furnishedby thehistoryofthe agriculture and rural economyof pastgenerations, andfromotheralmostpurelycasualsourcesofinformation.**The subjectof climatic change,with and without reference to humanactionasacause,hasbeen muchdiscussedby Moreaude Jonnes,DureaudelaMalle, Arago, Humboldt, Fuster, Gasparin, Becquerel, Schleiden, and many-otherwriters in Europe, and byNoahWebster, Fony,Drake,and others inAmerica. Fraas has endeavored to show,bythe history of vegetation inGreece,not merelythat clearingand cultivation have affected climate, butthatchangeofclimatehasessentiallymodifiedthecharacterofvegetablehie.Seehis EUmaundPfiansenweltinder Zeit.16 CONCLUSIONS ON ANCIENT CLIMATES.Among these latterwe must rankcertain newlylaid openfields of investigation,fromwhich facts bearing on the pointnowunderconsideration have been gathered. Ialludeto thediscoveryofartificialobjectsingeologicalformations olderthananyhitherto recognized as exhibiting traces of the existenceof man; to theancient lacustrine habitationsof Switzerlandandof theterremareof Italy,* containing the implements oftheoccupants,remainsoftheirfood,andotherrelics ofhumanlife; tothe curious revelations of the Kjokkenmoddinger,orheapsof kitchenrefuse,inDenmarkandelsewhere,andofthepeat mosses in thesame andother northerncountries ; to thedwellingsandotherevidencesoftheindustryofmaninremoteages sometimeslaidbare bythemovementofsanddunesonthecoastsofFranceandoftheNorthSea; andtothefactsdisclosedonthe tide-washed flats of thelatter shores byexcavations inHalligsorinhabitedmoundswhichwereprobablyraisedbeforetheeraoftheRomanEmpire,fTheseremainsarememorialsofraceswhichhaveleftno writtenrecords,whichperishedataperiodbeyondthereachofevenhistoricaltradition. Theplantsandanimalsthatfurnishedthe relicsfoundinthedepositswerecertainlycontemporaneouswith man; for they are associatedwith hisworks,and have evidentlyserved his uses. In somecases,the animals belonged to species well ascertained to benowaltogetherextinct ; in some others,both the animalsandthevegetables,thoughextantelsewhere,haveceasedtoinhabittheregionswheretheirremainsarediscovered. Fromthechar-acterofthe artificial objects, as comparedwith others belong-ing to known dates,or at leastto known periods of civiliza-tion, ingenious inferences have been drawn as to their age;andfromthevegetable remains which accompanythem, astotheclimatesofCentralandNorthern Europeatthetimeoftheirproduction.*Seetwo learnedarticles byPigorini, intheNuovaAntologiafor Januaryand October, 1870.fForaverypicturesquedescriptionoftheIlalligs, seePliny,N. H.,Bookxvi., c. 1.CONCLUSIONS ON ANCIENT CLIMATES. 17There are,however,sourcesof errorwhich havenot alwaysbeen sufficiently guarded against in making these estimates.When a boat, composed of several pieces of wood fastenedtogetherbypinsof thesamematerial, is dugoutofabog, it isinferred that the vessel, and the skeletons and implementsfoundwith it, belong to an age whenthe useof ironwasnotknown to the builders. Bat this conclusion is notwarrantedbythe simple fact that metals werenot employedin its con-struction;fortheNubiansat thisdaybuild boatslargeenoughto carry half adozen persons across the Nile, out of smallpieces of acacia wood pinned together entirelywith woodenbolts, and largevesselsof similar construction are usedbytheislandersof the Malayarchipelago. Nor is theoccurrenceofflintarrowheadsandknives,inconjunctionwithotherevidencesofhumanlife, conclusiveproofastotheantiquityofthelatter.Lyellinformsusthat someOriental tribes still continueto usethe same stone implements as their ancestors,"after thatmighty empires,where the useof metalsinthe arts waswellknown,had flourished forthree thousandyears in theirneigh-borhood;" *andtheNorthAmericanIndians nowmanufactureweaponsofstone, andevenofglass, chippingtheminthelattercase outof thebottomsof thickbottles, withgreatfacilitv.'r"Wemayalsobemisledbyourignorance of the commercialrelations existing between savage tribes. Extremely rude*AntiquityofMan,p. 377.f" Oneof theIndiansseatedhimselfnearme,andmadefromafragmentof quartz, witha simple piece of round bone, one end of whichwas hemi-spherical, withasmallcreaseinit (as ifwornbyathread)thesixteenthofaninchdeep,anarrowheadwhichwasverysharpandpiercing,andsuchastheyuseonall theirarrows. Theskillandrapiditywithwhichitwasmade, with-outablow,butbysimplybreaking the sharpedgeswiththe creasedbonebythestrengthof hishandsforthecreasemerelyservedtopreventtheinstru-mentfromslipping, affordingnoleveragewasremarkable."Reports ofEx-plorations andSurveysforPacific Railroad, vol. ii., 1855. Lieut. Beckwitii'sReport,p. 43. See also American Naturalist for May, 1870, and especiallyStevens,Flint Chips, London, 1870, pp. 77etseq.MarietteBeylately6awanEgyptianbarbershavetheheadofanArabwithaflint razor.213 CONCLUSIONS ON ANCIENT CLIMATES.nations, in spite of theirjealousies and their perpetual wars,sometimescontrive toexchangetheproductsof provincesverywidelyseparated fromeach other. Themoundsof Ohio con-tain pearls, thought tobemarine,whichmusthavecomefromthe Gulfof Mexico,orperhaps even fromCalifornia,and theknivesandpipes foundinthesame gravesareoftenformedoffar-fetched material,thatwasnaturallypaidfor bysomehomeproduct exported to the locality whence the material wasderived. The artof preservingfish, flesh, and fowlbydryingand smoking is widely diffused, and of great antiquity. TheIndians of LongIsland Sound are said to have carriedon atrade in dried shell fish with tribes residingvery far inland.Fromthe earliest ages,theinhabitantsoftheFaroe andOrkneyIslands,andofthe oppositemainlandcoasts,havesmokedwildfowlandother flesh. Henceit is possible thattheanimalandthe vegetable food, the remains of which are found in theancient deposits Iam speaking of, maysometimes have beenbroughtfromclimatesremotefromthat whereit wasconsumed.The most important,as well as the most trustworthy con-clusions with respect to the climate of ancient Europe andAsia,arethose drawnfromthe accountsgivenbythe classicalwritersof thegrowthof cultivatedplants;butthesearebynomeansfree fromuncertainty,becausewe can seldom be sureofanidentityof species,almostneverofanidentityof raceorvariety, between vegetables known to the agriculturists ofGreeceandRomeandthoseofmoderntimeswhicharethoughtmost nearly to resemble them. Besides this, there is alwaysroom for doubt whether the habitsof plants long grown indifferentcountriesmaynothavebeensochangedbydomestica-tion orbynatural selection, that theconditionsof temperatureand humiditywhich they required twentycenturies agoweredifferent from those at present demanded for their advan-tageouscultivation.**Probablynocultivatedvegetableaffordsso goodanopportunityofstudy-ingthelawsofacclimationofplantsasmaizeorIndiancom. Maizeis grownfrom tbe tropics to at least lat.47in Northeastern America, and fartherCONCLUSION'S ON ANCIENT CLIMATES. 19Even if we suppose an identity of species, of race,and ofhabit to be established between a given ancient and modernplant,thenegativefactthatthelatterwillnotgrownowwhereit flourishedtwothousandyears agodoesnot in all casesproveachange of climate. The same resultmightfollowfromtheexhaustion of the soil,* or from a change in the quantityofmoistureit habituallycontains. AfteradistrictofcountryhasnorthinEurope. Everytwoorthreedegreesof latitudebringsyoutoanew-variety, with new climatic adaptations, and the capacity of the plant toaccommodateitselftonewconditionsoftemperatureandseasonseemsalmostunlimited.Many persons now living remember that, when the common tomatowasfirstintroducedinto Northern NewEngland, it often failedtoripen;but, inthe course of avery few years, it completelyadapteditself totheclimate,andnownotonlymatures bothitsfruitandits seedswithasmuch certaintyasanycultivatedvegetable, butregularlypropagatesitself byself-sown seed.Meteorological observations, however, do not show any amelioration of thesummerclirnateinthose Stateswithinthatperiod.Itmaybesaidthatthesecasesandindeedallcasesofasupposedacclima-tion consistingin physiological changesare instancesof the originationofnew varieties by natural selection, the hardier maize, tomato, and othervegetablesof theNorth, being theprogenyof seedsofindividualsendowed,exceptionally, withgreaterpowerof resistingcoldthanbelorigsin generaltothespecieswhich produced them. But, sofar asthe evidenceof changeofclimate, fromadifferenceinvegetable growth, is concerned, it is immaterialwhether weadopt thisviewormaintainthe olderandmorefamiliardoctrineofalocalmodificationofcharacterintheplantsinquestion.Maizeandthetomato, if not newtohuman use,havenotbeenlong knownto civilization, and were, very probably, reclaimed and domesticated at amuch more recent period than the plants which form thegreat staplesofagricultural husbandryinEuropeandAsia. Isthe greatpowerofaccommoda-tion toclimate possessedby themduetothis circumstance? There issomereason tosuppose thatthe characterof maize hasbeen sensiblychanged bycultivationinSouthAmerica;for, accordingtoTschudi,theearsofthisgrainfound inoldPeruvian tombs belong tovarieties not nowknown in Peru.Travels in Peru,chap. vii. See important observations inSciiubeler,DiePflanzenwelt Nbrwegens{Allgemeiner Theil), Christiania, 1873, 77and follow-ingpp.*The cultivation of madder is saidto havebeen introduced into Europebyan Oriental in theyear17G5,anditwasfirstplantedin the neighborhoodof Avignon. Of course, it has been grown in that district for less than acentury;. butuponsoilswhereithasbeenafrequent crop, it isalreadylosing20 CONCLUSIONS ON ANCIENT CLIMATES.been completelyorevenpartially cleared of its forest growth,and brought under cultivation,the drying of the soil, underfavorable circumstances,goes on for generations,perhaps forages.* Inothercases, frominjudicioushusbandry,orthediver-much of its coloringproperties.Lavergne, EconomicMuralede laFrance,pp.259-291.I believethereisno doubtthatthecultivationof madderinthevicinityofAvignonis of recentintroduction; butit is certainthat it was grownbytheancientRomans,andthroughout nearlyallEurope in themiddle ages. Themadder broughtfromPersiatoFrance,maybelongtoadifferentspecies,oratleastvariety.*Inmanypartsof NewEnglandtherearetracts, manysquaremilesinex-tentandpresenting all varietiesof surfaceandexposure,whichwerepartiallyclearedsixtyor seventyyears ago, andwhere little orno change in thepro-portionof cultivatedground, pasturage, andwoodlandhas takenplace since.Insomecases, these tracts composebasins apparentlyscarcelyatallexposedtoanylocalinfluenceinthe wayofpercolationorinfiltration ofwatertowardsor from neighboringvalleys. But in such situations, apart from accidentaldisturbances, the groundisgrowing drieranddrierfromyeartoyear, sj iringsare stilldisappearing, andrivulets still diminishing intheirsummersupplyofwater. Aprobable explanation of this is tobefound in the rapiddrainageof the surface of cleared ground, which prevents the subterranean naturalreservoirs,whethercavitiesormerelystrataofbibulousearth, fromfillingup.Howlong this process is to lastbefore an equilibrium is reached, none cansay. It maybe, foryears;itmaybe, forcenturies.Livingstonestatesfactswhichstronglyfavorthe suppositionthataseculardesiccation is still going on in centralAfrica, andthere is reasonto suspectthatalikechangeis takingplace in California. Whentheregionswheretheearthisgrowingdrierwere clearedof wood, or, indeed, whetherforests evergrewthere,weareunabletosay, butthechangeappearstohavebeenlonginprogress. Asimilarrevolutionappearstohaveoccurredin ArabiaPetrasa. Inmanj'of thewadis, andparticularlyin the gorges betweenWadi Feiran andWndiEshSheikh,thereare water-wornbanksshowingthat,atnoveryremoteperiod, the winter floods must have risen fifty feet in channels where thegrowth of acacias and tamarisks and the testimonyof theArabs concur toprovethattheyhavenot risen sixfeetwithinthememoryortraditionof thepresent inhabitants. Recent travellers have discovered traces of extensiveancient cultivation, and of the former existence of large towns in the Tihdesert, in localitieswhere all agriculture isnowimpossibleforwantof water.Is this drought due to the destruction of ancient forests or to some othercause?Forimportant observationsonsupposed changesof climateinourWesternCONCLUSIONS ON ANCIENT CLIMATES. 21sion or choking up of natural water-courses, it may becomemore highlychargedwith humidity. An increase ordiminu-tion of the moisture of asoil almost necessarily supposes anelevation oradepression of its winterorits summerheat,andof its extreme if not of itsmean annualtemperature,thoughsuch elevation ordepressionmaybesoslight asnotsensiblytoraise or lower the mercuryin a thermometer exposed to theopenair. Anyof these causes,moreorless humidity,ormoreor lesswarmth of soil, would affect the growth both of wildand of cultivated vegetation, and consequently, without anyappreciable change in atmospheric temperature,precipitation,orevaporation,plantsof aparticularspeciesmight ceasetobeadvantageously cultivated where they had once been easilyreared.*prairie region, from cultivation of thesoilandthe introductionof domesticcattle, see Bkyant'svaluable Forest Trees, 1871, chapter v., and Hayden,PreliminaryReportonSurreyofWyoming, p.455.'Somephysicistsbelieve that thewatersof ourearth are, fromchemicaloiotherlessknowncauses, diminishing-byenteringintonewinorganiccombina.lions, andthatthiselementwill finallydisappearfromtheglobe.*The soil of newiysubdued countries is genera'lyhighlyfavorable tothegrowth of the fruits of the garden and the orchard, but usually becomesmuchless so in averyfewyears. Plums, of manyvarieties, were formerlygrown, in great perfection and abundance, in manyparts of NewEnglandwhere atpresenttheycan scarcelybe rearedatall ; andthepeach,which, ageneration or two ago, succeeded admirably in the southern portion of thesameStates, hasalmostceasedtobe cultivatedthere. Thedisappearanceofthesefruits ispartlydueto the ravagesof insects, whichhave in lateryearsattackedthem;butthis is evidentlybyno meansthe sole, or eventheprin-cipalcauseof theirdecay. Inthese cases, it is nottothe exhaustionof theparticularacres onwhich the fruittrees have grown thatwe are to ascribetheir degeneracy, but to a generalchange in the conditionof thesoil ortheair; forit is ecmallyimpossible to rear them successfullyon absolutelynewland in the neighborhood of grounds where,not long since, they bore thefinest fruit.Irememberbeing told, manyyears ago, byintelligent earlysettlers of theStateofOhio, thattheappletreesraisedtherefromseedsownsoonafterthelandwas cleared, bore fruit in less than half the time required to bring tobearingthoserearedfromseedsownwhenthe groundhadbeentwentyyearsundercultivation.22 UNCERTAINTY OF MODERN METEOROLOGY.UncertaintyofModernMeteorology.Weareveryimperfectlyacquainted with the present meanand extremetemperature,ortheprecipitationandthe evapora-tion of anyextensive region, even in countries most denselypeopled and best supplied with instruments and observers.Theprogressofscience is constantlydetectingerrorsofmethodinolder observations,and manylaboriously constructed tablesof meteorological phenomena are now thrown aside as falla-cious, and thereforeworsethanuseless, becausesomeconditionnecessaryto secureaccuracyof resultwasneglected,inobtain-ingandrecordingthe dataonwhichtheywerefounded.Totakeafamiliarinstance: it is butrecently that attentionhasbeendrawn to the great influenceof slight differences instationupon the results of observations of temperature andprecipitation. Two thermometers hung but a few hundredyards from eachotherdiffer not ^infrequentlyfive, sometimeseven ten degrees in their readings;* andwhen we are toldAnalogous changes occur slowlyandalmost imperceptiblyeven in sponta-neousvegetation. InthepeatmossesofDenmark,Scotchfirs andothertreesnotnowgrowinginthesamelocalities, are foundin abundance. Everygen-erationof treesleavesthesoilinadifferentstatefromthatinwhichit foundit; everytree that springsup inagroup of trees of anotherspeciesthanitsown.growsunderdifferentinfluencesoflightandshadeandatmospherefromitspredecessors. Hence the successionof crops, which occurs in all naturalforests, seemstobedueratherto changesof conditionthanof climate. Seechapteriii.,post.*Tyndall, inalecture onRadiation, expressestheopinionthatfromtentofifteen percent, oftheheatradiated fromtheearth is absorbed byaqueousvaporwithinten feet of the earth's surface.Fragmentsof Science, 3d edi-tion, London, 1871, p.203.Thermometers at most meteorological stations, when not suspended atpointsregulatedbythe mere personal convenienceof the observer, are hungfrom20to40feetabovethe ground. In Mich positions theyare less exposedtodisturbancefromtheactionofsurrounding bodies than at a lower level,andtheirindicationsareconsequentlymore uniform; but according to Tyn-dall'sviewstheydonotmarkthetemperatureoftheatmosphericstratum inwhichneai-ly allthevegetables useful to man, except forest trees, bud andblossomandripen,andinwhichavastmajorityof theordinaryoperationsofUNCERTAINTY OF MODERN METEOROLOGY. 23thattheannualfall of rain onthe roof of the observatory atParis is twoincheslessthan on the ground bytheside of it,wemaysee that the heightof therain-gauge above the earthis apointof muchconsequence inmaking estimates from itsmeasurements.* Thedata from which results have been de-ducedwithrespect to the hygrometrical and thermometricalconditions,tothe climate in short, of differentcountries,haveveryoftenbeenderived fromobservations at single points incities or districts separated by considerable distances. Thetendencyoferrorsandaccidents to balanceeachotherauthor-izes us, indeed,to entertain greater confidence thanwe couldotherwisefeel in the conclusionsdrawn from suchtables; butit is in thehighestdegreeprobable that theywould be muchmodified bymorenumerousseries of observations, at differentstations within narrowlimits,fmateriallife are performed. Theygivetherise and fall of the mercuryatheightsarbitrarilytaken, withoutreferenceto therelationsoftemperaturetohumaninterests, ortoanyotherscientificconsiderationthanasomewhatlessliability toaccidentaldisturbance.*Careful observationsbythelatelamentedDallasBacheappearedto showthat there is no such difference in the quantityof precipitation falling atslightlydifferentlevels ashasbeen generallysupposed. Theapparentdiffer-encewasascribedbyProf. Bachetothe irregulardistributionofthedropsofrainandflakes ofsnow, exposed, astheyare, tolocaldisturbancesby thecur-rentsofairaround thecornersofbuildingsorotheraccidentsof thesurface.Thisconsiderationmuchincreasestheimportance of great care in theselec-tionofpositionsforrain-gauges.ButMr. Bache'sconclusionsseemnot tobeacceptedbylateexperimentersinEngland. See QuarterlyJournalofScienceforJanuary, 1S71, p.123.{The nomenclature of meteorology is vague and sometimes equivocal.Notlongsince, it wassuspected that the observers reporting to a scientificinstitutiondidnotagreeintheirunderstandingofthemodeofexpressingthedirectionof thewind prescribed bytheir instructions. It was found,uponinquiry, thatverymanyof them used the names of the compass-points toindicatethequarter fromwhichthewind blew, whileothers employed themto signifythequartertowards which the atmospheric currentsweremoving.In some instances, the observerswerenolongerwithinthereachofinquiry,andofcoursetheirtables ofthewindwereofnovalue."Winds," says Mrs. Somerville, "are namedfromthepointswhencetheyblow,currentsexactlythe reverse. An easterlywind comes from the east;24: UNCERTAINTY OF MODERN METEOROLOGY.Thereis one branchof researchwhichis of theutmost im-portance in reference to these questions, butwhich,from thegreat difficulty ofdirectobservationuponit, hasbeenless suc-cessfully studied than almost any other problemof physicalscience. I refer to the proportions between precipitation,superficial drainage, absorption,andevaporation. Precise ac-tualmeasurementofthesequantitiesuponevenasingleacreofgroundis impossible;andinallcabinet experimentsonthesub-ject,theconditionsofthe surfaceobservedaresodifferentfromthosewhichoccurin nature,thatwecannot safelyreasonfromonecasetothe other. In nature, the inclinationandexposureoftheground,thedegreeoffreedomorobstruction of theflowofwaterover thesurface, the composition and densityof thesoil, thepresenceorabsenceofperforationsbywormsandsmallburrowingquadrupedsupon which the permeability of thegroundbywater and its power of absorbing and retainingortransmitting moisturedependits temperature,thedryness orwhereasaneasterlycurrentcomesfromthewest,andflowstowardstheeast."Physical Geography, p. 229.Thereisnophilologicalgroundforthisdistinction,anditprobablyoriginatedinaconfusionof the terminations-wardlyand-eiiy, bothof whicharemod-ern. Therootoftheformerendingimpliesthedirectiontoorto-wardswhichmotionis supposed. Itcorrespondsto, andis probablyalliedwith, theLatinversus. Thetermination-erly is acorruption or softeningof -truly, easterlyforeasternly, andmanyauthors of the seventeenthcenturysowrite it. InHakluyt(i.,p. 2),easterly isapplied to place, ''easterly bounds."and meanseastern. InapassageinDrayton,"easterlywinds " mustmeanwinds fromthe east; but the same author, in speaking of nations, uses northerly fornorthern. Hakewellsays:"Thesonnecannotgoemoresoutfierndyfrom VB,norcomemorenorthernelytowardsvs." Holland, in histranslation of Pliny,referring to the moon, has: "Y\'hen sheeis northerly," and "shoe is gone.y/!ttaecting itare,inagreatdegree,inferentialonly,notfoundedon exj)eriment or direct observation. They are, asmight beexpected, somewhat discordant, though one general result isalmost universally accepted, and seems indeed too well sup-portedtoadmit of serious question,and it maybeconsideredas established that forests tend to mitigate, at least withintheir own precincts, extremes of temperature, humidity, anddrought. Bywhat precise agencies the meteorologicaleffectsof the forest areproducedwecannotsay, because elementsoftotally unknown value enter into its action, and because therelativeintensity of betterunderstood causescannot be meas-uredorcompared. I shall not occupymuchspaceindiscuss-ing questions which at present admit of no solution, but Ipropose to notice all the known forces whose concurrent orconflicting energies contribute to the general result, and topointout,in some detail, thevalueof those influences whosemodeofactionhasbeenascertained.ELECTRICAL EFFLUENCE OF TREES. 153Electrical Inf/uenceofTrees.The properties of trees, singlyandin groups,as excitersorconductorsof electricity, and their consequentinfluenceuponthe electrical state of the atmosphere,do not appeartohavebeenmuchinvestigated;andtheconditionsofthe forestitselfare so variable and so complicated,that the solution of anygeneralproblem respecting its electrical influence wouldbeamatterof extreme difficulty. It is, indeed,impossible tosup-posethatadensecloud,asea of vapor,can passovermiles ofsurface bristling with good conductors, without undergoingand producing some change of electrical condition. Hypo-theticalcasesmaybeput in whichthecharacterofthechangecould be deduced from the known lawsof electrical action.Butin actualnature,the elements are too numerousfor ustoseize. Thetrueelectricalconditionof neithercloudnorforestcould beknown,and it couldseldom bepredictedwhetherthevapors would be dissolved as they floated over the wood, ordischargeduponit in a deluge ofrain. Withregardtopossibleelectrical influencesof theforest,widerstill in their rangeofaction, the uncertainty is even greater. The data whichalone couldlead to positive, oreven probable, conclusionsarewanting,and weshould,therefore,onlyembarrassourargumentby any attempt to discussthis meteorological element,impor-tant as it maybe, in its relationsof cause andeffect to morefamiliar and betterunderstoodmeteoric phenomena. Itmay,however, be observed that hail-stormswhich were oncegenerally supposed, and are still held by many, to be pro-ducedbyaspecific electricalaction,andwhich, at least, appearto be always accompanied byelectrical disturbancesare be-lieved, in all countries particularly exposed to that scourge,tohavebecomemorefrequentand destructiveinproportionasthe forests have been cleared. Caiini observes: "WhenthechainsoftheAlpsandtheApennineshadnotyetbeenstrippedof theirmagnificent crownof woods,theMayhail, whichnow154 ELECTKICAL INFLUENCE OF TREES.desolates the fertile plains of Lombardy, was much less fre-quent;but since the general prostration of the forest, thesetempestsare layingwasteeven themountain-soils whose olderinhabitants scarcely knew this plague.* Thejpa/ragranjdmii^which the learned curate of Rivolta advised to erect, withsheavesofstrawsetupvertically,over a greatextentof culti-vated country, are but a Liliputian image of the vast para-grandini, pines,larches,andfirs, which naturehad plantedbymillions on the crestsand ridges of theAlps and the Apen-nines."\"Electricalactionbeingdiminished,"saysMeguscher,"andtherapidcongelationofvaporsbytheabstractionofheatbeing impeded by the influence of the woods, it is rare thathailorwaterspoutsareproducedwithintheprecincts ofalargeforest when it is assailed bythe tempest."Arthur Youngwas told that since the forests whichcovered themountainsbetween the Riviera and the county of Montferrat had dis-appeared,hail had become more destructivein the district ofAequiJand a similar increase in thefrequencyandviolence*Thereare, in Northern Italy and in Switzerland, joint-stock companieswhich insnre against damage byhail, aswell as byfire and lightning. Be-tweentheyears1854and1861, asingleone of these companies,LaBiunioneAdriatica, paid, fordamagebyhailinPiedmont, VenetianLombardy,andtheDuchyofParma,above0,500,000francs, ornearly$200,000peryear.fThe pnragrandine, or, asit is calledin French, the paragrele, is aspeciesof conductor bywhichit hasbeenhopedto protect theharvestsincountriesparticularlyexposedtodamagebyhail. Itwasatfirstproposedtoemployforthispurpose poles supportingsheavesof straw connectedwiththegroundbythesamematerial ; buttheexperimentwasafterwardstriedinLombardyonalarge scale, withmoreperfectelectricalconductors, consistingofpolessecuredtothetopof talltreesandprovidedwithapointedwireentering the groundandreaching above thetopof thepole. Itwasat firstthoughtthatthisap-paratus, erected at numerous pointsover an extentof several miles,wasofsomeserviceasa protection against hail, butthis opinionwassoondisputed,and doesnotappeartobesupported bywell-ascertainedfacts. The questionof a repetition of the experiment over a wide area has been againagitatedwithinaveryfewyearsin Lombardy;butthedoubtsexpressed byveryablephysicistsastoits efficacy, and as to thepoint whether hail is an electricalphenomenon,have discourageditsadvocatesfromattemptingit.XCen/iisuUaImportama i Cdtura dei Ihschi,p. 6.MemoriasuiBoschi, etc., p. 44.||Travelsin Italy, chap. hi.CHEMICAL INFLUENCE OF TIIE FOKEST. 155of hail-storms in the neighborhood of Saluzzo and Mondovi,the lower part of theYaltelline, and theterritoryof VeronaandYicenza,is probablytobeascribed toasimilarcause.*Chemical Influenceofthe Forest."We knowthat the air in a close apartment is appreciablyaffected through the inspiration and expiration of gases byplants growing in it. The same operationsareperformedona gigantic scalebythe forest,and it has even been supposedthattheabsorptionof carbon,bytherankvegetationofearliergeological periods,occasioned a permanent changein thecon-stitution of the terrestrial atmosphere.f To the effects thusproduced aretobeaddedthoseof the ultimategaseousdecom-positionof thevastvegetablemass annuallyshedbytrees, andof their trunks and brancheswhen theyfall a prey to time.But the quantityof gases thus abstracted from and restoredto the atmosphere is inconsiderableinfinitesimal, one might*Le Alpi che cingono PItalia, i.,p. 377. See "Onthe Influenceof theForestin Preventing Hail-storms," a paper byBecquerel, inthe MemoiresdeVAcademicdesSciences, vol. xxxv. Theconclusion of this eminent physicistis, thatwoodsdoexercise, bothw